Academic English Writing

Study in English skills

David T. Morgan

Contents Introduction Essays in English Reports in English Harvard Referencing System Paraphrasing and Summarizing Structure and Vocabulary Aid

Page 2 3 7 43 53 56 57 59 60

Note taking, Listening, Participation Note Making

Evaluate Your Present Note-Taking System

Academic English Writing:

Introduction:
Writing is necessary for all students in higher education. It is a process. It starts from understanding your task. It then goes on to doing the research and reading. The next stage is planning and writing various drafts. This is followed by proof-reading and editing. All this should lead to the final text. Academic writing is a social practice. By a social practice I mean that it is what people do together. This means that you always write with a readership in mind. You always write with a purpose: to explain, to persuade etc. It also means that what is right and wrong, appropriate or inappropriate is defined by the users in the social community. In your case these are other students, lecturers or examiners. There is nothing natural about the organisation and the way language is used in a scientific report, for example. It is as it is because that is the way it has developed through centuries of use by practitioners. For that reason it has to be learned. No-one speaks (or writes) academic English as a first language. It must be learned by observation, study and experiment. Academic writing in English is clearly defined by having an obvious audience; a clear purpose, either an exam question to answer or a research project to report on. It is also clearly structured. Academic writing in English is linear: it starts at the beginning and finishes at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digression or repetition. This line of argument must be made clear whatever kind of writing you are producing and you, the writer, are responsible for making this line of argument clear and presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. Your written work should have the following sections: Preliminari es Main text End matter The preliminaries and end matter will depend on the kind of text you are writing. The main text will, however, generally contain an introduction, a main body and a conclusion. The introduction will usually consist of some background information, which will give the reason for the writing and explain, to some extent, how this will be done. This must be closely connected to the essay or research question. The main body will then contain some data either experimental, from ideas or from reading - and some argument. This will then lead to the conclusion, which will refer back to the introduction and

show that the purpose has been fulfilled. The actual form of the main body will depend on the type of writing. Common pieces of writing in the academic world are essays and reports.

Essays in English
Almost all students will at some time be expected to write an essay, or some other kind of argument, e.g. a review or discussion section, in a longer piece of writing. In English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long written about one topic, usually based on your reading. The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the wording of the title or question, and needs to be defined at the beginning. The purpose of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people's ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice should show clearly. The ideas and people that you refer to need to made explicit by a system of referencing. According to Linda Flower (1990, p. v) "students are reading to create a text of their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose." Your essay should have the following sections: 1. Preliminaries 2. Main text Title page Introduction Main body Conclusion References

3. End matter

1. Preliminaries:
Before you start the main part of your essay or assignment, there should be a title page. The title page should contain information to enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your name and course; the title of the assignment and any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your department for clear information.

2. Main text:
English essays are linear: They start at the beginning and finish at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making their line of

argument clear and presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph discusses one major point and each paragraph should lead directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction and a conclusion. The main text of the essay has three main parts: I. II. III. An introduction A main body A conclusion

I. The introduction:
The introduction consists of two parts: a. It should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay and to attract the reader's attention. It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc. b. It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question. It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of the writing.

II. The main body:

The main body consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the essay must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its development.

III. The conclusion:

The conclusion includes the writer's final points. a. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the main body b. And explain the overall significance of the conclusions. What general points can be drawn from the essay as a whole? It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved.

I. INTRODUCTION General Statement Organisation Statement

II. MAIN BODY A. Introductory Sentence Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 ... Concluding Sentence

B. Introductory Sentence Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 ... Concluding Sentence

C. Introductory Sentence Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 ... Concluding Sentence

III. CONCLUSION Recall issues in introduction; draw together main points; final comment.

3. End Matter:
At the end of the essay, there should be a list of references. This should give full information about the materials that you have used in the assignment.

Reports in English:
Many students, particularly science and business students will at some time be expected to write a report. Example: Your report should have the following sections: 1. Preliminaries Title page Abstract Contents Introduction Methodology Findings/Results Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

2. Main text

3. End matter

I. INTRODUCTION Background Identification of Gap Organisation Statement

II. METHODOLOGY Introductory Sentence - Overview Procedures Materials ... Concluding Sentence

III. FINDINGS/RESULTS Introductory Sentence Locating Results Findings Comment ... Concluding Sentence

IV. DISCUSSION Introductory Sentence - Overview Review of Findings Possible Explanations Limitations ... Concluding Sentence

V. CONCLUSION Recall Issues in Introduction - Report Purpose;

Draw Together Main Points; Final Comment - Clear Conclusion. 3. End Matter:

At the end of the report, there should be a list of references. This should give full information about the materials that you have used in the report. 1. Preliminaries:

Before you start the main part of your report, there should be a title page. The title page should contain information to enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your name and course; the title of the assignment and any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your department for clear information. A report should also normally include an abstract and a contents page. The abstract should give some background information, clearly state the principal purpose of the report, give some information about the methodology used, state the most important results and the conclusion. The contents page will give page numbers for the main sections. Writing an abstract:

The abstract is the first section of the report. It usually comes after the title and before the introduction. In some subject areas, this section may be titled "summary". The abstract provides an overview of the study based on information from the other sections of the report. The reader can read the abstract to obtain enough information about the study to decide if they want to read the complete report. Because it contains elements from the whole report, it is usually written last. Ordering Your Information

Abstracts from almost all fields of study are written in a very similar way. The types of information included and their order are very conventional. The box that follows shows the typical information format of an abstract

ORDER OF ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN AN ABSTRACT some background information the principal activity (or purpose) of the study and its scope some information about the methodology used in the study the most important results of the study

a statement of conclusion or recommendation

Analysis:

Read the following abstract carefully. It is taken from the field of computer assisted learning. Identify the sentences in the abstract that correspond to the elements in the preceding box. Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic Purposes Abstract:
1

During the last 10 years, use of the World-Wide-Web for educational purposes has increased

dramatically. 2However, very little empirical research has been carried out to determine the effectiveness of this use. 3The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the effectiveness of using the World-WideWeb on an EAP writing course. 4Two groups of students were taught writing by two different methods: one group was taught by a teacher in a traditional classroom, while a second group included use of an online web-site in their course. 5The two groups were assessed in the same way after a twelve-week period of instruction. 6Results of the assessment showed significant differences between the two groups, the group that used the on-line web-site performing much better on all aspects of the test. 7This suggests that the use of computer assisted learning programmes for at least some of the teaching time available can be recommended for EAP writing courses. Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3 Sentence 4 Sentence 5 Sentence 6 Sentence 7

2. The main text:

The main body consists of several paragraphs of ideas, data and argument. Each section develops a subdivision of the report purpose. The introduction gives background knowledge that supports the reason for writing the report and an organisation statement. The methodology section gives details of how the information in the report was obtained. Findings and results give the data that has been collected, while the discussion argues that the results lead to the clearly expressed conclusion. The sections are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the report must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its development. I. Introduction

II. III. IV. V.

Methodology Findings/Results Discussion Conclusion I. The introduction. The introduction consists of three parts: a. It should include a short review of the literature to provide a background to your report and to attract the reader's attention. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the report, etc. b. c. It should try to explain why you are writing the report. You need to establish a gap in current knowledge. It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question. It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of the writing.

Rhetorical functions in academic writing: Introducing:

The purpose of the introduction is to show your reader what you are doing in your writing. It is also helpful to explain why you are doing it and how you are doing it. In many parts of your writing - but especially in introductions - you may need to provide background information and introduce new concepts or ideas and provide a description of how you are going to proceed in the rest of your writing. In the following text, after giving some background information to justify the research, the last sentence introduces the rest of the report: Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic Purposes Course. A. J. Gillett, University of Hertfordshire Introduction During the past 10 years, the availability of computers in educational institutions has increased dramatically (James, 1999). Progress in computer development has been made to the point that powerful, inexpensive computers with large capacities are available in many classrooms and libraries for student use. Many students also have purchased and are purchasing computers for their own use at home. Most studies seem to agree that the microcomputer will continue to hold an important role in education in the future. For example, James (1999) and Smith (2000) suggest large increases in the numbers of computers both in educational institutions and the home in the near future. As far as education is concerned, Shaw

(2001) identified three main uses of computers: the object of a course, an administrative tool, and a means of providing instruction. Fish and Cheam (2002) cite four uses of computers as a means of providing instruction: exercise, tutorial, simulation and problem solving. A wide range of computer programmes are now therefore available in all these areas for individual and classroom use. However, even though many studies have reported an increased use of computers in education, there has been very little research reported on the effectiveness of such use. The purpose of the present study is therefore to ascertain the effectiveness of using computer-assisted instruction as compared to traditional classroom instruction in an EAP writing class. Useful phrases are: The purpose of this paper is to ... The purpose of this investigation is to ... The aim of this paper is to ... This paper reports on the results obtained.... This study was designed to ... In this paper, we give results of ... In this paper, we argue that .... This paper argues that .... We have organize the rest of this paper in the following way .... This paper is structured as follows .... The remainder of this paper is divided into five sections .... II. Methodology: The methodology section gives details of how the information in the report was obtained. It may give details of the materials and procedures used. In any kind of experimental report, details of the people involved will need to be included.

Academic Writing: Research Report Methods:

The method describes the steps that you followed in conducting your study and the materials you used in each step.

Research Report Methods:

The method describes the steps that you followed in conducting your study and the materials you used in each step. The methods section of the report clearly describes these materials and procedures. The elements included in the method section and the order in which they are presented may differ from

department to department. However, the list in the following box is typical and provides you with a good model.

ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN METHODS SECTION

Overview of the Experiment Population/Sample Location Restrictions/Limiting Conditions Sampling Technique Procedures* Materials* Variables Statistical Treatment

(* always included)

Analysis:
Read the following example of a method section from the field of computer assisted language learning and teaching. The study investigated the use of the World-Wide-Web for teaching writing in a British university. Identify the information elements you find in each sentence of the selection. (NOTE: Some sentences may contain more than one element.) Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic Purposes Course. Method:
1

Two groups of international students on a one-year Pre-Masters English for Academic Purposes course,

each comprising 50 students were taught academic writing by different methods and compared. 2In each group there were 50 students from five different academic departments - computer science, business, engineering, life sciences and law. 3The subjects were selected from the second semester - Semester B of the University of Hertfordshire International Bridging Programme in the 2004-2005 academic year.
4

This programme accepts only students from a narrow English Language Proficiency band (IELTS 5.00 -

5.5). 5Thus, comparable language level among the test subjects was insured.
6

The subjects were selected from the 250 students on the International Bridging Programme on the basis

of performance at a satisfactory level in the Semester A examination. 7Students who had performed below the minimum level on the semester A examination were excluded. 8This criterion was employed to ensure competent understanding of the tasks and adequate motivation.
9

One group - Group A - studied English writing in the traditional way in a class with a teacher. 10This

class met for 2 hours each week in a classroom for 12 weeks and was supplemented with written

homework assignments given by the teacher each week. 11The second group - Group B - met together in a class with a teacher for one hour per week for 12 weeks and were assigned a homework task of spending one hour per week doing exercises from the UEfAP web-site (Gillett, 2005).
12

The test instrument employed in this study was a revised version of the University of Hertfordshire

English Language Writing Test (Roberts, 1997), which permits the assessment of academic written language performance. 13It consists of an academic reading text and comprehension questions, followed by a discursive essay on the subject of the reading text.
14

Both groups A and B were given the same written examination at the end of the semester. 15The students

took the examination under standard university examination conditions as part of their end of semester examination. 16The tests were marked using the following categories: task achievement; communicative quality; organisation; ideas, content and relevance; and grammar and vocabulary, by two experienced writing examiners and moderated in the standard way to ensure reliability. 17In this way it was possible to see the relationship between the students' main academic subjects, and the improvement in their writing ability depending on the teaching method.
18

A 3 x 5 analysis of variance was used to test for academic department, method of teaching and language

achievement differences. Exercise:

Identify the information elements you find in each sentence of the text. ELEMENT Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3 Sentence 4 Sentence 5 Sentence 6 Sentence 7 Sentence 8 Sentence 9 Sentence 10 Sentence 11 Sentence 12 Sentence 13 Sentence 14 Sentence 15 Sentence 16 Sentence 17 Sentence 18

Example:

In early 1982 telephone interviews were conducted with a statewide probability sample of 2,083 registered voters in a major southwestern state. The interviews were conducted for a state agency and addressed various voting-related attitudes and opinions. Within this context, a split ballot (experimental) design was employed whereby approximately each quarter of the sample was asked age utilizing a different question format. Three open-end and one closedend question formats were investigated: How old are you? What is your age? In what year were you born? Are you 18-24 years of age, 25-34. 35-49, 50- 64, 65 or older?

Each question format was drawn from previous research and was selected to be illustrative of one approach to asking age. The particular question format used when asking an individual study participant his or her age was randomly determined prior to the interview. Interviewers made no determination as to what age question format was employed for a specific study participant. All interviews were conducted from a centralized, supervised interviewing location and began with an interviewer asking to speak to a prespecified individual. The interviewer then introduced himself/herself and stated who was conducting the study and asked for the potential study participant's cooperation. The questionnaire consisted of 20 questions, of which the age question was number 15. Actual age data were available from the state agency for 1,324 of the individuals interviewed. Therefore, following the completion of an interview it was possible to compare an individual's reported age with his or her actual age. This in turn permitted inferences as to which question format produced the most accurate age data as well as which format resulted in the lowest refusal rate or nonresponse rate. Language:

Passive voice is common and so is past tense: Telephone interviews were conducted. The interviews were conducted for a state agency. A split ballot design was employed . Each quarter of the sample was asked. Three open-end and one closed-end question formats were investigated.

Each question format was drawn from previous research and was selected to be illustrative of one approach to asking age. The particular question format ... was randomly determined prior to the interview. All interviews were conducted from a centralized location. The interviewer then introduced himself/herself and stated who was conducting the study and asked for the potential study participant's cooperation. The questionnaire consisted of 20 questions, of which the age question was number 15. Actual age data were available from the state agency for 1,324 of the individuals interviewed. Therefore, following the completion of an interview it was possible to compare an individual's reported age with his or her actual age. This in turn permitted inferences as to which question format produced the most accurate age data as well as which format resulted in the lowest refusal rate or nonresponse rate.

Writing: Research Report Results: The results section of the report clearly describes the findings of the study. It is usually presented both in diagrams and text. Diagrams:

When the information has been collected, it is usually analysed using various statistical techniques. It is then presented in tables, graphs or charts. 1 Tables:

Country of Origin of Students on Foundation Course Female China Japan India Pakistan Thailand 30 2 1 1 3 40 8 7 4 1 Male

Malaysia Tables:

are efficient, enabling the researcher to present a large amount of data in a small space show exact numerical values present quantitative data - they need interpreting they emphasize the discrete rather than the continuous.

They do not easily show: ^ 2 Pie charts: the number of students on the course the percentage of female students the percentage of female students from China relationships or trends.

Pie charts can be used to show the sizes of various parts of the results in relation to each other and in relation to the whole sample.

In the pie chart above: the circle represents the total number of students on the course each segment represents the number of students from one country. It shows that there are students from 6 countries it clearly shows the largest number of students come from China

it also shows that about 10% of the students come from Japan it shows that fewer students are from Malaysia than India it shows that a similar number of students come from India and Japan. it does not show how many students there are altogether. it does not show how many students there are from a particular country. it does not show small differences between countries. ^

3 Histograms:

Histograms (or bar or column graphs) can also be also used to describe results. However, they more clearly show the relationship of different parts of the sample to each other. They do not clearly show the parts in relation to the whole.

Look at the histogram above. This clearly shows: the proportion of male to female students which country has the most students which country has the fewest women the number of students from India.

It does not easily show: the number of students on the course. the percentage of female students. the percentage of female students from China.

4 Line graphs

Graphs are often used to show the results of studies, especially when they involve some kind of change over time. This usually involves two groups of measurements which are known as variables.

The graph above shows the differences in the English test score of the students on the course. The two variables are the length of time the students have studied English and the students' test scores. The length of study causes the change. (This is called the independent variable and the other the test score - the dependent variable.) The length of study is on the horizontal (x) axis. The test score is on the vertical (y) axis

Line graphs show well: trends & tendencies - you can see that the test score generally increases as the length of study increases. that a typical student who has studied for 12 months has a score of 4 on the test. that a typical student who has scored 6 on the test will have studied for 18 months.

Look at the second graph below:

The independent variable is now the test score. The dependent variable is the number of students who obtained a particular score. The highest score is 7 the lowest score is 1. The most common score is 5 8 students achieved a score of 4.

5 The average:

The average is a measure of central tendency. It is related to the middle point in a range of scores and is found in many different kinds of research. It can be calculated in three main ways. Most commonly, it refers to what mathematicians call the mean. This is calculated by adding all the scores together and then dividing by the number of scores. For example, if five students obtain the following test scores: 2.5, 3, 3, 4 & 5, then the average test score (the mean) is 17.5 (the total) divided by 5 (number of students) = 3.5. You can see in this case, though, that none of the students actually obtained a score of 3.5. Sometimes it is not useful to calculate the average in this way. For example, we may want to see which score on the test was most frequently obtained. This kind of average, referring to the most frequent score, is called the mode, and is also a very useful average. In this case the mode is 5. 10 students obtained a score of 3. The third useful average is the median - this is the middle score obtained by the students on the test. In this case the median is 3.

6 Dispersion:

Dispersion is the spread of scores. Whereas the various averages will give us information about central tendency, it does not give very much information about the group as a whole. We need to know more about a set of scores than the mean can tell us. One useful piece of information is the range from the bottom to the top score. In the example above when five students obtain the following test scores: 2.5, 3, 3, 4 & 5, the range is the difference between the bottom score and the top score, inclusive of both scores, i.e. 3.5. It is common to plot the range of scores on a graph. This can show easily the range of scores (from the lowest to the highest) as well as the number of students who obtained each score. For example, if the scores of 69 students are plotted on a graph, it would look something like the diagram below.

If the sample of sixty-nine students was representative of the students at the university as a whole, then the most common score of university students would be 50%, and the majority of students would have scores around 50%, with a few students at either extreme. See the diagram below. Idealized curves such as the one shown below are called normal distribution curves. The number of people on one side of the center is the same as on the other side, with about 50% of the students near the center.

One common measure of how much the scores are spread is the standard deviation (SD). This shows how much the range of scores deviate from the mean. In a normal distribution 68% of the population will get scores within one standard deviation of the mean and so 32% of the population will have scores more than one standard deviation away from the mean. 95% of the population will have scores within two standard deviations of the mean.

Research Report Results:

The results section of the report clearly describes the findings of the study. It is usually presented both in diagrams and text. The elements included in the method section text and the order in which they are presented may differ from department to department. However, the list in the following box is typical and provides you with a good model. You might need to repeat this several times if you have different diagrams and charts. ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN RESULTS SECTION statement showing where the results can be found

statement presenting the most important findings statement commenting on the results this may include: o generalizing from the results o o explaining possible reasons for the results comparing the results with what was expected or with results from other studies

Analysis:

Read the following example of part of a results section from the field of computer assisted language learning and teaching. The study investigated the use of the World-Wide-Web for teaching writing in a British university. Identify the information elements you find in each sentence of the selection. (NOTE: Some sentences may contain more than one element.)

Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic Purposes Course. Results:
1

Two groups of Students in Higher Education - Group A and Group B - on a one-year Pre-Masters

English for Academic Purposes course, each comprising 50 students were taught academic writing by different methods and compared. 2Figure 3 displays the mean percentile scores on the five subsections of the academic writing test. 3Students in Group B, which used the computer assisted facilities, performed significantly better than their non computer-assisted peers on all five subsections of the test by more than two to one in terms of scores attained in each of the subcategories. 4For example, in the task achievement subcategory, Group A scored an average of 80 percent, while Group B students scored an average of 14th percent. 5Clearly, the findings indicate that the time spent using the UEfAP website had a positive effect on student performance. 6It appears that the use of computer assisted learning programs for at least some of the teaching time available resulted in substantial differences in performance in all five categories of the University of Hertfordshire English Writing Test. 7It is to be hoped that this improvement will transfer to the students' written performance in their main subject courses.

Exercise:

Identify the information elements you find in each sentence of the text. ELEMENT Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3 Sentence 4 Sentence 5 Sentence 6 Sentence 7 ^ Language:

Referring to a diagram, chart etc.

As can be seen from the chart,

...

It can be seen We can see

in

diagram, that ... table, graph, figures, statistics,

As can be seen from Table 1, in Figure 2, It can be seen Graph 3, We can see From Table 1 it can be seen that ... Figure 2 concluded may shown the figures estimated chart calculated diagram inferred The graph shows that ... Figure 1

Narrating and Reporting:

Read the following texts: Example 1: The Evolution of Sound Recording The history of recording sound stretches back to 1857 when Leon Scott, intent on obtaining a picture of what sound waves looked like, devised a method for recording the vibrations in the air. His device, later patented as the Phonoautograph, used a large parabolic horn to channel incoming sound waves to a membrane covering the narrow end of the horn. A bristle attached to the membrane by a lever traced a path in a revolving cylinder coated with lamp-black. As the membrane vibrated in response to sound waves, the bristle etched a pattern in the lamp-black that corresponded to the frequency of the sound. Although this was useful for gaining a view of what different sound waves looked like, the device could only record incoming waves - there was no provision for playing back the sound wave traces. After studying the Phonoautograph, Thomas Edison modified the basic design in 1877 so that it would be capable of playing back sounds. While the sound quality was rather pitiful, the fact that this feat could actually be accomplished encouraged others to continue development. Edisons device utilized a grooved metal cylinder encased in tinfoil. A horn concentrated the sound waves when someone spoke into it. At the apex of the horn, a thin membrane attached to a needle transmitted the vibrations - the resulting waves were scored into the tinfoil as the needle moved up and down, creating a path of varying depth. The cylinder in this device was rotated by means of a hand crank. Once the sound was recorded, the needle was returned to the beginning of the groove. Turning the hand crank caused the

vibrations captured in tinfoil to travel from the needle to the diaphragm and a crude replica of the human voice emerged from the horn. Alexander Graham Bell took this invention a step further by replacing the foil-covered cylinder with one coated with wax. The needle cut a pattern that varied in depth onto the wax surface. For recording, Bell relied on a very sharp stylus and firm membrane. During playback, he switched to a dull stylus and a looser membrane so as not to destroy the original impressions. To reuse the cylinder, the wax could be shaved and smoothed. For the first time, sound recording could be accomplished on removable and reusable media. The process was further improved with the addition of an electric motor to replace the hand crank, so that recording and playback took place at uniform speeds. Recorded cylinders were then metal-plated to create a mould so that a number of copies of the original could be produced. The technology spawned a mini-industry. Phonograph parlours sprang up around the country in the late 1800s where amazed visitors paid a nickel to hear voices muttering from these primitive playback devices. The recording cylinder was replaced by a disc in 1888 when Emile Berliner devised a variation of this basic recording technique. Berliners gramophone used a stylus travelling within a spiral groove on a flat disc. Sound waves caused the stylus to cut a pattern side to side within the groove. The pattern on the disc could then be reproduced using a metal mould and hundreds of recorded discs could be manufactured inexpensively from each mould. The disc itself was fashioned of metal covered with wax. After the stylus cut the pattern, removing the wax from its path, acid was used to etch the resulting waveform into the metal subsurface. While the sound quality wasnt up to par with that of the cylinders, the recording method was better suited to mass production. By the year 1910, discs and spring-wound players were being sold all over the world featuring recordings by some of the most popular singers of that era. Development of the vacuum tube amplifier in 1912 by Lee de Forest spurred efforts to combine the phonograph and gramophone with amplified playback, a process which took several more years. During the same period that Edison, Bell, and Berliner were working on their sound recording devices, others were working on developing methods of magnetic recording of sound waves. The pattern of sound waves, instead of being imprinted on a disc or cylinder, is translated into a series of magnetic domains that can be stored on a variety of media. The first patent for such a device was claimed by Oberlin Smith in 1888. Later, a man by the name of Poulson created a magnetic sound recorder that used steel tape as the recording medium. He exhibited his invention at the Paris Exhibition in 1900, calling his device a Telegraphone. The radio broadcast industry was very interested in equipment that could store sound and immediately play it back, since it enabled them to repeat some broadcast material - such as newscasts - whenever required. The tape could also be easily erased and reused - another major benefit. Work by DeStille in 1924 resulted in the Blattnerphone, which impressed the British Broadcasting Company enough to draw them into the development process. The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company also jumped into

the development effort, using steel-based magnetic tape that was initially biased to saturation. Rudimentary magnetic recorders were produced, although the early versions required literally miles of steel tape to accommodate 20 or 30 minutes of recorded sound. Cumbersome steel-based tapes gave way to plastic-based magnetic tape. The magnetic oxides coating plastic-based tape can be formulated differently to change their recording and sound-storage properties. Undesirable characteristics such as print-through (the tendency of magnetic signals to leach through one layer of tape and affect adjacent layers) can be minimized through a choice of magnetic oxide. Magnetic methods of recording are still widely used in cassette recorders and reel-to-reel decks, and improvements in electronics, recording media, magnetic recording heads, and noise-reduction techniques have maintained the viability of this recording method. However this method of recording is subject to certain limitations that have been largely overcome by digital recording techniques. Signalto-noise ratios of recorded sounds, among other factors, have been greatly improved by digital storage methods. After many years of development, digital recording gear has largely surpassed analogue, reel-to-reel, and magnetic tape recorders. Digital recording machines - such as the DAT, ADAT, RDAT, recordable mini-disc, portable studios with removable hard disk drive storage, and home computers have changed our perception of high-fidelity audio to startlingly clearer levels. In the digital realm, the signal-tonoise ratio is greatly improved over analogue equipment, meaning the dynamic representation of the music is greatly improved. The familiar hiss and tape noise common to analogue recording is conspicuously absent in digital recordings. This particular improvement in recording techniques ensures that the softest passages in a recorded musical work or speech will be as free of noise as the loudest levels of recorded audio. The recordist has a greater dynamic range to work with when using digital recording techniques and fewer processing tricks are required to guarantee an effective sound recording.

Example 2: The 1979 study was conducted to test the validity of the strong version of the critical period hypothesis. It was felt that a comprehensive study of foreign language learning ability required hard data upon which to confirm or reject the strong version. Lacking precise statements about what aspects of phonology the hypothesis involved, we included both competence and productive performance in our informants task, believing that if we could locate persons who had learned a second language as adults and who could consistently pass as native speakers of that language under rigorous test conditions, we would have ample grounds upon which to reject the strong form of the hypothesis. Seven non-native informants along with three native-speaking controls were tape-recorded reading a carefully-prepared corpus in French. The non-native informants were selected for the study on the basis

of their ability to pass as native speakers of French in casual conversation situations. These conversations took place in the presence of three French-speaking persons who were thoroughly familiar with the goals of the research. The French corpus included numerous sounds and sound sequences known to be especially difficult for English-speaking students. The ten tape-recorded passages were placed in five random order blocks and re-recorded onto cassettes for scrutiny by nativespeaking judges. These judges included 85 French Canadians whose dominant language was French, approximately half of whom were students at the University of Ottawa. They were directed to listen carefully to each passage, and, the second time around, to assess each speaker as: 1) Francophone du Canada; 2) Francophone dun autre pays, 3) Non-francophone. Five of the seven non-native informants were consistently evaluated by our native-speaking judges as francophone. Their scores closely approximated those obtained by our native-speaking controls.

Example 3: Drama in language teaching. Plays have been employed to teach skill in language only since the Middle Ages. In Greece and Rome performing on stage was beneath the dignity of the class whose children could afford to go to school and a social ban remained on this activity until the tenth century, when a German abbess, Hroswitha, composed Latin plays for her novices. The expressed aim was to replace the plays of Plautus and Terence, then considered too saucy for use in the cloister. Owing to the now usual way of acting out the Bible stories in mystery plays, stage work was not an unusual recreation among clerics. Latin plays, written in the classical manner, were often played in the monasteries by the troupes of monks who staged the mystery plays in the churchyard. Taking their cue from these mystery plays, the Jesuits developed another approach. Many of their plays were in a classical style, but the characters were abstractions drawn from grammar and literary criticism. The plays were meant both to drill pupils in speaking Latin and Greek and to teach formal grammar. it is not unlikely that the characters were modelled on the personifications of the De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii of Martianus Capella, which was still known during the Renaissance. This type of allegory had been a favourite device among medieval poets, and Martianus Capelia had had many medieval imitators in vernacular languages. One of the last sets of this type of play was the dramatized version of the Ianua linguarum, published in 1664. The adaptation was made by D. Sebastianus Macer for the use of the school of Patakina, at which he had taught, and which was regarded, even by the master himself, as a model school. Though the book followed all the allegorical conventions of the Jesuit play, there were several important differences. First, the Cornenius plays were in prose, while the others had been in verse. Second. the exact classical format was not followed, the plays being of varying length and shape. But as the taste for allegory waned, so too did interest in this sort of play. Classical drama formed an integral part of the Renaissance classics curriculum. In England several who founded grammar schools specified that a classical play should be performed every year; and on the

continent, where Catholics were teaching in Protestant schools and vice versa, the religious climate excluded contemporary religious plays, so the classical repertoire was used exclusively. But medieval scruple hung on grimly, even into the eighteenth century. In England especially, the custom of an annual performance of a classical play was still vigorously flourishing at the end of the nineteenth century, school editions being prepared with staging in mind. Owing to the activities of the great German classicists, the basic texts were now solidly established, but for school use they were carefully expurgated, a difficult task considering the exigencies of meter. Many editors normalized the preclassical spelling and even added stage directions. The place of such presentations was strengthened by the advent of the Direct Method, and they spread to the teaching of modern languages. Though it was considered most desirable to use plays written for native audiences, this means of instilling confidence was made available to younger pupils by providing them with plays in simplified language and style. As far as modern plays were concerned, teachers were inclined to choose those which reflected the culture of the country. In modern schools and universities the modern-language play came to be a special show put on for the delectation of students parents and staff wives, but it also had the serious purpose of having pupils exercise their oral skills under some difficulty. In Russia, some schools encouraged the pupils to run puppet theatres in the foreign language, a natural outcome of the general interest in this art form.

Example 4: In early 1982 telephone interviews were conducted with a statewide probability sample of 2,083 registered voters in a major southwestern state. The interviews were conducted for a state agency and addressed various voting-related attitudes and opinions. Within this context, a split ballot (experimental) design was employed whereby approximately each quarter of the sample asked age was utilizing a different question format. Three open-end and one closed-end question formats were investigated: How old are you? What is your age? In what year were you born? Are you 18-24 years of age, 25-34. 35-49, 50- 64, 65 or older? Each question format was drawn from previous research and was selected to be illustrative of one approach to asking age. The particular question format used when asking an individual study participant his or her age was randomly determined prior to the interview. Interviewers made no determination as to what age question format was employed for a specific study participant. All interviews were conducted from a centralized, supervised interviewing location and began with an interviewer asking to speak to a prespecified individual. The interviewer then introduced himself/herself and stated who was conducting the study and asked for the potential study participants cooperation. The questionnaire consisted of 20 questions, of which the age question was number 15.

Actual age data were available from the state agency for 1,324 of the individuals interviewed. Therefore, following the completion of an interview it was possible to compare an individuals reported age with his or her actual age. This in turn permitted inferences as to which question format produced the most accurate age data as well as which format resulted in the lowest refusal rate or nonresponse rate.

Language: Past tense is common. Chronological order is also common, but when we are writing about past events, it is necessary to be explicit about the order in which things happened. To make the order clear, we mention dates and time, and we also use various links and connectives. Time In 1942, ... During the 20th century, ... Yesterday, ... Twenty five years ago, ... Sequence before Before he was offered a job as a lecturer, he had finished his research.

Before this, For the previous X years, Prior to this, Previously, X years previously, Before before which prior to which

after When As soon as After he had finished his research, he was offered a job as a lecturer.

On finishing his research, After finishing his research, Having finished his research, On finishing his research, he was offered a job as a lecturer.

For the following X years, X years later, After Following this, When Subsequently, Soon/Shortly/Immediately afterwards, following which after which while While he was doing his research, he made an important discovery. When doing his research, While During his research,

During this period, Throughout this period, during which throughout which

Generalizing:
Introduction: One important aspect of critical writing is making general claims from specific examples. This is something that you learn in higher education. These general claims need to be supported with evidence. A common organizational principle in academic writing is the general-specific pattern. This patterns involves a general statement supported by specific examples or details. Example: Look at the following examples involving generalizations. In some cases the generalisations are supported by details or examples. It believed that the USA wanted a round-the-world air route with access to all countries including the Soviet Union, China, the Middle East, and Africa, as well as the British Commonwealth and Empire.

Marx and Engels followed their contemporaries in believing that the history of mankind usually went through the same sequence of technological improvement. The sequence, by and large, went like this: first gathering of plants and small animals, second fishing, third hunting, fourth pottery, fifth pastoralism, sixth agriculture, seventh metalworking.

Throughout most of known human existence the processes, materials and tools of production were available to individuals involved in both utilitarian and expressive work. Since the Renaissance, however, the exponential growth and sophistication of technology has made it impossible for the majority of artists to gain access to many potential tools for expression.

Covert operations are different from espionage in that their main purpose is to influence a foreign situation without the source of the influence becoming known. Such operations may take the form of secretly financing, advising, or otherwise helping a group which is trying to overthrow an unfriendly foreign government. They may take the form of secret money subsidies or other assistance to a foreign

political party or to a particular faction of a foreign labor movement, or student organization, or similar groups. They may take the form of psychological warfare - for example, the publication of an underground newspaper or the operation of a clandestine radio station which, according to the circumstances, may report the truth or spread unfounded rumors calculated to destroy morale or to mislead. They may take the form of an outright bribe of a foreign official to make a certain decision. They may take the form of infiltrating one or more secret agents into positions of power in a foreign government or any important foreign political, economic, or social group. Language. Plural nouns are often used for broad generalissimos ("Covert operations are"). It is often possible to be more specific about the generalization that is being made by the use of: Percentage Quantity Frequency Certainty Verbs 100% all/every/each most a majority (of) many/much some a number (of) several a minority (of) a few/a little always usual(ly) normal(ly) general(ly) as a rule on the whole often frequent(ly) sometimes occasional(ly) certain(ly) definite(ly) undoubtedly clearly presumably probably/probable likely conceivably possibly/possible

perhaps maybe will is/are must have to should ought to can could may might 0% few/little no/none/not any rare(ly) seldom hardly ever scarcely ever never uncertain unlikely could not will not cannot is/are not Some of the probability qualifications can he further qualified, e.g. It is fairly certain likely probable possible likely unlikely certain that.... very quiet rather Almost quite seems appears. Sometimes generalizations may be introduced or qualified in the following way: In the (vast) majority a large number of cases, .... most some a few (+ other "quantity" words) Supporting generalizations These general claims need to be supported with evidence. More information: Providing support

You need to provide evidence to support your points of view and conclusions. Supporting an argument: Illustrating and exemplifying ideas You can use examples to support your conclusions. IV. Discussion: The main purpose of the discussion is to show that the results lead clearly to the conclusion being drawn. This may include any limitations that might cause problems with any claims being made as well as any possible explanations for these results. Research Report Discussions: The discussion section of the report takes a broad view of the research and puts it in a wider context. The discussion section moves from the narrow specific focus of the research to a more general view. It must clearly show how the results found lead to the conclusions being drawn and therefore how these conclusions should be understood. This should include any limitations that might cause problems with any claims being made as well as any possible explanations for these results. The elements included in the discussion section text and the order in which they are presented may differ from department to department. However, the list in the following box is typical and provides you with a good model. ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN DISCUSSION SECTION: a reference to the main purpose of the study a generalized review of the most important findings - summary of results possible explanations for the findings in general comparison with expected results and other studies limitations of the overall study that restrict the extent to which the findings can be generalized Analysis: Read the following example of part of a discussion section from the field of computer assisted language learning and teaching. The study investigated the use of the World-Wide-Web for teaching writing in a British university. Identify the information elements you find in each sentence of the selection. (NOTE: Some sentences may contain more than one element.) Discussion:

1The purpose of the study was to investigate whether Students in Higher Education on an EAP writing course would benefit from computer assisted instruction. 2The findings clearly suggest that they do. 3The students who took part in the computer assisted element of the writing course outperformed those who followed the traditional course in every aspect as shown by their performance on the University of Hertfordshire Writing test. 4They showed particular strengths in the task achievement element of the assessment, suggesting that the computer assisted materials really help the students to understand and focus on the purpose of their writing. 5It also seems to be the case that the individually directed nature of the on-line materials helps the students to focus on their own specific needs as well as allowing them to access their materials in their own time. 6Another reason for the success of the materials may be that it allows students to spend more time on the course than is normally the case in a classroom based programme. 7This supports and adds to the findings of Jones & Smith (1997) and Harris (2002), who showed similar results for an on-line grammar course. 8This study has taken a step in the direction of justifying the inclusion of web-based materials in EAP writing courses for post-graduates on English language preparation course. 9It did however look at a narrow range of subject areas - mainly business, computer science, engineering life-sciences and law - taken by students from only a few countries - particularly China, Japan , Korea and Thailand. 10It may be the case that students from other countries intending to study different subjects - for example, medicine or humanities - would not benefit in the same way. 11It is also not clear whether younger students such as students preparing for undergraduate programmes would succeed to the same extent. 12The approach outlined in this study should be replicated with other students in other subject areas, as well as at other levels in order to be able to recommend the use of on-line materials for all students in all subject areas. Exercise: Identify the information elements you find in each sentence of the text. ELEMENT Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3 Sentence 4 Sentence 5 Sentence 6 Sentence 7

Sentence 8 Sentence 9 Sentence 10 Sentence 11 Sentence 12 Language Generalizing V. The conclusion.

The conclusion includes the writer's final points. a. b. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the results and discussion and come to a clear conclusion.

It should clearly signal to the reader that the report is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the report has been achieved. Drawing conclusions: After evidence or data has been produced and described or arguments made, it is necessary to come to a conclusion. This should follow logically from what it follows and should be clearly signalled. It is particularly important to have a good conclusion in the the conclusion section of your writing (See Writing a Conclusion), but you need to come to intermediate conclusions throughout your writing. Analysis: Read the following example of the conclusion from the field of computer assisted language learning and teaching. The study investigated the use of the World-Wide-Web for teaching writing in a British university. After a summary of the research, sentences 4 & 5 describe the final conclusion that has been reached. Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic Purposes Conclusion
1

During the past 10 years, the use of computers in education has increased dramatically and a wide range

of educational computer programmes are now widely available for individual and classroom use.

However, there has been very little research reported on the effectiveness of such use. 3The purpose of

the present study was therefore to ascertain the effectiveness of using computer-assisted instruction as compared to traditional classroom instruction in an EAP writing class. 4The findings clearly suggest that the inclusion of web-based materials in EAP writing courses for post-graduate students from East-Asia on an English language preparation course is effective. 5Further research is needed, however, before the use of such materials can be recommended for all students in all subject areas at all levels. Examples: Read the following conclusions: In conclusion, therefore, it can be seen that millions of people continue to be affected by water-related problems and, contrary to popular belief, future water supplies are not inexhaustible. So the situation is very serious, especially in view of the UN estimates of demand. Although projects to provide everincreasing supplies of water indicate that a growing number of countries are aware of the present problems and of those to come, these more often than not are highly expensive and not very practical and very time-consuming when time is a commodity in short supply. So, while research in these areas is important, the eventual solution would definitely appear to be worldwide conservation and pollution control - in other words, a greater respect for our most valuable natural resource.

Altogether, it seems that we cannot accept without question the dramatic increase in recorded crime as corresponding to a real increase in victimization of the same proportions. But, however good it would be to explain away all, or even most, of the increase as an artifact of recording changes, this cannot be shown to be the case. We can plausibly infer that crime has been increasing in the last two to three decades, presenting a problem for explanation and policy. Language: In short, In a word, In brief, To sum up, To conclude, To summarise In conclusion, On the whole, Altogether, In all, ....

It is generally accepted that .... widely argued held believed

Therefore, it can be concluded that... . Thus, may deduced On this basis, inferred Given this,

From Table 1 the table figures data results information

it can be seen that .... may concluded shown estimated calculated inferred

In conclusion, we/may say that .... Finally it can/may be said Recommendations: Conclusions often need recommendations. Drawing Conclusions: After evidence or data has been produced and described or arguments made, it is necessary to come to a conclusion. This should follow logically from what it follows and should be clearly signaled. It is particularly important to have a good conclusion in the conclusion section of your writing (See Writing a Conclusion), but you need to come to intermediate conclusions throughout your writing. Analysis Read the following example of the conclusion from the field of computer assisted language learning and teaching. The study investigated the use of the World-Wide-Web for teaching writing in a British university. After a summary of the research, sentences 4 & 5 describe the final conclusion that has been reached. Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic Purposes Conclusion
1

During the past 10 years, the use of computers in education has increased dramatically and a wide range However, there has been very little research reported on the effectiveness of such use. 3The purpose of

of educational computer programmes are now widely available for individual and classroom use.
2

the present study was therefore to ascertain the effectiveness of using computer-assisted instruction as compared to traditional classroom instruction in an EAP writing class. 4The findings clearly suggest that the inclusion of web-based materials in EAP writing courses for post-graduate students from East-Asia on an English language preparation course is effective. 5Further research is needed, however, before the use of such materials can be recommended for all students in all subject areas at all levels. Examples Read the following conclusions:

In conclusion, therefore, it can be seen that millions of people continue to be affected by water-related problems and, contrary to popular belief, future water supplies are not inexhaustible. So the situation is very serious, especially in view of the UN estimates of demand. Although projects to provide everincreasing supplies of water indicate that a growing number of countries are aware of the present problems and of those to come, these more often than not are highly expensive and not very practical and very time-consuming when time is a commodity in short supply. So, while research in these areas is important, the eventual solution would definitely appear to be worldwide conservation and pollution control - in other words, a greater respect for our most valuable natural resource.

Altogether, it seems that we cannot accept without question the dramatic increase in recorded crime as corresponding to a real increase in victimization of the same proportions. But, however good it would be to explain away all, or even most, of the increase as an artefact of recording changes, this cannot be shown to be the case. We can plausibly infer that crime has been increasing in the last two to three decades, presenting a problem for explanation and policy. Language: In short, In a word, In brief, To sum up, To conclude, To summarise In conclusion, On the whole, Altogether, In all, ....

It is generally accepted that .... widely argued held believed

Therefore, it can be concluded that... . Thus, may deduced On this basis, inferred Given this,

From Table 1 the table figures data results information

it can be seen that .... may concluded shown estimated calculated inferred

In conclusion, we/may say that .... Finally it can/may be said Recommendations: Conclusions often need recommendations.

Recommendations:
It is often necessary, especially in reports and case studies, to include some recommendations or suggestions for further work in - or after - the conclusion. You may need to be cautious in your recommendations. Examples: For example: Further research is needed, however, before the use of such materials can be recommended for all students in all subject areas at all levels.

However, these solutions can only be temporary and and the only long-term solution seems to be conservation and pollution control..

Further testing should be conducted to determine the effects of chrome layer loss on cylinder barrel performance.

RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Stocks of 20 No. 20361, and 20 No. U.1707 blades must be built up in the Tool Stores to meet present requirements. 2. Worn undamaged blades must be returned to the supplier in batches of 6 for replacement at 10.00 each. 3. New armatures from the supplier must be used when repairing Rip-Snorter motors. Language: Strong recommendation | | | | | | | | Weak recommendation must be done. is needed. ... is necessary. There is a continuing need for It is strongly recommended that should be done. is strongly recommended. It is recommended that ... ... should be considered. It is advisable to could/might/may be considered.

Harvard Referencing System:

The Harvard system is the most common system used around the world, however, there is no definitive version of the Harvard system and most universities have their own, the library will usually issue the version they wish you to use, the changes are minor, e.g. italics for the book title instead of underlining. As a student, it is important that you identify in your assessment when you are using the words or ideas of another author. The most accepted way of acknowledging the work of another author is to use a referencing system.

Why you should use a referencing system:

As a part of an academic community, it is important that you show the reader where you have used someone elses ideas or words. Failure to properly reference using the Harvard system may make the reader think that you are cheating by claiming someone elses work as your own. In the academic environment, we call this plagiarism and it is seen as a very serious offence. Please remember that plagiarism is not just when you directly copy words from another students or experts work. Plagiarism also occurs when you re-word someone elses ideas in your own work and you do not give credit to the original source. Plagiarism can have disastrous consequences for students. If you are suspected of plagiarism you may find that your assignment receives a grade of zero. In extreme or repeated cases, you may find that your enrolment at the university is reviewed. For further information, please consult section 3 of the student handbook. On a more positive note, referencing is important for reasons other than avoiding plagiarism. When you reference correctly you are demonstrating that you have read widely on a topic. You are also supporting your hypothesis with comments from expert authors. This lends credibility to your own work. Also, by correctly referencing, you allow the marker or reader to follow-up your references and to check the validity of your arguments for themselves. This is an important part of the academic process as it leads to student accountability.

Collecting all the details: Accurate referencing:

In order to have an accurate record of what you have researched and therefore an accurate reference, it is important that you write down the details of your sources as you study. When taking notes, use a separate page for each new book, journal article, or electronic source. At the top of each page, clearly record the following information for future reference. For books, record: The authors or editors name (or names) The year the book was published The title of the book If it is an edition other than the first The city the book was published in The name of the publisher

For journal articles record: The authors name or names The year in which the journal was published The title of the article The title of the journal

The page number/s of the article in the journal As much other information as you can find about the journal, for example the volume and issue numbers

For electronic resources, try to collect the information on the left if it is available, but also record: The date you accessed the source The electronic address or email The type of electronic resource (email, discussion forum, WWW page, etc)

In addition to these details, when you are taking notes, if you copy direct quotations or if you put the authors ideas in your own words, write down the page numbers you got the information from.

Referencing in the text of your assessment:

The following section shows you a number of different examples when quoting and paraphrasing in the text of your assessment. In all references, you will need to list the author/editor name/s and the year of publication. The year of publication can be found on the first couple of pages of the book, along with the other bibliographic information. Look for the authors name, a copyright symbol and then a date. This will be the date of publication. In most references you will also need to list the page number/s where you found the specific information. The only type of reference where this is not required is when you paraphrase a summary of an entire piece of work. As a hypothetical example, fictitious author John Phillips might have written a history book in 1999 that examines generational changes. You might summarize and correctly reference the entire gist of his book in the following way.

Phillips (1999) suggests that generational change is inevitable and continuous.

In all other circumstances, please follow the guidelines below and be sure to include the author, date and page number/s. The formats are similar for each example so please note the use of punctuation, spacing and the order of information.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with one author When organising our time, Adair (1988: 51) states that the centrepiece will tend to be goals and objectives. OR When organizing our time the centerpiece will tend to be goals and objectives (Adair, 1988: 51).

In these examples, Adair is the author, 1988 is the year of publication and 51 is the page number where the direct quote can be found.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with two authors McCarthy and Hatcher (1996: 69-70) insist that with presentations structure must be clear and precise. OR With presentations, structure must be clear and precise (McCarthy and Hatcher, 1996: 69-70).

In these examples, the quote went over two pages therefore the page numbers were represented as 6970, rather than as a single number. Also notice from the examples so far, that when the quote ends the sentence, the full stop comes after the inverted comma.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with three authors Fisher, Ury and Patton (1991: 37) suggest that when emotional issues cloud negotiation, some thoughts are best left unsaid. OR Some thoughts are best left unsaid when emotional issues cloud negotiation (Fisher, Ury and Patton, 1991: 37).

If hypothetical authors Morris, Ling, Brown, Smith, and Diaz wrote a book published in 2000, a direct quote would look like this. Note that in the next example, et al means and others.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with more than three authors Morris et al (2000: 47) state that the debate of these particular issues should be left to representative committees.

When you paraphrase, it will look much the same as the direct quotation examples, but without the inverted commas. For example, if we paraphrased an example from the McCarthy and Hatcher book, it would look like this.

By improving your posture you can improve how you communicate feelings of power and confidence (McCarthy and Hatcher, 1996: 111).

When paraphrasing, use the same referencing style and conventions as you would for direct quotes, but with the material from the source put into your own words, and the inverted commas omitted. Below is another comparative example of the direct quote versus paraphrasing.

Direct quote and paraphrasing from a source with a corporate or government author The DfEE (2001: 8) suggest that each year some have estimated the cost to the country of poor literacy and numeracy skills to be as high as 10 billion. OR - PARAPHRASE The effect of low levels of adult numeracy and literacy skills could be costing Britain around 10 billion each year (DfEE, 2001: 8).

You might also like to rearrange the quote so that the reference comes at the end, as you have been shown in previous examples. When you are researching, you may come across a situation where the same author has written two books in the same year. To distinguish one title from another in your referencing, place a lower-case letter after the publication date, with a signalling the first reference, and b signalling the second, and so on. Sometimes the author you are quoting from will quote another author to support his or her argument, much in the same way that you do when writing assignments. Sometimes you want to use the same quote that the author of the source has used. When you do this, use the format below.

Eisenberg and Smith (in Bolton, 1986: 85) agree that it is hard to assign general meaning to any isolated nonverbal sign.

In the case above, Bolton in his 1996 publication has quoted Eisenbergs and Smiths research to prove a point he was making about non-verbal communication. If the author of a source is anonymous, replace the authors surname with the title of the work in the brackets containing the reference. Consider the following fictitious example.

The flora and fauna of Britain has been transported to almost every corner of the globe since colonial times (Plants and Animals of Britain, 1942: 8).

Reference newspaper and magazine articles in the same way you would for other books and journals. However, when the author is anonymous, use the system below (adapted from Lewis, 1999: 26).

The Guardian reported that twenty-nine inmates were participating in the programme (Serving time, 1996: 21).

When you paraphrase, sometimes you might be rephrasing the words and ideas you have found in more than one book or journal article. If you find that a number of sources say similar things about a topic,

an example of the correct referencing style is demonstrated below. Notice in the example below how the listed sources are separated by a semicolon.

The semicolon can be used to separate two sections of a compound sentence that have a similar theme (Turabian, 1996: 56; Petelin and Durham, 1992:169).

Sometimes you may wish to use material from lectures, discussions, interviews, or distance learning courses to supplement your assignments. Use the following conventions to ensure that your referencing is correct (adapted from Lewis, 1999: 26).

Mr Bob Builder, Managing Director of Builders Construction, stated in an interview on 5 September 2000 that customers were increasingly asking for traditional methods and materials to be used in construction projects. Dr Wilma Flintstone stated in her lecture on 5 September 2000 that acid jazz has roots as far back as 1987. Adult learners should learn the art of effective note taking for the simple reason that students are more likely to remember what they have heard or read if they take an active part in their learning (Dhann, 2001:3). OR, IF THE AUTHOR IS UNKNOWN Adult learners should learn the art of effective note taking for the simple reason that students are more likely to remember what they have heard or read if they take an active part in their learning (Department of Lifelong Learning, 2001: 3).

Electronic sources such as WWW pages, electronic databases and electronic journals are cited in the text in much the same way as traditional print sources, with the exception of page numbers. The authors name is followed by a publication date, but no page numbers are listed. If no publication date is available, and this might be the case for WWW pages, then where the date should go, insert (n.d.) which stands for no date. If no author is listed for an electronic source, use the title of the publication in the same way as you would for any other anonymous source.

Creating a reference list:

All of the sources you refer to in the main body of your assignment need to be listed at the end of the assignment in a reference list. In a reference list, you only need to list those sources from which you have either quoted or paraphrased. For example, you do not have to list books you used for background reading purposes. When creating a reference list, the sources should be listed alphabetically by authors surname, should be left justified, and the references should never be preceded by a bullet-point or number. Where the

author is anonymous or unknown for any one source, insert that source in the alphabetical list using the title of the source instead of the authors name. All sources should be listed together; there should not be separate lists for books versus journal articles versus electronic sources. The reference list should be on a separate page from the rest of the assignment and should be simply titled References or Literature Cited and the title should be in the same font and size as the other headings in your assignment. When you use the Harvard System, you are only usually required to produce a reference list. However, some lecturers and tutors may want you to produce a bibliography instead of a reference list. In cases where you are asked to produce a bibliography, you must list all sources you have consulted, regardless of whether you cited from them or not. Also, some lecturers or tutors may ask you to produce an annotated bibliography or reference list. This simply means that after each source listed, you write a couple of sentences that appraise the books usefulness in relation to the topic. The following is a guide to how to list references in a reference list. If you have an example that is not covered by the list below, please check with your tutor or the Student Support Officer regarding the correct technique.

Book with one author Adair, J. (1988) Effective time management: How to save time and spend it wisely, London: Pan Books. Book with two authors McCarthy, P. and Hatcher, C. (1996) Speaking persuasively: Making the most of your presentations, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Book with three or more authors Fisher, R., Ury, W. and Patton, B. (1991) Getting to yes: Negotiating an agreement without giving in, 2nd edition, London: Century Business. Book second or later edition Barnes, R. (1995) Successful study for degrees, 2nd edition, London: Routledge. Book by same author in the same year Napier, A. (1993a) Fatal storm, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Napier, A. (1993b) Survival at sea, Sydney: Allen and Unwin.

Book with an editor Danaher, P. (ed.) (1998) Beyond the ferris wheel, Rockhampton: CQU Press. If you have used a chapter in a book written by someone other than the editor Byrne, J. (1995) Disabilities in tertiary education, in Rowan, L. and McNamee, J. (ed.) Voices of a Margin, Rockhampton: CQU Press. Books with an anonymous or unknown author The University Encyclopedia (1985) London: Roydon.

Unpublished, verbal sources such as interviews and lectures are not reproduced in the reference list. However, you must put any published course materials that you have used in the reference list using the conventions below.

Written course material, for example distance learning unit material Dhann, S. (2001) CAE0001LWR Unit 5: Note taking skills from lectures and readings, Exeter: Department of Lifelong Learning. OR, IF THE AUTHOR IS UNKNOWN Department of Lifelong Learning (2001), CAE0001LWR Unit 5: Note taking skills from lectures and readings, Exeter: Author. (NB Author at the end means that the publisher is the same as the author) Government publications Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), (2001) Skills for life: The national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills, Nottingham: DfEE Publications. Conference papers Hart, G., Albrecht, M., Bull, R. and Marshall, L. (1992) Peer consultation: A professional development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings, Infront Outback Conference Proceedings, Australian Rural Health Conference, Toowoomba, pp. 143 148. Newspaper articles

Cumming, F. (1999) Tax-free savings push, Sunday Mail, 4 April, p. 1. OR, IF THE AUTHOR IS UNKNOWN Tax-free savings push, Sunday Mail (4 April 1999), p. 3.

The conventions for listing journal articles are similar to books, but note the extra information required in the example below and apply this to all journal article listings.

Journal article Muller, V. (1994) Trapped in the body: Transsexualism, the law, sexual identity, The Australian Feminist Law Journal, vol. 3, August, pp. 103-107.

In this example, Muller has written the journal article Trapped in the body: Transsexualism, the law, sexual identity and it has appeared in the journal Australian Feminist Law Journal, in its 3rd volume that was published in August of 1994. The article appears on pages 103 to 107 of the journal. Please note that sometimes, instead of volume there may be an issue number, and instead of a month of publication, there may be a season. Sometimes there will be a volume number and an issue number. In those cases, list both the volume and issue numbers as has been done below.

Journal article with both volume and issue number Muller, V. (1994) Trapped in the body: Transsexualism, the law, sexual identity, The Australian Feminist Law Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, August, pp. 103-107.

Electronic and web based references can be listed in the following ways.

Journal article from CD-ROM, electronic database, or journal Skargren, E.I. & Oberg, B. (1998) Predictive factors for 1-year outcome of low-back and neck pain in patients treated in primary care: Comparison between the treatment strategies chiropractic and physiotherapy, Pain [Electronic], vol. 77, no. 2, pp. 201-208, Available: Elsevier/ScienceDirect/ O304-3959(98)00101-8, [8 Feb 1999].

In this example, [Electronic] refers to the type of media that you found the source on. If you found the source on a CD-ROM, you would put [CD-ROM] in the square brackets instead of Electronic. As with a normal journal example, the volume number, issue number and page numbers are listed. At the end of this example, note that the name of the database has been listed, along with the identification/access number of the article, and an access date (in square brackets).

Examples of other electronic references are listed in the box below.

Electronic mail (e-mail) Johnston, R. (2001) Access courses for women, e-mail to NIACE Lifelong Learning Mailing List (lifelong-learning@niace.org.uk), 22 Aug. [24 Aug 2001]. OR Robinson, T. (2001) Re: Information on course structure, e-mail to S. Dhann (s.dhann@exeter.ac.uk), 12 Jul. [13 Jul 2001]. Discussion list Berkowitz, P. (1995) April 3, Sussys gravestone, Mark Twain Forum [Online], 3 Apr, Available email: TWAIN-L@yorkvm2.bitnet [3 Apr 1995]. World Wide Web page Young, C. (2001) English Heritage position statement on the Valletta Convention, [Online], Available: http://www.archaeol.freeuk.com/EHPostionStatement.htm [24 Aug 2001].

In the WWW page example, sometimes the authors details or the date of publication/update might be missing. When the authors name is missing, use the name of the web page to list the reference, as you would with any other anonymous source. If the date of publication or update is missing, omit this information, but be sure to still include in square brackets the date you accessed the information. Conclusion It is extremely important that students correctly reference all paraphrasing and direct quotations. While there are many referencing rules and conventions under the Harvard system, in most cases it is generally important in the text of an assignment to show the reader the authors name, date of publication and page numbers of the original source. In the reference list, it is important that the authors name, the year of publication, relevant titles, and other access information is faithfully reproduced. At first, the referencing system may seem time-consuming and fussy but it will soon become second nature to you and will become part of the long list of skills you will have gained as a university student. The author would like to acknowledge that certain citation and reference examples were taken from the following publications and that these publications influenced that way in which the author arranged the document. Central Queensland University ESLS Unit (2001) Referencing: The Harvard referencing system, [Online], Available: http://www.cqu.edu.au/edserv/undegrad/clc/content/resources.htm [14 Aug 2001]

Lewis, D. (ed.) (1999) The written assignment, Brisbane: QUT Publications.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing:

In many types of academic writing it is often necessary to refer to other peoples research. This may be done to give support to your own research ideas. We shall look at and practice paraphrasing, using your own words to report someone elses writing, but maintaining an academic style. We will also look at

summarizing. (Giving a brief account of the main points of some writing). In both of these it will be
necessary to look for topic sentences and key words in the original texts. (The main information-points) References must always be given to the sources of the texts you are making use of, (See annex A), otherwise you may be accused of plagiarism (using someone elses ideas or words as if they were your own). Advice on making summaries is contained in the Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the end of this annex. Paraphrase: Rewrite a text for the purpose of including it in your own writing can be done in several ways. Look at these examples and then do the exercises.

1. By changing the vocabulary (verbs-nouns) e.g. she examined the difficulties

that she investigated the problems that Rewrite the following: Smith and Jones (1991) found that the circumstances had..

2. By changing the verb form (e.g. from active to passive: this can change the focus or
emphasis) e.g. Johns (1987) analyzed the students difficulties and = The students difficulties were analyzed by Johns (1987) and.. Note: Using a passive rather than an active verb form here changes the focus from the writer to the research i.e. the students difficulties. Rewrite the following: Brown and White (1994) observed the problems caused by seminars

3. By Changing the word class (e.g. from verb to noun phrase) e.g. the reports were
compiled in April. The completion of the reports in April ensured that the students had time to revise before their examination. Suggest a different continuation after: The completion of the reports in April.

Note: Changing the word class allows you to add your own comments.

Rewrite the following and add an appropriate comment of your own: James and Harris (1984) concluded that there was a need for note taking practice. 4. By synthesis A synthesis is a combination, usually a shortened version, of several texts made into one. It contains the important points in the text and is written in your own words. To make a synthesis you need to find suitable sources, and then to select the relevant parts in those sources. You will then use your paraphrase and summary skills to write the information in your own words. The information from all the sources has to fit together into one continuous text. Please remember, though, that when you synthesize work from different people, you must acknowledge it.

The following stages may be useful:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Find texts that are suitable for your assignment. Read and understand the texts. Find the relevant ideas in the texts. Mark them in some way - write them down, take notes, underline them or highlight them. Make sure you identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - use colours or numbers. Read what you have marked very carefully. Organize the information you have. You could give all similar ideas in different texts the same number or letter or colour. Transfer all the information on to one piece of paper. Write down all simiar information together. Paraphrase and summarize as necessary. Check your notes with your original texts for accuracy and relevance. Combine your notes into one continuous text. Check your work. a. b. c. Make sure your purpose is clear Make sure the language is correct Make sure the style is your own

8. 9. 10. 11.

d. Remember to acknowledge other people's work

Example of a synthesis:

Johns and Dudley (1980) touched on the problems created by the lecturers use of colloquial words and phrases. This use of informal language was also noted by Jackson and Bilton (1994) who investigated geology lectures in English

Read the following texts and summarize them in your own words: Attitudes to learning: It has often been shown that controversial material is more readily learnt if it fits in with existing beliefs and attitudes. For example, pro-communist students learnt more readily than anti-communist students a list of statements favorable to the U.S.S.R. That material is most easily learnt which conforms to existing opinions. The recall of controversial material may also be selective: for instance, theistic students remembered better than atheistic students statements favourable to religion and vice versa. This suggests some resistance to learning and retaining material which is not acceptable to us. Conversely we are very ready to learn from certain sources to which we are favourably inclined, such as a political weekly or a particular author whose work we admire. Even in factual subjects, in which there may not seem to be much room for controversy, there may be parts of the subject which you regard as old-fashioned or dead wood. Once you begin to develop enthusiasms for certain approaches to your subject, as every active and spirited person does, it becomes rather too easy to dismiss other approaches as worth-less and not to bother to learn about them. The hard fact is, however, that if you have to cover a syllabus, you probably cannot afford to neglect any part of it because you think it is unimportant or because you don't like the way it is taught.

Acquiring new knowledge: In all learning, advances tend to come irregularly and in bursts, as you gain fresh insights into the subject. In order to obtain these insights you must thoroughly understand what you are studying. If you really understand a subject not only do you remember it easily, but you can apply your know ledge in new situations. The important thing is not what you know, but what you can do with what you know. The extra effort involved in getting a firm grounding in the essentials of a subject is repaid many times in later study. How are you to achieve understanding? Understanding involves (1) linking new knowledge to the old and (2) organizing it and remembering it in a systematic fashion. To retain and make sense of any new concept or fact it must be linked in as many ways as possible to your existing body of knowledge. All good introductory textbooks are constantly giving familiar examples, or using analogies, or appealing to common experience. In setting out the differences between daylight vision and twilight vision, for example, most writers point out that as twilight falls in the garden, blue flowers remain blue for some time after red blossoms appear black, illustrating, by appeal to common experience, that under dim illumination the colors of the blue end of the spectrum become relatively brighter than those of the red end. Or again, to illustrate that the movement of any particular electron during the passage of an electric current is only a few centimeters a second, although the velocity of the current is extremely great, the analogy is often used of a truck run into the end of a long line of trucks in a shunting yard, a corresponding truck being rapidly ejected from the far end. Linking new information to familiar experience in this fashion always helps understanding. In order to tie the new

information to your stock of knowledge with as many links as possible, you must reflect on it, and try and relate it to what you already know. Thinking the matter over by yourself, writing out summaries of the main points, and talking to other students about it, are all valuable for fixing it more clearly in your mind.'

Structure and Vocabulary Aid:

Reporting Verbs: As X observes, has observed, had observed, points out remarks, says, states. X affirms, argues, assumes, believes, claims, concludes, explains, finds, implies, maintains, suggests. Other structures: As noted by X. According to X. It has been argued by X that. In Xs view.

Classes: Note taking, Listening, Participation:

Information presented in class often contains the central concepts of the course and the material most likely to be included on exams. Yet, students frequently do not realize the importance of note taking and listening. The following resources provide tips on how to recall more information from your lectures through active listening and purposeful note taking. In addition, lecture notes can be a critical tool for preparing for exams. Suggestions are provided for how to use your notes regularly to review. The key is to develop a system that enables you to : Review regularly Recite (repeating key concepts from class) Reflect (connecting class ideas to other notes and readings) TAKING LECTURE NOTES I. There are many reasons for taking lecture notes. A. Making yourself take notes forces you to listen carefully and test your understanding of the material. B. When you are reviewing, notes provide a gauge to what is important in the text. C. Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text. D. The writing down of important points helps you to remember then even before you have studied the material formally.

II. Instructors usually give clues to what is important to take down. Some of the more common clues are: A. Material written on the blackboard. B. Repetition C. Emphasis 1. Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gesture. 2. Emphasis can be judged by the amount of time the instructor spends on points and the number of examples he or she uses. D. Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . " "The third reason is . . . " " In conclusion . . . ") E. Summaries given at the end of class. F. Reviews given at the beginning of class.

III. Each student should develop his or her own method of taking notes, but most students find the following suggestions helpful: A. Make your notes brief.

1. Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase where you can use a word. 2. Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent. B. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be noted exactly: 1. Formulas 2. Definitions 3. Specific facts C. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention helps you distinguish major from minor points. D. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the information later. E. Don't try to use every space on the page. Leave room for coordinating your notes with the text after the lecture. (You may want to list key terms in the margin or make a summary of the contents of the page.) F. Date your notes. Perhaps number the pages.

SAVING TIME ON NOTETAKING: Here are some hints regarding taking notes on classroom lectures that can save time for almost any student. Some students say that they plan to rewrite or type their notes later. To do so is to use a double amount of time; once to take the original notes and a second to rewrite them. The advice is simple: DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME! Second, there are some students who attempt to take notes in shorthand. Though shorthand is a valuable tool for a secretary, it is almost worthless for a student doing academic work. Here's why. Notes in shorthand cannot be studied in that form. They must first be transcribed. The act of transcribing notes takes an inordinate amount of time and energy but does not significantly contribute to their mastery. It is far better to have taken the notes originally in regular writing and then spend the time after that in direct study and recitation of the notes. Third, do not record the lesson on a cassette tape or any other tape. The lecture on tape precludes flexibility. This statement can be better understood when seen in the light of a person who has taken his/her notes in regular writing. Immediately after taking the notes this person can study them in five minutes before the next class as s/he walks toward the next building, as s/he drinks his/her coffee, or whatever. Furthermore, this student, in looking over his/her notes, may decide that the notes contain only four worthwhile ideas which s/he can highlight, relegating the rest of the lecture to obscurity. Whereas the lecture on tape has to be listened to in its entirety including the worthwhile points as well as the "garbage," handwritten notes may be studied selectively. A student who takes the easy way out recording the lecture on tape as he or she sits back doing nothing - will box him or herself into inflexibility.

NOTE MAKING: Learning to make notes effectively will help you to improve your study and work habits and to remember important information. it down. As you make notes, you will develop skill in selecting important material and in discarding unimportant material. The secret to developing this skill is practice. Check your results constantly. Strive to improve. Notes enable you to retain important facts and data and to develop an accurate means of arranging necessary information. Here are some hints on note making. 1. Don't write down everything that you read or hear. Be alert and attentive to the main points. Concentrate on the "meat" of the subject and forget the trimmings. 2. Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences. If a speaker gets sidetracked it is often possible to go back and add further information. 3. Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words, but try not to change the meaning. If you quote directly from an author, quote correctly. 4. Think a minute about your material before you start making notes. Don't take notes just to be taking notes! Take notes that will be of real value to you when you look over them at a later date. 5. Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make sense to you. Use a skeleton outline and show importance by indenting. Leave lots of white space for later additions. 6. Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to the point. Condense your material so you can grasp it rapidly. 7. Don't worry about missing a point. 8. Don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order and in one place. 9. Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework (not redo) your notes by adding extra points and spelling out unclear items. Remember, we forget rapidly. Budget time for this vital step just as you do for the class itself. 10. Review your notes regularly. This is the only way to achieve lasting memory. Often, students are deceived into thinking that because they understand everything that is said in class they will therefore remember it. This is dead wrong! Write

Evaluate Your Present Note-Taking System:

Ask yourself: 1. Do I use complete sentences? They are generally a waste of time. 2. Do I use any form at all? Are my notes clear or confusing? 3. Do I capture main points and all sub-points? 4. Do I streamline using abbreviations and shortcuts? Five Important Reasons to Take Notes 1. Notes trigger memories of lecture/reading 2. Your notes are often a source of valuable clues for what information the instructor thinks most important (i.e., what will show up on the next test). 3. Notes inscribe information kinesthetically 4. Taking notes helps you to concentrate in class 5. Notes create a resource for test preparation 6. Your notes often contain information that cannot be found elsewhere (i.e., in your textbook).

Guidelines for Note-Taking 1. Concentrate on the lecture or on the reading material. 2. Take notes consistently. 3. Take notes selectively. Do NOT try to write down every word. Remember that the average lecturer speaks approximately 125-140 words per minute, and the average note-taker writes at a rate of about 25 words per minute. 4. Translate ideas into your own words. 5. Organize notes into some sort of logical form. 6. Be brief. Write down only the major points and important information. 7. Write legibly. Notes are useless if you cannot read them later! 8. Don't be concerned with spelling and grammar.