ABSTRACT

Aerated concrete is relatively homogeneous when compared to normal concrete, as it does not contain coarse aggregate phase, yet shows vast variation in its properties. The properties of aerated concrete depend on its microstructure (void-paste system) and composition, which are influenced by the type of binder used, methods of poreformation and curing. Although aerated concrete was initially envisaged as a good insulation material, there has been renewed interest in its structural characteristics in view of its lighter weight, savings in material and potential for large scale utilisation of wastes like pulverised fuel ash. The focus of this article is to classify the investigations and their effect on the thermal properties of aerated concrete.

1. INTRODUCTION:-

Aerated concrete is either a cement or lime mortar, classified as lightweight concrete, in which air-voids are entrapped in the mortar matrix by means of a suitable aerating agent. Broadly speaking aerated concrete falls into the group of cellular concrete (microporite being the other). The prominent advantage of aerated concrete is its lightweight, which economises the design of supporting structures including the foundation and walls of lower floors. It provides a high degree of thermal insulation and considerable savings in material due to the porous structure. By appropriate method of production, aerated concrete with a wide range of densities (300-1800 kg/m3) can be obtained thereby offering flexibility in manufacturing products for specific applications (structural, partition and insulation grades). There have been several investigations on the properties of aerated concrete in the past. Although aerated concrete was initially envisaged as an insulation material, there has been renewed interest on its structural characteristics in view of its lighter weight, savings in material and potential for large scale utilisation of wastes like pulverised fuel ash.

In the mold process, the mix slurry generates hydrogen gas by the chemical reaction between fine aluminium powder and lime.

2. Classification of aerated concrete

2.1. Based on the method of pore-formation

AIR-ENTRAINING METHOD (GAS CONCRETE): Gas-forming chemicals are mixed into lime or cement mortar during the liquid or plastic stage, resulting in a mass of increased volume and when the gas escapes, leaves a porous structure. Aluminium powder, hydrogen peroxide/bleaching powder and calcium carbide liberate hydrogen, oxygen and acetylene, respectively. Among these, aluminium powder is the most commonly used aerating agent. Efficiency of aluminium powder process is influenced by its fineness, purity and alkalinity of cement, along with the means taken to prevent the escape of gas before hardening of mortar. In the case of Portland cements with low alkalinity, addition of sodium hydroxide or lime supplement the alkali required.

FOAMING METHOD (FOAMED CONCRETE): This is reported as the most economical and controllable pore-forming process as there are no chemical reactions involved. Introduction of pores is achieved through mechanical means either by preformed foaming (foaming agent mixed with a part of mixing water) or mix foaming (foaming agent mixed with the mortar). The various foaming agents used are detergents, resin soap, glue resins, saponin, hydrolysed proteins such as keratin etc.

Combined pore-forming method: Production of cellular concrete by combining foaming and air-entraining methods has also been adopted using aluminium powder and glue resin.

2.2. Based on the type of binder

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Aerated concrete is classified into cement or lime based depending on the binder used. Attempts have also been made to use pozzolanic materials such as pulverised fuel ash or slate waste as partial replacement to the binder or sand.

2.3. Based on the method of curing Aerated concrete can be non-autoclaved (NAAC) or autoclaved (AAC) based on the method of curing. The compressive strength, drying shrinkage, absorption properties etc. directly depend on the method and duration of curing. The strength development is rather slow for moist-cured products. Autoclaving initiates reaction between lime and silica/alumina bearing ingredients. The hydrothermal reactions involved in autoclaving have been explained.

Carbonation is one of the main degradation mechanisms that possibly affect the durability and service life of concrete materials in general. Carbonation occurs when portlandite [Ca(OH)2] and other calcium-bearing C-S-H phases react with CO2 to form calcite (CaCO3). Major mineralogical changes associated with carbonation include conversion of calcium silicate hydrate gel, in this case, tobermorite:

Degradation process is further accelerated by high concentrations of sulphur dioxide in the air. SO2 in the presence of moisture forms sulphurous acid. By atmospheric oxygen, sulphurous acid is oxidised to sulphuric acid, which attacks calcium carbonate. Gypsum crystals occur as a reaction product.

Thermal Property Thermal property/conductivity depends on density, moisture content and ingredients of the material. As Thermal conductivity is largely a function of density, it does not really matter whether the product is moist cured or autoclaved as far as thermal conductivity is concerned. The amount of pores and their distribution are also critical for thermal insulation. Finer the pores better the insulation. As the thermal conductivity is influenced by the moisture content (a 1% increase in moisture by mass increases thermal conductivity by 42%), it should not be reported in oven dry condition. In order to obtain high thermal insulation and compressive strength, noncrystalline siliceous material has been adopted by some researchers as a partial or full replacement for quartz sand.

Methods used in analysis of AAC: XRD ANALYSIS X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile, non-destructive technique that reveals detailed information about the chemical composition and crystallographic structure of natural and manufactured materials.

Crystal lattice A crystal lattice is a regular three-dimensional distribution (cubic, rhombic, etc.) of atoms in space. These are arranged so that they form a series of parallel planes separated from one another by a distance d, which varies according to the nature of the material. For any crystal, planes exist in a number of different orientations - each with its own specific d-spacing.

Constructive interference When a monochromatic X-ray beam with wavelength lambda is projected onto a crystalline material at an angle theta, diffraction occurs only when the distance travelled by the rays reflected from successive planes differs by a complete number n of wavelengths.
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XRD MACHINE

SEM ANALYSIS The scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons to generate a variety of signals at the surface of solid specimens. The signals that derive from electron-sample interactions reveal information about the sample including external morphology (texture), chemical composition, and crystalline structure and orientation of materials making up the sample. In most applications, data are collected over a selected area of the surface of the sample, and a 2-dimensional image is generated that displays spatial variations in these properties. Areas ranging from approximately 1 cm to 5 microns in width can be imaged in a scanning mode using conventional SEM techniques (magnification ranging from 20X to approximately 30,000X, spatial resolution of 50 to 100 nm). The SEM is also capable of performing analyses of selected point locations on the sample; this approach is especially useful in qualitatively or semi-quantitatively determining chemical compositions (using EDS), crystalline structure, and crystal orientations (using EBSD).

Fundamental Principles of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Accelerated electrons in an SEM carry significant amounts of kinetic energy, and this energy is dissipated as a variety of signals produced byelectron-sample interactions when the incident electrons are decelerated in the solid sample. These signals include secondary electrons (that produce SEM images), backscattered electrons (BSE), diffracted backscattered electrons (EBSD that are used to determine crystal structures and orientations of minerals), photons (characteristic X-rays that are used for elemental analysis and continuum X-rays), visible light (cathodoluminescence--CL), and heat. Secondary electrons and backscattered electrons are commonly used for imaging samples: secondary electrons are most valuable for showing morphology and topography on samples and backscattered electrons are most valuable for illustrating contrasts in composition in multiphase samples (i.e. for rapid phase discrimination). X-ray generation is produced by inelastic collisions of the incident electrons with electrons in discrete ortitals (shells) of atoms in the sample. As the excited electrons return to lower energy states, they yield X-rays that are of a fixed wavelength (that is related to the difference in energy levels of electrons in different shells for a given element). Thus, characteristic X-rays are produced for each element in a mineral that is "excited" by the electron beam. SEM analysis is considered to be "non-destructive"; that is, x-rays generated by electron interactions do not lead to volume loss of the sample, so it is possible to analyze the same materials repeatedly.

SEM MACHINE

TGA ANALYSIS Thermogravimetric analysis or thermal gravimetric analysis is a type of testing performed on samples that determines changes in weight in relation to a temperature program in a controlled atmosphere. Such analysis relies on a high degree of precision in three measurements: weight, temperature, and temperature change. As many weight loss curves look similar, the weight loss curve may require transformation before results may be interpreted. A derivative weight loss curve can identify the point where weight loss is most apparent. Again, interpretation is limited without further modifications and deconvolution of the overlapping peaks may be required. To determine composition and purity one must take the mass of the substance in the mixture by using thermal gravimetric analysis. Thermal gravimetric analysis is the act of heating a mixture to a high enough temperature so that one of the components decomposes into a gas, which dissociates into the air. It is a process that utilizes heat and stoichiometry ratios to determine the percent by mass ratio of a solute.

Methodology TGA is a process that utilizes heat and stoichiometry ratios to determine the percent by mass of a solute. Analysis is carried out by raising the temperature of the sample gradually and plotting weight (percentage) against temperature. The temperature in many testing methods routinely reaches 1000C or greater. After the data are obtained, curve smoothing and other operations may be done to find the exact points of inflection. A method known as hi-resolution TGA is often employed to obtain greater accuracy in areas where the derivative curve peaks. In this method, temperature increase slows as weight loss increases. This is to more accurately identify the exact temperature where a peak occurs. Several modern TGA devices can vent burn off to an infrared spectrophotometer to analyze composition.

LITERATURE REVIEW
In this section some major research works done in the field of thermal property of AAC will be summarised and discussed.

Case 1: Analysis of Microstructure and Properties of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Wall Construction Materials [15]

This work sets its aim at examining the porous structure of both AAC and Non-AAC in order to elucidate the formation process of their microstructures using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Also chemical and structural analyses are conducted using X-ray diffraction (XRD) to Figure out the effect of their composition on their thermal properties. Comparison of thermal and mechanical properties of AAC and Non-AAC has also been reported.

Studies on thermal inertia of concrete blocks are involving with heat transfer by radiation to buildings made of AAC and Non-AAC. It was found that Non-AAC blocks with higher density are likely to be able to transfer heat faster than the lighter AAC and in turn lead to shorter delay time in heat transmission. The experimental results showed that the wall made of AAC could resist moisture and reduce heat transfer due to its inner porous structure.

Materials and Method

Specimens of AAC were collected which has been certified by Thailand Industrial Standard (TIS) 1505-2541. 120 pieces of AAC blocks with a uniform size of 200 600 75 mm were randomly sampled for investigation. Meanwhile, the Non-AAC

blocked of the same size and amounts were sampled for comparison. Both AAC and Non- AAC specimens were subjected to tests as follows; 1) Thailand Industrial Standard (TIS) 1505-2541 and Din 4165-1986 for determining dry density, compressive strength, and flexural strength, 2) JIS A 2618 standard for examining thermal conductivity using Thermal Conductivity Tester (model 88 K-FOTOR, ANACON), 3) DSC analysis for determining specific heat capacity using a differential scanning calorimeter (Model DSC 7), 4) Microscopic analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Model JEOL JSM 5800 equipped with Energy Dispersive Spectroscope), 5) Chemical analysis using XRD (X-ray Diffractometer, model Bruker D8).

Discussion

From the SEM investigation on the surface morphology of the two typical samples of light weight AAC and Non- AAC blocks, it could clearly be observed that the surface Of Non-ACC sample consisted of large pores while the ACC sample exhibited smoother surface with much smaller porosity as shown in Figure 2. For further investigation on the porous structure of typical samples of Non-AAC and AAC, SEM micrographs with higher magnification shown in Figure 3 are taken into account. In Figure 3(a) Non-AAC samples consist of particulate clusters of evenly distributed sizes, which situate around craters generated by the existence of uncontrollable air bubbles in curing process. It could further be observed that the crystallinity of the Non-AAC was resulted from random formation of gas bubbles, leading to formation of cavities with various depths. On the other hand, Figure 3(b) revealed the samples of AAC exhibit smoother surface with some porosity and particulate of narrower size. This could be implied that under high pressure and temperature in autoclaving process, denser phase of C-S-H could be formed. For further investigation of their crystallinity, SEM micrographs with further higher magnification were employed.
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Figure 4(a) clearly reveals that Non-AAC samples are comprised of particulate calcium silicate of unevenly distributed morphologies. Submicron particulates gathering as agglomerates with average size of 5 m could form loose matrix surrounding by voidage, resulting in lower density and thermal conductivity of the Non-AAC samples. However, considering Figure 4(b), one could clearly observe considering Figure 4(b), one could clearly observe that finer needle-like crystalline structures exist thoroughly the surface of AAC samples. Tremendous amount of finer porosity within the matrix of fine particulate would also result in much lower specific density of AAC samples. Difference in such crystal morphologies and phases in Non-AAC and AAC samples are supposed to exert significant effects on not only mechanical but also thermal characteristics of the samples. Table 1 summarizes the mechanical and thermal investigating results. It could be clearly observed that AAC samples exhibit specific density almost 20 percent lower than that of Non-AAC. On the other hand, it could also be seen that average thermal conductivity and heat capacity of AAC samples are significantly lower than those of Non-AAC. As could be confirmed by microscopic analyses, the existence of micro- sized porosity in AAC samples would lead to higher insulating performance.

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(a)

(b) Figure 2. SEM micrographs of non-AAC and AAC specimens.

(a)

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(b) Figure 3. Comparison of surface morphology of Non-AAC and AAC specimens.

(a)

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(b) Figure 4. Comparison of crystalline structure of Non-AAC and AAC specimens.

In order to confirm the crystal structure of both Non-AAC and AAC samples, XRD analysis was also carried out. XRD patterns in Figure 5 reveals that Non-AAC samples mainly consist of calcite and quartz. Meanwhile, in AAC sample main product is crystalline in as much as tobermorite and quartz are present.

Figure 5. XRD patterns of (a) Non-AAC and (b) AAC specimens (Q: quartz , T: tobermorite and C: calcite).
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Conclusion

Under a condition of high pressure and temperature treatment, calcite in aerated cement specimens could undergo phase transformation process to become tobermorite, which is more stable than former phase. High pressure autoclaving could also control formation of evenly distributed micropores within the cement matrix. The existence of tobermorite phase in AAC plays an important role in providing various outstanding properties. Additionally, AAC could exhibit superior compressive strength and thermal insulating properties.

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CASE 2:

Thermal Insulation and Strength of Autoclaved Light Concrete [14][15]

The objective of this research was to study the effect of the major components of ALC on aerating process, improving the compressive strength while retaining excellent thermal insulation simultaneously. At the same time, relationship between thermal insulation and compressive strength was studied when silica fume was partly replaced by quartz sand.

Materials

Silica fume: Silica fume, also known as micro silica, is an amorphous (noncrystalline) polymorph of silicon dioxide, silica. It is an ultrafine powder collected as a by-product of the silicon and ferrosilicon alloy production and consists of spherical particles with an average particle diameter of 150 nm.

Sample In experiments, silica fumes with dominant size of 0.15-0.2 m were used to replace quartz sand at a dosage of 50.5 wt%. Samples of different bulk density were produced via the change of the weight fraction of aluminium powder. Silica fumes were mixed with water before stirred with other materials. Fraction of aluminium powder was varied to investigate the relationship of compressive strength and thermal coefficient. By analyzing the evolution of compressive strength and thermal coefficient, the relationship could be obtained. The samples for thermal insulation and compressive strength test were manufactured at the dimension of 30030030 mm and 100100100 mm, respectively. They were first cured at 34oC under normal pressure for 12 hours. Afterwards they were autoclaved under saturated steam pressure of 1.25 MPa for 8 h
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Discussion 0.0002d0.0233

(1)

Where, is thermal coefficient, W/ (mk); d is Dry density, kgm3.

Figure 1: Thermal coefficient vs dry bulk density

Eq.1 and Fig.1 showed the linear relationship between dry bulk density and thermal coefficient. They indicated that the samples had obtained a very low thermal coefficient as their dry bulk density had been controlled into a low extent.

Different locations of samples including wall surface of aerated bubble, fracture section of aerated bubble were investigated by SEM. Fig.2 (a) and (b) showed that laminar crystal about 3 m to 5 m width was found at the wall surface of aerated bubble. The surface materials of the
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aerated bubble were tobermorite crystals. Nevertheless, the laminar crystals in this study were denser than that Non silica fume AAC. Therefore, the mechanical properties were improved. Fig.2 (c) and (d) revealed that the morphology of fracture section was grainy CSH(I).

Figure 2: Microstructure of samples at different locations

The average elemental compositions of the sample analyzed by SEM & EDX were given in a spectral diagram. Fig.3 illustrated intensity peaks for calcium, silicon and oxygen atom, which were the major elements
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constituting the CSH(I) gel and tobermorite crystal. Aluminium element was also presented. Table 1 revealed the EDX data corresponding to the spectrum given in Fig.3.

Fig.4 EDX spectra of selected targets and the location of the SEM image Table 1: EDX data for spectrum in figure 3

The X-ray powder patterns of ALC samples showed distinct peaks of SiO2, CSH(I), tobermorite and calcite. These results suggested that the phase compositions of samples with XRD analysis were identical with SEM & EDX.

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Figure 4: X-ray powder pattern of ALC samples By SEM, EDX and XRD analyses, the surface morphology at the wall surface of aerated bubble and fracture section of aerated bubble could be affirmed as tobermorite crystal and CSH(I) gel, respectively.

Conclusions:

The properties of samples had been improved by optimizing the recipe. Dry bulk density of the samples had been lowered to 284.5 kg/m3 with the compressive strength still kept above 2.00 MPa. If the lower compressive strength was allowed, i e, 1.5 MPa or 1.0 MPa, the bulk density could even be decreased further (i e, the thermal coefficient could be even improved further).

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CASE 3:

Influence of air-cooled slag on Thermal properties of autoclaved aerated concrete [1] [15] [20]

This investigation includes the study of the possibility of using the air-cooled slag byproducts as substituent for sand and lime in autoclaved aerated concrete. The influences of slag substitution on the physico-mechanical and chemical properties of the final products under different autoclaving time were studied.

Air Cooled Slag:- Air-cooled blast-furnace slag is a lump ore manufactured from molten from blast-furnace slag by air-cooling and appropriate water spraying. The product is then crushed and screened in accordance with the specified application and sold as materials for road base course material, rock fibres, coarse concrete aggregates and cement clinker raw materials.

Experimental Mixes
Mix AS0 AS1 AS2 AS3 AS4 AS5 AS6 Sand 65 55 35 15 65 55 35 Cao 25 25 25 25 10 10 10 PC 10 10 10 10 5 5 5 As -10 30 50 20 30 50

Discussion

X-ray diffraction analyses were carried out to identify the crystalline solid phases. The diffraction patterns are given in Figs. 1 and 2 for samples cured for 2 and 24 h,

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respectively. Fig. 1 shows that the peaks characteristic of tobermorite were started to appear in the reference sample (AS0) as with the low-lime samples (AS4AS6), and the intensity increase with increasing AS contents. This indicates that tobermorite can be formed at 2 h of curing time in the presence of AS. However, increasing the autoclaving time to 24 h in slag containing samples made with 10% CaO has no effect on the tobermorites peaks intensity. This indicates that tobermorite formation was inhabited after 2 h of autoclaving in these mixes.

Fig. 1. XRD patterns of autoclaved aerated concrete at 2 h of curing times.

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Fig. 2. XRD patterns of autoclaved aerated concrete at 24 h of curing times.

The fracture surface of all samples autoclaved for 2 and 24 h are examined with scanning electron microscopy. Fig. 3a and b shows the change in microstructure in the reference mix (AS0). The initially formed amorphous CSH and platy like tobermorite (Fig. 3a) change to crumbled foiled tobermorite (Fig. 3b) with further processing. In high-lime mixes made with 10 and 30%AS substitution (AS1 and AS2), at 2-h processing time, only fibers CSH are formed. At 24-h processing time, these CSH fibers change to a very crystalline needle-like tobermorite. Fig. 4 is given as example of this change for sample AS2.

Fig. 5 shows no tobermorite formed in mix AS3 (50% AS substitution) at all autoclaving times. Rather, amorphous Al substituted CSH formed (Fig. 5a), and it changed to reticulated amorphous CSH (Fig. 5b) with increasing processing time. This seems to be due to the increase in the bulk C/S ratio
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beyond those suitable for tobermorite formation. In AS-substituted mixes made with low-CaO contents (10%), tobermorite appears at 2-h processing time. However, with further processing, tobermorite formation was retarded and CSH with a grass-like structure, and a very low C/S ratio was formed. Figs. 6 and 7 is the SEM picture for mix AS5 and AS6, respectively

Fig. 3&4. SEM micrographs of the reference mix (AS0) and (AS2 )at (a) 2 and (b) 24 h.

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Fig. 5&6. SEM micrographs of mix (AS5) and (AS5) at (a) 2 and (b) 24 h.

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Fig. 7. SEM micrographs of mix (AS6) at (a) 2 and (b) 24 h.

Conclusion The existence of tobermorite phase in AAC plays an important role in providing various outstanding properties. The tobermorite phase present enhances the thermal property of the AAC and by adding some amount of Air slag along with properly monitored levels of CaO can help formation of toblomorite phase within two hours of curing.

CASE 4:

Effect of high temperature and cooling conditions on aerated concrete properties [15] [7] [8]
Concrete is an inorganic material and high temperature and its duration decrease the concrete strength and its durability. Fire resistance of concrete is primarily affected by factors like the temperature duration and condition (multiple or one-way effect-direct
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flame contact-hot gas or radiation) of the fire. The type of aggregate and cement used in its composition, the porosity and moisture content of concrete, its thermal properties, and sizes of structure members and their construction type are the other factors that determine the level of fire resistivity of the material. The effect of high temperatures on the mechanical properties and durability of lightweight, normal, or high strength concrete have been investigated by many researchers in order achieve fire resistant material since the 1940s.

Material used

Aerated concrete tested in the experimental study was provided directly by the manufacturer. The commercial name of the product is called G4. The material properties are given in Table 1

Discussion

Effect of high temperatures on volume and unit weight The linear thermal expansion coefficient of aerated concrete is a = 8 x 10-6 m/m oC. Accordingly, material expands initially, but shrinks relatively more than its original size depending on the applied temperature. The trend of the relational line is adjacent to the calculated theoretical values of linear and volumetric thermal expansion of the
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material until 200 oC which are also shown in the same figure. Dimensional changes directly affect the volume of the material. It gradually decreases between 400 and 800
o

C. Between 200 and 400 oC and above 800 oC the decrease is relatively sharp. Thus, aerated concrete can be well accepted

as a dimensionally stable material especially up to 800 oC. Parallel to the changes in volume, unit weight of aerated concrete decreases approximately 10% depending on the elevated temperatures and is relatively smaller than gypsum based paste and mortars. This value is important for the evaluation of MoE of the material.

Effect of high temperatures on the youngs modulus of elasticity

Equilibrium moisture content of aerated concrete depending on the relative humidity of the test environment is generally below 3.5% by volume of the dry material and is released at approximately 100 oC. From 200 oC up to 800 oC the values gradually decrease, and remain almost same upwards. Between 300 oC and 500 oC water of crystallization removes from the material and free calcium hydroxide decomposes into calcium oxide CaCO3 exists in the structure of aerated concrete is more resistant to high temperatures than Ca(OH)2, Additionally, aerated concrete does not contain coarse aggregate and has lower thermal conductivity than NWC which may relatively decrease the effect of quenching on the structure of the material. MoE values also decrease gradually between 100 and 800 0C which could be the result of gradual increase of micro cracks in the structure of the material.
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Effect of high temperatures on the compressive strength

Chemical structure of the aerated concrete starts to break down between 225 and 450
0

C where first capillary cracks were observed. These cracks do not have significant

affect on the compressive strength of the material, but above 500 0C the amount of the cracks develop parallel to the increase of temperature and the material becomes weaker. Maximum compressive strength is found at approximately 200 0C series which were tested hot. Starting from approximately 400 0C up to 800 0C compressive strength of the material is gradually lost, but above 800 0C severe lost is seen due to the sintering reaction starts to occur in the structure. Like the evaluations on MoE, gypsum mortars lose approximately 80% of their compressive strength at 200 0C due to the dehydration of the matrix phase.

Conclusion

After fire exposure, the volume of the aerated concrete increases at first due to the thermal expansion of the material, it increasingly shrinks depending on the rising temperature level. Both the unit weight and the volume of the material decrease approximately 10% at the examined temperature range. High temperature does not have a considerable effect on the strength of the material at approximately 700800 0C. Above this level, the strength of the material is distinctively influenced. As studied we can see that AAC displays much better resistance to high temperature than normal concrete due to its low thermal conductivity.

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Case 5: Compressive strength, flexural strength and thermal conductivity of autoclaved concrete block made using bottom ash as cement replacement materials[4][6][15]

Bottom ash (BA) is mostly used as a partial sand replacement of concrete production and as a substitution of fine aggregates in lightweight concrete but it does not improved compressive strength due to it is porous particle structure and high water absorption. Thus, the purpose of this research was to investigate the compressive strength and the thermal conductivity of the autoclaved concrete using bottom ash. BA was used to replace part of Portland cement at 10%, 20% and 30% by weight, respectively. All specimens were cured by autoclave under high-pressure stream curing. Compressive strength and thermal conductivity tests were then carried out.

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Discussion

The thermal conductivity results of BLWC can be seen as shown in Fig. 1.

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The addition of Al can be seen to significantly affect the thermal conductivity of the concrete. A reduction from 0.89 to 0.57 W/m K can be observed. The thermal conductivity was found to increase with increase BA replacement of Portland cement due to the BA content increased the overall unit weight (bulk density) of the concrete. The thermal conductivity depends upon the pore structure of the lightweight aggregates, density of concrete and the cement matrix. The decrease in thermal conductivity is due to the decreasing of concrete density. The thermal conductivity is therefore known to increase with the increase in the density of LWC. The thermal conductivity of LWC at BA replacement at 10%, 20% and 30% by weight (BA1,BA2,BA3) are 0.58, 0.59 and 0.61 W/m K, respectively. The thermal conductivity of BLWC tends to increase with increasing BA replacement. This is due to tobermorite phase was formed when using BA replacement, compared to a-C2SH phase in LWC without BA replacement (PC). Tobermorite phase is responsible for the increased thermal conductivity of BLWC due to it is a stronger product than a-C2SH phase which result to decrease in porosity and denser structure. Moreover, its formation in preference to anomalous tobermorite is favored by short time, low temperature, high Ca/Si ratio and presence of Al3+ in absence of alkali. Thus, when using BA as cement replacement at this curing temperature would increase the opportunity for tobermorite formation.

Case 6:
Influence of zeolite additive on properties of autoclaved aerated concrete [5][15]

The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of zeolite as siliceous material replacing quartz sand in AAC.

Zeolite: The classical definition of a zeolite is a crystalline, porous aluminosilicate. However, some relatively recent discoveries of materials virtually identical to the classical zeolite, but consisting of oxide structures with elements other than silicon and aluminum have stretched the definition. Most researchers now include virtually all
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types of porous oxide structures that have well-defined pore structures due to a high degree of crystallinity in their definition of a zeolite.

Discussion

Zeolite-based AAC (ZAAC) samples were prepared at the oven-dry unit weight of 270500 kg/m3 by controlling the quantity of Al used as foaming agent. Changes in thermal conductivity values vs. dry bulk density of ZAAC and commercial AAC are given in Fig 1. The thermal conductivity values are reduced with decrease of bulk density of these materials. Similar thermal conductivity values were observed for ZAAC and AAC products of the same density.

XRD analyses (Fig. 2) show the presence of tobermorite, quartz and anhydrite in commercial AAC and formation of wollastonite as a new phase at 8500C. The ZAAC contain unreacted anhydrite and clinoptilolite phases besides tobermorite and quartz (Fig. 3). XRD patterns obtained after treatment of the product between 700 and 10000C show that wollastonite, gehlenite and orthoclase are newly formed phases.

Fig 1: Thermal conductivity of investigated concrete vs. dry bulk density.

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Fig 2: XRD pattern of G-2 grade AAC at 25 1C and 850 1C.

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Fig 3: XRD patterns of ZAAC at 25 1C and 7001000 1C.

Conclusion

Use of zeolite to replace quartzite in production of AAC provides the thermal conductivity values similar to conventional AAC at the same bulk density. Commercial AAC is mainly composed of tobermorite, quartz and anhydrite, but ZAAC contains unreacted anhydrite and clinoptilolite phases besides tobermorite and quartz.

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Case 7: Properties of the autoclaved aerated concrete produced from coal bottom ash [4]
[6] [11]

Coal bottom ash and fly ash are quite different physically, mineralogically, and chemically. Bottom ash is a coarse, granular, incombustible by-product that is collected from the bottom of furnaces that burn coal for the generation of steam, the production of electric power, or both. Bottom ash is coarser than fly ash, with grain sizes spanning from fine sand to fine gravel. The type of by-product produced depends on the type of furnace used to burn the coal.

BA is often used as a low-cost replacement for more expensive sand for concrete production and as a fine aggregate in high-performance lightweight concrete. A previous study confirmed that the pozzolanic activity of the BA could be improved with adequate grinding. It should also be noted, however, that grinding BA resulted in a prolonged settling time and caused a reduction on the workability of the cement pastes. In this study, the received BA was first pre-treated by crushing and particle size classification method to decrease its higher unburned carbon to desirable level or that generally accepted by concrete industry (<6%). The pre-treated ash was then used as an aggregate with different replacement amounts.

Thermal insulation properties of BAC specimens were determined by thermal conductivity test. The measured thermal conductivities for BAC specimens cured for 18h are given in Table 1. Thermal conductivity values reduced with increasing BA replacement ratio. Although the lowest conductivity value was obtained for the 100% BA replacement amount, the decreased strength values of this concrete limited the usability. The obtained conductivity for the specimen having 50% BA and 0.2826W/mK was relatively higher than the commercial AAC produced, 0.2443W/mK; however, it can be acceptable for the general classification reported for the AAC
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Table 1: Thermal conductivity values of specimens

Micro structural analyses: As the percentage of BA in the replacement increased, the AAC structure became more and more porous, with more pores distributed around the BA aggregate surfaces. In addition, the detachments of the grains were observed in the network structure with the increase of BA replacement. Therefore, the formation of discrete grains and porous area close to the aggregate surfaces might be the main cause in reducing the thermal conductivity values with an increase in the BA replacement ratio against quartz sand.

Conclusion: Utilization of porous BA in AAC mixture decreases the thermal conductivity values up to 39% when compared with the reference AAC specimen.
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CASE 8: Workability, and mechanical, acoustic and thermal properties of lightweight aggregate concrete with a high volume of entrained air [10][14]

Air voids were introduced in cement matrix either by adding preformed foam, separately produced in a foam generating machine or by an air entraining (AE) agent during the mixing process. In general, the former method was preferred because it was easier to reach required air content in concrete. On the contrary, our previous studies have been focused on the lightweight aggregate concrete foamed by AE agent because a foam generating machine was unnecessary. These studies were about the effect of types and sizes of lightweight aggregates, and the addition of various fibers and mineral admixtures on the mechanical properties of lightweight aggregate concrete with adequate amount of AE agent.

Discussion: Fig. 1 shows that the thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete is lower than that of normal concrete. While the thermal conductivity of normal concrete was 0.70.8 W/m K in a temperature range of 050 0C, that of lightweight concrete decreased to 0.5 0.6 W/m K (6370%) when AE agent was not used, and decreased further to 0.30.4 W/m K (5255%) with the addition of AE agent up to 1.5%. The thermal conductivity has a strong relationship with the denseness of the matrix in materials and is defined as

Where sm is the thermal conductivity of the solid matrix, air is the thermal conductivity of air, p is the porosity in the material, and dry is the tortuosity factor of a material in an O.D. condition. A detailed description of this conceptual model has been presented in a previous paper. In accordance with the experimental results it was shown that the value of the tortuosity factor slightly increased or remained constant with an increase in porosity, when the pores were uniformly distributed in a solid
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matrix. Considering the much lower thermal conductivity of air (0.020.03 W/m K) relative to that of ceramic materials (150 W/m K), Eq. denotes that the thermal conductivity of materials is high when the porosity in the matrix is high. In addition, as shown in Fig. 2, the thermal conductivity linearly decreased as the porosity increased, regardless of the location of the pores, which affects the compressive strength and dynamic modulus of elasticity. It was inferred that the thermal conductivity was not sensitively affected by the materials consisting of texture around the pores.

Fig 1. Thermal conductivity of normal and lightweight concrete.

Fig 2. Relationship between porosity and thermal conductivity.

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Conclusion:

The thermal conductivity of concrete was decreased when normal aggregates were replaced by lightweight aggregates, and further decreased with addition of AE agent. Moreover, the thermal conductivity linearly decreased as the porosity increased, regardless of the location of the pores, which affects the strength and modulus of elasticity.

Case 9:
INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ON HEAT CONDUCTIVITY COEFFICIENT OF AERATED CONCRETE [19][16][8]

The aim of the research was to measure heat conductivity coefficient of the aerated concrete of the following apparent densities - 400 and 600 kg/m3 in dry state but also in various moisture states. For the examinations the following equipment and materials were used: Climatic chambers system for simulation of environmental conditions at the opposite sides of the sample (Fig. 1) [4], TDR equipment for both reflectometric moisture determination in building materials and the temperature - with analog temperature sensors placed in the TDR LP/mts probes and digital temperature sensors - Dallas type, Peltier plates - used as heat flux probes, Multimeter for voltage readouts from the Peltier plates, Aerated concrete samples of the following apparent densities - 400 and 600 kg/m3

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Aerated concrete 400 is characterized by smaller value of the heat conductivity coefficient than aerated concrete 600. It could be explained by smaller apparent density with the similar compound of solid phase. But the mst coefficient (unit rise per % vol.) is greater. Heat conductivity coefficient in dry state for aerated concrete 400 is about 6 times smaller than in saturation and for concrete 600 only 3.9 times. It should be also underlined that the aerated concrete is strongly prone to water influence, but comparing with red brick for example, time of water desorption is longer. This fact, together with the increase of heat conductivity coefficient due to moisture rise leads to the increased heat loses during winter season and the decrease of heat-moisture comfort and indoor air microclimate.

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Conclusion
Autoclaved aerated concrete is further considered a sustainable building product because of its excellent insulating qualities resulting in increased energy efficiency. AACs thermal efficiency stems from three factors. First, AAC structures result in solid wall construction with integrated insulation. Entire wall coverage prevents the thermal bridging associated with conventional stud-framed walls, which essentially leave cold gaps around every stud and header. Second, the solid wall construction of AAC structures creates an airtight building envelope, minimizing uncontrolled air changes while helping maintain desired indoor temperatures and maximizing the efficiency of HVAC equipment. Third, AAC structures benefit from the added value of thermal mass and low thermal conductivity. The benefits of thermal mass, however, vary by location, and are greatest in regions where the outdoor temperature fluctuates above and below the desired indoor temperature over a 24-hour period.

AAC has excellent thermal insulating properties due to its cellular microstructure. The thermal conductivity of foam concrete of density 1000 kg/m3 is reported to be onesixth the value of typical cementsand mortar. Comparison with normal concrete: The thermal conductivity values are 530% of those measured on normal weight concrete and range from between 0.1 and 0.7 W/mK for dry densities values of 6001600 kg/m3, reducing with decreasing densities . Thermal insulation of brick wall can be increased by 23% when inner leaf is replaced with AAC of unit weight 800 kg/m3. Effect of density variation on thermal conductivity: Insulation is more or less inversely proportional to density of concrete. A decrease of concrete dry density by 100 kg/m3 results in a reduction of thermal conductivity by 0.04 W/mK of lightweight aggregate concrete. Altering the mortar/foam ratio affects density which has enormous impact on insulation capacity.
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Influence of fly ash, light weight aggregate: 1238% reduction in thermal conductivity of foam concrete with 30% PFA (Pulverized Fuel Ash) as compared to mixes with only Portland cement as binder is attributed to the lower density and cenospheric particle morphology of fly ash particles, which increases the heat flow path. AAC concrete exhibited typical thermal conductivity between 0.23 and 0.42 W/mK at 1000 and 1200 kg/m3 dry densities. The replacement of cement by finer fly ash (30% by weight of cement) helped to reduce temperature development during heat of hydration. The use of lightweight aggregates with low particle density in combination with artificially introduced air-voids in the mortar matrix has been observed to be advantageous in reducing thermal conductivity. By moderate filling of porous mortar with polystyrene granules, foam concrete of density range 200650 kg/m3 with thermal conductivity 0.060.16 W/mK could be produced. Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Thermal insulation is reported to improve with a reduction in temperature. While studying the potential of cellular concrete for load bearing insulations for cryogenic applications, Richard et al. reviewed the thermal and mechanical characteristics of foam concrete. Influence of temperature variations from 22 to -196 0C is reported for selected densities between 640 and 1440 kg/m3. An apparent reduction of 26% in thermal conductivity of foam concrete has been reported when temperature was lowered from 22 to -196 0C.

The thermal conductivity investigations at micro level indicates that (i) The method of pore-formation and curing plays a significant role in its microstructure and properties. (ii) (ii) The properties are influenced by the density and thus, they should be qualified with the density, which is to be specified along with the moisture content;

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(iii)

(iii) The chemical composition varies with the method of curing tobermorite gel being formed for moist-cured products and a more stable form of tobermorite on autoclaving

The presence of tobermorite gel has significant effect on the thermal property of AAC. The thermal insulating property is very superior.

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