REVIEW AND EVALUATION OF INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE ON MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE CLASSROOM

Prepared for the Ministry of Education and Education New Zealand

Elsie Ho, Prue Holmes and Jenine Cooper University of Waikato

December 2004

This report has been independently peer reviewed by Professor Colleen Ward of the Victoria University of Wellington and Professor Stephen May of the University of Waikato

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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS __________________________________________ vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY __________________________________________ viii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ________________________________________ 1 SECTION ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter 2 Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ____________________________ 3 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS __ 4
TWO FRAMEWORKS FOR UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES__________________________________ 4 The collectivist-individualist framework ____________________________ 4 The dialectic-dialogic approach to teaching and learning _______________ 6 MORI AND PASIFIKA EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS ________________ 7 EAST ASIAN EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS _________________________ 9 The Sense of Self _____________________________________________ 10 The quest for education ________________________________________ 11 Respect for authority __________________________________________ 11 Motivation for achievement _____________________________________ 12 SUMMARY _____________________________________________________ 12

Chapter 4

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON TEACHING, LEARNING AND EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES ____________________________ 14

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON CLASSROOM EXPECTATIONS ________ The influence of socialisation and values on education _______________ Mismatches in expectations between Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC) students and expatriate Western teachers teaching in Asian countries ____ Mismatches in expectations between CHC students studying abroad and Western teachers _____________________________________________ CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACHES __________________________________________________ Stereotypes of the Asian learners ________________________________ Challenging the Deficit Model __________________________________ Surface and deep learning ______________________________________ Transferability of study approaches ____________________________ __ Implications for assessment ____________________________________ SUMMARY _____________________________________________________ 14 14 15 17 18 18 19 21 22 24 24

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Chapter 5

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION STYLES AND INTERACTION ____________________________ 27

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM _________ Multidimensional components of communication ___________________ Mismatches in communication styles _____________________________ THE CHALLENGE OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES FOR CULTURAL OUTSIDERS _______________________________________ Lectures ____________________________________________________ Assessment _________________________________________________ Class discussion _____________________________________________ Group work _________________________________________________ Cultural inclusiveness _________________________________________ The issue of plagiarism ________________________________________ CROSS-CULTURAL INTERACTION OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM _____ SUMMARY _____________________________________________________ 27 28 29 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39

Chapter 6

METHODS FOR DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN THE MULTICULTURAL CLASSROOM _________________ 41
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH ON METHODS FOR DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES _______________________________________ MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY ____________________________________________________ Characteristics of culturally responsive teaching and learning __________ Internationalising the curriculum _________________________________ BRIDGING CULTURES IN MULTICULTURAL CLASSROOMS _________ Understanding cultural differences, appreciating similarities____________ Teachers and students as researcher ______________________________ Experiential learning __________________________________________ Cooperative learning __________________________________________ DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AT THE INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL _________________________________________________________ Structured peer-pairing programmes ______________________________ Building links with communities _________________________________ SUMMARY _____________________________________________________ 41 42 43 44 45 45 47 47 49 50 51 53 54

Chapter 7

EVALUATION STUDIES OF THE EXCELL PROGRAMME ____ 56

THE EXCELL INTERCULTURAL SOCIAL EFFECTIVENESS TRAINING PROGRAMME __________________________________________________ 56 EVALUATION OF EXCELL _________________________________________ 57 SUMMARY _____________________________________________________ 57

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SECTION TWO: GUIDELINES FOR DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN MULTICULTURAL CLASSROOMS Chapter 8 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES___________________
INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ METHODOLOGY USED IN DEVELOPING THE GUIDELINES _________ OVERVIEW OF SECTION TWO ___________________________________

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60 61 61

Chapter 9

GOALS AND GUIDELINES ______________________________ 62

GOAL ONE: TO ACKNOWLEDGE, VALUE AND CELEBRATE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ______________________________________ Developing policies and practices _______________________________ Providing a multicultural/international curriculum __________________ GOAL TWO: TO DEVELOP A CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE CLASSROOM ___________________________________________________ Understanding cultural differences _______________________________ The components of a culturally responsive classroom ________________ The six dimensions of multicultural teaching ______________________ Creating a culturally responsive classroom ________________________ GOAL THREE: TO DEVELOP STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING STYLES ____________________________ Structuring lessons ___________________________________________ Critical thinking _____________________________________________ Teaching student good writing strategies __________________________ Using good writing strategies to avoid plagiarism ___________________ Assessment _________________________________________________ GOAL FOUR: TO FOSTER AFFIRMING COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM _______________________________ Practising socialisation strategies in the classroom ___________________ The role of language __________________________________________ Communication in small groups _________________________________ GOAL FIVE: TO PROMOTE SOCIALISATION BEYOND THE CLASSROOM ______________________________________________ 62 62 64 66 66 67 69 69 73 73 73 74 75 77 81 81 82 84 87

REFERENCES __________________________________________________

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Appendix 1 Intercultural training literature ____________________________ 99

ABOUT THE AUTHORS __________________________________________ 100

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Salient features of collectivist and individualist cultures Aspects of teaching and learning in collectivist and individualist cultures Salient features of dialectic and dialogic education Salient features of surface and deep learning styles Examples of perceived appropriate, ambivalent, difficult and inappropriate transfer of learning across cultures Salient features of experiential learning in the classroom Salient features of cooperative learning in the classroom A comparison of traditional versus culturally responsive classrooms 5 6 7 21 23 48 50 68

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for the advice and assistance received from the following people and institutions in the course of completing this research project: i) Professor Colleen Ward and her research team at the Centre for Applied Crosscultural Research at the Victoria University of Wellington; ii) Associate Professor Anita Mak, of the University of Canberra and co-developer of the Excellence in Cultural Experiential Learning and Leadership (EXCELL) Programme; iii) Dr Merc Bernaus, of UAB Facultat Cincies de l'Educaci in Spain and the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML); iv) David Killock and Dawn Leggott, Office for International Programmes, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK; v) Ministry of Education staff in the Research and International Divisions, particularly Zander Tripp and Ray Hollis of the Ministry of Education, International Unit; vi) The Export Education Levy Research Committee; vii) Neil Miller, Industry Strategic Development Manager, Education New Zealand; viii) University of Waikato, particularly: Professor Richard Bedford, Deputy ViceChancellor (Research); Professor Stephen May, Foundation Chair of Language and Literacy Education (School of Education); Elaine Bliss and colleagues in the Migration Research Group (Department of Geography, Tourism and Environmental Planning); Gill ONeill, Language and Learning Consultant (Waikato Management School); and the librarians.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This research project was funded by the Export Education Levy administered by the Ministry of Education and Education New Zealand. It involved a review of research literature on cultural differences in teaching, learning and intercultural communication in the multicultural classroom, and the development of guidelines for strategies for managing diversity in the classroom. The provision of review and guidelines were expected to: create awareness of cultural diversity in the educational sector; assist educators in effectively managing diversity in the classroom and the institution; improve educational outcomes for international students; and internationalise the educational experiences of domestic students. Over 160 documents, including books, government commissioned reports, journal articles, conference papers and PhD theses, were reviewed in this project. They covered a wide range of New Zealand and international research, mostly published since 1980, in the field of education, psychology, sociology, anthropology and intercultural communication. The guidelines were developed from the key findings and conclusions in the literature review. A small group of teachers and teaching professionals were also consulted in developing the guidelines. This report is organised into two major sections. Section 1 provides a critical review and evaluation of international literature on cultural differences in teaching, learning and intercultural communication styles, and methods and programmes used for dealing with these cultural differences. Section 2 provides guidelines for strategies that might be used to manage cultural diversity in the classroom and the institution.

Section One:

Literature Review

This review of the literature addresses issues of cultural differences in the multicultural classroom. It emerged in response to the rapid change in student population mix in New Zealands primary and secondary schools, universities, and private educational institutions over the last decade. The phenomenal growth of new immigrant students and the vast influx of international students has meant that many teachers and learners now find themselves in classes with students from linguistic, cultural and educational backgrounds very different from their own. The challenge for educators is first to recognise and understand, and then find ways to effectively manage, these differences. The individualistic-collectivistic framework and the dialectic-dialogic approach to teaching and learning are used to guide our discussion throughout the report. It is important to point out at the outset that the use of these frameworks is not intended to stereotype cultural behaviour because human behaviour is far too complex to fit neatly into any conceptual theme. Besides, cultures are never static and are subject to change as they come into contact with one another. Thus the frameworks can only be used here to highlight some broad differences and similarities between cultures, and to create awareness among educators of their own cultural values and the assumptions they make about others. Cultural awareness in the multicultural classroom is important in order to generate insights and understandings that enable teachers and students to bridge cultural differences, and to begin to address issues of mismatches in expectations that are discussed in this report. Although understanding cultural differences is important in multicultural classroom, appreciating similarities between people in intercultural contexts is just as important. This report viii

also explores how teachers and students share similar concerns in the teaching and learning process, and how they might build upon these similarities to enhance communication and interaction in the multicultural classroom. Cultural Influences on Educational Traditions Different cultures have different norms, values and expectations, and these cultural differences have a strong influence on educational practices. Two useful frameworks for understanding cultural differences and similarities are the collectivist-individualist framework and the dialecticdialogic framework. These two frameworks are used in this report to explore some broad differences and similarities in value orientations, learning and communication styles in different cultures. The continuum of collectivism-individualism represents the degree to which a culture places emphasis on fostering interdependent relations, social responsibility, and the wellbeing of the group versus fostering independence and individual fulfilment. East and South Asians, Africans, Latin Americans and South Europeans are often quoted as people from collectivist cultures whereas New Zealanders, Australians, North and West Europeans, and North Americans of European backgrounds are named as people from individualist cultures. Differences between the individualist and collectivist orientations can be seen in teaching and learning. For example, in collectivist cultures, students expect to learn how to do and tend to perceive that there is only one right perspective to a given problem. Learning in individualist cultures is about how to learn, that is, how students experience and organise the subject matter of a learning task. In collectivist cultures, students accept that they must cooperate and support the teacher at all times. They tend to avoid confrontation in class. In individualist societies where face consciousness is weak, giving correct information is more important than saving ones face. Dialectic education involves a teacher-centred approach, where the teacher transmits the knowledge to students, which the students must memorise and recount in assessments. Dialogic education is student-centred, discussion-based and interactive. Dialectic teaching methods focus on examinations, whereas dialogic methods emphasise active student participation in the learning process. A considerable amount of research reviewed in this project was drawn from East Asian learners, as students from those cultures make up a major part of New Zealands foreign fee-paying students. East Asian countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore are Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC) where particular cultural traits deriving from Confucian values are prevalent to varying degrees. In CHC traditions, the individual, or sense of self exists in terms of the webs of relationships between and amongst individuals. Other Confucian values that influence the educational traditions most commonly discussed in the literature include: the importance of education; respect for authority; and motivation for achievement.

Cultural Influences on Teaching, Learning and Educational Practices Cultural attitudes and values influence how we teach and how we learn, and our ideas about educational practices. Thus the mutual understanding of expectations between culturally different participants is an important element of the teaching and learning experience in the multicultural ix

classroom. Conversely, mismatched educational expectations are barriers to successful teaching and learning. Many expatriate Western teachers teaching in Asian countries have found that they are expected to take on responsibility to guide their students not only academically, but morally, as the relationship between teachers and students in Confucian Heritage Cultures is viewed as similar to the relationship between parents and children. Other examples of mismatched expectations between expatriate Western teachers and CHC students are students participation in class discussion and group collaboration outside of class. Mismatches in expectations between CHC students studying abroad and Western teachers are well documented. Often CHC international students are perceived by their Western teachers as rote learners, unable to participate in classroom discussion, overly respectful of the teacher, and academically unprepared for studying in countries such as Australia, New Zealand and the United States where critical thinking and inquiry are a directive of education. Some educators suggest that these students need to discard or transform their approaches to study. These ideas reflect a deficit model, and an assumption that the international students previous learning experiences are deficient compared to the learning experience in the West. A large body of literature is emerging that challenges the Deficit Model. Researchers have studied the learning styles (i.e. the preferred ways of applying cognitive ability to various tasks) of culturally different learners and found that there are two main approaches to learning: the surface approach and the deep approach. Students who use a surface approach to learning are motivated extrinsically; their studies are a means to an end. Therefore, they tend to rote learn and limit their work to the essentials. On the other hand, students who use a deep approach to learning are motivated intrinsically; they take a personal interest in the material they are learning and make an effort to understand the underlying meanings and wider context. CHC students are commonly perceived by Western teachers as using a surface approach to learning because they are seen to use memorisation as a learning strategy. The preferred learning style by Western teachers is deep learning. However, researchers have compared culturally different learners and found that both surface and deep approaches learning are utilised by all groups of students. CHC students do not merely memorise material, but use memorisation as a tool to increase understanding. In other words, understanding is the goal of the CHC students and memorisation the strategy. Consequently, their approach to learning cannot be equated with a surface approach to learning. Researchers have also found that some aspects of student learning transfer well across cultures, while others reflect ambivalent, difficult or inappropriate transfer. Aspects of learning that transfer well from CHC students home culture to the host educational context include: high achievement motivation of CHC students; attribution of failure to lack of effort; deep approach to learning; and informal peer support group. All these particular aspects of learning reflect aspects of the Confucian Heritage Cultures. Ambivalent transfer refers to a situation where there may not be a general consensus as to whether transfer of learning is appropriate or not. A good example is CHC students propensity to cue-seek in order to conform to task requirements. This strategy is not favoured by all Western teachers, x

because while some teachers value the educability and diligence of their CHC students, others view this strategy as dependency in learning. Difficult transfer refers to aspects of learning that all interested parties would agree is difficult, such as the mismatched expectations between CHC students and their Western teachers. Inappropriate transfer refers to aspects of learning which may have been acceptable in CHC students home culture and which are considered as unacceptable in the host educational context, such as reporting verbatim, and copying relevant extracts in an assignment without acknowledging the source. These strategies, categorised as involving difficult or inappropriate transfer, tend to reflect the students strategic responses to their perceived requirements of the instructional context, not the students fundamental belief about learning. As such, they are amenable to change.

Cultural Influences on Classroom Communication Styles and Interaction Communication is multidimensional in that it involves verbal, non-verbal and written communication, which can also be formal or informal, direct or indirect. These modes of communication vary between individuals and cultures. Therefore, in intercultural situations cultural differences can lead to misinterpretations of the communicated message. Cultural and individual differences in communication styles (i.e. the preferred ways in which people interact with one another) can have significant impacts on interactions within the classroom. The differences in directness, formality and non-verbal communication are commonly discussed in the literature. For example, some individuals and cultures use language that is direct and straight to the point whereas others tend to employ much less direct communication in order to preserve the feelings, or dignity of others. Non-verbal communication also varies between individuals and cultures. For example, direct eye contact is viewed as rude in many Asian cultures but in Western countries, lack of eye contact signals a students disinterest and disrespect. Moreover, proxemics, or the use of space or distance, is a common cause of miscommunication in intercultural interactions. Therefore, culturally different teachers and students may experience difficulties forming relationships due to mismatched communication. Some classroom activities require communication and interaction which may be unfamiliar to cultural outsiders, but which can be improved if both teachers and students can learn from one another. For example, CHC students studying in Western countries have often reported difficulties in group work and tutorial discussions, particularly as these are not a part of classroom interaction in their own countries. Besides, CHC students would usually be reluctant to challenge the tutor and would prefer to approach the tutor after class for correct answers because they have not been taught to outwardly question a teachers authority. Cultural differences in the attitude to knowledge, mismatched expectations and language issues are the main reasons why students might plagiarise. Until recently, plagiarism and intellectual property-rights have been of only low priority in Chinese universities. In addition, CHC students may often feel their own paraphrasing to be quite inadequate in English, especially when they have not mastered the language, and they do not wish to inadvertently disrespect the author.

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Methods for Dealing with Cultural Differences in the Multicultural Classroom In 2003, a best evidence synthesis Quality Teaching for Diverse Students in Schooling (Alton-Lee, 2003, p. 93) brought together New Zealand and international research findings about what works as quality teaching that will facilitate high achievement and reduce disparities among diverse students. The synthesis makes evident the central role of teacher creativity and expertise in scaffolding and being responsive to student learning processes. Cultural awareness for both teachers and students is important in the multicultural classroom in order to prevent misunderstandings and begin to address the recurring issues of mismatches in expectations that occur between teachers and students, and among students of different cultural backgrounds. Intercultural training programmes provide a range of experiential exercises to help participants understand cultural differences, appreciate similarities, and reflect on their own cultural mores and the assumptions they make about others. These exercises can be incorporated into classroom situations. Furthermore, multicultural education advocates that teachers and students should become researchers in their classrooms in order to gain a better understanding of different cultural perspectives and extrapolate this new understanding to the wider societal context. In the multicultural classroom, students themselves are resources of knowledge, particularly in the sense that they bring different values and ideas to the classroom and provide an opportunity for mutual enrichment for both the students and the teachers. Research with Mori and Pasifika children in the 1970s provided support for the introduction of cooperative learning methods in ethnically mixed classrooms. Cooperative learning is particularly successful with students from collectivist cultures and can be expanded to international classrooms. Curricular change is essential to internationalise education and prepare students to live and work in multicultural societies. Some guidelines for developing culturally responsive teaching and learning in the multicultural classroom are provided in Section 2.

Evaluation Studies of the EXCELL Programme The Excellence in Cultural Experiential Learning and Leadership (EXCELL) Programme is a skills-based, practice-oriented, experiential social learning programme developed to help culturally different students to be competent and effective in the new culture. Originally designed for newly arrived international and immigrant students, the programme has also been offered to local-born university students to improve cultural awareness and intercultural competence. Evaluation is a built-in feature of the EXCELL programme. Evaluation studies of the EXCELL programme in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom suggest that the programme has been effective in bringing about a significant increase in interaction skills and social self-efficacy (i.e. peoples judgment of their capabilities to organise and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performance), as indicated by participants self-reports before and after training. Local-born participants have also benefited from the training in terms of increased social self-efficacy. In the future, investigations can be made to explore the use of the programme with high school students, and in multi-ethnic halls of residences on higher education campuses. Academic, administrative and support staff members working with international students may also benefit from the programme. xii

Section Two:

Guidelines for Dealing with Cultural Difference in Multicultural Classrooms

The guidelines are developed with a particular audience in mind: teachers in multicultural classrooms that include Mori, Pasifika, other migrant groups, permanent resident students and international students. They will also be useful to tertiary teachers, support staff, and administrators and decision makers in institutions that are both multicultural and international. The guidelines address five goals and include strategies within each goal to assist those in multicultural learning contexts to develop effective teaching and learning strategies that embrace difference and that attempt to accommodate the learning and communication styles of all students. Goal 1: To acknowledge, value, and celebrate cultural differences The increasingly multiethnic nature of learning institutions calls for a celebration of cultural differences at both the local and international levels, and an acknowledgement of the reciprocal relationships implicated in these links. Those engaged in the processes of teaching, learning and educational management must therefore questions the politics, pedagogies and practices within their institutions. Guidelines for this process address the following topics: developing a policy and mission statement; preparing and supporting teaching and learning; monitoring changes; and providing appropriate orientation programmes. In addition, these processes require an appropriate curriculum that enables the participation of students from all cultures. Goal 2: To develop a culturally responsive classroom This goal deals with strategies for preparing educators for understanding and managing cultural diversity. The strategies are designed to challenge and question the assumptions of teachers and students and attitudes towards culture and knowledge. Guidelines for developing a culturally responsive classroom address the following topics: accommodating multiple perspectives and voices; questioning prior assumptions about teaching and learning; creating an inclusive learning environment; and examining the behaviours of teachers and teacher language. Goal 3: To develop strategies for dealing with differences in learning styles Mismatches in expectations and assumptions can often occur between students and teachers due to different backgrounds and understandings about teaching and learning. Teachers are therefore faced with having to develop strategies for dealing with these mismatches and differences in learning styles. The following topics are addressed in this section: structuring lessons; critical thinking; teaching students good writing strategies; using good writing strategies to avoid plagiarism; and assessment strategies and processes. Goal 4: To foster affirming communication strategies in the classroom Cultural understanding requires a reflection on ones own culture as well as on the cultures of others. Creating opportunities for socialisation between and among all groups of students is important if institutions, teachers, and all students are to benefit from the multicultural classroom and from programmes of multiculturalism and xiii

internationalisation. Teachers need to build a climate where all students feel safe and can trust others when voicing their own opinions. The strategies in this section deal with promoting and practising socialisation among students. The second key area addresses the role of languagethat of teachers as well as of all students, including bilingual and English as an additional language (EAL) learners. A third key area includes small group communication, a critical area that requires careful nurturing and monitoring on the part of teachers, as well as teachers providing students with their own strategies for managing group interaction effectively. Goal 5: To promote socialisation beyond the classroom Research indicates that students from other cultural backgrounds have much more difficulty in meeting New Zealand students and making friends outside of the classroom. This section provides strategies for institutions in promoting socialisation beyond the classroom. To benefit from multiculturalism and internationalisation, a starting point is a focus on local practices within the wider framework of global ones. Institutions are encouraged to foster an ongoing recognition, acknowledgement, and inclusion of difference. Topics addressed include celebrating multiculturalism at both the institutional and student levels.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Over the last decade there has been a rapid change in student population mix in New Zealands primary and secondary schools, universities, and private educational institutions. In the 1991 Census, 78 percent of New Zealand residents aged 5-24 years were identified as Europeans, 18 percent Mori, 7 percent Pasifika peoples and 3 percent Asians1. By 2001, Europeans only made up 72 percent of New Zealands population in the 5-24 age groups, while the proportions of Mori, Pasifika peoples and Asians had increased to 20 percent, 9 percent and 8 percent respectively. In the ten years between 1991 and 2001, the proportion of New Zealand residents aged 5-24 years that were born overseas had increased from 9 percent to 14 percent. In the 2001 Census, nearly half of the overseas-born in the 5-24 age groups had lived in New Zealand for less than five years43 percent of these recent immigrants came from Asia, 14 percent from the Pacific Islands, 8 percent each from Australia and the United Kingdom, and 4 percent from the Americas. The remaining 23 percent came from other countries including South Africa, Somalia and countries in Europe and the Middle East. The internationalisation of education has also contributed to the rise in multicultural classrooms. In 2003, there were more than 110,000 international students studying in New Zealand, earning the country $2.2 billion and making education the fourth largest export earner. The vast majority of the international students in New Zealand are Asian in origin, with China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Thailand being the leading source countries. Germany and Switzerland are the two largest non-Asian sources. The phenomenal growth of new immigrant students, as well as the vast influx of international students, has meant that many teachers and learners now find themselves in classes with students from linguistic, cultural and educational backgrounds very different from their own. New Zealand is not unique in the challenges it faces as classrooms become increasingly culturally diverse. In this research project, funded by the Export Education Levy, and administered by the Ministry of Education and Education New Zealand, a review of research literature on cultural differences in the multicultural classroom was undertaken. Following the review, guidelines for strategies for managing diversity in the classroom were developed. The project was started in May 2004 and was completed in December 2004. The provision of review and guidelines were expected to: create awareness of cultural diversity in the educational sector; assist educators in effectively managing diversity in the classroom/institution; improve educational outcomes for international students; and internationalise the educational experiences of domestic students. This report is organised into two major sections. Section 1 provides a critical review and evaluation of international literature on cultural differences in teaching, learning and intercultural communication in the multicultural classroom, and methods and programmes used for dealing with these cultural differences. Section 2 provides guidelines for strategies that might be used to manage cultural diversity in the classroom and the institution.

The percentages for all ethnic groups added together can exceed 100 percent, because individuals have been able to self-identify with more than one ethnic group in New Zealands Censuses since 1981.

SECTION ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This review covers a wide range of New Zealand and international literature that addresses the issues of cultural differences in multicultural classrooms. Over 160 documents, including books, commissioned reports, journal articles, conference papers, and PhD theses were reviewed. The documents reviewed were selected from research literature published since 1980 in the fields of education, psychology, sociology, anthropology and intercultural communication. They were located using computer searches such as the University of Waikato library catalogue and Te Puna Bibliographic database, ProQuest 5000, PsycARTICLES, Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC), Database of Research on International Education, Elsvier Science Direct, Department of Education Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) and EBSCO Host Research Databases, as well as conference websites such as Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australia (HERDSA), Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE), Australian International Education Conference and Teaching Learning Forum. In addition, reference lists and bibliographies of relevant literature, in particular Holmes (2000) doctoral research into the teaching and learning experiences of ethnic Chinese international students at tertiary level, Wards (2001) literature review on the impact of international students on domestic students and host institutions, Hos (2002) literature review on mental health issues for Asian immigrants and foreign fee-paying students, and Alton-Lees (2003) best evidence synthesis of quality teaching for diverse students in schooling, were used to locate relevant items. Professional organisations and international scholars that were contacted during the literature review process included: Professor Colleen Ward and her research team at the Centre for Applied Cross-cultural Research at the Victoria University of Wellington; Associate Professor Anita Mak, of the University of Canberra and co-developer of the Excellence in Cultural Experiential Learning and Leadership (EXCELL) Programme; Dr Merc Bernaus, of UAB Facultat Cincies de l'Educaci in Spain and the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML), as well as the international educators and researchers who attended the International Conference on Intercultural Research organised by the International Academy for Intercultural Research (IAIR) in May 2004. A considerable amount of research reviewed in this project was drawn from East Asian (Chinese, Korean, Japanese) learners, as students from those cultures make up a major part of New Zealands foreign fee-paying students. Key issues addressed in this review are presented in the following five chapters. Chapter 3 reviews literature on the cultural traditions of Eastern (collectivist) learners, Mori learners, Pasifika learners and Western (individualist) learners. Chapter 4 addresses issues of teaching and learning in the multicultural classroom, with particular emphasis on East Asian learners, their role expectations and learning styles, and how they adapt to learning outside of their own cultures. Chapter 5 reports on research carried out to examine cultural diversity in communication styles, and the challenges cultural outsiders experienced in participating in classroom activities. The final two chapters in this section focus on methods and evaluation studies used for managing cultural diversity in the educational setting. Chapter 6 reviews methods for dealing with cultural differences in the multicultural classroom and the institution. Chapter 7 focuses on evaluation studies of the EXCELL Programme, a programme developed in Australia and Canada to help international students and immigrants learn skills that will improve their opportunities for success in their new cultures.

CHAPTER 3

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS

Ive worked with Asians in one of my classes and they just sit there and dont say anything and you ask them for their input and they are like I dont understand. You know they just make it difficult. Its generally quite good working with them [international students], but the ideas that they come up with is really different from what you would expect from New Zealand students. They tend to ask quite unusual questions to the lecturers and tutors2. Different cultures have different norms, values and expectations, and these cultural differences have a strong influence on educational practices. The literature review in this chapter centres around the influence of culture on educational values and traditions. An exploration of two frameworks, the collectivist-individualist framework and the dialectic-dialogic approach to teaching and learning, is made below to highlight some broad differences and influences on Eastern and Western educational practices. Although we speak of individualist and collectivist cultures, as well as dialectic and dialogic teaching and learning approaches, as if they are separate entities, it is important to reiterate an obvious caution. These frameworks are not intended to stereotype cultural behaviour but rather to help explain the deep value orientations underlying the beliefs and behaviours of different cultures, and to identify many similarities between people in intercultural contexts. Following the introduction of the two frameworks, a brief review of the Mori and Pasifika educational traditions, and a substantive review of the educational traditions of East Asian learners, are presented as part of a broader description of the cultures in New Zealand classrooms.

TWO FRAMEWORKS FOR UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES

The collectivist-individualist framework Culture is a fuzzy construct. If we are to understand the way culture relates to social psychological phenomena, we must analyse it by determining dimensions of cultural variation. One of the most promising such dimensions is individualismcollectivism (Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai & Lucca, 1988, p. 323). The continuum of collectivism-individualism represents the degree to which a culture places emphasis on fostering interdependent relations, social responsibility, and the well-being of the group versus fostering independence and individual fulfilment (Trumbull, Rothstein-Fisch,
These two quotations came from Ho, Holmes & Coopers (2004) study of intercultural communication experiences of both international and domestic students during their first year of study in a New Zealand University.
2

Greenfield & Quiroz, 2001; Table 1). In collectivist cultures, people promote respect for authority and group consensus. In individualist cultures, the emphasis is on self-expression and individual thinking. When individualists are dissatisfied with the group they leave it; collectivists tend to stay. While collectivist cultures emphasise developing and sustaining stable, hierarchical roles, individualist cultures are associated with equalitarian relationships and flexibility in roles. In collectivist cultures, the boundaries of property ownership are more permeable. In individualist cultures, personal items are private property and are not to be shared. East and South Asians, Africans, Latin Americans and South Europeans are often quoted as people from collectivist cultures whereas New Zealanders, Australians, North and West Europeans, and North Americans of European backgrounds are named as people from individualist cultures. Table 1 Salient features of collectivist and individualist cultures Individualism 1. Fosters independence and individual achievement. 2. Promotes self-expression, individual thinking, personal choice. 3. Associated with equalitarian relationships and flexibility in roles. 4. Associated with private property, individual ownership.

Collectivism 1. Fosters interdependence and group success. 2. Promotes adherence to norms, respect for authority/elders, group consensus. 3. Associated with stable, hierarchical roles. 4. Associated with shared property, group ownership. Adapted from Trumbull et al. (2001)

The constructs of individualism and collectivism (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1989) have been discussed in many contexts within social science discourse. For example, in the realm of communication, individualists tend to focus on the content of conversation, whereas collectivists tend to take into account how things are said, gestures, and the situational context. Collectivist thinking tends to be circular, for example something that is good will be followed by something that is bad, which is followed by something good. However, individualist thought patterns tend to be in a lineal manner, where something that is good will become very good, and then extremely good (Triandis, 2004, p. x). However, Triandis warns not to oversimplify the contrasts between individualism and collectivism because in all cultures, there are people who are allocentric and behave in more collectivist ways, such as paying more attention to the ingroup, and people who are idiocentric and behave in more individualist ways, for instance by paying more attention to their own needs. Differences between individualist and collectivist orientations can also be seen in teaching and learning (Chang & Chin, 1999; Hofstede, 1986; Table 2). Education is a way of gaining higher status in collectivist cultures. In individualist cultures, the aim of education is to acquire knowledge and to improve ones competence in order to earn a better living.

Table 2 Education

Aspects of teaching and learning in collectivist and individualist cultures Collectivist Societies 1. Education is a way of gaining prestige in ones social environment and of joining a higher status group. 1. Students expect to learn how to do. 2. Positive association in society with whatever is rooted in tradition. 1. Individual students will only speak up in class when called upon personally by the teacher. 2. Individual students will only speak up in small groups. Individualist Societies 1. Education is a way of improving ones economic worth and self-respect based on ability and competence. 1. Students expect to learn how to learn. 2. Positive association in society with whatever is new. 1. Individual students will only speak up in class in response to a general invitation by the teacher. 2. Individual will speak up in a large group. 1. Confrontation in learning situations can be salutary; conflicts can be brought into open. 2. Face-consciousness is weak.

Learning Attitudes

Social Interactions

Harmony and Conflict

1. Formal harmony in learning situations should be maintained at all times.

2. Neither the teacher nor any student should ever be made to lose face. Adapted from Hofstede (1986) and Chang & Chin (1999)

In collectivist cultures, students expect to learn how to do and tend to perceive that there is only one right perspective to a given problem. Learning in individualist cultures is about how students experience and organise the subject matter of a learning task. It is about how they learn, rather than how much they remember (Ramsden, 1992, cited in Chang & Chin, 1999). In collectivist cultures, students usually do not freely express their opinion in a large class situation unless they are being called upon personally by their teacher. In individualist cultures, students are generally more willing to speak up. In collectivist cultures, students accept that they must cooperate and support the teacher at all times. They tend to avoid confrontation in class even when they do not agree with the opinions expressed by their teacher or fellow students. In individualist societies where face consciousness is weak, giving correct information is more important than saving ones face (Chang & Chin, 1999; Table 2). The dialectic-dialogic approach to teaching and learning Another framework that has been used for understanding cultures influence on educational traditions is the dialectic-dialogic construct (Hammond & Gao, 2002; Table 3). Dialectic education involves a teacher-centred approach, where the teacher transmits the knowledge to

students, which the students must memorise and recount in assessments. In the dialectic tradition, students are rarely allowed to interact with one another or with the teacher in the classroom. A dialogic mode of education, on the other hand, is student-centred, discussion-based and interactive. In the dialogic tradition, responsibility for learning belongs to the learner, not the teacher (Table 3). Learners must construct knowledge rather than just passively absorb it. Thus, while dialectic teaching methods focus on examinations, dialogic methods place emphasis on active student participation in the learning process. Dialogic learning favours collaboration and creativity over competition and stress. Table 3 Teacher Salient features of dialectic and dialogic education Dialectic Holds power Knows all Controls space Listens Follows instructions Just a student Fixed Fragmented Transmitted Dialogic Shares power Shares experience Creates space Contributes Makes proposals A scholar Emergent Connected to the whole Created Create the future Encourage collaboration

Student

Learning focus

Educational systems

Protect the status quo Encourage competition Source: Hammond & Gao (2002, p. 235)

Socratic and Confucian educational values, which have significantly influenced Western and Eastern educational traditions respectively, are the point at which Hammond and Gao (2002) begin their argument in favour of a dialogic view of education over the dialectic. According to Hammond and Gao (2002), originally both Confucian and Socratic educational practices were dialogic. For instance, Confucius taught that humans needed to be cultivated through active learning and critical thinking, and Socrates favoured interactive learning which was studentcentred, where questions were posed to students to stimulate active thinking (Tweed & Lehman, 2002). However, both Eastern and Western histories and traditions of dialogic education transformed over time as power and authority became vested hierarchically. Therefore, knowledge became viewed as being held by particular segments of society. More recently, the West has been moving back towards a more dialogic mode of teaching and learning, whereas current Chinese educational systems still retain a dialectic mode which encourages competition between students and the complete authority of the teacher. The use of dialogic teaching methods in modern educational systems will be further discussed in Chapter 6.

MORI AND PASIFIKA EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS

This section gives a brief overview of the Mori and Pasifika educational traditions as part of a broader description of the cultures in New Zealand classrooms. Although Western culture can be broadly classified as individualistic, New Zealands social and cultural life is much more 7

complex. Both Mori, as Tangata Whenua (people of the land), and Pasifika peoples, who migrated in large numbers to New Zealand during the 1960s and 1970s, share particular traditional values that can be classified as the collectivist cultural orientation. Traditionally, Mori education took place both informally and formally. Prior to European contact, socialisation of children rested on the continuity and wellbeing of the whanau and hapu. They [children] were encouraged to assert themselves and the mana of their whanau, hapu and iwi (Hemara, 2000, p. 13). Formal learning institutions, known as whare wananga, existed due to the development of specialised skills, such as tattooing and carving (Harker & McConnochie, 1985). This formal education also required the rote learning of genealogy (whakapapa), esoteric beliefs and historical events. A cooperative, reciprocal and interactive ethos permeated the experience of learning, both between teacher and student, as each gained knowledge from the experience, as well as between the student and the environment, as a practical approach was favoured. Children took part in rituals and ceremonies on Marae where they learned protocols and the oral tradition of their culture. Furthermore, grandparents played a large part in the education of children such traditions still have relevance in contemporary society. Hemara (2000, p. 43) observes that: Kaumatua were considered a vast information resource. Their wisdom and reflection were considered essential to the teaching of practical and social skills along with underpinning esoteric and ethical principles. Mori educational traditions focus on holism, reciprocity and collectivity. The New Zealand Education and Training Support Agency (2001) makes the observation that there is not the same sense of division between Mori formal and informal education as there is in Western conceptions of education, or the same sense of demarcation between the teacher and the student. Additionally, Mori place more emphasis on collective benefits rather than measuring individual attainment (New Zealand Education and Training Support Agency, 2001, p. 14). Similarly, educational traditions of Pacific Island groups emphasise collective, holistic and reciprocal approaches to teaching and learning. Prior to the arrival of missionaries in the Pacific, education took place during socialisation in an informal setting. The hierarchical nature of Pacific Island societies was reinforced through socialisation, and was a common aspect of the myriad of cultures inhabiting the expansive Pacific Ocean: Maintaining the hierarchical structures within the culture was reinforced by social and educational emphases on obedience, respect and knowing ones place within the family and community (Pasikale, 1996, p. 47) Knowledge was imparted through practical tasks, as well as through learners observing, listening and memorising (Mara, Foliaki & Coxon, 1994). Teachers were often elders, and members of extended families. Thus, Pacific Island children came to know their appropriate roles and behaviours through their elders. As a member of the group each individual behaved in particular ways according to their relationships. Immense change took place in the Pacific when the European explorers arrived, bringing with them new technology, food, disease, and ideas about the world. Christianity, and the equality of men and women through the eyes of God, were two new concepts introduced by the missionaries (Pasikale, 1996). Since the time when these changes occurred throughout the Pacific, there has continuously been a gulf between what and how people learn at home and what and how they learn at school (Helu-Thaman, cited in Pasikale, 1996, p. 47). 8

Both Mori and Pasifika learners in New Zealand experience the juxtaposition between home and school, or a dual learning setting (Helu-Thaman, cited in Coxon, Anae, Mara, Wendt-Samu & Finau, 2002; Tongatio, 1994). In a short handbook for Pacific Islanders at university, Coconuts Begin With a C, one student commented: I was brought up, as I believe most PI students were, to have respect for my elders, not to speak unless I was being directly addressed, so many of the expectations of tutorials, labs, and seminars conflict directly with the way I was brought up (Pacific Island Students Academic Achievement Collective, 1989, p. 5). This overview of Mori and Pasifika educational traditions shows that New Zealand classes have always been diverse, although issues of cultural diversity have not been adequately addressed. The majority Pakeha (New Zealand European) culture continues to dominate the education system. Recent research literature points out that educational achievement of Mori and Pasifika students is well below that of Pakeha students in New Zealand (Coxon et al., 2002; Hill & Hawk, 2000; Jenkins & Kaai, 1994; Mara et al.,1994; New Zealand Education and Training Support Agency, 2001). An over-riding theme that emerges from this literature discusses the New Zealand educational system as providing for success for those people who hold the same cultural capital or cultural resources as the dominant group in this case Pakeha cultural values and attitudes (Bishop, Berryman & Richardson, 2001; Coxon, Jenkins, Marshall & Massey, 1994; Coxon et al., 2002; Harker & McConnochie, 1985; Metge, 1990; Tiatia, 1998). As a result, the education system does not serve all of its learners equally. More recently, East Asian learners have also added to this diversity. The internationalisation of education is producing a variety of issues for teachers and learners as they experience culture in educational contexts. In order to address these issues a greater understanding of cultural contexts is essential. In the next section, the educational traditions of East Asian learners will be examined to stimulate further thinking about the challenges of teaching and learning in New Zealands increasingly culturally diverse classes.

EAST ASIAN EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS

Much of the literature regarding Asian educational traditions focuses on Confucian values and traditions. East Asian countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore are Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC) where particular cultural traits deriving from Confucian values are prevalent to varying degrees (Watkins & Biggs, 2001, 1996). Jin and Cortazzi (1998) suggest, while Confucian practises may be considered outdated in modern China, the attitudes that emanate from Confucian ideals are still very influential. Chang (cited in Watkins & Biggs, 2001) uses the term vernacular Confucianism to make the point that the everyday Chinese person involves Confucianism in their lives in ways that are individually meaningful from within the cultural milieu of which they are a part. A head teacher in Jin and Cortazzis (1998, p. 757) study on cultures of learning in large classes in China commented: All Chinese education is actually based on Confucian teachings even though teachers or students may not be fully aware of it. The Confucian values that influence educational traditions most commonly discussed in the literature include: sense of self; the quest for education; respect for authority; and motivation for achievement. Each of these aspects of Confucian influence on education will be discussed below, and each has implications for teaching and learning styles, which will be discussed in the 9

next chapter. All of these concepts are interconnected and are difficult to rigidly categorise, as the overriding collective and hierarchical nature of CHC society influences values and attitudes towards education. Sense of Self The literature pertaining to CHC traditions emphasises collectivism and deemphasises individualism. There are, however, distinct differences between CHCs and the West with regard to the sense of self. Theorists Markus and Kitayama (1991) described this difference between Western and Eastern definitions of the self as independent and interdependent, and these concepts are closely related to individualism and collectivism. While the Western self is autonomous, Shimahara (2003, p. 375) asserts that in East Asia, there is a constant interplay between the self and others in the definition of the self. In other words, in CHCs the individual cannot exist apart from relationships with others (Chu, 1997). These relationships are guided by roles, which are an important feature of the interplay between individuals in a relationship. Confucian tradition outlines the initial roles an individual performs as the Five Relationships. These are: loyalty between ruler and subject; filial piety between father and son; obedience between husband and wife; respect between elder and younger; and trust between friends (Holmes, 2000; Scollon & Scollon, 1994). Shimahara (2003) considers that the self, or individual, is subordinated to the performance of the role. Scollon and Scollon (1994) also suggest that one realizes a self as one takes up ones portion of the joint activity of creating the whole (p. 16). Therefore, while we might discuss East Asian countries as collectivist cultures (Hofstede, cited in Kennedy, 2002), we must understand how that concept is manifested within the conceptualisation of the people who are the members of these cultures. One such conceptualisation is the inside (nei) and outside (wei) relationships that exist in Confucian societies, that differ from the conceptualisations of the private and public in individualist Western countries (Scollon & Scollon, 1994). Whereas in the West, boundaries are fixed between the self and others, in Asian conceptions boundaries are shifting. For instance, with regard to kinship relations, the husbands family are inside relatives, while the wifes are outside; the home is inside, whereas the workplace is outside and so on. Scollon and Scollon (1994, p. 17) discussed the responses of a group of Japanese students when they were asked about the level of quietness in Japanese classrooms. While the students agreed that classroom behaviour reflects to a certain extent their respect for the authority of the teacher, they also pointed out that the inside/outside relationship is an integral component of the classroom atmosphere. In the classroom the students are outside, therefore they are hesitant to speak out. However if the same students were interacting in an inside situation, such as in a dormitory or coffee shop, they would be comfortable to question, challenge and debate with one another. Therefore, the Asian self, or individual, is shaped in terms of his or her relationships to others, whereas the Western self is grounded in terms of personal autonomy. Another example of the difference between the conceptualisations between collectivist and individualist cultures is drawn by Jin and Cortazzi (1998, p. 746); Chinese teachers see individual pupils as part of a collective, and Western teachers see collections of individuals. The individual or sense of self exists in collectivist cultures in terms of the webs of relationships between and amongst individuals.

10

The Quest for Education In East Asian countries education is highly desirable for two reasons: the perfection of the self and the benefit of the wider society. Firstly, in Confucian thought, education is an internalised quest to fulfil ones potential. There is a general belief within CHCs in what is termed human perfectibility and human educability. Hammond and Gao (2002, p. 230) capture the essence of this belief when they observe: Though human beings were born with a good nature invested from Heaven, Confucius taught that this good nature needed to be cultivated and developed through active learning and critical thinking. Confucian thought follows that education enables the individual to become a Jun Zi, a superior person (Hammond & Gao, 2002). However, the individual is required to apply effort in order to develop into a superior person. The basis of the value of education is found in the quest to perfect the self and the belief that all individuals can succeed intellectually through their own perseverance and hard work (Lee, 1996). This fundamental belief is behind the East Asian positive attitude, willingness and achievement in education. Secondly, the educated scholars work towards fulfilling important positions in society, using their education to lead their community to prosperity. This external quest enhances the possibility of social mobility and emphasises relationships with others. Therefore, the value of education is significant to both the individual and the collective. While an individual strives for perfection from within themselves, the wellbeing of the family, community or collective is also a paramount goal. Respect for Authority Power distance is the term Hofstede (1980) used to classify cultures on a continuum of high and low power distance. Whereas people from low power distance cultures see authority as infringing on the rights of the individual, people from high power distance cultures accept power as part of society. Confucian teachings were steeped in the sense of hierarchy and authority, because to honor those higher than ourselves is the highest expression of the sense of justice (Tweed & Lehman, 2002, p. 92). In the educational environment of East Asian societies, authority is made clear by teachers but they see their role as guiding the student. Biggs (1998, p. 730) asserts that: CHC teacher-student interaction is not lubricated with the democratic oil of warmth and first names, but with the oil of respect, which is a more effective lubricant in a hierarchical, collectivist culture. Another aspect of status and respect in CHCs is the concept of face (mien-tzu). It is considered selfish and shameful to cause someone to lose face (Bond, cited in Kennedy, 2002, p. 431). In a classroom situation, the questioning of a teacher by a student is disrespectful and may cause the loss of face. For example, Holmes (2002), in an ethnographic study of ethnic Chinese students in a New Zealand university, noted CHC students feelings of discomfort when New Zealand students asked questions of their teachers in class. One graduate from China explained:

11

Its very impolite to ask teachers questions[you should] not challenge the teacher in class. If you have problems you can ask [the] teacher after class, not in class because that makes [the] teacher feel embarrassed. The students themselves also risked losing face if they expressed the wrong idea, their language let them down, or they upset the harmony of classroom relationships. In collectivist and hierarchical societies, respect and knowing ones place maintains balance and the harmony of the group. Motivation for achievement Educational achievement in East Asian cultures can be viewed in relation to the previously discussed concepts: sense of self; the importance of education; and respect for authority. In these cultures, the drive for achievement is other motivated, that is, motivated by a desire to fulfil the expectations of significant others, in particular to the family (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). It is also linked to the individual and his or her quest for personal development and social mobility. Furthermore, Confucian thought also stresses that anyone can succeed as long as they apply effort to the task. Because success in East Asia depends on the effort one applies, students are more likely to persist (Biggs, 1996). Yu (1996) distinguished between two types of achievement motivation: individually oriented and socially oriented. Individually oriented achievement motivation is the dominant form of achievement motivation in individualist societies, and describes an individuals motivation in terms of personal success, or standards of excellence largely determined by the individual. In contrast, socially oriented achievement motivation is the dominant form of achievement motivation in collectivist societies, in which achievement goals or standards of excellence are set by significant others, a group, or society. The academic achievement of East Asian students both at home and overseas is well documented. Stevenson and Stigler (1992) argue that this is because schools in Asia are made more central to the lives of the students than they are in America. Japanese children, for example, are predisposed to the requirements of the school learning environment as they are socialised to be obedient, conforming and persistent, whereas children in the West are taught to be independent, inquisitive, and explorative at the preschool level (Hess & Azuma, 1991). However, all schools, whether in East Asia or in the West, demand obedience and conformity. Consequently, East Asian children experience continuity between socialisation and schooling whereas Western children are required to learn new behaviour on entry to the school system.

SUMMARY
This chapter introduced two useful frameworks for understanding cultural differences and similarities in the classroom: individualism-collectivism and dialogic-dialectic construct. Although New Zealand culture is often classified as individualist and its mode of education as dialogic, there is much more diversity in New Zealands educational values and practices. Mori and Pasifika learners have been part of this diversity. Both groups share particular educational traditions that can be classified as collectivist. More recently, East Asian learners have also added to this diversity. Four core values that influence East Asian educational traditions were identified.

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Salient features of collectivist cultures o Foster interdependence and group success o Promote respect for authority and group consensus o Associated with stable, hierarchical roles o Associated with shared property, group ownership Salient features of individualist cultures o Foster independence and individual achievement o Promote self-expression, individual thinking, personal choices o Associated with equalitarian relationships and flexibility in roles o Associated with private property, individual ownership Salient features of dialectic education o Teacher-centred o Student follows instructions and listens o Educational system encourages competition between students o Focuses on examination Salient features of dialogic education o Student-centred o Active student participation o Education system favours collaboration and creativity o Interactive learning Salient features of Mori and Pasifika educational traditions o Collectivist, holistic and reciprocal o Respect for elders o Cooperative learning, interactive o Practical aspects of learning Four core values in East Asian educational traditions o A sense of self which is closely connected to others (interdependent self) o A quest for education through individual perseverance and hard work, also connected to the collective good o Respect for authority which is related to the high power distance society, which means that there is a strong sense of hierarchy, and in connection with this a need to save face or protect the self and others from shame o Motivation for achievement related to a sense of collectivity and obligation to the family, as well as a personal quest of the individual for development and social mobility. There is a central belief that perseverance and effort leads to success.

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CHAPTER 4

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON TEACHING, LEARNING AND EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES

We are active in our minds. We are thinking all the time. Our minds follow the lecturer with questions and challenges. We are just not used to speaking out. But all of us know very well what is going on and we know the answers to the questions those lecturers asked or other students raised 3. Chinese teaching approaches emphasize knowledge transmission through the use of textbooks. Students try to absorb and digest what is being transmitted. Here teachers do not emphasize knowledge transmission. Instead, they emphasize autonomy and knowledge application 4. As discussed in the previous chapter, cultural traditions of particular groups of peoples and their corresponding cultural attitudes and values influence the educational environment. In this chapter, the literature on cultural perspectives that influence how we teach and how we learn, and our ideas about educational practices, is reviewed. A considerable amount of this literature has focused on the culturally based styles of teaching and learning, and the mismatches in expectations between culturally different teachers and students. In addition, a large body of literature is emerging that challenges the negative perception of the Asian learners as passive rote learners. Researchers have compared culturally different learners and found that the preferred learning style, deep learning, is utilised by all groups of students.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON CLASSROOM EXPECTATIONS

The mutual understanding of expectations between students and teachers is an important element of the teaching and learning experience in any classroom. However, when there is a cross-cultural element amongst the classroom participants, understanding becomes extremely significant. This is because in culturally diverse classrooms, expectations and perceptions of educational practices between culturally different participants can run parallel to one another when there is insufficient understanding of one anothers cultural backgrounds and understandings. The influence of socialisation and values on education Three large scale cross-cultural studies have been found that compared East Asian attitudes to education with those found in the United States. Initially these studies set out to discover why
From Cortazzi and Jins (1996, p.199) study of Chinese students cultures of learning at tertiary institutions in China. 4 From Li, Baker & Marshalls (2002, p.7) study of Asian students in New Zealand tertiary institutions.
3

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East Asian students were academically successful in comparison to learners in the United States (Hess & Azuma, 1991; Shimahara, 2003; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). The results have shed some light on the influences of socialisation on attitudes towards education. A particularly salient point made by these researchers is that Japanese school children experience continuity between socialisation at home and socialisation at school, and this aids the children to be receptive to the education environment in institutions (Hess & Azuma, 1991; Shimahara, 2003). Shimahara (2003, p. 376) observes: the Japanese are socialized from infancy through adulthood to internalize socioemotional dispositions to adapt to external demands, expectations, and constraints. Thus in the classroom situation, Japanese teachers expect their students to be diligent and receptive and they use these traits to produce effective teaching and learning. In contrast, American children experience an abrupt change in the way they are socialised between home and school (Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). At home, American children are socialised through exploration and creativity, whereas at school they are expected to be conforming and obedient. According to these scholars, therefore, American children tend to experience a more difficult transition into institutional education, whereas Japanese children are socialised to perform well at school. Asian students also perform well at school because of the high value Confucian Heritage Cultures placed on academic success. Both Hess and Azuma (1991) and Stevenson and Stigler (1992) made the observation that in America, the same value is not placed on education. In their study, which compared Chinese and American mothers expectations of their children, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) found that American mothers placed more emphasis on the ability of their children, rather than the effort their children must put in, to succeed at school. Hess and Azuma (1991) used the American love of sports to highlight the difference in values between the two cultures. Their study concluded that education is not as highly valued in America as sports is. Mismatches in expectations between Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC) students and expatriate Western teachers teaching in Asian countries Although cultural differences pervade the multicultural classroom, they often go unnoticed due to a lack of awareness in the variance in values and attitudes. In recent years, Hong Kong and China have provided a fertile ground for studies that explore the cross-cultural expectations of students and teachers, as large numbers of expatriate teachers are employed in their educational institutions (Ballard & Clanchy, 1997; Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Kennedy, 2002; Pratt, Kelly & Wong, 1999). A popular research topic is the mismatched educational expectations of Chinese students and expatriate Western teachers. In Cortazzi and Jins (1996) study of Chinese students in tertiary institutions in China, Western teachers were found to view students questions in class as active learning. Chinese students, on the other hand, saw asking questions as a device to elicit confirmation after reflection, but could also be perceived as wasting time or appearing foolish in front of the teacher or classmates. Similarly, helping each other outside of class was seen by Western teachers as presenting a risk of cheating and contradicting the value they placed on independent work. Chinese students, however, saw group collaboration as showing sociability, good character and collective responsibility. 15

Cortazzi and Jin (1996) also found that Chinese tertiary students expected their teachers to have a deep knowledge about their subject, while at the same time, teach their students about society and how to solve problems in life. Teachers are expected to play a role similar to parentsthey are expected to teach morality and must set a good example for their students: Western teachers are seen as friendly but they do not have the Chinese parental approach: Western teachers make me think I have one more friend but not one more father or mother (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996, p. 188). Other researchers have also found that teachers in East Asia expect and are expected to take on the responsibility to guide their students not only academically, but morally, as the relationship between teachers and students is viewed as similar to the relationship between parents and children (Biggs, 1996; Pratt et al., 1999; Scollon & Scollon, 1994). This is particularly evident in the relationships students and teachers form outside of the classroom. However, this extended communication environment is not the norm in New Zealand educational institutions, especially universities, and therefore, CHC students have little opportunity to develop communication with their New Zealand teachers or students (Holmes, 2000). Bodycott and Walkers (2000) study found that Western teachers expectations differed from their Chinese tertiary students, in particular the students participation in class discussion. They found that Chinese students had no trouble speaking in class if they were reciting facts or personal experience, however, the teachers needed to target a specific student. But Chinese students did not respond well to being challenged by their teachers. The researchers explained that the mismatched expectation was rooted in the students perception of teachers as fonts of all knowledge. Chinese students were willing to accept everything the teachers said, therefore Western teachers experienced difficulty in facilitating class discussion as there was no student questioning. However, because Chinese students were comfortable talking about their own experiences, Bodycott and Walker incorporated this into their teaching strategies. They found that in order that all students benefited from the educational process, they needed to employ a diverse range of teaching approaches, even some techniques they had previously thought of as outdated. Many expatriate teachers teaching English in Asian countries also found that they must engage in teacher/student relationships in a culturally and pedagogically different context from their previous experience of teaching. Li (2003) surveyed Chinese students of expatriate teachers teaching English in China. The findings showed Chinese students did not respond well to the interactive, open-discourse approach many of the expatriate teachers seemed to favour instead of the text-orientated approach the students were accustomed to. Furthermore, the expatriate teachers attempted to encourage autonomy and responsibility for the students own learning. This, however, made the students feel the teachers had abandoned their responsibilities of being a good teacher. The students level of satisfaction decreased the longer they were exposed to expatriate teaching, and mismatched expectations became barriers to successful teaching and learning: Teaching and learning are culture-dependent. In cross-cultural settings, pedagogical implementation involves teachers and students cultural values, beliefs, assumptions, concepts of learning and teaching. Teachers enact pedagogies based on their epistemological beliefs, professional ideology and interpretative systems. The accuracy of their perception and interpretation of the contexts are generally shaped by their cultural perspective (Li, 2003, p. 76). 16

The barriers, Li (2003) postulates, may have arisen due to the lack of understanding between teachers and students regarding their roles, responsibilities, and conceptualisations of learning. Li makes the point that teachers must not only master their subject and a range of teaching methods, but it is imperative that they are culturally aware: teachers cultural awareness becomes crucial in implementing pedagogies in intercultural settings (2003, p. 77). When teachers begin working in a culture which is quite different from their own, they will be experiencing their own adaptation and adjustment to the new context and presumably are in a position to see mismatches more clearly. However, when culturally different students arrive to study in a teachers own cultural context it is much harder for the teacher to become aware of problems of different cultural expectations that arise for these students. Mismatches in expectations between CHC students studying abroad and Western teachers Early work by American scholars Liberman (1994) and McCargar (1993) have documented the mismatches between international students studying in America and their teachers. Liberman found that Asian international students studying at the University of Oregon were highly critical of the informality and lack of respect shown to professors by the individualist American students. In general, the Asian students were highly critical of American social life, but valued their educational experience during their sojourn. An empirical evaluation to compare the expectations of second language learners across different cultural groups with the expectations of their American teachers was carried out by McCargar (1993). Differences were found amongst different cultural groups, for example, the expectations of students from the Middle East differed from those from East Asia. However, the greatest discrepancies of significance in this study appeared between students and teachers views on student roles. In comparison to their American teachers, students preferred more error correction, favoured acceptance of authority, and believed that they should agree with the teacher. In contrast, American teachers favoured encouraging students independence and responsibility for their own learning. Cultural differences in expectations between students and teachers in a heterogeneous class can cause misunderstandings and in some cases cause learners to feel inadequate. Asian international students studying English in New Zealand were interviewed by Li (2004) to assess their perception of their learning experiences. Li found that most of the students enjoyed their experience, however, significant problems were highlighted by those students who did not enjoy their experience. These students were disappointed with the gap they perceived between the New Zealand teaching styles and their own knowledge on teaching and learning. In particular, the students did not respond well to the interactive teaching approach, spontaneous classroom interaction, the textbooks and course content, as well as the teachers performance in terms of their knowledge and delivery of the lessons. These problem areas were identified based on the students comparison with their home education, what they expected to happen in classrooms, and how they expected the teacher to teach. Similar results regarding classroom interaction were found by Cronin (1995) in an action research study that focused on conceptions of learning and instruction in a university in Australia and one in Korea.

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACHES

As noted earlier, culturally different teachers and students have different expectations. With regard to the dialectic/dialogic teaching and learning approach, Western teachers tend to favour a very student-centred teaching approach where open discussion, independence, and students/teacher interaction are widely encouraged. On the other hand, CHC students and teachers are more likely to be accustomed to a teacher-centred learning environment, which is based on foundational knowledge or text, and where the teacher guides the students. Field-sensitive and field-independent are learning styles which categorise students based on learning preferences. Gollnick and Chin (cited in Samovar & Porter, 2004, pp. 242-243) state: field-sensitive individuals have a more global perspective of their surroundings; they are more sensitive to the social field. Field-independent individuals tend to be more analytical and more comfortably focused on impersonal, abstract aspects of stimuli in the environment. As a general overview field sensitive learners prefer working in groups, guidance from the teacher, co-operation, and incorporation of personal experiences in the curriculum. Fieldindependent learners prefer working independently, competitiveness, less input from the teacher, and trial and error learning (Scarcella, 1990). Collectivist cultures, such as China, Japan and Mexico are often quoted as producing field sensitive learners whereas individualist cultures, such as the United States, New Zealand and Australia are named as producing field independent learners. Students learning styles are also affected by whether they prefer to work cooperatively or competitively. Members of individualist cultures tend to socialise their children to work independently and compete with one another, whereas children from collectivist cultures tend towards working in groups. Similarly, trial and error learning is common in mainstream American and New Zealand learning processes and refers to how learners engage in a task as a part of the process of learning. Other cultural groups, such as Native American peoples, Hawaiians and other Pasifika peoples emphasise learning from watching (Samovar & Porter, 2004). In multicultural classrooms, there is a myriad of diversity in terms of ethnicity and learning styles, as well as other stratifications that come into play such as gender, disability and giftedness. However, although a dominant learning style is likely to be prominent in a particular culture, caution must be taken not to over-generalise because individuals differ within a culture. For example, just because a student likes to work independently does not mean that she may enjoy trial and error learning. Stereotyping and stigmatising are a consequence of labelling different ethnic groups with particular learning styles (Irvine & York, 1995). Stereotypes of Asian Learners The perceived differences in teaching and learning styles between international students and local students and staff have proliferated many misperceptions and misunderstandings about each other. Often overseas students from Asia are characterised as rote learners, unable to participate in classroom discussion, overly respectful of the teacher, and academically unprepared for studying in countries such as Australia, New Zealand and the United States where critical thinking and inquiry are a directive of education. Studies carried out in Australia by Samuelowicz 18

(1987), Ballard and Clanchy (1984, 1997) and Burns (1991) reiterate these misperceptions. Ballard and Clanchy (1984, 1997), who have written widely on the adjustment of Asian students, suggest these students need to discard or transform their approaches to study. These ideas reflect a deficit model of the Asian learner (Volet & Renshaw, 1996). Here it is assumed that the student who is new to the Australian study environment must change their approaches to learning as their previous learning experiences do not match, or are deficient, compared to the learning experience in the West. This view is echoed by Burns (1991), who states that overseas students, who have been accustomed to relying on memorisation and replication, struggle with critical thinking and independent study in Australia. The Deficit Model encourages ethnocentric and stereotypical ideas, especially when there is little understanding about the Asian students educational background and their abilities and capabilities. Challenging the Deficit Model Whereas some Western observers feel that the learning methods Asian students use in their home countries are unacceptable in Western educational institutions, a paradox occurs in that Asian students are academically successful when compared to Western students (Beaver & Tuck, 1998; Biggs, 1996; Salili, 1996; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). Educational researchers John Biggs and David Watkins have written extensively on the Chinese learner and their approaches to learning (Biggs 1998; Watkins & Biggs, 1996, 2001; Watkins & Ismail, 1994; Watkins & Reghi, 1991). Much of their work has been based on teaching experience and empirical studies of teaching and learning in Hong Kong, Nepal and Malaysia. Specifically, this body of literature aims to challenge stereotypes about East Asian learners as passive rote learners, and the teaching methods used as authoritarian and expository. Biggs (1996) applies systems theory in order to make clear the wider picture with regard to the Asian learner. He states that the cultural context is the key to understanding how the Asian learner adapts to learning outside of their own country, and for gaining insights into Western ideas about teaching and learning in a comparative context. While CHC systems have large classes, seem highly authoritarian, and are examination oriented, it may well be that the expectations and perceptions held by those students would create a different effect from that which those same characteristics would have on students in a Western system with different expectations. Indeed, the high performance of CHC students indicates precisely this (Biggs & Watkins, 2001, p. 278). Educational context was the topic in a study in the Netherlands where Lee and Lodewijks (1995) found that foreign students (predominantly from European Community (EC) countries) recognised the differing learning environments between home and host countries, however, there were only subtle effects on their learning strategies. The authors concluded that the duration of the students stay may not have been long enough for them to adopt different strategies, or they may have perceived adoption of new strategies as not worthwhile because they were there for only a short time. Any negative changes in study approaches were found to be not only associated with the new environment but were also influenced by the personal background of the student. Students who did not speak English as a first language, and first year students, did not change their learning styles as readily as did English speaking students or those at a higher academic level. The implications here for teaching and learning are the need to intervene both 19

with the learner and the context in order to make them [learners] more conscious of and flexible in their learning strategies (Lee & Lodewijks, 1995, p. 330). However, Chinese English language learners in Hong Kong who participated in Kennedys (2002) study of learning approaches exhibited very flexible approaches to learning and a willingness to learn new strategies in order to achieve. Similarly, Volet and Renshaw (1995) compared international students (mainly from Singapore) with local university students goals and perceptions of study settings for achieving their own goals. The researchers found that over the course of a semester the two groups of students perceptions of what were useful study practices converged, which showed the influence the educational setting has on students approaches to learning. Zhang, Sillitoe and Webb (2003) state that both students and teachers need to adjust their expectations, and teaching and learning styles, in order to adjust to the new circumstances of internationalised education. The qualitative study by Zhang et al. (2003) of CHC students studying Business at Victoria University (VU) in Australia found that international students experienced most difficulty at the beginning of their sojourn but they were able to adapt to the new academic environment, which was culturally different to their past academic experiences. The students felt they were ill-prepared for their educational experience at VU because it was not necessarily an extension of their previous educational experience. Therefore, the students experienced a stage of study shock (Burns, 1991), at the beginning stages of study. Similarly, the ethnic Chinese graduate students in Holmes (2000) ethnographic study, although suffering study shock initially, successfully reconstructed and renegotiated their learning and communication styles in order to become both proficient and successful students by the end of their degree programmes. However, the findings for undergraduate students showed that they struggled with the reconstruction process, often attributing weak language skills to the challenges they encountered. In order to explore the relationship between background factors and particular learning approaches a student uses, Gordon, Cantwell and Moore (1998) carried out a longitudinal study on international students own explanations of their attitudes towards learning. The students were from Hong Kong, Singapore, Pacific Islands, Taiwan, and Malaysia studying in Australian universities. The results showed that the international students could choose to adjust to the learning environment, and indeed were aware of the situational differences between secondary school and tertiary education. However, although the students were aware of situational differences they did not, or were not able to, respond to the changes. Some of the reasons they gave were: their language ability was insufficient; they perceived that they lacked intellectual capacity; they feared failure; or they felt there was not enough time to carry out the task to the best of their ability. The researchers, therefore, concluded that international students were well aware of the situational factors but whether they chose to respond to these depended on the students perceptions of the constraints they faced: [international] students will adjust their learning and their search for understanding within the parameters they see as constraints within which they must operate (Gordon et al., 1998, p. 10). The Chinese tertiary students in Zhaos (1995) masters thesis research had changed their study habits as a result of being immersed in the New Zealand educational environment. Over time they were comfortable with challenging and questioning, thus reducing the mismatch in expectations. However, they still remained concerned with saving face by not asking silly questions. Furthermore these students had a tendency to associate the difficulties they were experiencing mainly with their language ability, rather than teaching and learning differences 20

resulting from cultural differences. Laying most of the blame for study difficulties on the language ability of international students is a common occurrence, both amongst international students and their Western teachers (Holmes, 2000, 2003; Mills, 1997; Robertson, Line, Jones & Thomas, 2000; Ryan & Hellmundt, 2003; Volet & Tan-Quigley, 1999). While a lack of English language skills does impact on students adjustment, it is not the only, or even the most significant issue, that these students face. The findings from all of these studies suggest degrees of flexibility of CHC students in adopting strategies and approaches that lead to successful learning outcomes. Yet, mismatches in expectations of teaching and learning, as well as mismatches in teaching and learning styles, have to be taken into account when considering the problems international students experience in Western classrooms. In the next section some common misperceptions of Asian students are examined further. Surface and deep learning A common misperception of Asian international students is that they use a surface approach to learning (Biggs, 1987; Marton & Salijo, 1976; Table 4). Students who use a surface approach to learning are motivated extrinsically; their studies are a means to an end. Therefore, they seek to pass but limit their work to the essentials. Rote learning is the learning strategy often used, but this leads to memorising facts without making connections between concepts, or attempting to relate the work to the wider context. Asian students are commonly perceived by Western teachers as using a surface approach to learning because they are seen to take down overhead notes word for word, request model answers, and very rarely question or challenge the teacher. The preferred learning style by Western teachers is deep learning. Students who use a deep approach to learning take a personal interest in the material they are learning and make an effort to understand the underlying meanings and wider context. These students engage with their studies and further their understanding through additional reading and discussions (Table 4). Table 4 Salient features of surface and deep learning styles Deep learning 1. Intrinsic motivation 2. Additional reading and discussion 3. Effort to understand wider meaning/context

Surface learning 1. Extrinsic motivation 2. Limit work to essentials 3. Rote learning Adapted from Biggs (1987)

The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) for tertiary learners and the shorter Learning Process Questionnaire (LPQ) for secondary school students have been developed to test students learning styles, and have been used amongst students studying in Hong Kong (Kember & Gow, 1990, 1991), Malaysia (Watkins & Ismail, 1994), Nepal and the Philippines (Watkins, Biggs & Reghi, 1991), as well as amongst international students and local students studying in Australia (Gertsman & Rex, 2001; Gordon, Cantwell & Moore, 1998; Ramburuth, 2001; Volet, 1999). A common finding from these studies is that both the deep and surface approaches to learning are incorporated in the learning approaches of all students at reasonably consistent levels. Additionally, the researchers have found that among Asian students, memorisation is incorporated into their learning strategy to gain understanding (Biggs, 1994; Kember & Gow, 1990, 1991; Marton, DallAba & Kun, 1996; Pratt et al., 1999; Tan & Tan, 2004). A quotation from a Hong Kong tertiary student surveyed in Kember and Gows (1990) study characterises a common response: 21

I read in detail section by section. If I find any difficulties I try my best to solve the problem before I go on to the next section. If you dont memorize important ideas when you come across them, then you will be stuck when you go on. You must memorize and then go on understand, memorize, and then go on, understand, memorize and then go on. That is my way of studying (Kember & Gow, 1990, p.361). Kember and Gow argue that understanding and memorising cannot be equated with a surface approach to learning because the students do not merely memorise material, but use memorisation as a tool to increase understanding. Similar results were found in China, when Marton, DallAba and Kun (1996) interviewed teachers about learning, understanding and memorising. The researchers found that memorisation is perceived differently in China than it is in the West. In the West, educators view memorisation as rote learning in order to pass assessments; in China there is a distinction within memorisation, rather than between memorisation and understanding. Memorisation is used to rote learn but it also deepens and develops understanding. Chalmers and Volet (1997) use the term deep memorisation to refer to this learning approach. More recently, Pratt et al. (1999) studied Chinese students learning styles and concluded that the Chinese learning process is comprised of four stages: memorising; understanding; applying; and questioning or modifying. The memorisation strategy of CHC learners is a part of a development of understanding or a means toward understanding the content as it is authorized (1999, p. 253. emphasis in original). Thus, contrary to the common perception by Western educators that memorisation is congruent with rote learning or the surface approach to learning, recent research findings suggest that understanding is the goal of the Asian students and memorisation the strategy. Biggs (1994) further argues that Asian students do not engage in rote learning, but in repetitive learning, where repetition is used to assist accurate recall and as a tool for a deep approach to learning. However, Gow, Balla, Kember and Hau (1996) are unclear whether this approach develops critical thinking, novel problem solving and independent learning as does a deep approach to learning where the student engages with the material and extends on it. They suggest that part of the reasons students in Hong Kong use this approach is because of a lack of English ability, or cultural traditions such as a high regard for authority and structured learning (Kember & Gow, 1991). Notwithstanding, if the Chinese learning styles do in fact promote deep learning approaches, a consistent argument shown in the research on the student approaches to learning is that students are versatile in the learning strategies they employ, react to, and engage with in the educational context in which they are immersed (Gordon et al., 1998; Kennedy, 2002; Ramburuth, 2001; Volet, 1999). Both the student and the educational contexts are dynamic and changing in their interactions. Transferability of study approaches across cultures In a theoretical study, Volet (1999) addresses the issue of the transferability of study approaches from one learning context to another, taking into consideration the adaptability and continuity in student learning. The study involved a review of literature on learning approaches used by CHC students and the classification of these approaches depending on how these learning approaches were congruent with host culture learning styles. The study concluded that some aspects of 22

student learning transfer well across cultures, while others reflect ambivalent, difficult or inappropriate transfer. Table 5 give examples of each of these four different types of transfer. Table 5 Examples of perceived appropriate, ambivalent, difficult and inappropriate transfer of learning across cultures High achievement motivation Attribution of failure to lack of effort Deep approach to learning Informal peer support groups Diligence at cue seeking Conformity to task requirements Memorising study materials Expectations regarding learning and instruction Seeking help from teachers Low participation in tutorial discussions

Appropriate transfer

Ambivalent transfer

Difficult transfer

Inappropriate transfer

Reporting verbatim Copying down relevant extracts without proper referencing Source: Volet (1999, p. 630) Appropriate transfer refers to situations where it is generally agreed that the aspects of learning transferred travel well and are congruent with the characteristics of learning valued in the host cultural-educational context. The high achievement motivation of CHC students is an example of an appropriate transfer (see p. 12 above). Another aspect of learning that travels well is the importance given by CHC students to social aspects of learning, which are reflected in the widespread development of informal peer support groups. According to Volets (1999) research review, because informal study groups have worked well for CHC students in their home context, similar types of informal study groups are developed by CHC students studying abroad. Other examples of appropriate transfer are deep approach to learning and attribution of failure to lack of effort (Table 5). It is important to note that all these particular aspects of learning that transfer well across cultures reflect aspects of the Confucian Heritage Cultures. Ambivalent transfer refers to situations where there may not be a general consensus as to whether transfer of learning is appropriate or not. A good example of ambivalent transfer is CHC students propensity to cue-seek in order to conform to task requirements (Table 5). These students find out the requirements of assessments and tailor their study towards the assessment, a very useful strategy to transfer when studying in a different cultural context. However, this strategy is not favoured by all Western teachers, because while some teachers value the educability and diligence of their CHC students, others view this strategy as dependency in learning. This case of ambivalent transfer highlights the degree of subjectivity involved in determining what are acceptable cognitions and behaviours in a particular environment (Volet, 1999, p. 637). Difficult transfer refers to aspects of learning that all interested parties would agree is difficult. A good example of difficult transfer is the mismatches in expectations between CHC students and their Western teachers (see pp. 15-17 above). Other examples include seeking help from teachers during class, and low participation in tutorial discussions (Table 5). Finally, inappropriate transfer refers to aspects of learning which may have been acceptable in students 23

home culture and which are considered as unacceptable in the host educational context. Examples of such strategies are reporting verbatim, and copying relevant extracts in an assignment without acknowledging the source (Table 5). According to Volet (1999), learning strategies categorised as involving difficult or inappropriate transfer, such as memorising verbatim, copying extracts without proper referencing, and low participation in tutorial discussions, tend to reflect students strategic responses to their perceived requirements of the instructional context. They do not reflect students fundamental beliefs about learning and are not part of their fundamental dispositions. As such, they are more amenable to change. In the next chapter, some of these learning strategies will be examined in greater detail. Implications for assessment The discussions in this chapter have established that most students are strategic in their uses of study approaches and techniques to their work in a new educational context. However, assessment in Western educational institutions is an area where international students, especially those from CHC educational backgrounds, can experience difficulties because of a mismatch in expectations due to culturally different ideas about what assessment is and how it functions. These students are accustomed to a teacher-centred (dialectic) approach rather than the studentcentred (dialogic) approach which is valued in New Zealand (Chapter 3, pp. 6-7 above). As Li (2004) points out (this Chapter, p. 17), students unfamiliar with the New Zealand teaching style felt it to be incompatible with their own learning style and they therefore felt the teachers did not have the students interests at heart. For instance, the interactive, game-loving teaching style prevalent in the institution in Lis study was not appreciated by many of the Asian students and the pedagogical value was not recognised. Therefore, the input of the students into the activities and assessments was minimal. This contrast in dialogic and dialectic models of teaching and learning has implications for assessment because teacher/student expectations are different. Furthermore, the cultural values underpinning how we communicate impinges on assessments, as students from CHC backgrounds may be more inclined to write assignments in a more contextual and historical style than Western students who are more likely to write in a lineal and direct style. The implications of cultural differences on assessment have been introduced here. The following chapter on communication styles will elaborate on the impacts of cultural diversity on communication and interaction within the multicultural classroom, including classroom activities such as lectures, group work, class discussion, plagiarism and assessment, and interaction outside of the classroom.

SUMMARY
This chapter addressed issues of teaching and learning in the multicultural classroom. The section on cultural influences on classroom expectations included a discussion of mismatches between Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC) students and Western teachers. The section on cultural influences on teaching and learning expectations included discussions of the stereotypes of Asian learners and challenging the deficit model. It also provided discussions of deep and surface learning and the transferability of study approaches across cultures. The chapter concluded with a discussion of implications for assessment.

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Cultural influences on classroom expectations o Socialisation shapes students understandings of the world, in particular their values and attitudes towards education. CHC cultures place a high value on education, whereas American and other Western cultures place a lower level of value on institutional education, especially in the early years of life. Mismatches between CHC students and Western teachers o The experiences of Western teachers in CHC countries show that culturally defined roles and responsibilities of teachers and students are different. o CHC students expected teacher guidance and authority a more teacher-centred, knowledge transmission style (dialectic). o Western teachers expected questioning, and independent work. o CHC students in Western countries experience a gap between their expectations of teaching styles when they encounter a more student-centred, independent, critical style (dialogic) in Western education. Stereotypes of the Asian learners o As a result of misunderstandings regarding culturally different teaching and learning styles there has been a deficit model applied to CHC students. In other words, they have been unfairly stereotyped as rote learners, overly respectful of the teacher, and academically unprepared to study in Western countries. Challenging the Deficit Model o This model is challenged by researchers who have explored deep and surface learning approaches. Research shows that all students, whether from Eastern or Western educational backgrounds, use both deep and surface learning approaches and are strategic in their uses of these approaches. o Memorisation is used by CHC learners to gain a deeper understanding. This is a different conceptualisation to the Western idea of memorisation as a surface learning approach. Transferability of study approaches across cultures o CHC students transfer learning approaches from their home educational background. However, some techniques and approaches transfer better than others. o Aspects of learning that transfer well across cultures (appropriate transfer) include: high achievement motivation; attribution of failure to lack of effort; deep approach to learning; and informal peer support groups. o Examples of ambivalent transfer include: diligence at cue seeking; conformity to task requirements; and memorising study materials. o Examples of difficult transfer include: expectations regarding learning and instruction; seeking help from teachers; and low participation in tutorial discussions. o Examples of inappropriate transfer include: reporting verbatim; and copying down relevant extracts without proper referencing.

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Implications for assessment o Different ideas and values about teaching and learning produce different expectations of assessment. CHC students may not perceive pedagogical value, thus input for assessment may be minimal.

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CHAPTER 5

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION STYLES AND INTERACTION

I will say, excuse me, excuse me, and repeat it for several times. And in a group we will discuss something, and my opinion and another girl also from China, our opinion always not accepted by them. They wont listen to anything. Just say what they thought and didnt listen to you5. They [New Zealand teachers] are business-like. In class, I teach and you learn. After class, it is my own time. No one can deprive me of my private time. If you want to see them, you have to make appointment. It is awkward to us. Sometimes our questions are not many and it may take them a few minutes. But they want us to make an appointment. It is not like in China, we can ask our teachers anytime anywhere. Therefore, we do not or cannot ask them question6. The preceding chapters emphasised that culture underlies values, attitudes and practices in the educational setting. In this chapter we add communication, or more precisely, intercultural communication, into the mix. The chapter outlines the multidimensional components of communication, such as verbal and non-verbal communication, and shows how culture impacts the intercultural communication process. Following that, mismatches in communication styles in the multicultural classroom are discussed. As a result of these mismatches there are particular challenges in classroom interaction for cultural outsiders, especially in relation to lectures, class discussions, group work and the issue of plagiarism. Issues also arise with regard to crosscultural interaction outside of classrooms, particularly in halls of residence, and other areas of a students social life. In order to overcome these mismatches among classroom participants, awareness needs to be created of the links between culture and communication. Moreover, similarities between people in intercultural contexts need to be emphasised as building upon these similarities enhances communication.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM

The communication styles that exist in a multicultural classroom can be widely varied because communication styles are derived from cultural patterns of behaviour. Both education and communication are inseparable from culture, as culture underlies all human endeavours. Geneva Gay (2000, p. 81), an American multicultural educationalist, states that communication is much more than a linguistic system, rather language and communication styles are:
This quotation came from Ho, Holmes & Coopers (2004) study of intercultural communication experiences of both international and domestic students during their first year of study in a New Zealand University. 6 This quotation came from Li, Baker and Marshalls (2002) study of Asian students in New Zealand tertiary institutions.
5

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 systems of cultural notations and the means through which thoughts and ideas are expressively embodied. Embedded within them are cultural values and ways of knowing that strongly influence how students engage with learning tasks and demonstrate mastery of them. This definition of communication styles emphasises the direct link between culture, education and communication. In order for teaching and learning to be effective in the multicultural classroom, teachers must be aware of this relationship between the three spheres in order to fully appreciate a students capabilities: The absence of shared communication frames of reference, procedural protocols, rules of etiquette, and discourse systems makes it difficult for culturally diverse students and teachers to genuinely understand each other and for students to fully convey their intellectual abilities. Teachers who do not know or value these realities will not be able to fully access, facilitate, and assess most of what these students know and can do. Communication must be understood to be more than a linguistic system (Gay, 2000, p. 81). According to multiculturalists, gaining an understanding of culture and its impact on education and communication is a necessity in the multicultural classroom. Before we examine some of the cultural and individual variations in communication, we need to reiterate an important point we made earlier. The examples we give in this chapter of how different cultures use communication differently are not intended to stereotype cultural behaviour but rather to help create awareness of similarities and differences among people and cultures. Some methods for improving communication and interaction in the multicultural classroom that are built on this awareness are reviewed in the next chapter. Multidimensional components of communication Communication is multidimensional in that it is both verbal and non-verbal and there are many rules that guide how we use these modes of communication (Samovar & Porter, 2004). Most often verbal and non-verbal communications are used together and enhance the communication process. Both modes are inter-related with cultural behavioural patterns, and these patterns define how communication is presented. Therefore, understanding the multidimensional components of communication is the first step toward meeting the challenge of successful intercultural communication. Verbal communication is connected with language and is both spoken and written. This varies between individuals and cultures, for instance: 1. 2. Direct/Indirect communication: Some individuals and cultures use language that is direct and straight to the point whereas others tend to employ much less direct communication in order to preserve the feelings, or dignity of others. Formal/Informal: Language maintains social status and relationships/gender roles through the use of formal or informal speech in particular situations. For instance, Asian students tend to speak very formally to teachers as opposed to Western teacher/student communications, which tend to be much less formal. 28

3. 4.

Expressiveness: How people express emotions depends on cultural values and this can be indicated by language. For instance, some individuals and cultures do not express emotion publicly while others are more open. Value of talk: Some cultures place a high value on the oral skill of their members and derive a great deal of pleasure from the art of conversation and public speaking (Samovar and Porter, 2004, p. 150), while others may view too much talk as showing off.

Non-verbal modes of communication are used to emphasise or stand-in for verbal communication and can be used for several different functions, including: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. To repeat the meaning of verbal communication by, for instance, holding up your hand while you say stop. To complement by adding more meaning to the message. An example is telling someone what a good job they have done and giving them a pat on the back. Non-verbal communication can substitute for words such as rolling your eyes back to show disapproval. To regulate situations, as when parents give a stern look to naughty children, or using silence to indicate you have finished speaking. To contradict verbal communication by, for example, winking to indicate you are lying, or if you tell someone you are relaxed but at the same time your hands are shaking and voice quavering.

Non-verbal communication varies between individuals and cultures. It involves paralinguistics, or how we use the tone of our voice, pronunciation, accent, rate of speech, and silence. It also includes physical behaviours such as how we use eye contact, hand gestures, and proxemics, or our concepts of space and the distances that are acceptable between communicators and their relative positioning. Samovar and Porter (2004, p. 172) explain: from your use of eye contact to the amount of volume you employ during an interaction, your culture influences the manner in which you send and receive nonverbal symbols. The subtle nature of this form of communication can at times hinder cross-cultural understanding. Samovar and Porter explain that non-verbal communication uncovers much of a cultures underlying beliefs and values, such as: smiling and shaking hands tells us that a culture values amiability. Bowing tells you that another values formality, and rank and status. It is not by chance that Hindus greet each other by placing their palms together in front of them while slightly tilting their heads down; this salutation reflects the belief that the deity exists in everyone, not in a single form (2004, pp. 172-173). Mismatches in communication styles Cultural and individual differences in communication styles can have significant impacts on interactions within the classroom. The differences in directness, formality and non-verbal communication are commonly discussed in the literature in regard to multicultural classrooms. 29

A more direct style of communication is common in the United States and other Western countries, and is in contrast to the indirect communication style of many Asian students who are more aware of the need to save face, and often see directness as a lack of intelligence (Samovar & Porter, 2004, p. 244). Differentiation is made between high and low context cultures. Gao and Ting-Toomey (1998) assert Chinese communicators tend to place much more emphasis on contextual factors than Americans [and other Western communicators]. For instance, a Chinese saying states yi zai buy an zhong or meaning lies in the unspoken (1998, p. 71). The Asian emphasis on contextual elements during communication is contrasted with Western modes of communication, where the meaning is gained from the words used much more than the context or situation. A Western communicator may perceive the Chinese communication system to be elusive and cagey, or that Chinese speakers beat around the bush and do not outrightly say what they are thinking. From an American teachers perspective, a student who prefers indirect communication may seem unmotivated or unintelligent (Samovar & Porter, 2004). Similarly, the ways that different students approach class topics can also be very different due to direct and indirect styles of communicating a discussion. For instance, in an essay writing task Western styles of answering an essay question tend to be topic-centred, lineal, and a definitive position should be taken by the student. On the other hand, other cultural orientations, such as CHCs, may use a more circular style of prose, contextualise, and use a lot of background historical information (Biggs & Watkins, 1996; Gay, 2000; McLoughlin, 1995; Samovar & Porter, 2004). Formal and informal styles of communication show relationships between people. Many students from Asia are used to a very formal classroom situation where the utmost respect is shown to the teachers authority. In Western countries the relationship between the teacher and student is more informal, and a university student will often use their teachers first name. CHC international students in Western educational institutions are comfortable with speaking to their teachers in very formal speech patterns but feel uncomfortable when their teachers mimic these formal speech patterns in return (Choi, 1997). Therefore, culturally different teachers and students may experience difficulties forming relationships due to the mismatches in speech forms. In CHCs the proper respect of the teachers authority and knowledge must be shown. Therefore, CHC students are often concerned with asking the right questions and not asking silly questions, that they have put little thought into, in front of their peers and teachers. Through the misinterpretation of communication behaviours, Western teachers view their Asian students as very passive, non-critical students in comparison with local students. Asian students often find the local students to be very brash, perhaps even rude, whereas the local students perceive Asian students to be very reserved and unfriendly (Beaver & Tuck, 1998; Nesdale & Todd, 1993). Non-verbal communication is also often misinterpreted in classrooms. An example used by Samovar and Porter (2004) shows that direct eye contact is viewed as rude in many Asian cultures, but in the United States lack of eye contact signals a students disinterest and disrespect. Similarly, silence is another non-verbal indicator which can be misread or misinterpreted between culturally different classroom participants. To a Japanese person silence is a sign of credibility compared to someone who talks too much (Samovar & Porter, 2004). Literature in this area frequently mentions that CHC students who are asked a question in class need time to reflect to produce a thoughtful answer. However, Western teachers are often uncomfortable with the silence and try to fill the gap. Proxemics, or the use of space or distance, is a common cause of miscommunication in intercultural interactions. Proxemics is often discussed in terms of high and low contact cultures. For instance, Japanese are a low contact culture, as opposed to North Americans who are medium 30

contact and Venezuelans who are high contact (Sussman and Rosenfeld cited in Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988). The perceptions of appropriate and inappropriate contact between people from high, medium and low contact cultures differs and impacts on intercultural interactions. In fact, research on non-verbal communication shows that people prefer to communicate with others who use the same communication style and nonverbal clues (Dew & Ward, 1993; Holtgraves, 1997).

THE CHALLENGE OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES FOR CULTURAL OUTSIDERS

Some classroom activities require communication and interaction which may not be familiar to all learners. The challenge of classroom activities for cultural outsiders is discussed below. Both teachers and students need to learn from one another to improve communication and interaction in the classroom. Lectures Lecturing is the common style of teaching in most universities, and like other forms of teaching techniques, is embedded in the underlying cultural context. Increasing numbers of multicultural classrooms mean that educational institutions, teachers and students must implement strategies that make this style of teaching a valuable learning experience for all students. Mulligan and Kirkpatrick (2000) used observation, surveys and interviews in order to explore the learning experiences of English speaking background (ESB) and non-English speaking background (NESB)7 students in lectures at the Curtin University of Technology. They found that less than one out of ten NESB students felt they understood the content and intent of their lectures very well and almost one quarter of the NESB students did not understand much of the lecture at all. Particular problems the students face are the speed of speech and the use of culturally specific idioms, which impede their understanding and ability to take notes (Choi, 1997; Mills, 1997). Listening and trying to take notes at the same time proves particularly difficult for English as an Additional Language (EAL) students. Students in Mills study said: They tend to use slang. I mean its OK for you to speak your slang. For the first half of the year I just couldnt understand. Lecturer just keep talking and so I just write without understanding. He talk so fast I skip lines and have bits missing so I stay away and copy from my friend. A student in Holmes (2004) study captured the feeling that comes with this dislocation: Worried! Every day confusing! Every day! I dont know why [what] I will do here (p.299). Thus, due to problems in listening and understanding, EAL (English as Additional Language) students tend to depend on same-culture classmates, are reluctant to ask for clarification or elaboration during a lecture, pre-read, and use highlighting and marking rather than note taking (Flowerdew & Miller, 1992; Holmes, 2004).

This term has deficit connotations. EAL (English as an Additional Language) and ELL (English Language Learner) are alternative terms used in the literature.

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However, Ward and Masgoret (2004) found that the international students in their national survey did not experience significant difficulties with their academic studies. The survey responses were self-reported with secondary school students showing more difficulties than either tertiary or private language school students. The tasks reported as the most difficult were oral presentations and taking tests or exams. Note-taking during class was rated the least difficult activity. Another aspect of lectures which is difficult for international students to grasp is the use of materials that require background knowledge. A student in Li, Baker and Marshalls (2002, p.11) qualitative study of international student expectations in a New Zealand tertiary institution said: We do not have any work experience and cultural knowledge in New Zealand. Teachers often talk about New Zealand markets and business. We have difficulty understanding the courses because they all involve New Zealand cultural background, history, the legal system, and etc. We have lots of difficulties doing assignments and examinations. When we are asked to discuss some topics with the Kiwi students, we simply do not know what they are talking about. Assessment As a result of their previous dialectic educational experience, CHC students are accustomed to substantial teacher guidance, especially in the early stages of their learning, in order to acquire a solid foundation of knowledge (Pratt et al. 1999). In a Western educational institute, Pratt et al. explained that these students are inserted into a learning environment at a stage which is beyond their experience because the teacher guidance they previously experienced is not emphasised. Rather, there is an emphasis on independent, self-directed and critical learning. For instance, Li et al. (2002) states that the action words used in New Zealand institutions for assignments, examinations and other assessments such as explain, justify, compare, discuss, contrast, describe, analyse, outline, evaluate, and review are used in an environment which is focused on students acquisition of independent thinking and problem solving skills. These types of assessment frameworks are new to students from CHC countries who are used to a very structured, teacher-centred learning environment: [The Asian students] are used to being assessed by tests and examinations that are based on the lessons or texts covered in class, rather than from a variety of sources. The teacher and textbook are seen as the prime authorities and therefore New Zealand teaching modes violate Asian students expectations (2002, p. 10). In particular, the difficulty that Li found the students experienced was with their inability to find the correct answer in the text. They had not yet come to understand that in New Zealand they were expected to consolidate their knowledge and respond to different assessment questions in one of many possible ways. One student stated: I cannot find answers anywhere in the course book or anywhere else. I do not know if there are any answers to these problems. My understanding does not seem to meet the requirements (Li et al., 2002, p. 10). Another student outlined the difficulties faced when expectations are not clear: 32

We do not know our teachers expectations. Their assessment criteria are generally not clear. We do not know how many points are required to answer certain questions In providing answers, we feel uncertain because what we think is appropriate, but teachers may think otherwise. There are no standards to measure our progress (Li et al., p. 10). Class Discussion CHC students have often reported difficulties in group work and tutorial discussions, particularly as these are not a part of classroom interaction in their own countries (Barker, Child, Gallois, Jones & Callan, 1991; Biggs & Watkins, 1996; Chapple, 1998; Choi, 1997; Liu & Littlewood, 1997; Tan & Goh, 1999; Volet & Renshaw, 1995). The change from a teacher-centred approach common in Asia to the student-centred approach favoured in Western education systems is a substantial adjustment that Asian students must make. Asian students tend to be less interactive in tutorials than local students. Chang and Chin (1999) observe that an Asian student would usually be reluctant to challenge the tutor and would prefer to approach the tutor after class for correct answers because they have not been taught to outwardly question a teachers authority (Chapter 3, p. 11). Local students are used to questioning teachers and this can be intimidating for international students because local students appear more confident and outspoken. Thus, in a student-centred educational environment, CHC students can lack in confidence in class discussions. In Chois (1997) study of Korean students studying in Australia, discussions with participants showed the students preferred a very structured learning environment with the teacher in control in order to maintain harmony within the classroom. The students wished to participate in class discussion, but thought that it was up to the teacher to make sure that students had equal participation opportunities. Asian students are often unfamiliar with spontaneous classroom interaction, such as group discussion, and view the lessons as very unorganised, unplanned and unstructured in comparison to their past learning environments (Li, 2004). This can lead to problems with communication breakdown between teachers and students. This was particularly evident in Lis (2004) study as the students felt their needs were not taken into consideration by the teachers. Liu and Littlewood (1997) conducted two large-scale surveys at the University of Hong Kong in order to evaluate the perception that East Asian students are reluctant to speak up in tertiary classrooms. One of the possible reasons for their lack of participation was the gulf between teacher and student expectations and perceptions of the student role (Chapter 4, pp. 1517). Teachers participating in the study indicated that to communicate successfully without planning and to raise appropriate questions or comments in class were the most important factors for successful academic communication. Whereas students agreed with the first most important, communicating successfully without planning, they ranked raising appropriate questions or comments as 8th on the list. This, Liu and Littlewood state, is a mismatch between the students and teachers perceptions of learning at the tertiary level, and the teachers see the effects of an educational background which has socialised students into accepting a passive learning role which is not appropriate to the tertiary context (1997, p. 377). A significant problem outlined by Mills (1997) was the international students need to learn the rules regarding turn-taking and interrupting during discussion. The cultural rules surrounding discussions are new to them and take time to learn. Furthermore, the students often blamed their academic problems on lack of English proficiency (Barker, et al., 1991; Beaver & 33

Tuck, 1998; Mills, 1997) as was apparent in the comment of a student in Li, Baker and Marshalls study: Because of our language problem, it is difficult for us to communicate with the Kiwi students. They have very strong accents that make it more difficult for us to understand. They become impatient because when we talk, we go through the process of translation. Group discussions become quite a pain in this way (2002, p.5). On the other hand, class discussion was also viewed as a time to learn about the host culture through listening rather than participating: In the group discussion, I prefer being quiet. I cannot contribute much to the discussion I listen and think. I do not talk. The Kiwis talk very fast, and I cannot follow them. Their English is more difficult to understand. But in the group discussion, I get to know their ideas and culture (Li et al., 2002, p. 8). Group Work Group work is a common feature of interaction in New Zealand classrooms. CHC students are accustomed to working collectively in groups and often spontaneously collaborate outside of class time in their own countries (Biggs, 1996; also Chapter 4, p. 23). Intercultural issues affect student interactions in group work projects, as Wright and Lander (2003) found in their quantitative study of the verbal interactions of South East Asian students and Australian students in both mono-ethnic and bi-ethnic groups in an undergraduate engineering degree. The main results suggested that the South East Asian students were more confident in speaking English in the mono-ethnic groups than in the presence of Australian students in the bi-ethnic groups. The same was so for Australian students but to a significantly lower extent. Therefore, the findings suggest that English language proficiency is not a significant indicator of international student interaction in group work. Similarly, the students in Tan and Gohs (1999) ethnographic study of the study approaches of Singaporean Chinese, Malaysian Chinese and Anglo-Saxon Australian university students found that the Chinese students preferred in-group study practices. They felt more comfortable speaking within a group of other Chinese students, as they perceived Australian students to be aggressive and intimidating. They also preferred maintaining harmony within the group by basing discussions and decisions on consensus rather than through debate. The Chinese students saw their tutors as the bearers of knowledge, who would direct the students, whereas the Australian students were happy to question information given in class. In contrast, the Australian students found it more important to group with people who were skilled and knowledgeable in order to complete the group work project successfully. A similar host student attitude was found in Beaver and Tucks (1998) study in New Zealand. Asian and Pasifika students were interested in intercultural mixing in their classrooms and both of these groups rated mixed classes higher than did Pakeha (New Zealand-born European) students. Pakeha students were more interested in their individual learning and working with people who were perceived to be at the same academic level and English ability in order to achieve their academic goals. Asian students rated themselves much lower than Pakeha on study skills, partly due to variations in language ability. However, their own perceptions of communication difficulties and class participation did not necessarily correlate to lower levels of 34

achievement for Asian students. Beaver and Tuck suggest this is not necessarily an issue of language proficiency but more likely a culture of learning. A more recent qualitative study of New Zealand and international students interactions in a university classroom (Holmes, 2003) showed the emergence of differing perceptions and experiences between the two groups. The international students, many of whom were CHC students, spoke of the positive experiences they encountered in group work: improving understanding on a topic; discovering connections with cultural others; and enjoying the creativity and courage of their New Zealand counterparts. However, the disadvantages they encountered demonstrated the potential for dysfunctionality of group work: the CHC students spoke of the New Zealand students lack of interest in them as people and in their ideas, and as a result, their ideas were often marginalised; New Zealand students controlled group work processes; and differences in worldviews and language disrupted communication. The New Zealand students raised several advantages in their group work experiences with international students: they were focused in achieving their tasks; there were benefits to be gained from retaining the same group throughout a paper; they create a more competitive learning environment; and working with international students was seen as an excellent preparation for the work force and an opportunity to develop networks for the future. New Zealand students, however, also showed strong concerns about the challenges brought by a large international student presence, particularly when many are from CHC cultures: Asian students were difficult to communicate with; language hindered group progress; and international students did not understand the task. One New Zealand student commented: It [language] causes a lot of frustration and racism among people. I mean if they [NZ students] cant understand where a person is coming from, it just aggravates the situation. The study indicated that both groups perceived language as contributing to communication breakdowns. Yet, the findings also indicated a lack of intercultural understanding. Thus, aside from a careful approach to monitoring and building language capabilities, there is a need for interventions that foster intercultural communication, for example, strategies that promote intercultural sharing within the classroom and guidance for all students in group work processes. As a Russian student commented: I feel comfortable now to talkYou gotta get to know each other in your class. Cultural Inclusiveness Findings from studies on intercultural communication in the multicultural classroom give rise to an important issue that has arisen throughout this literature review. Often host teachers and overseas students themselves blame language proficiency for student difficulties without taking into account the effects of cultural values and attitudes on teaching and learning styles. The need for developing socialisation in the classroom in an effort to bridge cultural differences among all students is vital. These studies show that students are very aware of the differences in behaviour patterns in classrooms, and how it can impact on the success of mixed group work. Volet and Ang (1998) carried out a study of the perceptions of Australian students and Asian students both before and after experiencing a mixed group project in class. The participants reported positive outcomes in terms of cultural learning from one another, which aided in dispelling previously held ethnocentric and stereotypical views for both groups. Interestingly, however, both groups of students attitudes did not change towards seeking out opportunities to work with one another again. Volet and Ang suggest that teachers need to implement carefully planned projects and techniques to encourage intercultural mixing within the classroom. It is also pertinent to point out 35

that such projects should recur throughout the students academic career in order to encourage students to actually seek out intercultural interaction. Cultural inclusiveness in the classroom is an important issue that was raised in Ward and Masgorets (2004) national survey of international students in secondary, tertiary and private language schools. Ward and Masgoret state that New Zealand educators may be missing an opportunity to internationalise curriculum, because although 59% of students reported they felt included in their classroom, less than 42% believed there was an opportunity for other students to learn about their culture. This was also a significant point raised by the Malaysian students in Keens (2000) study. Inclusion and curricular change are further discussed as a part of culturally responsive teaching in Chapter 6. The issue of plagiarism Holmes (2004) identifies three key reasons why students might plagiarise: cultural differences in the attitude to knowledge; a mismatch between the educational experiences of students who are new to the learning environment and teachers who may not be making explicit the expectations of learning tasks and the academic rules that accompany them; and the unfamiliarity associated with working in the discourse of a specialised language or in another language. In this context, students may favour a strategy that closely approximates the words and ideas of the source, a strategy that risks unintentional plagiarism. For example, a Malaysian student, who had to face a plagiarism board, described her approach: I always do my assignments not in my own words to tell you the truth. I just borrow as many reference books as I can, and I look through it and then I copy some from there and some from there [and] made an assignment. But sure, I learn something from that (Holmes, 2004, p.302). From this patchwork approach of piecing together the ideas of others, it is not difficult to see how the accusation of plagiarism may have arisen. Biggs and Watkins (1996) point out that in some countries, such as China, international copyright conventions are only beginning to be recognised. Likewise, John Pickering, in his work Plugging the Plagiarism Plague (2004) explains that plagiarism and intellectual property-rights have been of only low priority in Chinese universities until recently. On the other hand, Western universities make certain assumptions about academic work based on the foundation of individuality and ownershipan author owns his or her work and thus must be duly acknowledged as the owner of his or her ideas. Pickering (2004) points out that there is very little empirical work on the rates of plagiarism of international students in comparison to local students, thus we do not actually know the degree to which international students really live up to the common stereotype of the plagiarising international student. Furthermore, learning how not to plagiarise is in itself very difficult due to issues regarding common knowledge, and who shares in the knowledge of what is common. It is easy to see the problems that international students could encounter when assumptions are made by teachers and institutions about what they should know. Furthermore, Biggs and Watkins (1996) point out that CHC students may often feel their own paraphrasing to be quite inadequate in English, especially when they have not mastered the language, and they do not wish to inadvertently disrespect the author. Pickering (2004) views cultural differences as a part of the plagiarism issue (also see chapter 4, p. 23-24), and as a part of the solution. He suggests a cultural approach should guide 36

educators in dealing with plagiarism issues. The views of students should be explored in order to use their values and beliefs to counter plagiarism. For instance, Chinese students who value honour and respect of teachers and authority could be shown how disrespectful plagiarism is to authors and teachers. Strategies to counter plagiarism are further discussed in Chapter 9.

CROSS-CULTURAL INTERACTION OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM

The lack of interaction between international students and host students is widely reported in both the Australian and New Zealand literature. However, a recurring point made throughout much of the literature on international students studying in Australia or New Zealand, and other Western countries, is that these students look forward to and expect intercultural interaction as a part of their educational sojourn (Beaver & Tuck, 1998; Berno & Ward, 2003; McGrath & Butcher, 2004; Holmes, 2000; Volet & Ang, 1998). Often they anticipate that they will make friends, learn about the host culture, and be able to practise their English with host nationals. However, perceptions of friendliness and verbal and non-verbal communication are culturally bound, thus international students often find that their expectations are not so easily met. Berno and Wards (2003) study found that Asian students pre-arrival expectations were more positive than their experiences once they were in New Zealand, and the authors suggest that students whose expectations are under-met experience more depression, have more academic difficulties and have more difficulties with social adjustment during their first three months of study in New Zealand (2003, p. 5). Overall the Asian students in this study showed they adapted well to being in New Zealand, but they wanted more contact with New Zealanders. The national survey of international students in New Zealand (Ward & Masgoret, 2004) reports that 40% of international students thought that making New Zealand friends was difficult and 70% would like to have more New Zealand friends. Language ability was a perceived barrier to making New Zealand friends. Chinese students were less likely to see making New Zealand friends as difficult compared to other international student groups, and they felt less impeded by their English ability. However, Chinese students thought that New Zealanders were uninterested in making international friends. Chinese students were also less likely to want more New Zealand friends, or to try and make New Zealand friends more than other international students. International and host student perceptions of friendliness of each other are linked to stereotypical and ethnocentric attitudes to some extent. For instance, Nesdale and Todd (1993) conducted a study on cultural contact at an Australian University, including both local and international students perceptions of friendliness and preferred levels of mixing with the other group. The Australian students preference for a low level of mixing was related to their perception of a low level of friendliness of international students. On the other hand, the international students preferred more intercultural interaction, and were not satisfied with the current level of intercultural contact they were experiencing. The international students perceived the Australian students to be very unfriendly. The authors point out that student perception could differ according to the degree programmes they were enrolled in. For instance, as there were many international students in engineering and commerce programmes, domestic student perceptions were different to those of the domestic students who were studying the arts, where there were fewer international students enrolled. Gezentsvey (2003), in a study of a New Zealand tertiary institution, reported negative student attitudes towards international students where there were higher concentrations of international students. The Korean students in Chois (1997) study in Australian universities found it difficult to make friends with the host students. The main reasons they gave for this problem were their 37

difficulties with English and different communication forms for politeness. Choi states that some respondents were shocked when they found that Australian peers, considered to be friends, withdrew when requests for help with work or information were made. They also found that Australians friendliness ended when the course of study ended (p. 273). One participant said: I think most Australians are friendly, rather diplomatic. In the initial stages, I misunderstood their kindness and expected too much from my fellow students, for example, looking at their notebook or homework and so on. All of them excluded me successfully with diplomatic explanations. I think Australian students are too selfish and competitive to help me their relationships are instant, temporary and superficial, and finish when the course ends (Choi, 1997, p. 273). This demonstrates a mismatch in expectations about what friendships are and what can be asked of a friend. Similarly, the Korean students relationships with teachers in Australia were also clothed in cultural misunderstandings because of Korean students expectations of a teachers role as a teacher/advisor/parent (see Chapter 4, pp. 15-16), whereas Australian teachers often felt that the Korean students made excessive demands on them. These mismatches in expectations lead to a lack of understanding, and therefore, difficulties with communication. Intercultural contact rated highly for the participants in a study carried out at Dunedin College of Education. Keen (2003) surveyed and interviewed Malaysian students regarding their personal study goals, appraisal of the study programme, and cross-cultural contact. He found that cross-cultural contact in Dunedin attracted the least favourable replies from the participants. In particular, they found it difficult to move beyond superficial interactions with New Zealanders. At the same time, the Malaysian students were surprised at the New Zealand students lack of knowledge about Malaysia. The Malaysian students suggested that information should be made available to the local students in order for them to gain an understanding of others. Cultural differences in communication techniques and discourse patterns effect how students communicate with each other. The international students who participated in Holmess (2000) qualitative research wanted to communicate and interact with New Zealanders, however, they found getting past the initial obligatory greetings and politeness very difficult. The reservations these students felt were due to the language and cultural differences they were experiencing for the first time. The students also felt that their conservatism, based on their Confucian heritage, disadvantaged them in their communication efforts in New Zealand. In particular, the students felt their propensity towards social correctness, keeping harmony and face saving restrained them in their interactions with New Zealanders who they perceived to be very open. Furthermore, these participants were in New Zealand to study, therefore their focus was directed towards academic achievement. Intercultural interaction was not a high priority. However, the students were appreciative of the intercultural experience they gained during their study and undertook reconstruction and renegotiation of their own cultural patterns as a result of the interaction. Similarly, Lewthwaite (1996) found that his participants were appreciative of their intercultural experience at a New Zealand university, where he used a questionnaire and interviews to explore the adaptation experience of international postgraduate students who had been studying in New Zealand for about 10-12 months. His results showed that the students did not experience extreme culture shock, however they did experience frustration at their own lack of ability in intercultural communicative competence. Learning to understand and then adapting to the new cultural milieu takes time and these students, although feeling hindered by the slow adaptation, were relatively optimistic about their experience. 38

In contrast, Mills (1997) research found that international students discussed their experience at Lincoln University in terms of the problems they felt they faced. For instance, language was perceived to be a problem by international students, and the deficiencies they believed they had led them to avoid communication with local students, which in turn compelled them to remain within their own or culturally similar groups. However, many studies have shown that students experiences in a host country and educational institution significantly improve over time. Mills (1997) data suggested that a life cycle was in operation for her participants. At first they concentrated on language receptive skills and then moved to expressive skills. Once they felt they had become proficient in these areas, they could concentrate on the nuances of the English language, both verbal and non-verbal. Similarly, Keen (2003) found that his participants enjoyed their second year at teachers college much more than they had their first. Therefore, as international students become accustomed to the new social and learning environment, they feel more comfortable: foreign students need more than verbal language to be able to communicate in a new culture. Effective communication involves ones ability to understand cultural norms, nonverbal behaviour, and the intentions of the other, and the ability to see relationships between people in the same way as they are seen in the host community (Locke and Velasco, cited in Zimmerman, 1995, p. 330). While this is true of anybody engaging with, or interacting in, a culturally different sphere from ones own, it is also true that host nationals must be receptive and accepting of the cultural other. Zimmermans (1995) study in an American university found that the most important factor contributing towards international students adjustment to the cultural and social specificities of the American university was intercultural interaction with American students. The students felt that it did not matter how long the students had been living in America, and therefore how much they knew about American culture, but sustained interaction was the factor they felt that led them to successful adaptation.

SUMMARY
This chapter outlined the fundamental components of communication and provided a discussion of cultural and individual differences in intercultural interaction and communication styles. It also looked at challenges inside and outside of the classroom for cultural outsiders. Intercultural communication in the classroom o Culture, education and communication are closely intertwined. Understanding culture and its impact on education and communication is a necessity in the multicultural classroom. o Communication is multidimensional: verbal, non-verbal; formal, informal; direct, indirect o Cultural and individual differences in communication styles cause mismatches in classroom interactions. Educational challenges for cultural outsiders o Cultural outsiders experience challenges in classroom activities because of different expectations and understandings. 39

o Problems in lectures include: speed of speech; use of culturally specific ideas; and use of materials that require background knowledge. o Intercultural issues affect assessment, student participation in class discussion and group work. Lack of English proficiency is not necessarily the issue. o Need to improve cultural inclusiveness in the classroom. Encouraging intercultural mixing within the classroom helps bridge cultural differences among all students. o Cultural differences in the attitude to knowledge, mismatched expectations and language issues are the main reasons why students might plagiarise. Students values and beliefs should be explored to counter plagiarism. Cross-cultural interaction outside the classroom o Lack of interaction between international students and host students, although international students desire and expect more intact with members of the host society. o Cross-cultural interaction outside of the classroom is effected by perceptions of friendliness and differences in communication techniques and discourse patterns.

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CHAPTER 6

METHODS FOR DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN THE MULTICULTURAL CLASSROOM

Diversity encompasses many characteristics including ethnicity, socio-economic background, home language, gender, special needs, disability, and giftedness. Teaching needs to be responsive to diversity within ethnic groups, for example, diversity within Pakeha, Mori, Pasifika and Asian students. We also need to recognise the diversity within individual students influenced by intersections of gender, cultural heritage(s), socio-economic background, and talent 8. Many are reluctant to ask questions out of fear of failure. Pupils who encounter difficulties and poor results are led to believe that they lack ability, and this belief leads them to attribute their difficulties to a defect in themselves about which they cannot do a great deal. So they retire hurt, avoid investing effort in learning which could only lead to disappointment, and try to build up their self-esteem in other ways 9. Culture, education and communication are inextricably intertwined. Knowledge of the interconnections between these three concepts is required in order for classroom participants to successfully interact and learn from one another. Cultural awareness, the implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy that is inclusive, reciprocal and flexible, and an understanding of communication patterns which are culturally defined, are aspects of the educational experience which serve to bridge cultures in the multicultural classroom. In this chapter, methods and interventions that will assist teachers and students to deal with cultural diversity both in the multicultural classroom and at the institutional level are reviewed. Before turning to these issues, an overview of research on methods is given below.

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH ON METHODS FOR DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

With the phenomenal growth in international education there has been a similar growth in research on the needs, experiences and adjustment of international students in host countries. In particular, researchers in the United States and Australia have produced a substantial amount of literature to address these issues and attempt to fulfil the need for evidence-based practical strategies for managing diversity in the multicultural classroom and wider institution. In the U.S., research is based around African-American, Latino, Hispanic, Hawaiian, and Asian-American students and addresses issues in the wider field of multicultural education and culturally
8 9

Alton-Lee, A. (2003) Quality Teaching for Diverse Students in Schooling: Best Evidence Synthesis. Ministry of Education, New Zealand, p. v. Black & William (cited in Alton-Lee, 2003, p. 87).

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responsive teaching. In Australia, a narrower research base is established which focuses on attempts to address the issues for international students of Asian origin, and in terms of methods, the focal point is on designers of course programmes and institutional interventions who have taken proactive measures towards encouraging intercultural interaction, mainly in tertiary settings. Many classroom practitioners have published suggestions for classroom strategies which are based on their own extensive experience working with international students, and these strategies are evaluated by the teachers or through self-reporting by students. In New Zealand, a comprehensive best evidence synthesis (Alton-Lee, 2003) provides a beginning point for investigating the issues surrounding the creation of a multicultural learning environment in primary and secondary schools. Various research projects and reports conducted in New Zealand explore the experiences of international students, however most of this literature investigates students at the tertiary level. An extensive gap in literature exists regarding international students in secondary schools and to a lesser extent in primary schools. Research on the differences in needs of tertiary institutions and secondary schools needs to be explored, including classroom interaction and the extent to which culturally responsive teaching and learning processes have been developed.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

Multicultural education became popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of antiracist movements and a desire to encourage societal acceptance of cultural pluralism and cultural interaction (May, 1999a). However, May asserts there has been a rather negligible impact on minority students and attributes a part of multicultural educations weakness to its emphasis on curricular change without acknowledging the power structures in schools and wider society, which have a significant impact on minority students. In his chapter Critical Multiculturalism and Cultural Difference May (1999b) examines the need for multiculturalism to recognise difference, but in doing so it is imperative not to essentialise difference. Essentialising culture involves treating cultural ideas and practices as unchanging and fixed. However, what is required in a critical multiculturalism is to recognise that individuals are influenced by their culture, which is changing, dynamic, flexible, and situationally and historically contextualised. Cultural and ethnic identity should be seen in terms of, as Hall suggests, a recognition that all speak from a particular place, out of a particular history, out of a particular experience, a particular culture, without being contained by that position (cited in May, 1999b, p. 33, emphasis in original). Therefore, in a multicultural classroom cultural difference must be recognised in a context of the recognition of peoples continual cultural construction and reconstruction (May, 1999b, p. 33). May suggests that in a critical multiculturalism, educators must recognise cultural values and practices are not universal, and that the dominant groups culture prevails in educational institutions and the wider society. Furthermore, educators must acknowledge the power relations which control whose culture is prevalent and whose is ignored, and difference must be recognised without being essentialised: In the end then, a critical multiculturalism must foster, above all, students who can engage critically with all ethnic and cultural backgrounds, including their own. Such an approach would allow both minority and majority students to recognize 42

and explore the complex interconnections, gaps and dissonances that occur between their own and other ethnic and cultural identities, as well as other forms of social identity (May, 1999b; p. 33). This would allow all students in a multicultural classroom to recognise the privileging of majority identities over minority identities, thus engaging in a reflective and reciprocal learning. An example is provided by Niyogi De (1996) who is concerned with emphasising a critical examination of culture and, in particular, the culture of academic discourse which is dominated by the majority culture. The business writing classroom is a salient area of academic discourse where students attempt to learn to succeed in the workplace dominated by the upwardly mobile, young, heterosexual, white male. As students come to realise the underlying discourse and its origins, dominance, and assumptions they become aware of other voices and perspectives and ways of interacting. Niyogi De encourages students to explore strategies of communication that accommodate difference rather than continuing to use the cultural norm versus the cultural other dichotomy she views as prevalent in some multicultural pedagogies. Of particular importance in Niyogi Des message is the need to be aware of the marginalisation of the cultural other through exercises that ask for the personal cultural experiences of class participants. This can leave students viewing cultural difference as something exotic or unusual and tends to continue to marginalise cultural difference rather than placing all views and perspectives at the centre of the learning experience. The centralisation of all cultures in the multicultural classroom leads to students engaging with culture on an equal playing field and critical reflection of all cultures including ones own. Recognition of the multicultural nature of todays societies in the classroom leads to understanding of difference and remembrance of similarities for all participants. Therefore, in order for multicultural education to make an impact on how people perceive and interact with others, all perspectives must become valued. A common point made in the literature regarding education for international students involves adding culturally relevant examples, content and material. In reference to Niyogi Des (1996) assertion, it is not merely enough to make add-ons. Classroom and educational institution practice must incorporate or integrate other perspectives fully, in order to adhere to one of the goals of internationalisation, to encourage meaningful intercultural understanding and interaction. Characteristics of culturally responsive teaching and learning Culturally responsive pedagogy is a theory that has grown in America over the last three decades in order to address the achievement rates of low-income students and students from minority groups in all levels of schooling. This theory focuses on teaching strategies and insists on the need to incorporate the cultures and experiences of minorities. In a project that aims to bring theory, research and practice together, Gay (2000) states that important aspects of culturally responsive pedagogy are that teachers should be caring, different communication styles should be acknowledged and effective communication strategies implemented, curriculum adjustments should be made to be inclusive of all cultural and ethnic groups, and instruction strategies should incorporate different cultural systems and be inclusive of the many culturally influenced learning styles. However most significantly, action must be taken rather than simply just being aware of the issues. Proactive changes must be made to pedagogical strategies to accommodate the diversity in perspectives, skills and knowledges.

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Internationalising the Curriculum Curriculum change is an important area of internationalising education, as this is an area where alterations or adjustments can provide an inclusive environment for teaching and learning in terms of both content and pedagogy, and prepare students for life and work in the multicultural societies of the 21st Century. An internationalised curriculum provides equality for all regardless of nationality, ethnicity, gender, or social class through recognising the varied identities and experiences of students (Haigh, 2002) and incorporating student experiences and perspectives into the classroom environment. Course content and pedagogy can be internationalised through using a comparative approach and international case studies, along with a variety of teaching methods to cater for the diverse learning experiences and needs of students. The University of South Australia has designed a programme for internationalising its curricula in three ways (Leask, 2001). The first included a typology for course design with overlapping categories which are symptomatic of the multidimensional nature of international education (Leask, 2001, p. 103), and defining characteristics were developed to help staff see how they could use the categories. The second, developing international perspectives in students, focused on outputs or qualities that graduates are expected to gain, such as an ability to think globally and consider issues from a variety of perspectives, and value diversity of language and culture. The third focused on teaching and learning strategies, and a Code of Good Practice has been developed to provide ideas for teaching practice: In practice, these strategies not only broaden the scope of the subject to include international content and contact but also assist in the development of cross-cultural communication skills and an understanding of intercultural issues (Leask, 2001, p. 114). American James Banks (1996) has written widely on multicultural education and puts forward five dimensions to achieve success in multicultural learning institutions: 1. content integration (examples and content from other cultures and groups); 2. the knowledge construction process (teach how and from which view points knowledge is constructed); 3. prejudice reduction (encourage positive intergroup attitudes); 4. an equity pedagogy (modify teaching to suit other learning styles to achieve academic success); and, 5. an empowering school culture and social structure (school culture that empowers all equity). Banks goal is to advocate transformative knowledge within the classroom, for example, students coming to know what is said and from whose perspective. In order for students to understand diversity they must be taught to look at events from many perspectives. This technique will empower all students and achieve equity in the classroom and the wider learning institution and community (Banks, 1996). Therefore, inclusive practices must be implemented by teachers in order to cater for the differential learning styles, experiences and values, not only between ethnic groups but within groups as well. Teachers must be responsive and flexible to the diversity within their classrooms and implement many different teaching styles in order to accommodate all students. Multicultural education should make the experiences, social organisations, and histories of all participants of any background a part of everyday instruction (Gay, 2000; Banks, 1996; Mehan, 44

Okamoto, Lintz & Wills, 1995). To do this, diversity of content, material, teaching and learning styles, must become everyday and meaningful practice for all participants. Both teachers and learners must adjust to a range of activities and approaches which are dialogic, reciprocal and interactive. Furthermore, intercultural mixing requires guidance from teachers especially in regards to the initial anxiety and perceived inadequacy students may feel about intercultural interaction. Most importantly, multicultural education requires critical self-reflection of ones own culture and the assumptions made about others. Many of these issues are further discussed in the guidelines (see chapter 9).

BRIDGING CULTURES IN MULTICULTURAL CLASSROOMS

In 2003, a best evidence synthesis Quality Teaching for Diverse Students in Schooling (AltonLee, 2003) brought together New Zealand and international research findings about what works as quality teaching in primary, intermediate and secondary schools that will facilitate high achievement and reduce disparities among diverse students. In that report, quality education is identified as a key influence on high quality outcomes for heterogeneous groups of students, whether by ethnicity, socio-economic background, special educational needs, language background, gender or other differences. The best evidence synthesis makes obvious the central role of teacher creativity and expertise in scaffolding and being responsive to student learning processes (Alton-Lee, 2003, p. 93). Understanding cultural differences, appreciating similarities As teachers play a central role in ensuring quality education for diverse students (Alton-Lee, 2003; Thomas, 2000), they must have the knowledge, understanding and competence to deal with issues surrounding cultural diversity in the classroom. The American based Bridging Cultures Project (Trumbull, Rothstein-Fisch, Greenfield, & Quiroz, 2001) uses the collectivistindividualist framework (Chapter 3, pp. 4-6) to help educators become aware of their own cultural mores and the assumptions they make about others. Understanding cultural differences has implications for teaching and learning, as students from collectivist orientations can place a different emphasis on independence, individual achievements and self-expression than do those students from more individualist cultures: Frameworks such as individualism/collectivism help each of us to put our own culture in relief. At first we may exaggerate the contrast between our culture and others or resist acknowledging that there are any differences at all. However, as we observe ourselves and others, we understand everyday interchanges and events in a new light. There is a personal dimension to all of this. It is not just understanding our students urge to share, but also understanding our own tendencies to focus on individual achievement to the exclusion of other values in our classrooms. It is about a total shift from one way of seeing the home/school landscape to having perspectives from both sides of the cultural bridge (Trumbull et al., 2001, p. 131). Evaluations of this project were carried out by the researchers/authors who interviewed and observed teachers both before and after their use of the Bridging Cultures framework. Both 45

the teachers and researchers reported positive outcomes in terms of the teachers personal development, teaching processes, and interactions with students and their families. However, the individualist-collectivist framework does need to be used carefully because categorisation of people often leads to stereotyping or pigeonholing. This is a point that is echoed in much of the literature on multicultural education and intercultural communication (Gay, 2000; Stefani, 1997. See also Chapter 4, pp. 18-22). Alton-Lees (2003) best evidence synthesis shows that inappropriate stereotyping by teachers can undermine students, and thus emphasises the importance for teachers to attend to research evidence in developing teaching practices that can be facilitative of the learning of heterogeneous groups of students: An understanding of culturally defined learning styles does not provide an easily adaptable model for culturally responsive practice. Aside from the hazard of stereotyping youngsters and avoiding the more critical task of providing for individual differences, teachers may presume that students of certain backgrounds can only learn one way, thus depriving them of a broad repertoire of learning mechanisms (Dilworth & Brown, cited in Alton-Lee, 2003, p. 18). Cultural awareness for students is also important in the multicultural classroom in order to prevent misunderstandings and begin to address the recurring issues of mismatches in expectations that occur between teachers and students and between students of different cultural backgrounds (see Chapter 4, pp. 15-17). Programmes which assist classroom participants to understand cultural difference and reflect on their own cultural identity are a valuable instrument for achieving one of the goals of the internationalisation of education: the opportunity for intercultural interaction and communication, and increased understanding of the possibilities of different perspectives in the globalised world. Many intercultural training programmes include experiential exercises such as role plays, simulation games, critical incidents, culture assimilators, case studies, and self-awareness inventories that can be incorporated into classroom situations. A selected list of intercultural training literature is provided in Appendix 1. Within multicultural classrooms, participants can also be encouraged to harmonise their differences via appreciating similarities (Ho, Holmes & Cooper, 2004). A study of the experiences of both domestic and international students across three universities in Australia highlighted the similarities that exist between domestic and international students. Mullins, Quintrell and Hancock (1995) found that all students share a general pattern of problems associated with studying at tertiary institution, however, international students suffer more problems and to a higher degree. Some of the problems that both international and domestic students felt they faced were financial considerations, the availability of part-time work, and the problems associated with study such as workload, academic ability and fear of failure. These findings are similar to Burns (1991) who found that international students stress levels were significantly higher than domestic students but the causes were similar to problems that domestic students faced, including academic and study skills, financial considerations and work commitments. In their study of intercultural interaction at an Australian university, Volet and Ang (1998) noted that preconceived, negative and stereotyped views that international and domestic students held towards the other party, were a major barrier preventing the students from forming mixed groups for the completion of academic tasks. However, after a successful experience of culturally mixed group work, participants realised that cultural differences were not as important as having similar goals and a mutual commitment to invest time and energy in the task. Mills (1997) also made the point that by emphasising differences, interaction between groups can be 46

lessened because attending to the contrasts between participants is likely to operate as a barrier to developing a sense of commonality whereas actively seeking the similarities between people in intercultural contexts and building upon these similarities enhance communication (p. 67). Teachers and students as researchers While it is important for teachers to attend to research evidence in developing their teaching practices, the Bridging Cultures project puts an emphasis on teachers as researchers in their classrooms (Trumbull et al., 2001). This involves the teacher using an ethnographic approach, observing while participating in the classroom, and communicating with people from the students home culture. This method helps teachers to know the students in their classrooms, and their students backgrounds, knowledges, families and communities. Multicultural educationalists champion this method of teacher learning because it diminishes the marginalisation of some members within a classroom, as teachers come to know the individual lives of their students, as well as the families and communities their students come from (Heard, 1990; Mehan et al., 1995; Saravia-Shore & Arvizu, 1992; Trumbull et al., 2001). Students can be researchers in their classrooms too. In the multicultural classroom, students themselves are resources of knowledge, particularly in the sense that they bring different values and ideas to the classroom. If students sense that this is valued, they will respond positively. Research courses at the tertiary level are particularly good avenues for this type of outcome. For example, student interviews were used in a first year geography class in an American university in order to help students gain intercultural awareness (Pandit & Alderman, 2004). The students were required to locate an international student, interview them, and write a report. Although the exercise caused initial trepidation for students who were unsure of how to make contact with international students, overall, most of the participating students felt they benefited from the exercise, particularly in terms of increasing their intercultural awareness and reflecting on their own culture. A similar project, carried out in an American sociology class, sought to encourage students thinking about cultural pluralism as part of a compulsory research course (Schmid, 1995). In that project, students were required to interview an international student, and use the interview data to analyse intercultural interactions and the meaning of these interactions in American culture generally. The use of international students as cultural resources in the multicultural classroom is in line with one of the objectives of the internationalisation of education for students to gain knowledge of other cultures. Additionally, host students benefit from their first hand experience of intercultural interaction, and the self-reflection on their own cultural assumptions and frameworks as a result of this interaction. The reflection advances students to understand that culture is not only held by exotic others (Pandit & Alderman, 2004; Schmid, 1995). In these types of programmes the teachers have used questionnaires to evaluate the success of the programmes through student self-reporting. In both of the above programmes the students reported very successful outcomes in terms of improved cultural understanding. Experiential learning Experiential learning, or learning by doing, was used by Cheney (2001) in her Business Communication classes where structured interaction enabled students to experience culture in action. Cheneys structured interactions included a live case study where a host student interviewed an international student about their sojourn experience, and then the students compared the issues to the surrounding literature. Topic discussions, role plays and intercultural 47

consultant scenarios gave host students and international students the chance to pair up and discuss, or act out intercultural scenarios, taking into consideration and exploring cultural implications for both groups. Cheney points out that a positive environment that encourages intercultural understanding is essential for this type of learning and conditions include ensuring equal status for both participants in the interaction, imposing equal authority in decision making, emphasizing the interdependence of participants, and providing participants with ample opportunity to become personally acquainted with each other (Cheney, 2001, p. 97). A reciprocal relationship must exist between students rather than a relationship where a student interacts with the international students as the cultural other, gleaning information that is needed to obtain a grade. Additionally, experiencing cultural interaction first hand is a valuable learning objective as long as students are taught to relate this experience to their past experiences, and to be reflective of their own culture. Table 6 summaries the salient features of experiential learning as demonstrated in Cheneys study. Table 6 Relevant Applied Participative Interactive Salient features of experiential learning in the classroom Activities are designed to develop knowledge and skills directly related to course objectives. Students are given adequate guidance and a theoretical base to perform and evaluate the activities. Students are active participants in the learning activities rather than passive listeners. Activities include not only student/instructor interaction but also student/student, student/client, or student/environment interaction. Activities focus on all three dimensions of learning: behavioural, affective, and cognitive. Experiences are as similar as possible to real-life situations. Activities are designed to expose students to the complexity and ambiguity of real-life situations. Experiences are sufficiently structured and organised to allow for some student autonomy while providing guidance and ensuring quality. Students have the opportunity to reflect upon and articulate the learning gained from their experience. Instructors provide students with feedback on the experiential learning activity, placing greater emphasis on the process involved than on the outcomes. Instructors help students to put learning into a broader perspective.

Whole-person emphasis Contact with the environment Variability and uncertainty Structured exercise

Student evaluation of the experience Feedback

Adapted from Cheney (2001) 48

Creating a cultural space was the aim of Eisenchlas and Trevaskes (2003) in their implementation of a pilot structured programme for Chinese and Australian students at the Masters level. Students came together to discuss cultural difference in terms of culture in everyday life. The situational and contextual aspects of culture were highlighted in this programme. In other words, the students discussed culture in terms of the everyday situation and events they experienced in the context of the Australian university they were studying at. Topics discussed included first contacts, developing friendships, expectations in academic settings, what is negotiable in academic settings, seeking help, and complimenting and apologising. Together the students explored and interpreted their cultural differences and similarities through reflection and self-awareness in order to develop intercultural communication competence. The programme recognised four key factors for developing Intercultural Communication Competence: Awareness of own cultural mores Culture as dynamic, contextual and situational Language transports cultural meaning Culture learning is as much about learning communication skills as it is about gaining knowledge of a culture The authors viewed this programme as most valuable in three ways: its delineation of culture as situational and contextual; the explicit linkage of language to culture; and teaching students to appreciate the underlying concepts of culture. The programme has also been modified and successfully used in the wider institution for orientation and community programmes. Cooperative learning Experiential learning is dialogic in form, where students interact, question and reflect (see Chapter 3, pp. 6-7). The dialogic form of teaching and learning is also the basis of cooperative classroom strategies, where students help each other learn. Cooperative learning has a long history, and there is a considerable body of educational research beginning in the 1960s on cooperative learning methods in multi-ethnic classrooms. In general, the early studies found that minority children from cooperative learning programmes showed greater levels of achievement, more positive attitudes towards school and other students, and higher self-esteem than those students learning under competitive conditions (see Ward & Rzoska, 1994 for a review). New Zealand schools, like those in many Western countries, are found on individualistic values and tend to emphasise a competitive orientation amongst the children and discourage group cooperation and problem solving. Minority children may be disadvantaged by this system. Research with Mori, Pasifika and Pakeha children in New Zealand in the 1970s found that Mori and Pasifika children were more cooperative, and had higher preference for cooperative activities, than Pakeha children (Thomas, 1975, 1978). The research provided support for the introduction of cooperative learning strategies into ethnically mixed classrooms. Cooperative learning is culturally appropriate for students in collectivist cultures. There is also evidence that cooperative learning in multi-ethnic classrooms has enhanced inter-ethnic relations (Ward & Rzoska, 1994). In general, cooperative learning is an instructional strategy that incorporates a range of techniques designed to foster interdependence among students. The salient features of cooperative learning are summarised in Table 7.

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Table 7 Small groups Equal status

Salient features of cooperative learning in the classroom Students work in small, heterogeneous groups. Students interact directly with one another with respect to the learning materials, unmediated by the teacher. Student interaction includes mutual assistance, cooperation, and exchange of ideas, feelings and materials in pursuit of a common academic goal.

Cooperative, not competitive

The small groups take responsibility for selecting, planning, implementing and presenting learning outcomes. Adapted from Shachar & Amir, 1996. Meaningful situation More recently, Alton-Lees (2003, pp. 22-31) best evidence synthesis found positive benefits in using peer culture to support the learning of each member in the classroom. Such findings emphasise the importance for teachers to design tasks to increase levels of trust, acceptance, sharing and mutual support between students (2003, p. 27), and to teach students how to provide help to each other (p. 28). Peer-response groups are advocated by Nelson (1997) in tertiary classrooms that consist of international students for two reasons. The first is pedagogical, as peer-response to written work can help students learn the process of essay writing and highlight the importance of revision and editing of draft work. Secondly, it helps to save the marker time as final drafts will be of a much higher standard. However, in order to institute peer-response groups in multicultural classrooms cultural issues must be taken into consideration. For example, in cultures where the concept of face is more highly emphasised, students may feel they are open to losing face. Communication styles also influence the efficacy of peer-response groups if comments about the work are misunderstood. As the possibility of cultural misunderstanding in peer-response groups is high, care must be taken by teachers to ensure that all students understand the purpose of the exercise and are made aware of the cultural differences that may become apparent. Intercultural communication training is essential otherwise students could end up stereotyping one another. The spin-offs are that students will learn about writing, obtain higher grades, and at the same time learn about intercultural communication and gain understandings of another culture.

DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AT THE INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL

The benefits of using classroom activities to promote cross-cultural understanding and communication can be enhanced and sustained when there is institutional support. A report by Smart, Volet and Ang (2000) Fostering Social Cohesion in Universities: Bridging the Cultural Divide, stated in Australia there is a growing official and academic awareness of the issue of intercultural interaction on campuses, however, what had become clear in their research was that proactive intervention is necessary. At the institutional level, intervention can be made to develop culturally responsive pedagogy, to encourage host and international student mixing, and to build stronger linkages with wider communities. The issues of developing culturally responsive pedagogy have been discussed at the beginning of this chapter. The remaining issues are discussed below. 50

Structured Peer-Pairing Programmes A technique to encourage intercultural interaction amongst host students and international students that has been applied at the institutional level is peer-pairing schemes. Abe, Talbot and Geelhoed (1998) evaluated the effectiveness of an International Peer Programme (IPP) in terms of the adjustment of international students. The results showed that international students who participated in the scheme significantly increased their social adjustment in comparison with a control group of international students who did not participate. Quintrell and Westwood (1994) found that structured contact between host nationals and international students during the first year of study in an Australian institution could benefit both groups. International students who participated in the programme felt their language proficiency increased and they utilised campus services, such as counsellors, more than those international students who did not participate in the programme. The local students who participated gained knowledge of other countries and cultures, as well as learning about their own customs and ways of viewing the world. There was, however, no difference in academic performance between the group of international students who participated in the programme and the control group of international students who did not participate. In an exploratory study, Westwood and Barker (1990) investigated the effects of a peerpairing programme over a four year period in both an Australian university and a Canadian university. They found that students who participated had adjusted significantly better academically and socially, and had lower drop-out rates, than those international students who did not participate. However, further studies are needed to discover the factors that lead to a better adjustment by the international students, for instance, whether students with more motivation sign up for such a programme, if there is more access to services through a host student, or because of critical information gained from the host student on cultural cues of the host society. The local students who participated in the programme reported: (1) increased cultural awareness and sensitivity; (2) established friendships and international link; (3) opportunities for future work, travel, or study abroad; (4) cross-cultural experiences which may assist career choices at home; and (5) an opportunity to manifest and develop a spirit of generosity and service in the global community (p. 260). The experience of host students who took part in a peer pairing programme was the focus of a study carried out in an American Midwestern University (Geelhoed, Abe & Talbot, 2003). The researchers found that many of the host students experienced the benefits of coming to know and understand another person from a different culture, and they managed to dispel previously held negative stereotypes and assumptions. However, host students often felt uncomfortable, frustrated and dismayed by the difficulty they encountered in the first interactions with their international partner. The researchers concluded that more guidance and structure must be provided to host students before the programme commences. The potential topics include: 1. Assisting students in self-assessment of their own motivations and goals for participating in the programme; 2. Preparing students for the initial discomfort that often occurs when meeting their partners for the first time; 3. Helping students build better interpersonal skills, especially in intercultural relationships. Although some host students studying at tertiary institutions may be open to intercultural interaction with international students, not all are willing. Some studies have found that students from the host society are less interested in interaction with overseas students than vice versa 51

(Beaver & Tuck, 1998; Quintrell & Westwood, 1994; Nesdale & Todd, 1993. Also see pp. 3738). Host students preferred levels of mixing with international students are likely to be influenced by the numbers of international students present in the courses the host students were enrolled in. Students studying in courses where there were high levels of international student enrolment tend to prefer less contact with international students than the host students studying in courses with low levels of international student enrolments (Nesdale & Todd, 1993). Thus, carefully planned interventions are necessary in order to encourage meaningful interaction between the two groups to help break down barriers not only in the classroom but in other areas of the students lives. The Pastoral Care of Overseas-Born Students (PCOS) was established in 2001 by the University of Auckland and is an in-depth three stage project to assist international students integration into New Zealand secondary schools through peer-group based support (Everts, 2004). Stage one consisted of a needs analysis using a survey of international students, and an analysis of the Peer Support Programme (which does not address the specific needs of overseasborn students). In Stage two five secondary schools implemented the Pastoral Care for International Students (PCIS) Programme. The implementation, development and success of the programme was evaluated through observations, questionnaires, focus groups, and interviews to provide an evidence base to begin Stage three of the project. Stage three involves upgrading the programme using the results from Stage two and is scheduled for the beginning of the 2005 school year. Evaluation of the programme will again be carried out in the final stage. The report prepared for the Ministry of Education by Hans Everts of the University of Auckland (2004) backgrounds the entire project but reports on and evaluates the second stage. The aims of the overall project are to enhance the experiences of migrant, refugee and international students in New Zealand secondary schools by developing a programme which utilises peer support in the most effective way for overseas-born students. The specific objectives are to: foster more rapid peer integration of migrant and international students; help prevent more serious personal problems, like anxiety, depression, or anti-social acting out; avoid inter-ethnic friction; develop a more effective Peer Support system; facilitate the extension of counselling and student welfare provisions, with emphasis on preventive activities and early warning of more serious mental health problems; foster the development of an evidence-based profile of schools in terms of their migrant and international education provisions (Everts, 2004, p. 5). Three topics were used in the programme developed in Stage two in order to promote the integration of international students into New Zealand secondary schools: the provision of information about New Zealand high school life and society; the sharing of everyday problems; and the development of friendships. Within these broad themes issues were discussed such as finding your way around, managing academic tasks, issues regarding homestays, New Zealand customs and culture, making friends through clubs and activities, and issues regarding racism and harassment. Although only a limited and non-representative sample of schools used the programme in the second stage of the project, significant themes arose consistently. These themes included: the PCIS programme should be run in conjunction with other activities for international students and the existing Peer Support Programme; senior staff must play a central role along with well trained and appropriate student leaders of both New Zealand born and international 52

student backgrounds; the programme needs to be implemented at the beginning of the year; and the programme needs to be very structured at first, eventually leading to a more open and interactive structure. While this programme meets the needs of international students directly, school wide cross-cultural integration needs to be pursued through events which many schools already operate, such as multicultural days and the promotion of different cultures through posters and celebrations. The authors also point out the need for school interaction with parents, communities and community organisations. It is a test of the school-community relationship to see the ways in which both parties collaborate in promoting a positive and resilient multi-cultural community (Everts, 2004, p. 35). There is significant importance in schools liaising with community interest groups and families and creating the school environment as a centre of community support. Building links with communities Links between educational institutions and communities have been shown in the literature to be important for raising student academic outcomes (Alton-Lee, 2003; Trumbull et al., 2001; Thomas, 2000). If teachers come to know the backgrounds or cultural contexts of their students, they will be armed with greater knowledge to understand the responses of the student to particular teaching strategies, forms of assessment, interactions within the classroom, and student understandings resulting from their socialisation. Furthermore, research shows that parental involvement in childrens and young adults education improves achievement outcomes (AltonLee, 2003; Biddulph, Biddulph & Biddulph, 2003) however, educators are the key to forming strong links with families and communities. The John Hopkins University Centre on School, Family and Community Partnerships has carried out in-depth research in school-home linkages in America, and in an overview of the research programme Epstein (2001) reiterates the potential of parental involvement to have positive or negative impacts and the agency of educators in the success of school-home partnerships (cited in Biddulph et al., 2003, p. 145). A framework developed by Epstein (cited in Alton-Lee 2003, p. 40) outlines a typology for Comprehensive Programmes of Partnership between schools and home. This includes: 1. Parenting help all families to establish home environment to support children as students. 2. Communicating design effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school communications about school programmes and their childrens progress. 3. Volunteering recruit and organize parent help and support. 4. Learning at home provide information and ideas to families about how to help students with homework and other curriculum related activities, decisions and planning. 5. Decision making include parents in school decisions, developing parent leaders and representatives. 6. Collaborating with the community identify and integrate resources and services from the community to strengthen school programmes, family practices, and student learning and development. The educators in Kennedy and Dewars (1997) study felt that building strong links with families of students was of high importance in improving English language and academic skills of EAL (English as an Additional Language) students at primary, intermediate and secondary schools. They also pointed out that English language support for parents and other adults of the students was beneficial for both students and the community. Suggestions arising in this research 53

for schools to consider included: enlisting people from the community (interpreting, liaison); encouraging parents and caregivers to feel at home in school before seeking to enlist their help; provision of clear definitions of how parents can help at school; and providing language support for families (Kennedy & Dewar, 1997). Inclusion of families in the school lives of students and interest in parents welfare is important because maladjustment of a parent can have detrimental effects on a child. The Report on Research into the Circumstances of Very Young International Students, recommended that education providers needed to take more responsibility for students who live in a homestay or with a designated caregiver (someone other than a relative or friend) (Ministry of Education, 2003). At the same time care should be taken by educational institutions to connect with and maintain linkages with community organisations to enable international students to participate more effectively in the wider New Zealand society. McGrath and Butcher (2004) found international students who were involved in community groups, mainly sporting and church groups, enjoyed their time in New Zealand more than those who were not. The authors suggest that recognition needs to be given to the community dimension of pastoral care of international students.

SUMMARY
This chapter began with a section addressing issues in the wider context of multicultural education, culturally responsive pedagogy, and the internationalisation of the curricula. This was followed by a review and evaluation of research literature on methods for dealing with cultural differences in the multicultural classroom and the institution. Multicultural education and culturally responsive pedagogy o Critical multicultural education emphasises the need to be aware of power structures in education and the propagation of the dominant cultural ideology through ethnocentric biases. o Multicultural education and culturally responsive pedagogy aim for inclusive, reciprocal and reflective teaching and learning. o Curriculum change is critical to internationalise education and educate students to live and work in multicultural societies through providing inclusive course design, content, and teaching and learning strategies for diverse students. Dealing with cultural differences at the classroom level: o The Bridging Cultures Programme uses the individualist/collectivist framework to help teachers understand different cultural perspectives and the diversity of intercultural interactions in classrooms. o Multicultural education advocates that teachers and students should become researchers in their classrooms in order to gain a better understanding of different cultural perspectives and extrapolate this new understanding to the wider societal context. o Experiential learning provides hands-on experience, however activities must be carefully planned, explained and reflective. o Cooperative learning provides the opportunity for students to learn from each other and for a peer culture to be developed in the classroom. Dealing with cultural differences at the institutional level: 54

o Peer-pairing schemes have been shown to help international students adapt to the host society and access more services through establishing friendships with students from the host society. o Preparation and guidance is needed for host students. o Building links between educational institutions and the community has been shown to raise student academic outcomes, for instance, teachers knowledge of students background and communities aids interaction. o Strong links between the educational institution and families helps student and family adjustment, as well as the opportunity for families to be involved in school activities. o International student involvement in community groups has been shown to enhance the New Zealand experience of students.

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CHAPTER 7

EVALUATION STUDIES OF THE EXCELL PROGRAMME

I am now less affected by others responses. I have confidence to go ahead to express myself, to share my ideas, and to get help, no matter whether it is a successful experience or not10. For individuals to reap the maximum benefits from a sociocultural training program, it is most effective if the group is led jointly by a minority group member (as a credible role model for the enhancement of trainees perceived self-efficacy) and a member of the dominant culture (for authentic explanation of the host cultural code). Trainees will be encouraged to witness how someone with visibly different features and speaking with a foreign accent can successfully assume a leadership position and demonstrate effective intercultural skill11. The challenges cultural outsiders face in the multicultural classroom have been discussed in Chapter 5. It has been argued that these difficulties arise, not due to deficits on the part of the newcomers, but because of mismatched expectations and intercultural communication styles among the classroom participants. Many existing training programmes to help classroom participants overcome these mismatches tend to be in the form of information-giving and sensitivity-training programmes. More recently, a skills-based, practice-oriented, experiential social learning programme called EXCELL (Excellence in Cultural Experiential Learning and Leadership) has been developed to help culturally different students to be competent and effective in the new culture12. Originally designed for newly arrived international and immigrant students, the programme has also been offered to native-born university students to improve cultural awareness and intercultural competence. This chapter outlines various special features of the EXCELL programme and reviews evaluation studies of the programme.

THE EXCELL INTERCULTURAL SOCIAL EFFECTIVENESS TRAINING PROGRAMME

The EXCELL Programme has been developed by Marvin Westwood and Ishu Ishiyama of the University of British Columbia, Canada, and Anita Mak of the University of Canberra and Michelle Barker of Griffith University, Australia (Mak, Westwood, Barker & Ishiyama, 1998). It provides group-based intercultural social effectiveness training to international and immigrant students to help them enhance confidence and skills in academic and everyday interpersonal situations. The training programme is based on established learning paradigms, particularly Banduras (1986) social cognitive learning model, and emphasises the development of both
10 11

Feedback from an ExcelL participant (Wong, 2001, p. 114). From Mak, Westwood, Ishiyama, & Barker (cited in Shergill 1997, p. 42-43). 12 ExcelL training is available in New Zealand. The Centre for Applied Cross-cultural Research (www.vuw.ac.nz/cacr/) is one resource centre for ExcelL training.

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behavioural skills and domain-specific self-efficacy13 through observational learning involving the use of credible and similar role models (Mak, 2000, p. 3). The primary objective of the programme is not to substitute competencies, but to augment the competencies people already possess: the approach is preventative rather than remedial. The focus in this approach is developing culturally appropriate behaviours which have been shown to bring about more positive interactions and outcomes. These cannot be taught by information only, but they must be (EXPLAINED), seen in action (MODELLED), and incorporated into the individuals own social behaviour repertoire (PRACTICED). This is a social learning approach stressing the acquisition of critical role behaviours (Westwood, Mak, Barker & Ishiyama cited in Shergill, 1997, p. 40). Mak, Westwood and Ishiyama (cited in Shergill, 1997, p. 6) also state that this approach allows acculturating individuals to expand their repertoire of social competencies to accommodate the host cultures different interpersonal communication style without giving up their own cultural styles. The programme incorporates various special features that will maximise the effective acquisition of knowledge and skills for successful social interactions with host nationals (Mak, 2000; Mak et al., 1998, p. 34). They include: 1. using a co-facilitation model, with a trainer from a minority background to provide a credible role model, and a trainer from the mainstream background for authentic explanation of the host cultural code; 2. teaching sociocultural competencies in six commonly occurring social situations (examples include: seeking help and information; participating in a group; making social contact and conversation; seeking and giving feedback, both positively but particularly negative feedback; expressing disagreement; and refusing a request); 3. facilitating the rehearsal and retention of each competency through the construction of a cultural map, which describes effective and appropriate ways of behaving in specific social situations using a sequence of precise and concrete micro social skills; 4. utilising modelling, coaching, role playing, repeated practice and corrective feedback as a means of teaching social cultural competency skills; 5. replacing intercultural social anxiety by increasing self confidence developed through actual skill mastery; and, 6. delivering training in several sessions, thus allowing for practice in real life social situations, and completion of relevant prescribed activities between sessions.

EVALUATION OF EXCELL
Evaluation is a built-in feature of the EXCELL Programme. Participants are invited to complete pre- and post-training questionnaires to enable evaluation of the EXCELL Programme in terms of whether it leads to perceptions of increased social confidence and interactional skills. In addition, participants also provide feedback on the effectiveness of the EXCELL Programme at the end of their training (Mak, Baker, Logan & Millman, 1999a).
13

Self-efficacy is defined as peoples judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances (Bandura, 1986, p. 391).

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Evaluation studies of the EXCELL programme in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom suggest that the programme has been effective in bringing about a significant increase in interaction skills and social self-efficacy, as indicated by participants self-reports before and after training (Buckingham, 2004; Daly & Brown, 2004; Mak et al., 1999a, 1999b; Shergill, 1997; Wong, 2001). The pilot studies in the UK (Mak et al., 1999a), and Wongs (2001) study in Canada, further indicated that the programme has resulted in a significant reduction of social avoidance tendency. Additionally, an evaluation study in Australia (Buckingham, 2004) showed that EXCELL participants reported an increase in the time spent with friends of different cultural backgrounds on completion of the training. Similar results were found in an evaluation study in New Zealand (Daly & Brown, 2004), with participants reporting more cross-ethnic friendships after participating in the programme. The majority of EXCELL participants also perceived very favourably various aspects of the programme, particularly demonstrations by trainers, practice and coaching during the sessions, talks by trainers, group discussion, and home practice (Mak, 2000). There are, however, inherent difficulties with the use of self-reports. Thus the evaluation studies conducted by Buckingham (2004), Shergill (1997) and Wong (2001) had incorporated control groups, and the findings from these studies have consistently demonstrated that EXCELL participants showed greater improvement in social interaction skills and social confidence than those in the control group. Although the EXCELL programme was originally designed as a social effectiveness training programme for international and immigrant students, it has also been offered to mixed groups of overseas- and local-born students as part of their academic courses in an Australian university (Barker, Troth & Mak, 2002; Woods, Barker & Daly, 2004), or as a personal development course offered in the university halls of residence (Mak et al., 1999a). Results show that both the NESB overseas-born and ESB local-born participants within the mixed group had benefited from the training. Despite the rather high initial levels of self-efficacy and skills in the local-born participants, the participants still reported benefits from the programme in terms of increased social self-efficacy (Mak, 1999a). These findings concur with the findings obtained by Buckingham (2004), Shergill (1997) and Wong (2001), whose studies also used mixed groups of overseas- and local-born university students. In the future, investigation can be made to explore the use of the programme with high school students, and in multi-ethnic halls of residence on higher educational campuses. The effectiveness of the programme in helping teaching, administrative and support staff improve their intercultural competencies for working with international students can also be studied (Barker, Troth & Back, 2002). Finally, long-term benefits of the programme should be investigated.

SUMMARY
The effectiveness of the ExcelL programme has been evaluated in various settings in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Local, international and immigrant students have gained social confidence and improved intercultural interaction skills through their participation in the training.

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SECTION TWO GUIDELINES FOR DEALING WITH CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN MULTICULTURAL CLASSROOMS

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CHAPTER 8

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES

The education system here is different and I think opened my mind.I find Im now more critical in thinking.If I read something I can have some very different thinking, and I think its some valuable thinking.14 I feel like the whole general exposure, from culture, friends, through to values, to education and the whole purpose.it really opens up my whole life. I mean push me out because, if theres no comparison, you wouldnt know that yours [your way] might be wrong or yours were effective. Now, because Im open to two [ways], so I might know more. I sort of like enjoy knowingthe different ways of doing things.15

INTRODUCTION
As New Zealand educational institutions internationalise their campuses, the need to adopt frameworks and strategies to enable a coming together is imperative. Internationalisation does not just mean increased demographic diversity; more significantly, it requires an internationalist response. Achieving such a response is made complex for two reasons: by the expectations held by students, teachers, support providers, and those in positions of influence in educational institutions; and by the ways in which these expectations have been socially constructed through education and socialisation within an individuals culture. The result, as the literature review shows, is often a mismatch as students and teachers are required to recognise and cope with difference. Thus, the purpose of this section is to provide guidelines for education providers, teachers, support people, and students in recognising, managing, and celebrating these differences. We attempt to identify strategies to facilitate teaching, learning, and intercultural communication in the classroom. A further aim, as outlined in Section One, is to provide guidelines that lead to an improvement of the educational outcomes for all students. The guidelines are constructed with a difference and not a deficit approach in mind; that is, all learners in the classroom base their conceptions of teaching, learning, and communication on their culturally-based socialisation and educational processes. Rather than identifying differences as either right or wrong, or good or bad, the challenge in working with diverse learners is to recognise and value the differences and build on them for the benefit of all. The purpose of these guidelines is: To enable teachers and students to recognise and understand difference To encourage teachers and students to recognise and understand teaching/learning/communication styles and associated expectations To work with difference to promote positive teaching, learning, and communication experiences among all students and teachers, primarily at the classroom level, but also at the institutional level, and To improve interactions with people from diverse cultures.
14 15

A Chinese graduate diploma student speaking about his study experience in New Zealand (Holmes, 2004). A Malaysian student speaking about his study experience in New Zealand (Holmes, 2000).

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METHODOLOGY USED IN DEVELOPING THE GUIDELINES

The goals in this section emerged from the key findings and conclusions in the literature review. They represent the aims that education providers, teachers, and support people may aspire to in developing a successful and positive multicultural learning context for all students. Under each goal are a range of strategies that may be adopted in working towards the goal. The strategies are intended for all teachers, but more specifically, for teachers working in multicultural classrooms that might include Mori, Pasifika, other migrant groups, permanent resident students for whom English is a second language, and international students. Tertiary teachers might also find these guidelines useful in working with permanent resident and international students who have English as a second language. In addition, they will also be useful to those who provide teaching and learning support to teachers and students respectively, and also to other support staff who provide social support and counselling. They are also intended for administrators and decision makers in institutions as they develop policies and practices in their internationalisation programmes. The selection criteria for the strategies presented here are an amalgam of the work of academics, professional trainers, teachers and support staff in many countries who have worked with international students, and domestic students. Many of the strategies have emerged from research, publications, and from trial and error in practice, both in New Zealand and overseas. They have also been developed in consultation with teachers and teaching professionals. Thus, in these senses, the strategies have received validation. There are some limitations in the development of these strategies. The strategies should be viewed as suggestions only and not as a blueprint for action in working with diverse students in the multicultural classroom. Some of the strategies may not work for some teachers in some situations; others teachers may already be using or have discarded some of them because they did not work or were inappropriate in a given context. Thus, the strategies are not prescriptions for working with students in the multicultural classroom; rather, they are intended as a source or bank of ideas to help teachers to cope with the ever-increasing array of different learners before themand especially international students. It is also important to remember that students in the multicultural classroom have a diversity of learning and language experiences. What works for some students may be problematic for others. Thus, the strategies should be viewed and implemented with flexibility, and with the teaching and learning context, as well as the individuality and idiosyncrasy of every student (and teacher) fore-grounded.

OVERVIEW OF SECTION TWO

Section Two consists of five goals and, within each goal, a range of guidelines or strategies that teachers may adopt/adapt in teaching diverse students in the multicultural classroom. The five goals are: to acknowledge and value cultural difference; to develop a culturally responsive classroom; to develop a range of strategies for dealing with differences in learning styles; to foster affirming communication strategies; and to promote socialisation beyond the classroom. Each of the five goals is introduced by a rationale that sets out the significance of the goal. Then, a range of strategies is provided to assist teachers in managing diversity in the multicultural classroom.

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CHAPTER 9

GOALS AND GUIDELINES

GOAL ONE: TO ACKNOWLEDGE, VALUE, AND CELEBRATE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
The emergence of the multicultural classroom in New Zealand educational institutions has been fuelled by a number of cultural, social and political changes. The last decade has seen a trend among education providers to internationalise their campuses, primarily by attracting international (fee-paying) students. At the same time, there has been a rapid increase in the number of permanent resident students who may not have English as their first language, or who may not have been educated in the medium of English. Alongside this wider Asian migration, there have been much longer standing patterns of demographic diversity in the classroom since the last centuryin relation to Moriand since the 1950sin relation to Pasifika. All of these changes require educational institutions, and those engaged in the processes of teaching and learning within them, to question the politics, pedagogies, and practices in operation, that is, to move from rhetoric and recognition to implementing the process of internationalisationto acknowledge, value, and celebrate cultural differences. DEVELOPING POLICIES AND PRACTICES THAT ACKNOWLEDGE MULTICULTURALISM AND INTERNATIONALISATION The increasingly multiethnic nature of learning institutions calls for a celebration of cultural differences at both the local and international levels, and an acknowledgement of the reciprocal relationships implicated in these links. At the local level, we need to acknowledge the heterogeneity of the student/staff population, as well as accommodate specific recognition of biculturalism and the place of other ethnic minority groups in New Zealand. Similarly, we should acknowledge the place and role of international students in this context while not diminishing their importance in contributing towards the internationalisation process. A response is required at the institutional level that recognises, acknowledges, and accommodates this diversity. Policies of multiculturalismhighlighting the cultural differences of those already in the classroom, and internationalisationthe political, cultural, linguistic, social, and geographical links between New Zealand and other countriesneed to be developed and implemented. According to the OECD (IMHE Info, 2004), internationalisation emphasises domestic students and faculty, curriculum, research, [and] extra-curricular activities and liaison with local cultural and ethnic [minority] groups. It includes dealing with the implications of cross-border education, especially the integration of international students, permanent residents, and scholars into campus life, teaching and research. Thus, while we may recognise, on the one hand, that the student population is becoming increasingly diverse or multiethnic, on the other, we need to recognise how the institutional structures and practices are responding. That is, are we seeing a multicultural approach in the institutional structures and practiceschanged policies, pedagogies, and practices? The following guidelines, some of which are adapted from the Leeds Metropolitan University internationalisation programme, provide a useful framework for institutions that are 62

multiethnic, that are attracting international students, and that want to enhance their multicultural and international approaches in preparing students for a globalised world: 1. Develop a policy and mission statement that reflects cultural diversity Ensure that the institution articulates a perspective in its positioning/mission statement to indicate to students who attend and teachers employed there the experience they can expect to have in terms of a diverse student (and staff) population Make the rationale and goals for diversity and internationalisation explicit Have a policy on and practice of a multiethnic mix to ensure a balanced mix across a range of ethnic groups Make explicit all the institutions responsibilities to international and other minority-group students Value international development projects, partnerships and collaborative projects 2. Ensure adequate and appropriate preparation of teachers Provide sufficient preparation and support to teachers for teaching and communicating in multicultural classrooms, including intercultural training, and teaching and learning in bilingual and second language contexts Encourage international research and collaboration, including invitations to visiting scholars Encourage teachers to gain teaching experience where they have the opportunity to develop awareness of, and familiarity with second language learning and teaching in a bi-, multilingual, or international context Ensure that recruitment and selection procedures sufficiently account for international, intercultural, and bicultural expertise 3. Value the presence of students from minority groups, including international students Give minority group and international students meaningful roles (e.g., by inviting them to speak at official or celebratory occasions, by giving them institutionally-recognised roles in the same way that domestic students are, for example, by employing them as tutors in tertiary institutions, or in other support capacities) Find out about, acknowledge, and utilise their expertise where appropriate (e.g., for the cultural and knowledge enrichment of the institution) 4. Provide student support services Ensure that the institution has a sufficiently-staffed support programme in place that covers learning, social activities with the host culture, counselling services (including access to same-language counsellors, where appropriate), and accommodation support Give minority group students, including international students, opportunities to engage in community development, service, and intercultural projects Provide orientation programmes for domestic, minority group and international students together. Include instruction on intercultural communication 5. Monitor the process of internationalisation Ensure that there is there a system in place, and a person designated, to monitor the effectiveness of the internationalisation process across all the above levels (where there are inadequacies, these need to be brought into line in accordance with the processes) 63

 Include teachers and support staff in the process of change Ensure that the programmes are suitably flexible to respond to any of the above changes 6. Provide orientation programmes to all students, including minority group and international students Include an intercultural training component to all students to promote intercultural communication and understanding about differences in teaching and learning and in communicating with culturally diverse students. Encourage all, including minority and international, students to explore their own assumptions about those from other cultures. Examine terms like ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, cultural differences (e.g., individualism/collectivism), differences in education systems and attitudes to knowledge (e.g., dialectic/dialogic communication differences in the classroom), etc. Include in the orientation programme (where appropriate): o New Zealand culture and traditions, stress management, time management, sexual and racial harassment, financial planning resources, banking systems, heath care systems (including sex education), driving in New Zealand, counselling services (including gambling), university rules and regulations, on and off campus organisations, finding mentors and conversation partners, employment while studying o Expectations of performance in the dialogic classroom (including asking questions, critical thinking and argumentation, referencing and using sources appropriately, examination protocol, etc) PROVIDING A MULTICULTURAL/INTERNATIONAL CURRICULUM To successfully integrate diversity in the multicultural classroom, there needs to be an appropriate curriculum that enables the participation of students from all cultures. The curriculum should enable all students to draw on their experience of being a student in the school/faculty/city/country, and bring this experience into the course/classroom. The following two strategies are critical to this success: 1. Monitor academic programmes Ensure that academic programmes are sufficiently international/intercultural (e.g., they include joint and double degree programmes) Ensure that courses/programmes recognise, value, and seek the knowledge and understanding brought to them by students from diverse backgrounds Encourage the study of another language, especially for those students (and teachers, support providers, and educators) who are English-monolingual Promote and facilitate international student exchanges and study abroad programmes that encourage students to reflect on their own ways of doing, thinking, and being 2. Internationalise the curriculum Ensure that the curriculum is intercultural, i.e., that it integrates the contributions of many different people and groups and explores the implications of interculturality while at the

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same time acknowledging the local and the links brought to the local context by a diverse/internationalised student-teacher population Ensure that courses/programmes respond positively to and encourage different learning cultures and needs Encourage students to be curious beyond their own cultural boundaries Within courses/programmes, give students the opportunity to analyse and recognise their own tacit knowledge and the influence of their experiences and cultures to inform the way they view the world Employ a wide range of learning strategies in the course/programmeindependent learning, group work, individual work, memorising, etc Ensure that teaching/learning formats accommodate the diversity of learning styles of students (e.g., videos, case studies, readings, discussion, lecturing/note taking, etc.)

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GOAL TWO: TO DEVELOP A CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE CLASSROOM

By having multiethnic and international students in the classroom, we cannot assume that intercultural interaction will necessarily occur, or that it will necessarily be positive. All students and teachers need preparation for understanding and managing cultural diversity in the classroom. Preparation requires the challenging and questioning of assumptions, on the part of teachers and students, as to how learning and communication take place. Recognising and managing cultural difference at the individual level is critical for successful interaction in the classroom. In this section, students attitudes to culture and knowledge are explored, followed by a challenge to teachers to examine their own assumptions about teaching and learning in a culturally responsive classroom. The section finishes by suggesting strategies for developing a culturally responsive classroom. UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES The model below shows how much of culture is hidden, that is, a large portion of what constitutes culture is beyond or below our conscious awareness.

Source: Ford, D. (2004), http://education.osu.edu/dyford/Pages/culture.htm

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This hidden area underlies our behaviour, influences our perceptions, and is out of our immediate frame of reference. When we encounter it unexpectedly, our assumptions about what we value and how we should behave, about what we think is right and wrong, are immediately put into question. While some may believe that the intercultural contact brought about by internationalisation and diversity may broaden our horizons, for others, engaging with those from other cultures may be stressful and confusing, or even put into question our own beliefs and values. Discovering and dealing with intercultural difference can be both confusing and challenging, especially when we are confronted with another way of acting or thinking about the world. The following strategies suggest ways in which teachers might challenge students to examine their preparation for learning in the multicultural classroom: Encourage students to examine the benefits they hope to gain from studying with students from other cultures Ask students to discuss with others what it means to be a member of their own culture. How do they act, communicate? What do they value? What rules guide their behaviour? Encourage students to examine their reactions to the customs/behaviour of others who are culturally different Ask students to articulate their feelings about entering a new culture, or about meeting people from a culture new to them. What was strange/unexpected/new/different? The next strategy moves beyond understanding culture to promote understanding of attitudes to knowledge, attitudes which are influenced by the socialisation and education we receive in our first culture. Ask students to discuss how they decided to come to the school/institution where they are studying? What factors motivated their choices? Invite students to reflect upon and share what it means to be a successful student? How do they go about achieving that success? What drives them to achieve their goals? Ask students to reflect upon their attitudes to knowledge and learning (e.g., do they expect the teacher to provide knowledge, or do they expect to question and challenge knowledge together in the classroom? Do they expect to be passive and absorb the knowledge provided by the teacher and through materials, or do they expect to find out and/or conduct research based on their own experiences and actions? While the questions in this last strategy reflect the bipolaritiesand to some extent, stereotypesof the teaching/learning styles discussed in the literature review, they do require students to reflect upon these bipolarities/stereotypes, challenge them, and question their own assumptions about how teaching and learning take place. At the same time, they open up the possibility of examining other possibilities of how knowledge is constructed and learned. THE COMPONENTS OF A CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE CLASSROOM Having acknowledged the importance of understanding cultural difference, the next stage is to develop a culturally responsive classroom. The table below provides a starting point for teachers to evaluate their own assumptions and expectations about how they approach teaching and learning in a classroom of international students. The table shows extreme positions; therefore, for each dimension, it is important that teachers recognise that there may be multiple positions 67

depending on the teaching context, content, and the process adopted in the classroom at a particular time. Thus, teachers should take care in interpreting their own positions and be flexible about where they might place themselves, keeping in mind changing circumstances. Table 8
Dimension Philosophy Knowledge Expectations

A comparison of traditional versus culturally responsive classrooms

Traditional I/Me philosophy; individualistic, competitive learning environment. Objective, neutral, often considered value-free, positivist. Usually pre-judged based on superficial or exterior factors not related to intelligence such as race, language. Students learning styles are seldom recognised. Culturally Responsive Us/We/Our philosophy; cooperative, communal learning environment Subjective, value-laden, new knowledge can be created, post-positivist. High expectations for all students. All students are capable of achieving. Provision of appropriate instruction needed to help students meet expectations. Active and experiential teaching is evident; tactile, kinaesthetic; visual learning styles are recognised and rewarded . Different learning styles are recognised and valued; teaching styles vary to accommodate students learning styles, which helps to maintain strengths and improve weaknesses. Curriculum targets all levels of multicultural education (contributions, additive, transformation, and social action). Minority students feel empowered because they consistently see themselves reflected in the curriculum. The dominant student group feel empowered because they have a better understanding of minority groups. Curricular materials are assessed for biases, insensitivity, and misinformation. Non-traditional and culturally fair instruments are used to identify the needs and strengths of all students. Tests are used in diagnostic and prescriptive ways. Relationships are considered a powerful factor in students success. Teachers make concerted efforts to connect with students interpersonally

Learning Styles

Teaching/ Instructional Styles

Teachers seldom vary teaching styles. Auditory teaching (e.g., lectures) is most prevalent. Students whose learning styles match teaching styles are likely to be more successful academically than other students. Multicultural curriculum targets the lowest levels of multiculturalism. The dominant student group (white New Zealand students) feel empowered because they consistently see themselves reflected in the curriculum.

Curriculum

Testing and Assessment

Traditional assessments are used to identify the needs and strengths of students. Inadequate attention is given to the harmful effects of traditional assessments on minority students. Relationships are viewed as important, but not considered an essential component of students success. Minority teachers are under-represented in schools. There are few efforts to diversify the teaching staff.

Student-Teacher Relationships

Teacher Diversity

Minority teachers are well represented in schools. Efforts to diversify the teaching profession are aggressive and ongoing . School Culture Monocultural orientation prevails. There is a Diversity incorporated in all facets of the token emphasis on issues of diversity. A colourschool environment. Teachers, staff, and blind philosophy permeates the school. administrators value the importance of diversity. Source: Adapted from Ford, D. (2004a). Retrieved 18 October, 2004, from http://coe.ohiostate.edu/dyford/Lessonplans/cultmismatch.chart2.htm

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THE SIX DIMENSIONS OF MULTICULTURAL TEACHING Developing a multicultural teaching approach requires teachers to periodically assess and reflect upon their teaching practices in the multicultural classroom. The six dimensions below provide a check point for teachers to consider as they work towards creating a culturally inclusive or responsive classroom.

Ford, D. (2004b). Retrieved 20 October 2004 from http://education.osu.edu/dyford/Pages/multicultural_teaching.htm

CREATING A CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE CLASSROOM A culturally responsive or inclusive classroom is a place where teachers and students work together to create a safe and supportive environment, and where all students are encouraged to express their ideas and concerns. According to Shade, Kelly, and Oberg (1997), there are four key requirements in creating a culturally inclusive and compatible classroom which are all addressed within the goals in this section. These are: An in-depth knowledge of different cultural groups A determination and desire to establish a strong student-teacher relationship with each student An extensive variety of instructional strategies The ability and strategies to build bridges between the sojourner and/or community culture and the institutional culture. More specifically, Saunders and Kardia (2004) suggest five influences impacting upon the creation of an inclusive learning environment: course content, prior assumptions,

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planning/grouping, knowledge of student backgrounds, and teacher communication in the classroom. The strategies to achieve these goals follow: 1. Ensure that course content covers multiple voices and perspectives Include multiple perspectives on each topic of the course, including a range of cultures and socio-economic statuses Include materials written or created by people of different backgrounds and/or perspectives so that a range of voices are heard and examined Include materials that address underrepresented groups experiences. Discuss any limitations in materials (e.g., where groups are marginalised or under-represented) 2. Encourage teachers to question their prior assumptions about teaching and learning approaches and students identities Diverse students bring to the classroom languages and other cultural knowledges that contribute to the learning context. It is therefore of critical importance that teachers acknowledge and incorporate these diverse knowledges and languages into the teaching and learning process. In order for teachers to maximise the potential offered within this diversity, Ryan (2000) suggests that teachers need to examine their own prior assumptions and attitudes in their approaches to teaching and to their students, particularly as they prepare to make changes to teaching and learning. She asks that teachers reflect on the following: Be aware of others cultural biases and assumptions Identify your own cultural biases and assumptions in a learning context Consider the importance you place on respecting the backgrounds and values of others Identify the benefits of learning from diverse students Be prepared to explore ways of changing your teaching and learning practices Assess the benefits of providing better learning experiences and improved outcomes for culturally diverse students Examine the assumptions you hold about the ideal student? How can you help students to be more like that without changing their current cultural behaviours? Here are some strategies to help teachers to address these assumptions. Where teaching and learning are concerned: Encourage students to seek help when they are struggling with a class or an assignment Be careful about categorising students from certain groups as being/not being/intellectual, responsible, satisfied with low/high average grades, lacking/excelling in ability, having high/low subject areas Do not assume that students from certain backgrounds, and who speak with an accent, are poor writers Do not assume that poor writing suggests limited intellectual ability Where students social identity (gender, race, ethnicity, disability, language, sexual orientation, etc.) is concerned, getting to know all students is an ongoing process that helps in developing a positive classroom climate that promotes excellence. The following points specifically ask teachers to question their assumptions about bilingual/EAL speakers and, therefore, how they (teachers) can create a climate of linguistic and cultural inclusiveness: Do not assume that students whose cultural affiliation is tied to non-English speaking groups are not native English speakers or bilingual 70

Do not assume that students affiliated to a particular group are experts on issues related to that group and feel comfortable being seen as information sources to the rest of the class and teacher who are not members of that group Do not assume that all students from a particular group share the same view on an issue, and their perspective will necessarily be different from the majority of the class who are not from that group Do not assume that students from certain groups are more likely to engage in conflict or be argumentative or not participate in class discussions

3. Plan to promote cultural inclusion Accommodate students who have cultural or religious practices that need to be observed during the programme (e.g., religious festivals, ceremonies) and be flexible about attendance and assignments Collect examples from a range of cultural reference points; include students examples, and check other students familiarity with the examples Consider your repertoire of teaching strategies; be aware of your preferred ones and consider introducing others Establish agreed upon ground rules early in the class to facilitate productive classroom discussions Where controversial topics are discussed and result in unfavourable outcomes, plan strategies to deal with the controversy: provide a structure to the discussion; encourage students to express their own ideas while also listening to and learning from others; correct stereotypes and challenge students assumptions when comments are shared; consider your own response to emotion in the classroom Pay attention to the grouping of students in the classroom and vary the mix Provide clear assignments and make the assessment process transparent 4. Gain a knowledge of student backgrounds Build relationships with your students. Some students value a caring and genuinely concerned attitude from their teachers. Have students write a brief autobiography, framed in a way relevant to the course content (e.g., their earlier experiences with the subject). This knowledge may help teachers to better understand students attitudes about the content and their needs Use office hours, written assignments, class discussion to further develop knowledge about and connections with students 5. Examine teacher decisions, comments, and behaviour during the teaching process Students bring very different background knowledge and learning styles to a particular course. They therefore construct multiple interpretations during the learning process. Teachers should consider the following points during the teaching process: Examine course content for inaccurate information and the absence of relevant perspectives Acknowledge students critiques of course content and process Create a classroom climate that encourages and expects questions about and critiques of course content. Such a climate will encourage critical thinking and reflection that will facilitate the learning process for all students. Students, in sharing their critiques, offer different interpretations and perspectives for others, and these will encourage others to 71

engage in critical thinking; they will also enable correction of inaccuracies or misrepresentations about the histories and experiences of their own groups Be prepared to devote unanticipated class time to class discussions about content and process. Encourage communication, both in class and via email or office hours, between students and teacher so that students and teacher can learn from one another Read out assignments in class to identify any omissions, misleading interpretations, misunderstandings; alert students to any controversial issues in the text to encourage them to be critical Be prepared to provide a scaffold or detailed guidelines about how students might structure their answer rather than assume that the ESOL/language support tutor will fill in the gaps Give serious consideration to students views that are in the minority to encourage broad and honest discussion about a topic. However, this does not mean that students views may not be above critique or that the teacher necessarily agrees with them. Invite all students to contribute to class discussions, even if the discussion is more relevant to some students than others. take care that any comments made in class that are not fully explained may inadvertently be misconstrued, invoke stereotypes, or promote inaccurate conclusions; however, be careful not to create the expectation that a student becomes the spokesperson for their group. Be sensitive to the experiences of visibly under-represented students in the class, i.e., whether the assignment is suitable to them, or whether they feel the need to portray themselves in a certain light to avoid reinforcing stereotypes Be aware of gender/ethnic group dynamics in class discussions and which, if any, group is dominating the discussion Act as a facilitator when conflict arises so that students can become aware of the learning moment the conflict provides; to avoid humility, students can be encouraged to link their feelings and conflicts to the course material by looking for underlying meanings and principles

6. Examine teacher language in the classroom Teachers need to be aware of, and if necessary, be able to critique their own assumptions about language knowledge and use in the classroom. May (2002), citing Wittgenstein, notes that the language of the classroom has its own set of rules, and in order for students to successfully compete in and play the game, they must first understand how these rules operate, and then learn how to successfully apply them. May makes the point that students already come with varied linguistic competences (e.g., knowledge of another language, knowledge of the rules of text messaging). However, teachers need to recognise these literacies and use them as a bridge to the acquisition of the academic and subject-specific language and conventions of the classroom. Therefore, teachers need to make explicit the specific origins and contexts of the words, the rules, and the practices that lead to students acquiring the subject specific language of the classroom and the associated academic conventions of how to use language. This topic is dealt with in more detail in Goal Four under the topic, the Role of Language, and further strategies for teachers are provided there.

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GOAL THREE: TO DEVELOP STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING STYLES
Because students previous learning experiences and conceptions of learning reflect the culture in which their education has been grounded, there is likely to be variation in how students in the multicultural classroom approach and respond to teaching and learning. Mismatches in expectations and assumptions can often occur between students and teachers. Teachers are therefore faced with having to develop strategies for dealing with these mismatches and differences in learning styles. The following topics are addressed in this section: structuring lessons, critical thinking, teaching students good writing strategies, and using good writing strategies to avoid plagiarism. One outcome of students adjustment to the teaching/learning process is their success in meeting assessment requirements. Therefore, how teachers approach assessment is of critical importance, so this topic is dealt with in depth. STRUCTURING LESSONS Making explicit the structure of a lesson and teacher expectations helps students to know what they need to focus on and learn. Baker (2002), deriving from her experiences of teaching international students at Wellington Institute of Technology, gives some excellent guidelines from which some of the following are adapted: Provide a clear structure to the content (course design, lecture/tutorial/lesson) Provide objectives, an introduction, internal summaries, a conclusion, and a review of the important points learned in the lesson Use signposts/transitions to show movement through the content/argument Move from a tight structure to a looser structure once students are more familiar with the teaching approach. Research suggests that students prefer learner-centred teaching, so including activities where students practice concepts reinforces the concept Provide examples (as many as required) to explain a concept or theory Vary the activities in a lesson to maintain interest; students, especially EAL students, get very tired concentrating Explain that the lesson will not necessarily follow the content and structure of the textbook; provide appropriate readings and refer to them during the lesson Provide a preview of the next lesson so that students can prepare; remind students of the reading required; clarify what follow up work is required Remind students that there is not one right answer, but there may be several ways of addressing a problem; give different model answers to a question and discuss the differences CRITICAL THINKING Students in the multicultural classroom may have come from an education system where argumentation and critical thinking skills were not encouraged or expected. Therefore, students may need help in developing this skill (as may domestic students). Again, the focus is on making explicit the process. Here are some possible ways of addressing this mismatch: 73

Invite students who have had some of their education in other cultures and who are experienced in your teaching (from an earlier class) to come into the class and talk to students about your teaching style and expectations and how they may adapt Teach the skill of critical thinking and how you expect students to respond to a reading, a concept, a theory, a case study, etc. Remind students that critical thinking involves identifying and responding to the topic, the issue, the main message, and the arguments. Teach students how to critically analyse an argument/theory/reading/etc. Here is a possible process: o Write a summary to identify the main points in a piece of writing Identify the line of reasoning o Question these points Arguments for and against Evaluate the evidence o Question the point of view of the writer Identify the writers conclusions Does the evidence given support these conclusions? o Compare and contrast ideas presented in the text with what you have read/learned already View your subject/topic from multiple perspectives o Discuss the implications of the evidence and present conclusions TEACHING STUDENTS GOOD WRITING STRATEGIES

Ballard and Clanchy (1997) remind teachers of their responsibility in teaching students how to write in their discipline: It is you, not the language teacher, who is the expert on the requirements for good writing in your own discipline (p. 67). The onus on the teacher, therefore, is to find ways of transmitting to all students the message for good writing, or good performance in any task. The following are good teaching strategies for helping students to improve their writing: Make the learning outcomes and teacher expectations clear Focus on the process (the how) as well as the content (the what) Provide guidelines or scaffolding (an outline of the content and the process) to show students the shape of the piece of writing Model appropriate behaviour through daily teaching practice, including examples of the style of thinking/writing you expect students to acquire/perform Ask questions to test students understanding Use computer technology, like WebCT and Blackboard, to encourage students to engage in discussion-based writing activities. Research shows that EAL and international students like writing on computers because they have more time to respond, to think about how to organise their ideas, and to polish their English. Encourage peer editing Peer editing is a way of developing students writing and has several advantages. Reading someone elses writing makes students better critics of their own writing. Receiving someone elses response helps them to see what works well and what could be improved. Third, student 74

writers can offer each other observations and explanations that are different from the comments of teachers. Encourage students to peer edit drafts of their work with others. Provide a clear guideline of what students should focus on when giving feedback Provide instruction to students first on the value of feedback and appropriate ways to offer suggestions. Encourage students to focus on what they thought was done well. (Students often dont know what they did well), and where the writing could be improved. All students find this task difficult initially, but with training and encouragement, they soon learn that unhelpful and unfocused feedback serves no purpose.) Use computer technology to encourage students to submit their work on line and receive feedback on the content and style from other students. (Students can be grouped for this process and clear guidelines about the how to give feedback and what to respond to need to be provided by the teacher. Commenting on what is working well and where improvements could be made are two useful strategies.) USING GOOD WRITING STRATEGIES TO AVOID PLAGIARISM The cultural construction and understanding of the term plagiarism varies among all students (see the discussion on plagiarism in Chapter 5, p. 36). While some students plagiarise for expediency as they rush to meet an assignment deadline, others do not see that they have done any wrong in taking the words of othersthe source of authorityto present their argument. Further, plagiarism offences are not confined to international students alone, as is often the perception. All students need to be reminded that learning is about understanding and presenting responses to the ideas of others as well as showing that their own ideas are well informed by citing the work/ideas/words of others. Developing students critical thinking and problem solving skills is often a goal in New Zealand educational institutions, and a key component of university education. Students are required to demonstrate this understanding of the work of others through acknowledgement of their work, that is, through proper referencing. Many Asian, and in particular, Chinese students, are not familiar with the rules and conventions of acknowledging the ideas of others. Therefore, this cultural construction requires that teachers teach students three key principles: students are informed about and understand what plagiarism is; they are taught the rules and conventions of referencing; and they are taught the processes of paraphrasing, synthesising information from a wide range of sources, and weaving the ideas/words of others into their own writing. 1. Put policies and practices in place At the institutional level, provide guidelines that define plagiarism and a policy that informs students of the formal rules and regulations around plagiarism (see, for example, Plagiarism and Summary Jurisdiction Information Handbook, prepared by the Student and Academic Services Division for students at the University of Waikato). Explicitly state to the students the consequences of not complying with these rules Encourage electronic submission of assignments. Consider adopting plagiarism detection software such as turnitin.com to check electronic submissions Ask for two copies of each paperone to keep on file (and let students know you do this) 75

Recognise that students have different cultural constructions of how knowledge is used and presented, and work from their understanding to prepare them for writing assignments that encourage them to explore ideas and learn ways of thinking In the classroom, discuss what plagiarism is and give real examples Show how to meet referencing requirements and explain why they are required Give students support and understanding to help them avoid plagiarism

2. Make explicit the rules and conventions of referencing The why and the how of the rules against plagiarism require discussion with students, in particular, the cultural conventions and rules in place and the differing societal attitudes towards ownership and use of other peoples knowledge. Discuss with students the benefits of citing sources in their writing Discuss differences across cultures in how knowledge is regarded and how it can be used by others (i.e., international and local laws, country-specific conventions, values and attitudes towards knowledge) Explain why referencing is important (i.e., to give credit to authors whose ideas have been used, to avoid stealing another persons intellectual property, to enable another reader to locate the material, to demonstrate knowledge of the literature) Explain the different types of referencing systems (e.g., APA, Harvard, etc.) and why they are used Explain the process (e.g., how to quote using in-text citations, how to discuss the quotations used, how to be true to the authors original meaning) Demonstrate to students how to paraphrase, synthesise, and weave other sources into their own work Teach students how to compile a reference list (by adding sources as they go) and the rules for and conventions around this compilation 3. Demonstrate expectations Besides discussing plagiarism, show good use of sources and the nature of collaboration in your discipline. Show how scholars in your discipline build on others work. Analyse passages exemplifying accumulation of an idea, synthesis, critical analysis, and disagreement; focus on the thinking involved and not just the format of documentation Show good examples in class of this operation; consider also showing passages of faulty student writing Keep models of good student writing to show students when they come for help; or invite students to come and see the examples 4. Make assignments an integral part of the course Teachers can set writing tasks as an integral part of the lesson and use assignments as a practical way of deterring plagiarism, as a way of exploring ideas and learning ways of thinking. Getting students to think about what they are learning is essential for success. Proctor (2004) suggests the following guidelines: Vary topics from year to year Base some assignments on material covered in class (concepts, operations, texts), not just on extra reading or work done outside class or in your course 76

Give specific cues, e.g., a passage in a given text, a point of contention from a class discussion, a current event Consider restricting the range of acceptable sources; or ask for justification of sources chosen, especially Web sites Structure the assignments as a set of links or stages so that students can see their learning develop and accumulate Consider asking for genres other than essays and reports, e.g., exam questions, proposals, letters, interviews, and journalistic articles can require precise, clear writing and analytic use of sources

5. Focus on the process as well as the product Give constructive feedback on student writing early in the programme Structure larger assignments as sets of stages or modules; require plans or drafts, with a specific focus for each component (e.g., annotations of readings, formulation of problems, analysis of group work) Ask for self-analytic comments on strategies of reasoning and writing, e.g., reading journals, statements of aim, formulation of research problems met and solved, an impromptu paragraph or two on the day an assignment is submitted on what I learned by doing this writing. These writings may also be helpful to the teacher in demystifying shared problems or misconceptions ASSESSMENT Where assessment is concerned, there can be mismatches in expectations and assumptions between teachers and students. For example, teachers are concerned about maintaining standards and about the effort required to do things differently for EAL students, while these students may feel disadvantaged by the methods used and by a lack of background knowledge that teachers assume they have (Ryan, 2000). Ryan argues that teachers should not lower the standards for or go easy on students, including EAL and international students which, in the long run, will not help them. Instead, finding other pathways that enable students to demonstrate their capabilities and knowledge, removing any barriers, and tailoring student assessment to student needs are all strategies that will help students to succeed. However, these other pathways are made all the more difficult under the current National Certificate in Educational Attainment (NCEA), whereby all international students must pass NCEA Level 2 literacy requirements (including writing accuracy) as a precondition for university entry. This requirement is likely to prejudice and disadvantage international students as the level of writing accuracy required is predicated on the norms of writers whose first language is English. Within the area of assessment, teachers might consider the following strategies: 1. Examine prior assumptions and expectations about assessment tasks Before setting assessment tasks, again, it is important that teachers question their prior assumptions and expectations. Ryan (2000) suggests that teachers make this check by asking themselves: Do I expect all students to follow set formats and structures in essays and assignments? Do I value alternative writing styles? 77

Do I provide assessment tasks that are flexible and can be negotiated to suit individual students needs?

When assessing students work, teachers should ask themselves: Do I assess for content or style? Do I unconsciously reward students for their facility with language and expression and, therefore, essays that are easy to read? Do I admire a confident and articulate style of argument? Am I marking against the stated learning outcomes rather than my own personal prejudices or preferences? 2. Analyse the appropriateness of the tasks being set Students from diverse learning backgrounds need help and training in fulfilling the expectations of assessment criteria, and in presenting work in the required format (e.g., whether an essay, laboratory or business report). Ryan suggests the following approaches to guiding students in their assessment tasks: Make clear the order in which things are to be done Provide supplementary questions to the main task or question to give guidance as to how students should respond Ensure students know what terms like discuss, critically analyse, compare and contrast mean, and how the work should be structured to fulfil the requirements of these terms Use a range of approaches for writing tasks instead of the culturally bound essay, e.g., story telling, letters, journals, dialogues, etc., or a multimedia portfolio that encapsulates their learning Allow students to negotiate their own assessment tasks and topics so that they can use their individual strengths, background knowledge, educational skills and interests; they may also negotiate the assessment criteria where appropriate Ask students to submit a portfolio of work where, for example, five of the seven tasks are assessed 3. Help students to succeed Students, in particular EAL and international students, who are unfamiliar with the styles and modes of assessment of the institution, need help in the form of guidance and models to realise what is required of them. To help students through the process of developing a written answer, Ryan (2000, p. 48) suggests that teachers provide explicit help in the following ways: Encourage students to write short, simple sentences Encourage students to write a plan, using diagrams or concept maps or an outline so that they are encouraged to organise their ideas; a number of drafts may be required Provide examples of successful essays/reports/proposals, etc., written by previous students, pointing out the range of different structures and strategies, and the flow of how an argument is established or the organisation and content of parts of the piece of writing Model simple topics with the class to show how a piece of writing could be structured; ask students to contribute ideas for another similar topic; encourage alternative strategies and structures Provide support to students as they prepare presentations so that they develop the required skills, and alternatives that will make the situation less stressful 78

4. Provide clear, explicit, and fair criteria All students need assessment criteria that are clear, explicit, and fair. McLoughlin (1995) suggests the following strategies: Make course objectives explicit and show students the link between objectives and assessed work, so assessment methods must match course objectives and activities for student learning Write assignment questions so that students are clear about the tasks, i.e., the intended evidence, the format and style, the length, etc. Make the marking criteria explicit and available to students before they begin assessed work Be reasonable in expectations of correct language use; focus on rewarding good style rather than on deducting marks for errors Include a writing/presentation component in the grading so that students gain credit for good writing. There is a perception, on the part of some domestic students, that teachers overlook language problems in EAL students writing. Students who write well can gain credit while EAL students will not be overly disadvantaged if their grammar and style are weaker; good ideas can be rewarded in another part of the assessment (As a caveat, this strategy becomes problematic in relation to the current NCEA literacy requirements for international students seeking to enter a university.) 5. Provide adequate, timely, and helpful feedback All students also require adequate, timely and helpful feedback from their teachers. The feedback should be constructive and enable students to see where they have improved and where they could do better. Some of the following strategies have been adapted from Ryan (2000): Remind students that feedback is an important part of the learning process Give feedback on what has been done well, as well as areas for improvement using clear and complete sentences Be prepared to assess work in progress, offering constructive criticism (e.g., on the structure, on a draft outline, or on a section of the work, then ask the student to revise the work and incorporate the teachers suggestions Address common problems with the whole class to save face for individual students, and to save time; use real examples to demonstrate points Check that assessment practices are fair, i.e., that international students are achieving as well as other students, and that they feel that their assessment reflects their ability Try to give feedback in a positive, non-confronting way; describe the behaviour, not the person Consider giving feedback to the whole group in class, which has the advantage of being anonymous and time saving; provide examples so that international students can follow and see illustrations of appropriate and inappropriate work To avoid loss of face, use the third person Sometimes people dont use enough evidence to support their arguments Be aware that a smile can sometimes hide embarrassment (both the teachers and the students) Give feedback in language that is descriptive and explicit; link the feedback to the learning objectives

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6. Set examinations to accommodate diverse students needs Exams can be stressful for many students, especially international students as they are likely to forget their English, or they may not fully understand the often subtle prompts within an exam question. Consider varying the examination format between short answersthe more familiar format for international studentsand essay answers to enable students to better demonstrate their abilities Provide more time for international students, and consider allowing them to use dictionaries; or include glossaries in the exam paper Use clear, straightforward English and unambiguous language in the exam questions and instructions Ensure that questions and subject matter can be understood and are not Eurocentric Consider providing a scaffolding or guidelines on how to answer a question instead of employing terms like critically discuss which may not have a clear meaning or provide a clear direction for answering a question Include a range of topics that allow all students to demonstrate their knowledge, experience and perspective Ensure that the assessment tasks are inclusive and cognisant of all students cultural and educational backgrounds, i.e., they enable all students to perform according to their strengths Ensure that all examinationsnational and localare set appropriately to assess the learning of both international and domestic students

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GOAL FOUR: TO FOSTER AFFIRMING COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM

Research suggests that it is important for domestic students to learn about some one elses culture while at the same time reflecting upon their own culture in order to promote intercultural understanding. Thus, creating opportunities for socialisation between and among all groups of students, including minority and international students, in the class is important if institutions, teachers, and all students are to benefit from the multicultural classroom and from programmes of internationalisation. In addition, teachers need to build a climate where all students feel safe and can trust others when voicing their own opinions. PRACTISING SOCIALISATION STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM Current pedagogy suggests that discussion and reflection are at the heart of much teaching and learning. It is therefore necessary to provide students with opportunities for discussion to encourage them to actively engage in the subject matter, to activate their prior knowledge and experience, and to develop a reflective and critical approach in their learning experiences. Cosh (2000) concludes that the opportunity for all students to examine and discuss differences may significantly assist their ability to adapt and succeed in the education system. Thus, there is a need to foster a positive social climate to enable all students to feel comfortable in asking questions and expressing their ideas. The following strategies will help to foster a social climate where there are positive interactions in the classroom: Recognise that students from traditional educational backgrounds see teachers as holding a position of power and the source of knowledge; therefore, the teachers voice may be valued more than feedback from students. Be explicit about the role of both students and teachers in the cooperative learning process Encourage all students, and in particular, students from other cultures, to talk about themselves, about their family, and about their home town so that all the students in the class know something about one another; in this way, each students voice is heard. This strategy may help New Zealand students to overcome their shyness in talking to students from other cultural backgrounds once they have a starting point Use students names (preferably their given name and not an English equivalent as students often appreciate teachers efforts in finding out if they prefer their own name to be used); check pronunciation of the name and encourage other students to pronounce names correctly; ask for someones first name, rather than Christian name; use name tags for the first session or introduction activities Acclimatise students to the class by getting them to read from overheads to the rest of the class Assign information gathering tasks that require students to find out about each other or collaborate; students from other cultural backgrounds need to feel included and be on an equal footing as domestic students Use ice-breakers or warm up activities that are informal and non-threatening Preserve harmony as much as possible in the classroom to avoid students losing face; try to provide feedback in a way that does not cause loss of face; similarly, be aware that international students will not want the teacher to lose face and may therefore be reluctant 81

to question what you tell them or ask them to do (at least, not in face-to-face communication) Be patient, act as a coach; teacher rapport with students is the foundation for good teaching; research has found that students problems with learning can often be a result of their relationship with the teacher Recognise that some cultures value silence; some students may see the communication that takes place in the dialogic classroom as unnecessary time being wasted in prolonged discussion; they may also consider that New Zealand students ask too many and unnecessary questions at times. Remind students of the purpose of the discussion and how discussion is an important process or stage in arriving at the learning outcome THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE

Acknowledging and valuing students (and teachers) first languages is an important step in fostering a positive social climate. Sharing the languages of the students in the class signals to the speaker of a particular language that their language is valued. It also exposes the other students to other language systems, and signals a recognition and value of language diversity. As discussed in the literature review in Section 1, numerous studies have pointed to language being blamed as a source of difficulty in communication and learning in the multicultural classroom where, in fact, language problems quite often mask mismatches in teaching and learning as EAL students try to assimilate new attitudes to knowledge, new approaches to learning, and a different communication style in the classroom. Therefore, teachers need to be aware of their own talk in the classroom so that they are not privileging those who are already cognisant of the language structures of, for example, the academic classroom. May (2002) argues that teachers need to teach the academic English of the classroom more explicitly, while also developing and using both their own and their students awareness of and knowledge about language structures. The process includes recognition of the existence and practices of other literacies, each having their own internal rules and linguistic complexities. The process might also involve asking students to look at their own language forms and compare and contrast these with the norms and practices of the language of the classroom. In addition, it requires that teachers value and use the multiple and varied literacies of their students as bridges to the acquisition of English language literacy. Thus, those students who have had another classroom language experience will not be disadvantaged simply because they are not familiar with the dominant language structure. 1. Ensure adequate English language competence It is important here, and highlighted in the discussion above, that teachers recognise that academic English in the classroom is a specific language register, and one that they must make explicit to students. Ensure that English language requirements are set at appropriate levels to enable international and EAL students to achieve in the learning environment Make explicit the academic English necessary for EAL students to succeed, particularly since the English language requirements of institutions do not always reflect the level of English language competence required Actively foster links between students first language and English, a process which facilitates, rather than detracts from, the learning of English (May, 2002) 82

 Ensure that there are opportunities for ongoing language development in place (e.g., through a wide range of ESOL programmes, tutor support, and within the mainstream classroom) Offer other ways for first-language speakers to develop their English language competence, e.g., informal conversation classes at lunch times with local students, social events, voluntary and work experience opportunities in the community 2. Monitor teacher language Teachers can help all students to understand content and process in obvious ways, for example, speaking clearly, to the students at the back of the room, and at a moderate pace. Similarly, individual peculiarities of accent may be problematic initially. By using language with care it is then possible to avoid alienating or losing the attention and good will of all students. However, there are many more subtle issues about the language used by teachers that can be confusing to first-language speakers. The following strategies, some of which are offered by Ryan (2000, p. 21) and Baker (2002), alert teachers to ways of helping students understanding and avoiding offence to students from other cultures: Avoid idiomatic, and colloquial language or New Zealand slang Use literal and unambiguous language Define technical terms (more than once, and in different ways and provide contexts for its use) Explain New Zealand specific terms, like the domestic purposes benefit or Rogernomics Avoid using terms such as our culture which may imply that other cultures are inferior or irrelevant Avoid terms such as third world or underdeveloped countries which may also imply inferiority Use respectful terms an Asian student highlights cultural difference, but a student from Singapore acknowledges the person as an individual Make reference to additional information about students, such as religious, racial or national descriptors, when relevant When describing other cultural practices, try to draw on commonalities as well as differences; portray accurately rather than sensationally Respect cultural or religious practices and beliefs and do not accord your own as having a higher status (which is a form of cultural imperialism) Recognise the heterogeneity of international students and the multifaceted characteristics of individuals Always respond to racist remarks; make it clear that they will not be tolerated 3. Monitor student language Students who do not have English as a first language often lack confidence in their language ability to speak up in class, to participate in small group discussions, or to give presentations to the class. In many cultures, silence and passivity in class (as in the dialectic classroom) are virtues. In attempting to speak in class, these students may feel that they are wasting the time of the teacher and other students, that their grammar and language may be wrong or incomprehensible, or that they may be asking a silly question, thus resulting in embarrassment and a loss of face. Minority group students such as Pasifika, permanent resident, and international students need to be helped and encouraged in these contexts so that they can 83

feel included. Ryan (2000) suggests the following strategies for assisting these students to develop competence in the classroom: Allow students to use their own words and ways of expressing themselves Provide opportunities to speak in class; pause and allow time for thinking and organising language; avoid finishing the sentence for students; if students are struggling, suggest words or phrases, but let them complete what they want to say Try not to correct students language overtly; instead, it may be possible to subtly rephrase the question or answer with the correct words; help out later in private if necessary Use a few questions if you cannot understand; if you still dont understand, suggest discussing the point with the student after class to avoid embarrassment When checking for comprehension, avoid questions like Has everyone understood? which implies that they should have; instead, try questions such as Is there anything that is still unclear? or Have I explained that well enough? or One or two areas may still be unclear or Any questions? Recognise and accept that using students first language can assist them in acquiring the academic English of the classroom; it may also provide a relief device. At the same time, try to find ways of encouraging the use of English by finding other ways of saying something Monitor the use of dictionaries with the aim of reducing students dependency on them over time. Follow up on words that students do not understand later. Some words that occur out of context defy identification and therefore require access to a dictionary Give students prior warning that they will be required to speak in class so they have time to prepare what they will say Ask students to work in pairs so that they can assist one another to report to the class Where presentations are concerned, consider whether students might videotape their presentation, or use a format that requires less talking, such as a poster presentation; provide opportunities for students to do a practice run (e.g., during office hours) 4. Value other languages Celebrate language diversity by asking students from other linguistic and cultural backgrounds to teach the class greetings in their own language; make a list of all the greetings presented and distribute to the class Encourage students to teach the class a popular song or nursery rhyme (songs can be fun and an easier way to access another language) Encourage domestic students to take up the study of another language, either as a course of study, or as an extra-curricular activity Be tolerant of EAL students speaking their own language in class (where appropriate/necessary) and in social groups on campus COMMUNICATION IN SMALL GROUPS Group work is a feature of the dialogic classroom. Bringing all students together in small groups where cooperative learning can take place provides an ideal opportunity for enhancing intercultural communication in the classroom. Research suggests that culturally mixed groups can be conducive to greater intercultural interaction in the long run. As students engage in face-to84

face communication they learn positive interdependence and social skills. Small cooperative learning groups have several advantages in the classroom. They facilitate student learning, they usually improve interpersonal relations among students, including the building of trust; they enable students to learn a range of perspectives from others in the class; and they foster students responsibility for learningtheir own and others in the group. Students engage in discussions where they sharpen their thinking and language skills. However, the success of these groups in achieving the learning outcome and in enabling a positive intercultural communication experience requires careful management and planning of tasks. As reported in the literature review, international students can experience difficulty with group work, for example, having their ideas marginalised or ignored completely, and local students complaining that they need to write the whole group assignment because an international students English is inadequate. Further, students from traditional backgrounds tend to view group work as an interdependent activity, whereas New Zealand students often take an individualist approach of dividing up the work and then patching it together at the end. Ongoing opportunities for students to engage in group work will enable them to improve their communication and management processes, thereby increasing the success of the experience. The following strategies will help to make group work more effective and enjoyable and achieve the goal of cooperative learning: 1. Monitor the grouping of students Provide opportunity for students to have one other member from the same culture in their group (if that is their preference) to provide language and peer support and to help counter marginalisation of voice Consider using groups for a variety of purposesin-class groups for discussion or assignments, homework groups, problem-solving groups, study groups. Choose from a range of methods in forming groups Make groups heterogeneous across ethnicity, gender, ability, home town or country; same culture groups can work well, but research suggests that they are not conducive to achieving the benefits of internationalisation Randomly assign students to groups by numbering, by drawing a number out of a bag, by choosing someone they havent worked with or spoken to before Allow students to form their own groups occasionally, although use this method sparingly and with caution so as to avoid reinforcing social group differences Address assumptions students might make about who they need in the group by reminding students that each individual brings a different combination of strengths and weaknesses into the group work context Check for the length of time students stay in one particular group. In some instances, students prefer to maintain the same group because they have developed cooperative learning strategies and developed trust; in other instances, exposure to a range of students in a class may improve intercultural understanding and engagement with different ideas and learning styles 2. Monitor the communication in groups Give students roles within the group and encourage them to rotate roles (e.g., observer, encourager, summariser, notetaker/recorder, reporter) Pay attention to process issueshow well the group is working together in progressing towards the learning outcome 85

Assist students in providing feedback to one another; encourage them to have process meetings where they discuss what is working well and what group processes need to be improved; remind students to focus on specific group behaviours, such as meeting a group deadline, rather than on individuals behaviours Encourage students to follow these basic rules when giving feedback, but adapt these rules according to the context/situation: o Be descriptive rather than judgmental o Be specific as opposed to general o Give adequate and fair feedback o Make useful comments that enable the receiver to change future behaviour o Give feedback at the right time (as soon as possible after the event) o Respond to requests rather than being forceful o Give correct feedback Inform students that you are available to help them to work through the group process if the group members are unable to successfully address a problem themselves; worst, it may be necessary to meet with a student individually and then with the group

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GOAL FIVE: TO PROMOTE SOCIALISATION BEYOND THE CLASSROOM

While teachers can do much to facilitate intercultural interaction in the classroom, research indicates that students from other cultural backgrounds have much more difficulty in meeting New Zealand students and making friends outside of the classroom. Furthermore, many international students report having completed their studies and returned to their country without having made a significant and lasting friendship with a New Zealander. The institution can play an important role here in promoting socialisation beyond the classroom so that the benefits of internationalisation and diversity can be appreciated by all. Further, socialisation promotes ongoing recognition, acknowledgement, and inclusion of difference. An important part of this process is acknowledging the multiculturalism that exists within New Zealand, including the place of Mori, local practices and customs, and migration trends from the Pacific and Asia and, more recently, South Africa. Here are some possible ways of including social activities in the programmes of institutions: 1. Celebrate multiculturalism at the institutional level Begin orientation with a powhiri to acknowledge the place of Mori; this has the advantage of helping non-Mori New Zealand students understand the experience of being in a different culture Celebrate diversity by having an international day; encourage all members of the institution to wear their national costume or an adornment that represents their culture (including New Zealanders) Celebrate linguistic diversity; just as Te Reo Mori is taught across all disciplines, encourage the exposure and use of other languages where appropriate Offer international foodeither in food halls; or enable people to set up private stalls on the campus Encourage staff and students to present their culture to others in assemblies, in classes Acknowledge ethnic groups/countries in visual displays Place photographs with stories of students and teachers (including a story about who they are, where they come from, and their achievements) on the walls in communal buildings, just as academic, innovation and sporting success is displayed Offer sports clubs and sports days, but at a level that is accessible to all students, e.g., within a form level, or within a school of study/faculty Provide social evenings that include culturally inclusive games where all students can interact Create voluntary/paid work opportunities for international students in community development, service, and intercultural projects Employ all students, including students from other cultures, in support/assistant roles, and as mentors, tutors, and providers of learning support 2. Celebrate multiculturalism at the student level Provide informal/voluntary conversation hours between non-native speakers of English and domestic students Set up informal learning and social support networks among students from other cultures and domestic students; these may be both same culture (to enable students from the same 87

culture to make sense of their experiences together) and multicultural (to gain experiences with those from the home culture) Draw on the expertise of students from other cultures, where appropriate, and in an inclusive manner Make orientation multicultural and include domestic students in the process

The strategies suggested in Goal Five will be explored in more depth in a follow up research project in which the authors are collaborating. The focus of the research is on interactions with international students in the learning environment and in the community. In the report, further guidelines will be provided that address socialisation beyond the classroom, including accommodation issues, and community engagement and responses.

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APPENDIX 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTERCULTURAL TRAINING LITERATURE Drum, J., Hughes, S., & Otero, G. (1994). Global winners: 74 Learning activities for inside and outside the classroom. Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Fowler, S. M., & Mumford, M. G. (Eds.). (1995). Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods (vol. 1). Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Fowler, S. M., & Fowler, M. G. (Eds.). (1999). Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods (vol. 2). Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Hess, J. D. (1994). The whole world guide to culture learning. Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Hofstede, G. J., Pedersen, P., & Hofstede, G. (2002). Exploring culture: Exercises, stories and synthetic cultures. Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Kohls, R. L. & Knight, J. M. (1994). Developing intercultural awareness: A cross-cultural training handbook. Yarmouth, MA: Intercultural Press. Seelye, H. N. (Ed.). (1996). Experiential activities for intercultural learning (Vol. 1). Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Simons, G., Abrams, B., Hopkins, L.A. & Johnson, D. J. (1996). Cultural diversity: Fresh visions and breakthrough strategies for revitalizing the workplace. Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Singelis, T. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching about culture, ethnicity and diversity: Exercises and planned activities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Storti, C. (1994). Cross-cultural dialogues: 74 brief encounters with cultural difference. Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. Wang, M. M., Brislin, R., Wang, W.-Z., Williams, D., & Chao, J. H. (2000). Turning bricks into jade: Critical incidents for mutual understanding among Chinese and Americans. Yarmouth, MN: Intercultural Press. As a word of caution, the exercises in many of these books are designed for American audiences. Therefore, the exercises may require some adaptation and recontextualisation to be appropriate for the students in the New Zealand multicultural context. The further textbook on intercultural communication, and British in origin, provides a new approach to helping students to understand and work within contexts of diversity. Its goal is to encourage students to think about difference outside of the traditional concepts addressed in many books about intercultural teaching and learning (as in the above list). The authors aim to help students to develop skilled communication strategies and principles in a globalising world. Examples come from contexted intercultural interaction based on the authors own experiences. Teachers might adapt these examples to the New Zealand context. A further section in the book invites readers/students to bring their own cultural experiences and contexts into research activities and exercises: Holliday, A., Hyde, M. & Kullman, J. (2004). Intercultural Communication: An advanced resource book. London: Routledge.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr Elsie Ho is Senior Research Fellow in the Migration Research Group of the University of Waikato. Originally from Hong Kong, she has worked as Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Dr Ho migrated to New Zealand in the early 1990s and completed her Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Waikato in 1995. She is an active researcher in the area of cross-cultural adaptation of Asian immigrants and international students, and has published articles on the topics of Asian transnational communities, migrant adaptive strategies, migrant entrepreneurship and mental health issues. Dr Prue Holmes is Senior Lecturer in Intercultural Communication in the Waikato Management School. She has extensive qualifications and teaching experience in English language education. Dr Holmes obtained her Ph.D. from the University of Waikato in 2000. Her research focuses on teaching and learning experiences with international students, and on intercultural communication among domestic and international students in the multicultural learning environment. Ms Jenine Cooper is Researcher in the Migration Research Group. She completed her Masters thesis in 2003, and her research has involved working with the small Congolese community of New Zealand in order to understand their experiences as recent immigrants in New Zealand. Ms Cooper has been employed by the Centre for Continuing Education to teach secondary school leavers study skills in the Certificate for University Preparation (CUP) courses, and as a tutor for first year anthropology papers.

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