GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATIOM SYSTEM

Edited by:

Geography Department of
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science Malang State University

Introduction Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information system used to digitally represent and analyse the geographic features present on the Earth' surface and the events (non-spatial attributes linked to the geography under study) that taking place on it. The meaning to represent digitally is to convert analog (smooth line) into a digital form. "Every object present on the Earth can be geo-referenced", is the fundamental key of associating any database to GIS. Here, term 'database' is a collection of information about things and their relationship to each other, and 'georeferencing' refers to the location of a layer or coverage in space defined by the co-ordinate referencing system. Work on GIS began in late 1950s, but first GIS software came only in late 1970s from the lab of the ESRI. Canada was the pioneer in the development of GIS as a result of innovations dating back to early 1960s. Much of the credit for the early development of GIS goes to Roger Tomilson. Evolution of GIS has transformed and revolutionized the ways in which planners, engineers, managers etc. conduct the database management and analysis. Some Interesting Links : 1. What is GIS ? A complete compilation of information on GIS 2. GIS guide to Good Practice A brief introduction to GIS and Archaeology 3. An Introduction to GIS in Real Estate Gil Castle's final draft of the real estate column appearing in Real Estate Issues, August 1995 4. A Brief Introduction to GIS Technology Enhancing Community Capacity to use Spatial Information Defining GIS A GIS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by spatial / geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of operations for working with the data. It may also be considered as a higher order map. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies. (ESRI) A Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used to digitally reproduce and analyse the feature present on earth surface and the

events that take place on it. In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as it's denominator, it becomes imperative to underline the importance of a system which can represent the given data geographically. A typical GIS can be understood by the help of various definitions given below:

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on Earth Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes" Arnoff in 1989 defines GIS as, "a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced data :

data input data management (data storage and retrieval) manipulation and analysis data output. "

Hence GIS is looked upon as a tool to assist in decision-making and management of attributes that needs to be analysed spatially. Some Interesting Links : 1. What is GIS ? Geographical Information Systems Definition by GIS.Com 2. A revised Definition of GIS For the purpose of Exploring Geographical Information Systems 3. Definitions of GIS Compiled by Kenneth E. Foote and Margaret Lynch, The Geographer's Craft Project, Department of Geography, University of Texas at Austin. 4. Definition Of GIS: The Manager's Perspective Paper presented at the International Workshop on Dynamic and MultiDimensional GIS held at Hong Kong, 25-26th August 1997 5. GIS : Definition Definition of GIS by the Northwest GIS Services Inc. Answers GIS can give Till now GIS has been described in two ways: 1. Through formal definitions, and 2. Through technology's ability to carry out spatial operations, linking data sets together.

However there is another way to describe GIS by listing the type of questions the technology can (or should be able to) answer. Location, Condition, Trends, patterns, Modelling, Aspatial questions, Spatial questions. There are five type of questions that a sophisticated GIS can answer: Location What is at.? The first of these questions seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. A location can be described in many ways, using, for example place name, post code, or geographic reference such as longitude/latitude or x/y. Condition Where is it.? The second question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to answer. Instead of identifying what exists at a given location, one may wish to find location(s) where certain conditions are satisfied (e.g., an unforested section of at-least 2000 square meters in size, within 100 meters of road, and with soils suitable for supporting buildings) Trends What has changed since..? The third question might involve both the first two and seeks to find the differences (e.g. in land use or elevation) over time. Patterns What spatial patterns exists..? This question is more sophisticated. One might ask this question to determine whether landslides are mostly occurring near streams. It might be just as important to know how many anomalies there are that do not fit the pattern and where they are located. Modelling What if..? "What if" questions are posed to determine what happens, for example, if a new road is added to a network or if a toxic substance seeps into the local ground water supply. Answering this type of question requires both geographic and other information (as well as specific models). GIS permits spatial operation. Aspatial Questions "What's the average number of people working with GIS in each location?" is an aspatial question - the answer to which does not require the stored value of latitude and longitude; nor does it describe where the places are in relation with each other. Spatial Questions " How many people work with GIS in the major centres of Delhi" OR " Which centres lie within 10 Kms. of each other? ", OR " What is the shortest route passing through all these centres". These are spatial questions that can only be answered using latitude and longitude data and other information such as the radius of earth. Geographic Information Systems can answer such questions.

Need of GIS? Many professionals, such as foresters, urban planners, and geologists, have recognized the importance of spatial dimensions in organising & analysing information. Whether a discipline is concerned with the very practical aspects of business, or is concerned with purely academic research, geographic information system can introduce a perspective, which can provide valuable insights as 1. 70% of the information has geographic location as it's denominator making spatial analysis an essential tool. 2. Ability to assimilate divergent sources of data both spatial and non-spatial (attribute data). 3. Visualization Impact 4. Analytical Capability 5. Sharing of Information Factors Aiding the rise of GIS.

Revolution in Information Technology.

Computer Technology. Remote Sensing. Global Positioning System.

Communication Technology. Rapidly declining cost of Computer Hardware, and at the same time, exponential growth of operational speed of computers. Enhanced functionality of software and their user-friendliness. Visualizing impact of GIS corroborating the Chinese proverb "a picture is worth a thousand words." Geographical feature and data describing it are part of our everyday lives & most of our everyday decisions are influenced by some facet of Geography.

Philosophy of GIS The proliferation of GIS is explained by its unique ability to assimilate data from widely divergent sources, to analyse trends over time, and to spatially evaluate impacts caused by development. For an experienced analyst, GIS is an extension one's own analytical thinking. The system has no in-built solutions for any spatial problems; it depends upon the analyst. The importance of different factors of GIS in decreasing order is as under:

Spatial Analysis Database

Software Hardware

GIS involves complete understanding about patterns, space, and processes or methodology needed to approach a problem. It is a tool acting as a means to attain certain objective quickly and efficiently. Its applicability is realized when the user fully understands the overall spatial concept under which a particular GIS is established and analyses his specific application in the light of those established parameters. Before the GIS implementation is considered the objectives, both immediate and long term, have to be considered. Since the effectiveness and efficiency (i.e. benefit against cost) of the GIS will depend largely on the quality of initial field data captured, organizational design has to be decided upon to maintain this data continuously. This initial data capture is most important. Some Interesting Links :

Philosophy of GIS An article by NOAA National Data Centers, NGDCA Implementing GIS in Lebanon Implementing GIS in Lebanon - A Case Study by Jacques Ekmekji, Director GIS Services Division/Associate Khatib & Alami - Consolidated Engineering Company Beirut - Lebanon

Advantages of GIS The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantage mentioned below:

Planning of project Make better decisions Visual Analysis Improve Organizational Integration

Planning Of Project Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a large spatial component, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more than one base maps, example: the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation and topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width and distance. Making Decisions The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as it is

for other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve territorial disputes, and siting pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion. Visual Analysis Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modeling, landscape can be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume (Example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land leveling) and hydrological modeling becomes easier. Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences GIS can prove extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as population distribution, market localization and other related features. Improving Organizational Integration Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By creating a shared database one department can benefit from the work of another--data can be collected once and used many times. As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced, productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned maintenance, affected people can be informed by computer-generated letters. Some Interesting Links:

Geographical Information Systems Advantages of GIS over Manual Methods The GeoData Institute The GIS Awarness Booklet by University of Southampton

Planning Of Project Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a large spatial component, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more than one base maps, example: the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil

composition, vegetation and topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width and distance. Making Decisions The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as it is for other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve territorial disputes, and siting pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion. Visual Analysis Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modeling, landscape can be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume (Example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land leveling) and hydrological modeling becomes easier. Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences GIS can prove extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as population distribution, market localization and other related features. Improving Organizational Integration Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By creating a shared database one department can benefit from the work of another--data can be collected once and used many times. As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced, productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned maintenance, affected people can be informed by computer-generated letters. Some Interesting Links:

Geographical Information Systems Advantages of GIS over Manual Methods The GeoData Institute The GIS Awarness Booklet by University of Southampton

Components of GIS GIS constitutes of five key components:

Hardware Software Data People Method

Hardware It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The choice of hardware system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to Super Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer forms the backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets it's input through the Scanner or a digitizer board. Scanner converts a picture into a digital image for further processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc. A digitizer board is flat board used for vectorisation of a given map objects. Printers and plotters are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup. Software GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information. GIS softwares in use are MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD Map, etc. The software available can be said to be application specific. When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop MapInfo is the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If the user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS, ARC/Info is the preferred option. For the people using AutoCAD and willing to step into GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option. Data Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to maintain their data, to manage spatial data. People GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The people who use GIS can be broadly classified into two classes. The CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects. The use of this vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the responsibility of a GIS engineer/user.

Method And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization. There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned images. The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by any survey agency or satellite imagery. GIS Applications Computerized mapping and spatial analysis have been developed simultaneously in several related fields. The present status would not have been achieved without close interaction between various fields such as utility networks, cadastral mapping, topographic mapping, thematic cartography, surveying and photogrammetery remote sensing, image processing, computer science, rural and urban planning, earth science, and geography. The GIS technology is rapidly becoming a standard tool for management of natural resources. The effective use of large spatial data volumes is dependent upon the existence of an efficient geographic handling and processing system to transform this data into usable information. The GIS technology is used to assist decision-makers by indicating various alternatives in development and conservation planning and by modelling the potential outcomes of a series of scenarios. It should be noted that any task begins and ends with the real world. Data are collected about the real world. Of necessity, the product is an abstraction; it is not possible (and not desired) to handle every last detail. After the data are analysed, information is compiled for decision-makers. Based on this information, actions are taken and plans implemented in the real world. Major areas of application

Different streams of planning Urban planning, housing, transportation planning architectural conservation, urban design, landscape. Street Network Based Application It is an addressed matched application, vehicle routing and scheduling: location and site selection and disaster planning. Natural Resource Based Application Management and environmental impact analysis of wild and scenic recreational resources, flood plain, wetlands, acquifers, forests, and wildlife.

View Shed Analysis Hazardous or toxic factories siting and ground water modelling. Wild life habitat study and migrational route planning. Land Parcel Based Zoning, sub-division plans review, land acquisition, environment impact analysis, nature quality management and maintenance etc. Facilities Management Can locate underground pipes and cables for maintenance, planning, tracking energy use.

Fundamentals of GIS
Mapping Concepts, Features & Properties A map represents geographic features or other spatial phenomena by graphically conveying information about locations and attributes. Locational information describes the position of particular geographic features on the Earth's surface, as well as the spatial relationship between features, such as the shortest path from a fire station to a library, the proximity of competing businesses, and so on. Attribute information describes characteristics of the geographic features represented, such as the feature type, its name or number and quantitative information such as its area or length. Thus the basic objective of mapping is to provide

descriptions of geographic phenomenon spatial and non spatial information map features like Point, Line, & Polygon.

Map Features Locational information is usually represented by points for features such as wells and telephone pole locations, lines for features such as streams, pipelines and contour lines and areas for features such as lakes, counties and census tracts. Point feature A point feature represents as single location. It defines a map object too small to show as a line or area feature. A special symbol of label usually depicts a point location. Line feature

A line feature is a set of connected, ordered coordinates representing the linear shape of a map object that may be too narrow to display as an area such as a road or feature with no width such as a contour line. Area feature An area feature is a closed figure whose boundary encloses a homogeneous area, such as a state country soil type or lake. Map Characteristics In addition to feature locations and their attributes, the other technical characteristics that define maps and their use includes:

Map Scale Map Accuracy Map Extent and Data Base Extent

Scale To show a portion of the Earth's surface on a map, the scale must be sufficiently adjusted to cover the objective. Map scale or the extent of reduction is expressed as a ratio. The unit on the left indicates distance on the map and the number on the right indicates distance on the ground. The following three statements show the same scale. 1 inch = 2.000 feet => 1 inch = 24.000 inches => 1:24.000 The latter is known as a representative fraction (RF) because the amounts on either side of the colon are equivalent: that is 1:24.000 means 1inch equals 24.000 inches or1 foot equals 24.000 feet or 1 meter equals 24.000 meters and so on. Map scale indicates how much the given area has been reduced. For the same size map, features on a small-scale map (1:1,000,0000) will be smaller than those on a large-scale map (1:1,200). A map with less detail is said to be of a smaller scale than one with more detail. Cartographers often divide scales into three different categories. Small-scale maps have scales smaller than 1 : 1,000,000 and are used for maps of wide areas where not much detail is required. Medium-scale maps have scales between 1 : 75,000 and 1 : 1,000,000. Large-scale maps have scales larger than 1 : 75,000. They are used in applications where detailed map features are required. So each scale represents a different tradeoff. With a small-scale map, you'll be able to show a large area without much detail. On a large-scale map, you'll be able to show a lot of detail but not for a large area. The small-scale map can

show a large area because it reduces the area so much that the large-scale map can only show a portion of one street, but in such detail that you can see shapes of the houses. To convert this statement to a representative fraction, the units of measure on both the sides being compared must be the same. For this example, both measurements will be in meters. To do this: 1. Convert 1.6 inches into meters 1.6 inches x 0.0254 meters/inch = 0.04 meters 2. Let us suppose that 0.04 units on the map = 10,000 units on the ground Then, you can now state the scale as a representative fraction (RF): 0.04:10,000 Though it is a valid statement of scale, most cartographers may find it clumsy. Traditionally, the first number in the representative fraction is made equal to 1: 0.04 / 0.04 = 1 units on the map = 10,000 / 0.04 units on the ground 1 unit on the map = 250,000 units on the ground Scale in Digital Maps With digital maps, the traditional concept of scale in terms of distance does not apply because digital maps do not remain fixed in size. They can be displayed or plotted at any possible magnification. Yet we still speak of the scale of a digital map. In digital mapping, the term scale is used to indicate the scale of the materials from which the map was made. For example, if a digital map is said to have a scale of 1:100,000, it was made from a 1:100,000-scale paper map. However, a digital map's scale still allows you to make some educated guesses about its contents because, generally, digital maps retain the same accuracy and characteristics as their source maps. So it is still true that a large-scale digital map will usually be more accurate and less general than a small-scale digital map. Because the display size of a computer-based map is not fixed, users are often tempted to blow up maps to very large sizes. For example, a 1:100,000-scale map can easily be plotted at a size of 1:24,000 or even 1:2,000-but it usually is

not a good idea to do so. It encourages the user to make measurements that the underlying data does not support. You cannot measure positions to the nearest foot if your map is only accurate to the nearest mile. You will end up looking for information that does not exist. Map Resolution Map resolution refers to how accurately the location and shape of map features can be depicted for a given map scale. Scale affects resolution. In a larger-scale map, the resolution of features more closely matches real-world features because the extent of reduction from ground to map is less. As map scale decrease, the map resolution diminishes because features must be smoothed and simplified, or not shown at all. Map Accuracy Many factors besides resolution, influence how accurately features can be depicted, including the quality of source data, the map scale, your drafting skill and the width of lines drawn on the ground. A fine drafting pen will draw line's 1/100 of an inch wide. Such a line represents a corridor on the ground, which is almost 53 feet wide In addition to this, human drafting errors will occur and can be compounded by the quality of your source maps and materials. A map accurate for one purpose is often inaccurate for others since accuracy is determined by the needs of the project as much as it is by the map itself. Some measurements of a map's accuracy are discussed below.

Absolute accuracy of a map refers to the relationship between a geographic position on a map (a street corner, for instance) and its realworld position measured on the surface of the earth. Absolute accuracy is primarily important for complex data requirements such as those for surveying and engineering-based applications. Relative accuracy refers to the displacement between two points on a map (both distance and angle), compared to the displacement of those same points in the real world. Relative accuracy is often more important and easier to obtain than absolute accuracy because users rarely need to know absolute positions. More often, they need to find a position relative to some known landmark, which is what relative accuracy provides. Users with simple data requirements generally need only relative accuracy. Attribute accuracy refers to the precision of the attribute database linked to the map's features. For example, if the map shows road classifications, are they correct? If it shows street addresses, how accurate are they? Attribute accuracy is most important to users with complex data requirements. it

A map's Currency refers to how up-to-date is. Currency is usually expressed in terms of a revision date, but this information is not always easy to find. A map is Complete if it includes all the features a user would expect it to contain. For example, does a street map contain all the streets? Completeness and currency usually are related because a map becomes less complete as it gets older.

The most important issue to remember about map accuracy is that the more accurate the map, the more it costs in time and money to develop. For example, digital maps with coordinate accuracy of about 100 feet can be purchased inexpensively. If 1-foot accuracy is required, a custom survey is often the only way to get it, which drives up data-acquisition costs by many orders of magnitude and can significantly delay project implementation - by months or even years. Therefore, too much accuracy can be as detrimental to the success of a GIS project as too little. Rather than focusing on the project's benefits, a sponsoring organization may focus on the costs that result from a level of accuracy not justified for the project. Project support inevitably erodes when its original objectives are forgotten in a flurry of cost analyses. A far better strategy is to start the project with whatever data is readily available and sufficient to support initial objectives. Once the GIS is up and running, producing useful results, project scope can be expanded. The quality of its data can be improved as required. Even though no maps are entirely accurate, they are still useful for decisionmaking and analysis. How ever, it is important to consider map accuracy to ensure that your data is not used inappropriately. Any number of factors can cause error. Note these sources can have at cumulative effect. E = f(f) + f(1) + f(e) + f(d) + f(a) + f(m) + f(rms) + f(mp) + u Where, f = flattening the round Earth onto a two - dimensional surface (transformation from spherical to planar geometry) I = accurately measuring location on Earth (correct project and datum information) c = cartographic interpretation (correct interpretation of features) d = drafting error (accuracy in tracing of features and width of drafting pen) a = analog to digital conversion (digitizing board calibration) m = media stability (warping and stretching, folding. Wrinkling of map) p = digitizing processor error (accuracy of cursor placement) rms = Root Mean Square (registration accuracy of ties)

mp = machine precision (coordinate rounding by computer in storing and transforming) u = additional unexplained source error Map Extent The aerial extent of map is the area on the Earth's surface represented on the map. It is the limit of the area covered, usually defined by rectangle just large enough to include all mapped features. The size of the study area depends on the map scale. The smaller the scale the larger the area covered. Database Extent A critical first step in building a geographic database is defining its extent. The aerial extent of a database is the limit of the area of interest for your GIS project. This usually includes the areas directly affected by your organization's responsibility (such as assigned administrative units) as well as surrounding areas that either influence or are influenced by relevant activities in the administrative area. Data Automation Map features are logically organized into a set of layers or themes of information. A base map can be organized into layers such as streams, soils, wells or boundaries. Map data, regardless of how a spatial database will be applied, is collected, automated and updated as series of adjacent map sheets or aerial photograph. Here each sheet is mounted on the digitizer and digitized, one sheet at a time. In order to be able to combine these smaller sheets into larger units or study areas, the co-ordinates of coverage must be transformed into a single common co-ordinate system. Once in a common co-ordinate system, attributes are associated with features. Then as needed map sheets for layer are edge matched and joined into a single coverage for your study area. Types of Information in a Digital Map Any digital map is capable of storing much more information than a paper map of the same area, but it's generally not clear at first glance just what sort of information the map includes. For example, more information is usually available in a digital map than what you see on-screen. And evaluating a given data set simply by looking at the screen can be difficult: What part of the image is contained in the data and what part is created by the GIS program's interpretation of the data? You must understand the types of data in your map so you can use it appropriately. Three general types of information can be included in digital maps:

Geographic information, which provides the position and shapes of specific geographic features. Attribute information, which provides additional non-graphic information about each feature.

Display information, which describes how the features will appear on the screen.

Some digital maps do not contain all three types of information. For example, raster maps usually do not include attribute information, and many vector data sources do not include display information. Geographic Information The geographic information in a digital map provides the position and shape of each map feature. For example, a road map's geographic information is the location of each road on the map. In a vector map, a feature's position is normally expressed as sets of X, Y pairs or X, Y, Z triples, using the coordinate system defined for the map (see the discussion of coordinate systems, below). Most vector geographic information systems support three fundamental geometric objects:

Point: A single pair of coordinates. Line: Two or more points in a specific sequence. Polygon: An area enclosed by a line.

Some systems also support more complex entities, such as regions, circles, ellipses, arcs, and curves. Attribute Information Attribute data describes specific map features but is not inherently graphic. For example, an attribute associated with a road might be its name or the date it was last paved. Attributes are often stored in database files kept separately from the graphic portion of the map. Attributes pertain only to vector maps; they are seldom associated with raster images. GIS software packages maintain internal links tying each graphical map entity to its attribute information. The nature of these links varies widely across systems. In some, the link is implicit, and the user has no control over it. Other systems have explicit links that the user can modify. Links in these systems take the form of database keys. Each map feature has a key value stored with it; the key identifies the specific database record that contains the feature's attribute information. Display Information The display information in a digital-map data set describes how the map is to be displayed or plotted. Common display information includes feature colours, line widths and line types (solid, dashed, dotted, single, or double); how the names of roads and other features are shown on the map; and whether or not lakes, parks, or other area features are colour coded.

However, many users do not consider the quality of display information when they evaluate a data set. Yet map display strongly affects the information you and your audience can obtain from the map - no matter how simple or complex the project. A technically flawless, but unattractive or hard-to-read map will not achieve the goal of conveying information easily to the user. Cartographic Appeal Clearly, how a map looks - especially if it is being used in a presentation determines its effectiveness. Appropriate color choices, linetypes, and so on add the professional look you want and make the map easier to interpret. Since display information often is not included in the source data set or is filtered out by conversion software, you may need to add it yourself or purchase the map from a vendor who does it for you. Map display information should convey the meaning of its underlying attribute data. In a vector map, a feature's position is normally expressed as sets of X, Y pairs or X, Y, Z triples, using the coordinate system defined for the map (see the discussion of coordinate systems, below). Most vector geographic information systems support three fundamental geometric objects:

Point: A single pair of coordinates. Line: Two or more points in a specific sequence. Polygon: An area enclosed by a line.

Some systems also support more complex entities, such as regions, circles, ellipses, arcs, and curves. Attribute Information Attribute data describes specific map features but is not inherently graphic. For example, an attribute associated with a road might be its name or the date it was last paved. Attributes are often stored in database files kept separately from the graphic portion of the map. Attributes pertain only to vector maps; they are seldom associated with raster images. GIS software packages maintain internal links tying each graphical map entity to its attribute information. The nature of these links varies widely across systems. In some, the link is implicit, and the user has no control over it. Other systems have explicit links that the user can modify. Links in these systems take the form of database keys. Each map feature has a key value stored with it; the key identifies the specific database record that contains the feature's attribute information. Display Information The display information in a digital-map data set describes how the map is to be displayed or plotted. Common display information includes feature colours, line widths and line types (solid, dashed, dotted, single, or double); how the names of

roads and other features are shown on the map; and whether or not lakes, parks, or other area features are colour coded. However, many users do not consider the quality of display information when they evaluate a data set. Yet map display strongly affects the information you and your audience can obtain from the map - no matter how simple or complex the project. A technically flawless, but unattractive or hard-to-read map will not achieve the goal of conveying information easily to the user. Cartographic Appeal Clearly, how a map looks - especially if it is being used in a presentation determines its effectiveness. Appropriate color choices, linetypes, and so on add the professional look you want and make the map easier to interpret. Since display information often is not included in the source data set or is filtered out by conversion software, you may need to add it yourself or purchase the map from a vendor who does it for you. Map display information should convey the meaning of its underlying attribute data. Maps and Map Analysis Automated Mapping Computer Aided Mapping has its limitations. Goal of GIS is not only to prepare a good map but also perform map analysis. Maps are the main source of data for GIS. GIS, though an accurate mapping tool, requires error management. MAP is a representation on a medium of a selected material or abstract material in relation to the surface of the earth (defined by Cartographic association). Maps originated from mathematics. The term Map is often used in mathematics to convey the motion of transferring the information from one form to another just as Cartographers transfer information from the surface of the earth to a sheet of paper. Map is used in a loose fashion to refer to any manual display of information particularly if it is abstract, generalised or schematic. Process involved in the production of Maps:

Selection of few features of the real world. Classification of selected features in to groups eg. Railway in to different lines. Classification depends upon the purpose. Simplification of jaggered lines like the coast lines. Exaggeration of features. Symbolisation to represent different classes of features.

Drawing Digitization of Maps. Maps can be broadly classified in to two groups: 1. Topographical maps

2. Thematic maps Topographical Maps It is a reference map showing the outline of selected man-made and natural features of the earth. It often acts as a frame for other features Topography refers to the shape of surface represented by contours or shading. It also shows lands, railway and other prominent features. Thematic maps Thematic maps are an important source of GIS information. These are tools to communicate geographical concepts such as Density of population, Climate, movement of goods and people, land use etc. It has many classifications. Geographic Data Types Although the two terms, data and information, are often used indiscriminately, they both have a specific meaning. Data can be described as different observations, which are collected and stored. Information is that data, which is useful in answering queries or solving a problem. Digitizing a large number of maps provides a large amount of data after hours of painstaking works, but the data can only render useful information if it is used in analysis. Spatial and Non-spatial data Geographic data are organised in a geographic database. This database can be considered as a collection of spatially referenced data that acts as a model of reality. There are two important components of this geographic database: its geographic position and its attributes or properties. In other words, spatial data (where is it?) and attribute data (what is it?) Attribute Data The attributes refer to the properties of spatial entities. They are often referred to as non-spatial data since they do not in themselves represent location information. District Name Area Population Noida 395 sq. Km. 6,75,341 Ghaziabad 385 sq. Km. 2,57,086 Mirzapur 119 sq. Km. 1,72,952 Spatial data Geographic position refers to the fact that each feature has a location that must be specified in a unique way. To specify the position in an absolute way a coordinate system is used. For small areas, the simplest coordinate system is the regular square grid. For larger areas, certain approved cartographic projections are commonly used. Internationally there are many different coordinate systems in use.

Geographic object can be shown by FOUR type of representation viz., points, lines, areas, and continuous surfaces. Point Data Points are the simplest type of spatial data. They are-zero dimensional objects with only a position in space but no length. Line Data Lines (also termed segments or arcs) are one-dimensional spatial objects. Besides having a position in space, they also have a length. Area Data Areas (also termed polygons) are two-dimensional spatial objects with not only a position in space and a length but also a width (in other words they have an area). Continuous Surface Continuous surfaces are three-dimensional spatial objects with not only a position in space, a length and a width, but also a depth or height (in other words they have a volume). These spatial objects have not been discussed further because most GIS do not include real volumetric spatial data. Geographic Data -- Linkages and Matching Linkages A GIS typically links different sets. Suppose you want to know the mortality rate to cancer among children under 10 years of age in each country. If you have one file that contains the number of children in this age group, and another that contains the mortality rate from cancer, you must first combine or link the two data files. Once this is done, you can divide one figure by the other to obtain the desired answer.

Exact Matching Exact matching occurs when you have information in one computer file about many geographic features (e.g., towns) and additional information in another file about the same set of features. The operation to bring them together is easily achieved by using a key common to both files -- in this case, the town name. Thus, the record in each file with the same town name is extracted, and the two are joined and stored in another file.
Name A B C D E Populaiton 4038 7030 10777 5798 5606 A B C D E Name Avg. housing Cost 30,500 22,000 100,000 24,000 24,000

Name A B C D E

Population 4038 7030 10777 5798 5606

Avg. Housing Cost 30,500 22,000 100,100 24,000 24,000

Hierarchical Matching Some types of information, however, are collected in more detail and less frequently than other types of information. For example, financial and unemployment data covering a large area are collected quite frequently. On the other hand, population data are collected in small areas but at less frequent intervals. If the smaller areas nest (i.e., fit exactly) within the larger ones, then the way to make the data match of the same area is to use hierarchical matching -add the data for the small areas together until the grouped areas match the bigger ones and then match them exactly. The hierarchical structure illustrated in the chart shows that this city is composed of several tracts. To obtain meaningful values for the city, the tract values must be added together.

Tract 101 102 103 104 105 106 107

Town P Q R S T Nakkhu Kupondole

Population 60,000 45,000 35,000 36,000 57,000 25,000 58,000 Tract 101 Tract 102 Tract 103 Tract 104 Tract 105 Tract 107 Tract 106

Fuzzy Matching On many occasions, the boundaries of the smaller areas do not match those of the larger ones. This occurs often while dealing with environmental data. For example, crop boundaries, usually defined by field edges, rarely match the boundaries between the soil types. If you want to determine the most productive soil for a particular crop, you need to overlay the two sets and compute crop productivity for each and every soil type. In principle, this is like laying one map over another and noting the combinations of soil and productivity. A GIS can carry out all these operations because it uses geography, as a common key between the data sets. Information is linked only if it relates to the same geographical area.

Geographical Data Sets Why is data linkage so important? Consider a situation where you have two data sets for a given area, such as yearly income by county and average cost of housing for the same area. Each data might be analysed and/or mapped individually. Alternatively, they may be combined. With two data sets, only one valid combination exists. Even if your data sets may be meaningful for a single query you will still be able to answer many more questions than if the data sets were kept separate. By bringing them together, you add value to the database. To do this, you need GIS.

Figure 2

Principal Functions of GIS Data Capture Data used in GIS often come from many types, and are stored in different ways. A GIS provides tools and a method for the integration of different data into a format to be compared and analysed. Data sources are mainly obtained from manual digitization and scanning of aerial photographs, paper maps, and existing digital data sets. Remote-sensing satellite imagery and GPS are promising data input sources for GIS. Database Management and Update After data are collected and integrated, the GIS must provide facilities, which can store and maintain data. Effective data management has many definitions but should include all of the following aspects: data security, data integrity, data storage and retrieval, and data maintenance abilities. Geographic Analysis Data integration and conversion are only a part of the input phase of GIS. What is required next is the ability to interpret and to analyze the collected information quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, satellite image can assist an agricultural scientist to project crop yield per hectare for a particular region. For the same region, the scientist also has the rainfall data for the past six months collected through weather station observations. The scientists also have a map of the soils for the region which shows fertility and suitability for agriculture. These point data can be interpolated and what you get is a thematic map showing isohyets or contour lines of rainfall. Presenting Results One of the most exciting aspects of GIS technology is the variety of different ways in which the information can be presented once it has been processed by GIS. Traditional methods of tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented

by maps and three dimensional images. Visual communication is one of the most fascinating aspects of GIS technology and is available in a diverse range of output options. Data Capture an Introduction The functionality of GIS relies on the quality of data available, which, in most developing countries, is either redundant or inaccurate. Although GIS are being used widely, effective and efficient means of data collection have yet to be systematically established. The true value of GIS can only be realized if the proper tools to collect spatial data and integrate them with attribute data are available. Manual Digitization Manual Digitizing still is the most common method for entering maps into GIS. The map to be digitized is affixed to a digitizing table, and a pointing device (called the digitizing cursor or mouse) is used to trace the features of the map. These features can be boundary lines between mapping units, other linear features (rivers, roads, etc.) or point features (sampling points, rainfall stations, etc.) The digitizing table electronically encodes the position of the cursor with the precision of a fraction of a millimeter. The most common digitizing table uses a fine grid of wires, embedded in the table. The vertical wires will record the Ycoordinates, and the horizontal ones, the X-coordinates. The range of digitized coordinates depends upon the density of the wires (called digitizing resolution) and the settings of the digitizing software. A digitizing table is normally a rectangular area in the middle, separated from the outer boundary of the table by a small rim. Outside of this so-called active area of the digitizing table, no coordinates are recorded. The lower left corner of the active area will have the coordinates x = 0 and y = 0. Therefore, make sure that the (part of the) map that you want to digitize is always fixed within the active area. Scanning System The second method of obtaining vector data is with the use of scanners. Scanning (or scan digitizing) provides a quicker means of data entry than manual digitizing. In scanning, a digital image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector across the map surface. The output of a scanner is a digital raster image, consisting of a large number of individual cells ordered in rows and columns. For the Conversion to vector format, two types of raster image can be used. In the case of Chloropleth maps or thematic maps, such as geological maps, the individual mapping units can be separated by the scanner according to their different colours or grey tones. The resulting images will be in colours or grey tone images.

 In the case of scanned line maps, such as topographic maps, the result is a black-and-white image. Black lines are converted to a value of 1, and the white areas in between lines will obtain a value of 0 in the scanned image. These images, with only two possibilities (1 or 0) are also called binary images. The raster image is processed by a computer to improve the image quality and is then edited and checked by an operator. It is then converted into vector format by special computer programmes, which are different for colour/grey tone images and binary images. Scanning works best with maps that are very clean, simple, relate to one feature only, and do not contain extraneous information, such as text or graphic symbols. For example, a contour map should only contain the contour line, without height indication, drainage network, or infrastructure. In most cases, such maps will not be available, and should be drawn especially for the purpose of scanning. Scanning and conversion to vector is therefore, only beneficial in large organizations, where a large number of complex maps are entered. In most cases, however, manual digitizing will be the only useful method for entering spatial data in vector format.

Figure 3

Data Conversion While manipulating and analyzing data, the same format should be used for all data. This Scanning System implies that, when different layers are to be used simultaneously, they should all be in vector or all in raster format. Usually the conversion is from vector to raster, because the biggest part of the analysis is done in the raster domain. Vector data are transformed to raster data by overlaying a grid with a user-defined cell size. Sometimes the data in the raster format are converted into vector format. This is the case especially if one wants to achieve data reduction because the data storage needed for raster data is much larger than for vector data. A digital data file with spatial and attribute data might already exist in some way or another. There might be a national database or specific databases from ministries, projects, or companies. In some cases a conversion is necessary before these data can be downloaded into the desired database. The commonly used attribute databases are dBase and Oracle. Sometimes spreadsheet programmes like Lotus, Quattro, or Excel are used, although these cannot be regarded as real database softwares. Remote-sensing images are digital datasets recorded by satellite operating agencies and stored in their own image database. They usually have to be converted into the format of the spatial (raster) database before they can be downloaded. Spatial Data Management Geo-Relational Data Model All spatial data files will be geo-referenced. Geo-referencing refers to the location of a layer or coverage in space defined by the coordinate referencing system. The geo relational approach involves abstracting geographic information into a series of independent layers or coverages, each representing a selected set of closely associated geographic features (e.g., roads, land use, river, settlement, etc). Each layer has the theme of a geographic feature and the database is organized in the thematic layers. With this approach users can combine simple feature sets representing complex relationships in the real world. This approach borrows heavily on the concepts of relational DBMS, and it is typically closely integrated with such systems. This is fundamental to database organization in GIS. Topological Data Structure. Topology is the spatial relationship between connecting and adjacent coverage features (e.g., arc, nodes, polygons, and points). For instance, the topology of an arc includes from and to nodes (beginning of the arc and ending of the arc

representing direction) and its left and right polygon. Topological relationships are built from simple elements into complex elements: points (simplest elements), arcs (sets of connected points), and areas (sets of connected arcs). Topological data structure, in fact, adds intelligence to the GIS database. Attribute Data Management All Data within a GIS (spatial data as well as attribute data) are stored within databases. A database is a collection of information about things and their relationships to each other. For example, you can have an engineering geological database, containing information about soil and rock types, field observations and measurements, and laboratory results. This is interesting data, but not very useful if the laboratory data, for example, cannot be related to soil and rock types. The objective of collecting and maintaining information in a database is to relate facts and situations that were previously separate. The principle characteristics of a DBMS are: Centralized control over the database is possible, allowing for better quality management and operator-defined access to parts of the database; Data can be shared effectively by different applications; The access to the data is much easier, due to the use of a user-interface and the user-views (especially designed formula for entering and consulting the database); Data redundancy (storage of the same data in more than one place in the database) can be avoided as much as possible; redundancy or unnecessary duplication of data are an annoyance, since this makes updating the database much more difficult; one can easily overlook changing redundant information whenever it occurs; and The creation of new applications is much easier with DBMS. The disadvantages relate to the higher cost of purchasing the software, the increased complexity of management, and the higher risk, as data are centrally managed. Relational Database -- Concepts & Model The relational data model is conceived as a series of tables, with no hierarchy nor any predefined relations. The relation between the various tables should be made by the user. This is done by identifying a common field in two tables, which is assigned as the flexibility than in the other two data models. However, accessing the database is slower than with the other two models. Due to its

greater flexibility, the relational data model is used by nearly all GIS systems Choosing geographic data The main purpose of purchasing a geographic information system (GIS)* is to produce results for your organization. Choosing the right GIS/mapping data will help you produce those results effectively.

The role of base-map data in your GIS, The common characteristics of geographic data, The commonly available data sources Guidelines for evaluating the suitability of any data set for your project.

The world of GIS data is complex, by choosing the right data set, you can save significant amounts of money and, even more importantly, quickly begin your GIS project. Data: The Core of Your Mapping / GIS Project When most people begin a GIS project, their immediate concern is with purchasing computer hardware and software. They enter into lengthy discussions with vendors about the merits of various components and carefully budget for acquisitions. Yet they often give little thought to the core of the system, the data that goes inside it. They fail to recognize that the choice of an initial data set has a tremendous influence on the ultimate success of their GIS project. Data, the core of any GIS project, must be accurate - but accuracy is not enough. Having the appropriate level of accuracy is vital. Since an increase in data accuracy increases acquisition and maintenance costs, data that is too detailed for your needs can hurt a project just as surely as inaccurate data can. All any GIS project needs is data accurate enough to accomplish its objectives and no more. For example, you would not purchase an engineering workstation to run a simple word-processing application. Similarly, you would not need third-order survey accuracy for a GIS-based population study whose smallest unit of measurement is a county. Purchasing such data would be too costly and inappropriate for the project at hand. Even more critically, collecting overly complex data could be so time-consuming that the GIS project might lose support within the organization. Even so, many people argue that, since GIS data can far outlast the hardware and software on which it runs, no expense should be spared in its creation. Perfection, however, is relative. Projects and data requirements evolve. Rather than overinvest in data, invest reasonably in a well-documented, well-understood data foundation that meets today's needs and provides a path for future enhancements. This approach is a key to successful GIS project implementation.

Are Your Data Needs Simple or Complex? Before you start your project, take some time to consider your objectives and your GIS data needs. Ask yourself, "Are my data needs complex or simple?" *Italicized words can be found in the Glossary at the end of this document except for words used for emphasis or words italicized for reasons of copyediting convention or layout. If you just need a map as a backdrop for other information, your data requirements are simple. You are building a map for your specific project, and you are primarily interested in displaying the necessary information, not in the map itself. You do not need highly accurate measurements of distances or areas or to combine maps from different sources. Nor do you want to edit or add to the map's basic geographic information. An example of simple data requirements is a map for a newspaper story that shows the location of a fire. Good presentation is important; absolute accuracy is not. If you have simple data needs, read this paper to get the overall picture of what GIS data is and how it fits into your project. A project with simple data requirements can be started with inexpensive maps. Your primary interests will be quality graphic- display characteristics and finding maps that are easy to use with your software. You need not be as concerned with technical mapping issues. However, basic knowledge of concepts such as coordinate systems, absolute accuracy, and file formats will help you understand your choices and help you make informed decisions when it's time to add to your system. What issues suggest more complex GIS data needs?

Building a GIS to be used by many people over a long period of time. Storing and maintaining database information about geographic features. Making accurate engineering measurements from the map. Editing or adding to the map. Combining a variety of information from different sources.

An example of a system requiring complex data would be a GIS built to manage infrastructure for an electric utility. If your data requirements are complex, you ought to pay particular attention to the sections of this paper that discuss data accuracy, coordinate systems, layering, file formats, and the issues involved in combining data from different sources. Also keep in mind that projects evolve, and simple data needs expand into complex ones as your project moves beyond its original objectives. If you

understand the basics of your data set, you will make better decisions as your project grows. Basics of Digital Mapping Vector vs. Raster Maps The most fundamental concept to grasp about any type of graphic data is making the distinction between vector data and raster data. These two data types are as different as night and day, yet they can look the same. For example, a question that commonly comes up is "How can I convert my TIFF files into DXF files?" The answer is "With difficulty," because TIFF is a raster data format and DXF (data interchange file) is a vector format. And converting from raster to vector is not simple. Raster maps are best suited to some applications while vector maps are suited to others.

Figure 4

Raster data represents a graphic object as a pattern of dots, whereas vector data represents the object as a set of lines drawn between specific points. Consider a line drawn diagonally on a piece of paper. A raster file would represent this image by subdividing the paper into a matrix of small rectangles-similar to a sheet of graph paper-called cells (figure 1). Each cell is assigned a position in the data file and given a value based on the color at that position. White cells could be given the value 0; black cells, the value 1; grays would fall in-between. This data representation allows the user to easily reconstruct or visualize the original image.

Figure 5

A vector representation of the same diagonal line would record the position of the line by simply recording the coordinates of its starting and ending points. Each point would be expressed as two or three numbers (depending on whether the representation was 2D or 3D, often referred to as X,Y or X,Y,Z coordinates (figure 2). The first number, X, is the distance between the point and the left side of the paper; Y, the distance between the point and the bottom of the paper; Z, the point's elevation above or below the paper. The vector is formed by joining the measured points. Some basic properties of raster and vector data are outlined below.

Each entity in a vector file appears as an individual data object. It is easy to record information about an object or to compute characteristics such as its exact length or surface area. It is much harder to derive this kind of information from a raster file because raster files contain little (and sometimes no) geometric information. Some applications can be handled much more easily with raster techniques than with vector techniques. Raster works best for surface modeling and for applications where individual features are not important. For example, a raster surface model can be very useful for performing cutand-fill analyses for road-building applications, but it doesn't tell you much about the characteristics of the road itself. Terrain elevations can be recorded in a raster format and used to construct digital elevation models (DEMs) (figure 3). Some land-use information comes in raster format.

Figure 6

Raster files are often larger than vector files. The raster representation of the line in the example above required a data value for each cell on the page, whereas the vector representation only required the positions of two points.

The size of the cells in a raster file is an important factor. Smaller cells improve image quality because they increase detail. As cell size increases, image

definition decreases or blurs. In the example, the position of the line's edge is defined most clearly if the cells are very small. However, there is a trade-off: Dividing the cell size in half increases file size by a factor of four. Cell size in a raster file is referred to as resolution. For a given resolution value, the raster cost does not increase with image complexity. That is, any scanner can quickly make a raster file. It takes no more effort to scan a map of a dense urban area than to scan a sparse rural one. On the other hand, a vector file requires careful measuring and recording of each point, so an urban map will be much more time-consuming to draw than a rural map. The process of making vector maps is not easily automated, and cost increases with map complexity. Because raster data is often more repetitive and predictable, it can be compressed more easily than vector data. Many raster formats, such as TIFF, have compression options that drastically reduce image sizes, depending upon image complexity and variability. Raster files are most often used:

For digital representations of aerial photographs, satellite images, scanned paper maps, and other applications with very detailed images. When costs need to be kept down. When the map does not require analysis of individual map features. When "backdrop" maps are required.

In contrast, vector maps are appropriate for:

Highly precise applications. When file sizes are important. When individual map features require analysis. When descriptive information must be stored.

Raster and vector maps can also be combined visually. For example, a vector street map could be overlaid on a raster aerial photograph. The vector map would provide discrete information about individual street segments, the raster image, a backdrop of the surrounding environment. Digital Map Formats- How Data Is Stored The term file format refers to the logical structure used to store information in a GIS file. File formats are important in part because not every GIS software package supports all formats. If you want to use a data set, but it isn't available in a format that your GIS supports, you will have to find a way to transform it, find another data set, or find another GIS. Almost every GIS has its own internal file format. These formats are designed for

optimal use inside the software and are often proprietary. They are not designed for use outside their native systems. Most systems also support transfer file formats. Transfer formats are designed to bring data in and out of the GIS software, so they are usually standardized and well documented. If your data needs are simple, your main concern will be with the internal format that your GIS software supports. If you have complex data needs, you will want to learn about a wider range of transfer formats, especially if you want to mix data from different sources. Transfer formats will be required to import some data sets into your software. Vector Formats Many GIS applications are based on vector technology, so vector formats are the most common. They are also the most complex because there are many ways to store coordinates, attributes, attribute linkages, database structures, and display information. Some of the most common formats are briefly described below
Common Vector File Formats Format Name Arc Export Software Platform ARC/INFO* Internal or Transfer Transfer Internal Internal Transfer Developer Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI) ESRI Autodesk Autodesk United States Geological Survey (USGS) Hewlett-Packard MapInfo Corp. MapInfo Corp. Bentley Systems, Inc. US Government US Census Bureau New US standard for vector and raster geographic data. Used to publish US Census Bureau Widely used graphics transfer standard. Used to publish USGS digital maps. Used to control HP plotters. Comments Transfers data across ARC/INFO* platforms.

ARC/INFO* Coverages ARC/INFO* AutoCAD Drawing Files AutoCAD* (DWG) Autodesk Data Interchange File (DXF) Digital Line graphs (DLG) Hewlett-Packard Graphic Language (HPGL) MapInfo Data Transfer Files (MIF/MID) MapInfo Map Files MicroStation Design Files (DGN) Spatial Data Transfer System (SDTS) Many

Many

Transfer

Many MapInfo* MapInfo* MicroStation* Many (in the future)

Internal Transfer Internal Internal Transfer Transfer

Topologically Integrated Many Geographic Encoding

and Referencing (TIGER) Vector Product Format (VPF) Military mapping systems Both

maps. Used to publish US Defense Mapping Digital Chart of the Agency World.

Raster Formats Raster files generally are used to store image information, such as scanned paper maps or aerial photographs. They are also used for data captured by satellite and other airborne imaging systems. Images from these systems are often referred to as remote-sensing data. Unlike other raster files, which express resolution in terms of cell size and dots per inch (dpi), resolution in remotely sensed images is expressed in meters, which indicates the size of the ground area covered by each cell.
Some common raster formats are described below Format Name Software Platform Internal or Transfer Both Both Both Both Transfer Developer US Defense Mapping Agency Common remotesensing standard. Common remotesensing standard. Common remotesensing standard. United States USGS standard format digital Geological Survey terrain models. (USGS) Zsoft US Federal Government Widely used raster format. New US standard for both raster and vector geographic data; raster version still under development. Widely used raster format. Comments

Arc Digitized Military Raster Graphics mapping (ADRG) systems Band Interleaved Man by Line (BIL) Band Interleaved Many by Pixel (BIP) Band Sequential Many (BSQ) Digital Elevation Many Model for (DEM)

PC Paintbrush PC Paintbrush Both Exchange (PCX) Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) Many (in the future) Transfer

PageMaker

Both

Aldus

An Example of Raster and Vector Integration

Figure 7: An Example of Raster and Vector Integration

Vectors & Raster Data Models - Merits & Demerits.

RASTER MODEL VECTOR MODEL

Advantages Simple data structure Easy and efficient overlaying Compatible with RS imagery High spatial variability is efficiently represented Simple for own programming Same grid cells for several attributes

Advantages Compact data structure Efficient for network analysis Efficient projection transformation Accurate map output.

Disadvantages Complex data structure Difficult overlay operations High spatial variability is inefficiently represented Not compatible with RS imagery

Disadvantages Inefficient use of computer storage Errors in perimeter, and shape Difficult network analysis Inefficient projection transformations Loss of information when using large cells Less accurate (although interactive) maps

Hybrid System It is an integration of the best of Vector and Raster Models. The GIS technology is fast moving towards Hybrid model GIS.
The Integration of Vector and Raster System Hybird System

Figure 8: The Integration of Vector and Raster System Hybird System

Analysis of Geographic Data ANALYSIS - What? & Why? The heart of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the system. What distinguish the GIS system from other information system are its spatial analysis functions. Although the data input is, in general, the most time consuming part, it is for data analysis that GIS is used. The analysis functions use the spatial and non-spatial attributes in the database to answer questions about the real world. Geographic analysis facilitates the study of real-world processes by developing and applying models. Such models illuminate the underlying trends in geographic data and thus make new information available. Results of geographic analysis can be communicated with the help of maps, or both. The organization of database into map layers is not simply for reasons of organizational clarity, rather it is to provide rapid access to data elements required for geographic analysis. The objective of geographic analysis is to transform data into useful information to satisfy the requirements or objectives of

decision-makers at all levels in terms of detail. An important use of the analysis is the possibility of predicting events in the another location or at another point in time. ANALYSIS - How? Before commencing geographic analysis, one needs to assess the problem and establish an objective. The analysis requires step-by-step procedures to arrive at the conclusions. The range of geographical analysis procedures can be subdivided into the following categories.

Database Query. Overlay. Proximity analysis. Network analysis. Digital Terrain Model. Statistical and Tabular Analysis.

Spatial Analysis It helps us to:

Identify trends on the data. Create new relationships from the data. View complex relationships between data sets. Make better decisions.

Geographic Analysis Analysis of problems with some Geographic Aspects.

Alternatives are geographic locations or areas. Decisions would affect locations or areas. Geographic relationships are important in decision-making or modelling.

Some examples of its application:

Nearest Neighbour. Network distances. Planar distances.

Spatial Analysis - An Application

Image 1

Where should we build a road from a point A to point B? How do we minimise the impacts of building this road? Relationship of Modelling to Analysis

Decision Models search through potential alternatives to arrive at a recommendation. Decision support models process raw data into forms that are directly relevant to decision making. Data characterisation models are used to develop a better understanding of a system to help characterise a problem or potential solutions.

Difficulties of Geographic Analysis

Plenty of data. Spatial relationships are important but difficult to measure. Inherent uncertainty due to scale. any data sources. Difficult to make data sources compatible. Difficult mathematics. Quantity vs. Quality Questions. Multiple objectives.

GIS can address some (but not all) of these difficulties.

Network Analysis Network models are based on interconnecting logical components, of which the most important are: 1. "Nodes" define start, end, and intersections 2. "Chains" are line features joining nodes 3. "Links" join together points making up a chain. This network can be analyzed using GIS.A simple and most apparent network analysis applications are:

Street network analysis, Traffic flow modelling, Telephone cable networking, Pipelines etc.

The other obvious applications would be service centre locations based on travel distance. Basic forms of network analysis simply extract information from a network. More complex analysis, process information in the network model to derive new information. One example of this is the classic shortest-path between two points. The vector mode is more suited to network analysis than the raster model.
A Road Network

Image

Tabular Statistical Analysis If in the above road network we have categorised the streets then in such a case the statistical analysis answers questions like

What unique categories do I have for streets? How many features do I have for each unique category? Summarize by using any attribute?

Database Query The selective display and retrieval of information from a database are among the fundamental requirements of GIS. The ability to selectively retrieve information from GIS is an important facility. Database query simply asks to see already stored information. Basically there are two types of query most general GIS allow: viz., Query by attribute, Query by geometry. Map features can be retrieved on the basis of attributes, For example, show all the urban areas having the population density greater than 1,000 per square kilometer, Many GIS include a sophisticated function of RDBMS known as Standard Query Language (SQL), to search a GIS database. The attribute database, in general, is stored in a table (relational database mode.) with a unique code linked to the geometric data. This database can be searched with specific characteristics. However, more complex queries can be made with the help of SQL. GIS can carry out a number of geometric queries. The simplest application, for example, is to show the attributes of displayed objects by identifying them with a graphical cursor. There are five forms of primitive geometric query: viz., Query by point, Query by rectangle, Query by circle, Query by line, Query by polygon, A more complex query still is one that uses both geometric and attributes search criteria together. Many GIS force the separation of the two different types of query. However, some GIS, using databases to store both geometric and attribute data, allow true hybrid spatial queries. Overlay Operations The hallmark of GIS is overlay operations. Using these operations, new spatial elements are created by the overlaying of maps. There are basically two different types of overlay operations depending upon

data structures: Raster overlay It is a relatively straightforward operation and often many data sets can be combined and displayed at once. Vector overlay The vector overlay, however is far more difficult and complex and involves more processing. Logical Operators The concept of map logic can be applied during overlay. The logical operators are Boolean functions. There are basically four types of Boolean Operators: viz., OR, AND, NOT, and XOR. With the use of logical, or Boolean, operators spatial elements / or attributes are selected that fulfill certain condition, depending on two or more spatial elements or attributes. Vector Overlay During vector overlay, map features and the associated attributes are integrated to produce new composite maps. Logical rules can be applied to how the maps are combined. Vector overlay can be performed on different types of map features: viz., Polygon-on-polygon overlay Line-in-polygon overlay Point-on-polygon overlay During the process of overlay, the attribute data associated with each feature type id merged. The resulting table will contain both the attribute data. The process of overlay will depend upon the modelling approach the user needs. One might need to carry out a series of overlay procedures to arrive at the conclusion, which depends upon the criterion.
Polygon-on-Polygon Overlay

Polygon-on-Polygon Overlay

Difference between a Topologic Overlay and a Graphic Over plot

Difference between a Topologic Overlay and a Graphic Over plot

Raster Overlay In raster overlay, the pixel or grid cell values in each map are combined using arithmetic and Boolean operators to produce a new value in the composite map. The maps can be treated as arithmetical variables and perform complex algebraic functions. The method is often described as map algebra. The raster GIS provides the ability to perform map layers mathematically. This is particularly important for the modelling in which various maps are combined using various mathematical functions. Conditional operators are the basic mathematical functions that are supported in GIS. Conditional Operators Conditional operators were already used in the examples given above. The all evaluate whether a certain condition has been met. = eq 'equal' operator <> ne 'non-equal' operator < lt 'less than' operator <= le 'less than or equal' operator

> gt 'greater than' operator >= ge 'greater than or equal' operator Many systems now can handle both vector and raster data. The vector maps can be easily draped on to the raster maps.
Raster Overlay

Raster Overlay

Buffer Operation Using these operations, the characteristics of an area surrounding in a specified location are evaluated. This kind of analysis is called proximity analysis and is used whenever analysis is required to identify surrounding geographic features. The buffer operation will generate polygon feature types irrespective of geographic features and delineates spatial proximity. For example, what are the effects on urban areas if the road is expanded by a hundred meters to delineate a five-kilometer buffer zone around the national park to protect it from grazing.
Using Buffer

Using Buffer

Digital Terrain Model The object of Digital Terrain analysis is to represent a surface and its properties accurately. This is normally achieved by creating a digital terrain model, often known as DTM, formed by sampling the surface. A digital terrain model can be viewed in two different ways:

as an isoline map, as an isometric model.

Isolines join points of equal value on a surface. The shading defines bands, including all heights, between the isolines. Isometric models can be shown in three-dimensional models. These models show the terrain in perspective so that the apparent height is proportional to the value of the point. Visualisation techniques are used to project the model from the given eyepoint.

Spatial Analysis - a Process

Spatial Analysis a Process

Image Processing and Analysis Introduction Image Processing and Analysis can be defined as the "act of examining images for the purpose of identifying objects and judging their significance" Image analyst study the remotely sensed data and attempt through logical process in detecting, identifying, classifying, measuring and evaluating the significance of physical and cultural objects, their patterns and spatial relationship. Digital Data In a most generalized way, a digital image is an array of numbers depicting spatial distribution of a certain field parameters (such as reflectivity of EM radiation, emissivity, temperature or some geophysical or topographical elevation. Digital image consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Associated with each pixel is a number represented as DN (Digital Number), that depicts the average radiance of relatively small area within a scene. The range of DN values being normally 0 to 255. The size of this area effects the reproduction of details within the scene. As the pixel size is reduced more scene detail is

preserved in digital representation. Remote sensing images are recorded in digital forms and then processed by the computers to produce images for interpretation purposes. Images are available in two forms - photographic film form and digital form. Variations in the scene characteristics are represented as variations in brightness on photographic films. A particular part of scene reflecting more energy will appear bright while a different part of the same scene that reflecting less energy will appear black. Digital image consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Associated with each pixel is a number represented as DN (Digital Number), that depicts the average radiance of relatively small area within a scene. The size of this area effects the reproduction of details within the scene. As the pixel size is reduced more scene detail is preserved in digital representation. Data Formats For Digital Satellite Imagery Digital data from the various satellite systems supplied to the user in the form of computer readable tapes or CD-ROM. As no worldwide standard for the storage and transfer of remotely sensed data has been agreed upon, though the CEOS (Committee on Earth Observation Satellites) format is becoming accepted as the standard. Digital remote sensing data are often organised using one of the three common formats used to organise image data . For an instance an image consisting of four spectral channels, which can be visualised as four superimposed images, with corresponding pixels in one band registering exactly to those in the other bands. These common formats are:

Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP) Band Interleaved by Line (BIL) Band Sequential (BQ)

Digital image analysis is usually conducted using Raster data structures - each image is treated as an array of values. It offers advantages for manipulation of pixel values by image processing system, as it is easy to find and locate pixels and their values. Disadvantages becomes apparent when one needs to represent the array of pixels as discrete patches or regions, where as Vector data structures uses polygonal patches and their boundaries as fundamental units for analysis and manipulation. Though vector format is not appropriate to for digital analysis of remotely sensed data. Image Resolution Resolution can be defined as "the ability of an imaging system to record fine details in a distinguishable manner". A working knowledge of resolution is essential for understanding both practical and conceptual details of remote sensing. Along with the actual positioning of spectral bands, they are of paramount importance in determining the suitability of remotely sensed data for a

given applications. The major characteristics of imaging remote sensing instrument operating in the visible and infrared spectral region are described in terms as follow:

Spectral resolution Radiometric resolution Spatial resolution Temporal resolution

Spectral Resolution refers to the width of the spectral bands. As different material on the earth surface exhibit different spectral reflectances and emissivities. These spectral characteristics define the spectral position and spectral sensitivity in order to distinguish materials. There is a tradeoff between spectral resolution and signal to noise. The use of well -chosen and sufficiently numerous spectral bands is a necessity, therefore, if different targets are to be successfully identified on remotely sensed images. Radiometric Resolution or radiometric sensitivity refers to the number of digital levels used to express the data collected by the sensor. It is commonly expressed as the number of bits (binary digits) needs to store the maximum level. For example Landsat TM data are quantised to 256 levels (equivalent to 8 bits). Here also there is a tradeoff between radiometric resolution and signal to noise. There is no point in having a step size less than the noise level in the data. A low-quality instrument with a high noise level would necessarily, therefore, have a lower radiometric resolution compared with a high-quality, high signal-tonoise-ratio instrument. Also higher radiometric resolution may conflict with data storage and transmission rates. Spatial Resolution of an imaging system is defines through various criteria, the geometric properties of the imaging system, the ability to distinguish between point targets, the ability to measure the periodicity of repetitive targets ability to measure the spectral properties of small targets. The most commonly quoted quantity is the instantaneous field of view (IFOV), which is the angle subtended by the geometrical projection of single detector element to the Earth's surface. It may also be given as the distance, D measured along the ground, in which case, IFOV is clearly dependent on sensor height, from the relation: D = hb, where h is the height and b is the angular IFOV in radians. An alternative measure of the IFOV is based on the PSF, e.g., the width of the PDF at half its maximum value. A problem with IFOV definition, however, is that it is a purely geometric definition and does not take into account spectral properties of the target. The effective resolution element (ERE) has been defined as "the size of an area for which a single radiance value can be assigned with reasonable assurance that the

response is within 5% of the value representing the actual relative radiance". Being based on actual image data, this quantity may be more useful in some situations than the IFOV. Other methods of defining the spatial resolving power of a sensor are based on the ability of the device to distinguish between specified targets. Of the concerns the ratio of the modulation of the image to that of the real target. Modulation, M, is defined as: M = Emax -Emin / Emax + Emin Where Emax and Emin are the maximum and minimum radiance values recorded over the image. Temporal resolution refers to the frequency with which images of a given geographic location can be acquired. Satellites not only offer the best chances of frequent data coverage but also of regular coverage. The temporal resolution is determined by orbital characteristics and swath width, the width of the imaged area. Swath width is given by 2htan(FOV/2) where h is the altitude of the sensor, and FOV is the angular field of view of the sensor. How to Improve Your Image? Analysis of remotely sensed data is done using various image processing techniques and methods that includes:

Analog image processing Digital image processing.

Visual or Analog processing techniques is applied to hard copy data such as photographs or printouts. Image analysis in visual techniques adopts certain elements of interpretation, which are as follow: The use of these fundamental elements of depends not only on the area being studied, but the knowledge of the analyst has of the study area. For example the texture of an object is also very useful in distinguishing objects that may appear the same if the judging solely on tone (i.e., water and tree canopy, may have the same mean brightness values, but their texture is much different. Association is a very powerful image analysis tool when coupled with the general knowledge of the site. Thus we are adept at applying collateral data and personal knowledge to the task of image processing. With the combination of multi-concept of examining remotely sensed data in multispectral, multitemporal, multiscales and in conjunction with multidisciplinary, allows us to make a verdict not only as to what an object is but also its importance. Apart from these analog image processing techniques also includes optical photogrammetric techniques allowing for precise measurement of the height, width, location, etc. of an object.
Elements of Image Interpretation

Black and White Tone Primary Elements Color Stereoscopic Parallax Size Spatial Arrangement of Tone & Color Shape Texture Pattern Based on Analysis of Primary Elements Contextual Elements Height Shadow Site Association

Digital Image Processing is a collection of techniques for the manipulation of digital images by computers. The raw data received from the imaging sensors on the satellite platforms contains flaws and deficiencies. To overcome these flaws and deficiencies inorder to get the originality of the data, it needs to undergo several steps of processing. This will vary from image to image depending on the type of image format, initial condition of the image and the information of interest and the composition of the image scene. Digital Image Processing undergoes three general steps:

Pre-processing Display and enhancement Information extraction

Flowchart

Pre-processing consists of those operations that prepare data for subsequent analysis that attempts to correct or compensate for systematic errors. The digital imageries are subjected to several corrections such as geometric, radiometric and atmospheric, though all these correction might not be necessarily be applied in all cases. These errors are systematic and can be removed before they reach the user. The investigator should decide which pre-processing techniques are relevant on the basis of the nature of the information to be extracted from remotely sensed data. After pre-processing is complete, the analyst may use feature extraction to reduce the dimensionality of the data. Thus feature extraction is the process of isolating the most useful components of the data for further study while discarding the less useful aspects (errors, noise etc). Feature extraction reduces the number of variables that must be examined, thereby saving time and resources. Image Enhancement operations are carried out to improve the interpretability of the image by increasing apparent contrast among various features in the scene. The enhancement techniques depend upon two factors mainly

The digital data (i.e. with spectral bands and resolution) The objectives of interpretation

As an image enhancement technique often drastically alters the original numeric data, it is normally used only for visual (manual) interpretation and not for further numeric analysis. Common enhancements include image reduction, image rectification, image magnification, transect extraction, contrast adjustments, band ratioing, spatial filtering, Fourier transformations, principal component analysis and texture transformation. Information Extraction is the last step toward the final output of the image analysis. After pre-processing and image enhancement the remotely sensed data is subjected to quantitative analysis to assign individual pixels to specific classes. Classification of the image is based on the known and unknown identity to classify the remainder of the image consisting of those pixels of unknown identity. After classification is complete, it is necessary to evaluate its accuracy by comparing the categories on the classified images with the areas of known identity on the ground. The final result of the analysis consists of maps (or images), data and a report. These three components of the result provide the user with full information concerning the source data, the method of analysis and the outcome and its reliability. Pre-Processing of the Remotely Sensed Images When remotely sensed data is received from the imaging sensors on the satellite platforms it contains flaws and deficiencies. Pre-processing refers to those operations that are preliminary to the main analysis. Preprocessing includes a wide range of operations from the very simple to extremes of abstractness and complexity. These categorized as follow: 1. 2. 3. 4. Feature Extraction Radiometric Corrections Geometric Corrections Atmospheric Correction

The techniques involved in removal of unwanted and distracting elements such as image/system noise, atmospheric interference and sensor motion from an image data occurred due to limitations in the sensing of signal digitization, or data recording or transmission process. Removal of these effects from the digital data are said to be "restored" to their correct or original condition, although we can, of course never know what are the correct values might be and must always remember that attempts to correct data what may themselves introduce errors. Thus image restoration includes the efforts to correct for both radiometric and geometric errors. Feature Extraction Feature Extraction does not mean geographical features visible on the image but rather "statistical" characteristics of image data like individual bands or combination of band values that carry information concerning systematic

variation within the scene. Thus in a multispectral data it helps in portraying the necessity elements of the image. It also reduces the number of spectral bands that has to be analyzed. After the feature extraction is complete the analyst can work with the desired channels or bands, but inturn the individual bandwidths are more potent for information. Finally such a pre-processing increases the speed and reduces the cost of analysis. Radiometric Corrections Radiometric Corrections are carried out when an image data is recorded by the sensors they contain errors in the measured brightness values of the pixels. These errors are referred as radiometric errors and can result from the 1. Instruments used to record the data 2. From the effect of the atmosphere Radiometric processing influences the brightness values of an image to correct for sensor malfunctions or to adjust the values to compensate for atmospheric degradation. Radiometric distortion can be of two types: 1. The relative distribution of brightness over an image in a given band can be different to that in the ground scene. 2. The relative brightness of a single pixel from band to band can be distorted compared with spectral reflectance character of the corresponding region on the ground. The following methods defines the outline the basis of the cosmetic operations for the removal of such defects: Line-Dropouts A string of adjacent pixels in a scan line contain spurious DN. This can occur when a detector malfunctions permanently or temporarily. Detectors are loaded by receiving sudden high radiance, creating a line or partial line of data with the meaningless DN. Line dropouts are usually corrected either by replacing the defective line by a duplicate of preceding or subsequent line, or taking the average of the two. If the spurious pixel, sample x, line y has a value DNx,y then the algorithms are simply: DNx,y = DNx,y-1 DNx,y = (DNx,y-1 + DNx,y+1)/2 De-Striping Banding or striping occurs if one or more detectors go out of adjustment in a given band. The systematic horizontal banding pattern seen on images produced by electro-mechanical scanners such as Landsat's MSS and TM results in a

repeated patterns of lines with consistently high or low DN. Two reasons can be thus put forward in favor of applying a 'de-striping' correction : 1. The visual appearance and interpretability of the image are thereby improved. 2. Equal pixel values in the image are more likely to represent areas of equal ground leaving radiance, other things being equal. The two different methods of de-striping are as follow: First method entails a construction of histograms for each detector of the problem band, i.e., histograms generated from by the six detectors: these histograms are calculated for the lines 1,7,13,, lines 2, 8, 14, , etc. Then the means and standard deviation are calculated for each of the six histograms. Assuming the proportion of pixels representing different soils, water, vegetation, cloud, etc. are the same for each detector, the means and standard deviations of the 6 histograms should be the same. Stripes, however are characterised by distinct histograms. De-striping then requires equalisation of the means and standard deviation of the six detectors by forcing them to equal selected values - usually the mean and standard deviation for the whole image. The process of histogram matching is also utilised before mosaicking image data of adjacent scenes (recorded at diferent times) so as to accommodate differences in illumination levels, angles etc. A further application is resolution merging, in which a low spatial resolution image is sharpened by merging with high spatial resolution image. Second method is a non-linear in the sense that relationship between radiance rin(received at the detector) and rout (output by the sensor) is not describable in terms of a single linear segments. Random Noise Odd pixels that have spurious DN crop up frequently in images - if they are particularlt distracting, they can be suppressed by spatial filtering. By definition, these defects can be identified by their marked differences in DN from adjacent pixels in the affected band. Noisy pixels can be replaced by substituting for an average value of the neighborhood DN. Moving windows of 3 x 3 or 5 x 5 pixels are typically used in such procedures. Geometric Corrections Raw digital images often contain serious geometrical distortions that arise from earth curvature, platform motion, relief displacement, non-linearities in scanning motion. The distortions involved are of two types: 1. Non-systematic Distortion

2. Systematic Distortions Rectification is the process of projecting image data onto a plane and making it conform to a map projection system. Registration is the process of making image data conform to another image. A map coordinate system is not necessarily involved. However rectification involves rearrangement of the input pixels onto a new grid which conforms to the desired map projection and coordinate system. Rectification and Registration therefore involve similar sets of procedures for both the distortions. Non-Systematic Distortions These distortions are caused due to variations in spacecraft variables. These distortion can be evaluated as follow: Distortion Evaluated from Tracking Data
Due to (Fig.1).

The amount of earth rotation during 26 sec required to scan an image results in distortion. The correction for this distortion can be done by scanning 16 successive group of lines, offset towards the west to compensate for the earth rotation, which causes the parallelogram outline of the restored image. Its is true for TM Image. (Fig.2)

Distortion Evaluated from Ground Control Caused during the spacecraft scan of the ground .

Altitude Variation (Fig.3)

Attitude Variation - pitch, roll & yaw (Fig.4)

Correction Process for Non-systematic Distortions 1. Locating Ground Control Points This process employs identification of geographic features on the image called ground control points (GCPs), whose position are known such as intersection of streams, highways, airport, runways etc. Longitude and latitude of GCPs can be determined by accurate base maps where maps are lacking GPS is used to determine the Latitude and Longitude from navigation satellites. Thus a GCP is located in the field and determing its position using GPS. Accurate GCPs are essential to accurate rectification. GCPs should be 2. Reliably matched between source and reference (e.g., coastline features, road intersection, etc.) 3. Widely disperced throughout the source image 4. Resampling Methods The location of output pixels derived from the ground control points (GCPs) is used to establish the geometry of the output image and its relationship to the input image. Difference between actual GCP location and their position in the image are used to determine the geometric transformation required to restore the image. This transformation can be done by different resampling methods where original pixels are resampled to match the geometric coordinates. Each resampling method employs a different strategy to estimate values at output grid for given known values for the input grid.

5. Nearest Neighbor The simplest strategy is simply to assign each corrected pixel, the value from the nearest uncorrected pixel. It has the advantages of simplicity and the ability to preserve original values in the altered scene, but it may create noticeable errors, which may be severe in linear features where the realignment of pixels is obvious. (Fig. 5).

6. Bilinear Interpolation The strategy for the calculation of each output pixel value is based on a weighted average of the four nearest input pixels. The output image gives a natural look because each output value is based on several input values. There are some changes occurred when bilinear interpolation creates new pixel value. (Fig.6)

7. Brightness values in the input image are lost 8. As the output image is resampled by averaging over areas, it decreases the spatial resolution of the image 9. Cubic Convolution It is the most sophisticated and complex method of resampling. Cubic convolution uses a weighted average of values within a neighborhood of 25 adjacent pixels. The images produced by this method are generally more attractive but are drastically altered

than nearest neighbor and bilinear interpolation.(Fig.7).

10. Image Correction using Mapping Polynomial Polynomial equations are used to convert the source coordinates to rectified coordinate, using 1st and 2nd order transformation . The coffiecients of the polynomial such as ai and bi are calculated by the least square regression method, that will help in relating any point in the map to its corresponding point in the image. x0 = b1 + b2xi + b3yi y0 = a1 + a2xi + a3yi Where (xI yI ) are the input coordinates and (x0 y0 ) are the output coordinates. Initially few GCPs cofficients are required to calculate the transformation matrix and the inverse transformation that could convert the reference coordinates of the GCPs back to the source coordinate system. This enables determination of RMS error for chosen transformation. The best order of transformation can be obtained using trial and error process while ignoring the highest RMS error from the least square computation.

Systematic Distortions Geometric systematic distortions are those effects that are constant and can be predicted in advance. These are of two types: Scan Skew It is caused by forward motion of the spacecraft during the time of each mirror sweep. In this case the ground swath scanned is not normal to the ground track. (Fig.8).

Known Mirror Velocity Variation The known mirror velocity variation are used to correct the minor distortion due to the velocity of the scan mirror not being constant from start to finish of each scan line. (Fig.9)

Cross Track Distortion These generally occur in all the unrestored images accquired by the cross track scanners. They result from sampling pixels along a scan line at constant time intervals. The width of a pixel is proportional to the tangent of the scan angle and therefore is wider at the either margins of the scan line that compresses the pixel. This distortion is restored using trignometric functions.(Fig.10)

Systematic Distortions are well understood ands easily corrected by applying formulas derived by modelling the sources of distortions mathematically. Atmospheric Corrections The output from the instrument on satellite depends on the intensity and spectral distribution of energy that is received at the satellite. The intensity and spectral distribution of energy/radiation has traveled some distance through the atmosphere and accordingly has suffered both attenuation and augmentation in the course of journey. The problem comes whenone is not able to regenerate the correct radiation properties of the target body on the earth surface with the data generated by the remote sensing Effect Of The Atmosphere on Radiation (Radiative Transfer Theory) Fig.11. Effect of the atmosphere in determining various paths for energy to illuminate a pixel and reach the sensor The path radiation coming from the sun to the ground pixel and then being reflected to the sensor. In this on going process, absorption by atmospheric molecules takes place that converts incoming energy into heat. In particular, molecules of oxygen, carbon-di-oxide, ozone and water attenuate the radiation very strongly in certain wavelengths. Scattering by these atmospheric particles is also the dominant mechanism that leads to radiometric distortion in image data.

Radiative Transfer theory is used to make quantitative calculations of the difference between the satellite received radiance and earth leaving radiance.

Radiation traveling in a certain direction is specified by the angle f between that direction and the vertical axis z and setting a differential equation for a small horizontal element of the transmitting medium (the atmosphere) with thickness dz. The resulting differential equation is called the radiative transfer equation. The equation will therefore be different for different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation because of the different relative importance of different physical process at different wavelength. Need for Atmospheric Correction When an image is to be utilized, it is frequently necessary to make corrections in brightness and geometry for accuracy during interpretation and also some of the application may require correction to evaluate the image accurately. The various reason for which correction should be done:

Derive ratios in 2 bands of multi spectral image since the effect of atmospheric scattering depends on the wavelength, the two channels will be unequally affected and the computed ratio will not accurately reflect the true ratio leaving the earth's surface When land surface reflectance or sea surface temperature is to be determined. When two images taken at different times and needed to be compared or mosaic the images

Correction Methods Rectifying the image data for the degrading effects of the atmosphere entails

modeling the scattering and absorption processes that take place. There are number of ways of correcting the image data for atmospheric correction

Ignore the atmosphere Collecting the ground truth measurements of target temperature, reflectance etc and calibrating these values or quantities on the ground and the radiance values by the sensor. Modeling the absorption or scattering effects for the measurement of the composition and temperature profile of the atmosphere. Utilizing the information about the atmosphere inherent to remotely sensed data i.e use the image to correct itself.

Correcting For Atmospheric Scattering This correction is done when the two bands of image are subjected to ratio analysis. Atmospheric scattering scatters short wavelength and causes haze and reduces the contrast ratio of images. This follows two techniques for example TM bands 1 & 7, where TM 1 has the highest component of 1 and the TM7 (infrared) has the least. Both techniques are DN value dependent as TM band 7 is free from scattering effect there it has DN value either 0 or 1 (shadows). 1. In TM 7 the shadows having DN value 0 & 1. Now for each pixel the DN in TM 7 is plotted against TM 1 and a straight line is fitted through the plot using least square techniques. If there was no haze in TM 1 then the line would pass through the origin. But as there is haze the intercept is offset along the band 1. Haze has an additive effect on scene brightness. Therefore to correct the haze effect on TM 1, the value of the intercept offset is subtracted from the DN of each band 1 pixel for the entire image. (Fig 12)

2. The second technique also uses the areas with DN as 0 or 1 in TM 7. The histogram of TM 7 has pixels with 0 where as the histogram of TM 1 lacks the pixel in the range from 0 to 20 approximately because of light scattered into the detector by atmosphere thus this abrupt increase in pixels in TM 1 is subtracted from all the DNs in band 1 to restore effects of

atmospheric scattering.(Fig 13)

The amount of atmospheric correction depends upon

Wavelength of the bands Atmospheric conditions

Short wavelength cause more severe scattering. Humid, smoggy and dusty cause more scattering than clear and dry atmospheres. Implementing the Models Documented information on the atmospheric conditions is used to estimate atmospheric using computer codes in standard Atmospheric Models. LOWTRAN, MODTRAN and HITRAN are some standard models providing them with type of sensor, target altitudes and look, the atmospheric correction could be done. Image Enhancement Techniques Image Enhancement techniques are instigated for making satellite imageries more informative and helping to achieve the goal of image interpretation. The term enhancement is used to mean the alteration of the appearance of an image in such a way that the information contained in that image is more readily interpreted visually in terms of a particular need. The image enhancement techniques are applied either to single-band images or separately to the individual bands of a multiband image set. These techniques can be categorized into two:

Spectral Enhancement Techniques Multi-Spectral Enhancement Techniques

Spectral Enhancement Techniques Density Slicing

Density Slicing is the mapping of a range of contiguous grey levels of a single band image to a point in the RGB color cube. The DNs of a given band are "sliced" into distinct classes. For example, for band 4 of a TM 8 bit image, we might divide the 0-255 continuous range into discrete intervals of 0-63, 64-127, 128-191 and 192-255. These four classes are displayed as four different grey levels. This kind of density slicing is often used in displaying temperature maps. Contrast Stretching The operating or dynamic , ranges of remote sensors are often designed with a variety of eventual data applications. For example for any particular area that is being imaged it is unlikely that the full dynamic range of sensor will be used and the corresponding image is dull and lacking in contrast or over bright. Landsat TM images can end up being used to study deserts, ice sheets, oceans, forests etc., requiring relatively low gain sensors to cope with the widely varying radiances upwelling from dark, bright , hot and cold targets. Consequently, it is unlikely that the full radiometric range of brand is utilised in an image of a particular area. The result is an image lacking in contrast - but by remapping the DN distribution to the full display capabilities of an image processing system, we can recover a beautiful image. Contrast Stretching can be displayed in three catagories: Linear Contrast Stretch This technique involves the translation of the image pixel values from the observed range DNmin to DNmax to the full range of the display device(generally 0-255, which is the range of values representable in an 8bit display devices)This technique can be applied to a single band, grey-scale image, where the image data are mapped to the display via all three colors LUTs. It is not necessary to stretch between DNmax and DNmin - Inflection points for a linear contrast stretch from the 5th and 95th percentiles, or 2 standard deviations from the mean (for instance) of the histogram, or to cover the class of land cover of interest (e.g. water at expense of land or vice versa). It is also straightforward to have more than two inflection points in a linear stretch, yielding a piecewise linear stretch Histogram Equalisation The underlying principle of histogram equalisation is straightforward and simple, it is assumed that each level in the displayed image should contain an approximately equal number of pixel values, so that the histogram of these displayed values is almost uniform (though not all 256 classes are necessarily occupied). The objective of the histogram equalisation is to spread the range of pixel values present in the input image over the full range of the display device. Gaussian Stretch This method of contrast enhancement is base upon the histogram of the pixel values is called a Gaussian stretch because it involves the fitting of the observed

histogram to a normal or Gaussian histogram. It is defined as follow: F(x) = (a/p)0.5 exp(-ax2) Multi-Spectral Enhancement Techniques Image Arithmetic Operations The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are performed on two or more co-registered images of the same geographical area. These techniques are applied to images from separate spectral bands from single multispectral data set or they may be individual bands from image data sets that have been collected at different dates. More complicated algebra is sometimes encountered in derivation of sea-surface temperature from multispectral thermal infrared data (so called split-window and multichannel techniques). Addition of images is generally carried out to give dynamic range of image that equals the input images. Band Subtraction Operation on images is sometimes carried out to co-register scenes of the same area acquired at different times for change detection. Multiplication of images normally involves the use of a single'real' image and binary image made up of ones and zeros. Band Ratioing or Division of images is probably the most common arithmetic operation that is most widely applied to images in geological, ecological and agricultural applications of remote sensing. Ratio Images are enhancements resulting from the division of DN values of one spectral band by corresponding DN of another band. One instigation for this is to iron out differences in scene illumination due to cloud or topographic shadow. Ratio images also bring out spectral variation in different target materials. Multiple ratio image can be used to drive red, green and blue monitor guns for color images. Interpretation of ratio images must consider that they are "intensity blind", i.e, dissimilar materials with different absolute reflectances but similar relative reflectances in the two or more utilised bands will look the same in the output image. Principal Component Analysis Spectrally adjacent bands in a multispectral remotely sensed image are often highly correlated. Multiband visible/near-infrared images of vegetated areas will show negative correlations between the near-infrared and visible red bands and positive correlations among the visible bands because the spectral characteristics of vegetation are such that as the vigour or greenness of the vegetation increases the red reflectance diminishes and the near-infrared reflectance increases. Thus presence of correlations among the bands of a multispectral image implies that there is redundancy in the data and Principal

Component Analysis aims at removing this redundancy. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) is related to another statistical technique called factor analysis and can be used to transform a set of image bands such that the new bands (called principal components) are uncorrelated with one another and are ordered in terms of the amount of image variation they explain. The components are thus a statistical abstraction of the variability inherent in the original band set. To transform the original data onto the new principal component axes, transformation coefficients (eigen values and eigen vectors) are obtained that are further applied in alinear fashion to the original pixel values. This linear transformation is derived from the covariance matrix of the original data set. These transformation coefficients describe the lengths and directions of the principal axes. Such transformations are generally applied either as an enhancement operation, or prior to classification of data. In the context of PCA, information means variance or scatter about the mean. Multispectral data generally have a dimensionality that is less than the number of spectral bands. The purpose of PCA is to define the dimensionality and to fix the coefficients that specify the set of axes, which point in the directions of greatest variability. The bands of PCA are often more interpretable than the source data. Decorrelation Stretch Principal Components can be stretched and transformed back into RGB colours - a process known as decorrelation stretching. If the data are transformed into principal components space and are stretched within this space, then the three bands making up the RGB color composite images are subjected to stretched will be at the right angles to each other. In RGB space the three-color components are likely to be correlated, so the effects of stretching are not independent for each color. The result of decorrelation stretch is generally an improvement in the range of intensities and saturations for each color with the hue remaining unaltered. Decorrelation Stretch, like principal component analysis can be based on the covariance matrix or the correlation matrix. The resultant value of the decorrelation stretch is also a function of the nature of the image to which it is applied. The method seems to work best on images of semi-arid areas and it seems to work least well where the area is covered by the image includes both land and sea. Canonical Components PCA is appropriate when little prior information about the scene is available. Canonical component analysis, also referred to as multiple discriminant analysis, may be appropriate when information about particular features of interest is available. Canonical component axes are located to maximize the separability of different user-defined feature types.

Hue, Saturation and Intensity (HIS) Transform Hues is generated by mixing red, green and blue light are characterised by coordinates on the red, green and blue axes of the color cube. The huesaturation-intensity hexcone model, where hue is the dominant wavelength of the perceived color represented by angular position around the top of a hexcone, saturation or purity is given by distance from the central, vertical axis of the hexcone and intensity or value is represented by distance above the apex of the hexcone. Hue is what we perceive as color. Saturation is the degree of purity of the color and may be considered to be the amount of white mixed in with the color. It is sometimes useful to convert from RGB color cube coordinates to HIS hexcone coordinates and vice-versa The hue, saturation and intensity transform is useful in two ways: first as method of image enhancement and secondly as a means of combining co-registered images from different sources. The advantage of the HIS system is that it is a more precise representation of human color vision than the RGB system. This transformation has been quite useful for geological applications. Fourier Transformation The Fourier Transform operates on a single -band image. Its purpose is to break down the image into its scale components, which are defined to be sinusoidal waves with varying amplitudes, frequencies and directions. The coordinates of two-dimensional space are expressed in terms of frequency (cycles per basic interval). The function of Fourier Transform is to convert a single-band image from its spatial domain representation to the equivalent frequency-domain representation and vice-versa. The idea underlying the Fourier Transform is that the grey-scale valuea forming a single-band image can be viewed as a three-dimensional intensity surface, with the rows and columns defining two axes and the grey-level value at each pixel giving the third (z) dimension. The Fourier Transform thus provides details of

The frequency of each of the scale components of the image The proportion of information associated with each frequency component

Spatial Processing Spatial Filtering Spatial Filtering can be described as selectively emphasizing or suppressing information at different spatial scales over an image. Filtering techniques can be implemented through the Fourier transform in the frequency domain or in the spatial domain by convolution. Convolution Filters Filtering methods exists is based upon the transformation of the image into its

scale or spatial frequency components using the Fourier transform. The spatial domain filters or the convolution filters are generally classed as either high-pass (sharpening) or as low-pass (smoothing) filters. Low-Pass (Smoothing) Filters Low-pass filters reveal underlying two-dimensional waveform with a long wavelength or low frequency image contrast at the expense of higher spatial frequencies. Low-frequency information allows the identification of the background pattern, and produces an output image in which the detail has been smoothed or removed from the original. A 2-dimensional moving-average filter is defined in terms of its dimensions which must be odd, positive and integral but not necessarily equal, and its coefficients. The output DN is found by dividing the sum of the products of corresponding convolution kernel and image elements often divided by the number of kernel elements. A similar effect is given from a median filter where the convolution kernel is a description of the PSF weights. Choosing the median value from the moving window does a better job of suppressing noise and preserving edges than the mean filter. Adaptive filters have kernel coefficients calculated for each window position based on the mean and variance of the original DN in the underlying image. High-Pass (Sharpening) Filters Simply subtracting the low-frequency image resulting from a low pass filter from the original image can enhance high spatial frequencies. High -frequency information allows us either to isolate or to amplify the local detail. If the highfrequency detail is amplified by adding back to the image some multiple of the high frequency component extracted by the filter, then the result is a sharper, deblurred image. High-pass convolution filters can be designed by representing a PSF with positive centre weightr and negative surrounding weights. A typical 3x3 Laplacian filter has a kernal with a high central value, 0 at each corner, and -1 at the centre of each edge. Such filters can be biased in certain directions for enhancement of edges. A high-pass filtering can be performed simply based on the mathematical concepts of derivatives, i.e., gradients in DN throughout the image. Since images are not continuous functions, calculus is dispensed with and instead derivatives are estimated from the differences in the DN of adjacent pixels in the x,y or diagonal directions. Directional first differencing aims at emphasising edges in image.

Frequency Domain Filters The Fourier transform of an image, as expressed by the amplitude spectrum is a breakdown of the image into its frequency or scale components. Filtering of these components use frequency domain filters that operate on the amplitude spectrum of an image and remove, attenuate or amplify the amplitudes in specified wavebands. The frequency domain can be represented as a 2-dimensional scatter plot known as a fourier spectrum, in which lower frequencies fall at the centre and progressively higher frequencies are plotted outward. Filtering in the frequency domain consists of 3 steps:

Fourier transform the original image and compute the fourier spectrum Select an appropriate filter transfer function (equivalent to the OTF of an optical system) and multiply by the elements of the fourier spectrum. Perform an inverse fourier transform to return to the spatial domain for display purposes.

Image Classification Image Classification has formed an important part of the fields of Remote Sensing, Image Analysis and Pattern Recognition. In some instances, the classification itself may form the object of the analysis. Digital Image Classification is the process of sorting all the pixels in an image into a finite number of individual classes. The classification process is based on following assumptions:

Patterns of their DN, usually in multichannel data (Spectral Classification). Spatial relationship with neighbouring pixels Relationships between the data accquired on different dates.

Pattern Recognition, Spectral Classification, Textural Analysis and Change Detection are different forms of classification that are focused on 3 main objectives: 1. Detection of different kinds of features in an image. 2. Discrimination of distinctive shapes and spatial patterns 3. Identification of temporal changes in image

Fundamentally spectral classification forms the bases to map objectively the areas of the image that have similar spectral reflectance/emissivity characteristics. Depending on the type of information required, spectral classes may be associated with identified features in the image (supervised classification) or may be chosen statistically (unsupervised classification). Classification has also seen as a means to compressing image data by reducing the large range of DN in several spectral bands to a few classes in a single image. Classification reduces this large spectral space into relatively few regions and obviously results in loss of numerical information from the original image. There is no theoretical limit to the dimensionality used for the classification, though obviously the more bands involved, the more computationally intensive

the process becomes. It is often wise to remove redundant bands before classification. Classification generally comprises four steps:

Pre-processing, e.g., atmospheric, correction, noise suppression, band ratioing, Principal Component Analysis, etc. Training - selection of the particular features which best describe the pattern Decision - choice of suitable method for comparing the image patterns with the target patterns. Assessing the accuracy of the classification

The informational data are classified into systems: Supervised Unsupervised Supervised Classification In this system each pixel is supervised for the categorization of the data by specifying to the computer algorithm, numerical descriptors of various class types. There are three basic steps involved in typical supervised classification Training Stage The analyst identifies the training area and develops a numerical description of the spectral attributes of the class or land cover type. During the training stage the location, size, shape and orientation of each pixel type for each class. Classification Stage Each pixel is categorised into landcover class to which it closely resembles. If the pixel is not similar to the training data, then it is labeled as unknown. Numerical mathematical approaches to the spectral pattern recognition have been classified into various categories. 1. Measurements on Scatter Diagram Each pixel value is plotted on the graph as the scatter diagram indicating the category of the class. In this case the 2-dimensional digital values attributed to each pixel is plottes on the graph 2. Minimum Distance to Mean Classifier/Centroid Classifier This is a simple classification strategies. First the mean vector for each category is determined from the average DN in each band for each class. An unknown pixel can then be classified by computing the distance from its spectral position to each of the means and assigning it to the class with the closest mean. One limitation of this technique is that it overlooks the different degrees of variation.

3. Parallelpiped Classifier For each class the estimate of the maximum and minimum DN in each band is determine. Then parallelpiped are constructeds o as to enclose the scatter in each theme. Then each pixel is tested to see if it falls inside any of the parallelpiped and has limitation 4. A pixel may fall outside the parallelpiped and remained unclassified. 5. Theme data are so strongly corrected such that a pixel vector that plots at some distance from the theme scatter may yet fall within the decision box and be classified erroneously. 6. Sometimes parallelpiped may overlap in which case the decision becomes more complicated then boundary are slipped. 7. Gaussian Maximum Likelihood Classifier This method determines the variance and covariance of each theme providing the probability function. This is then used to classify an unknown pixel by calculating for each class, the probability that it lies in that class. The pixel is then assigned to the most likely class or if its probability value fail to reach any close defined threshold in any of the class, be labeled as unclassified. Reducing data dimensionally before hand is a\one approach to speeding the process up.

Unsupervised Classification This system of classification does not utilize training data as the basis of classification. This classifier involves algorithms that examine the unknown pixels in the image and aggregate them into a number of classes based on the natural groupings or cluster present in the image. The classes that result from this type of classification are spectral classes. Unsupervised classification is the identification, labeling and mapping of these natural classes. This method is usually used when there is less information about the data before classification. There are several mathematical strategies to represent the clusters of data in spectral space. 1. Sequential Clustering In this method the pixels are analysed one at a time pixel by pixel and line by line. The spectral distance between each analysed pixel and previously defined cluster means are calculated. If the distance is greater than some threshold value, the pixel begins a new cluster otherwise it contributes to the nearest existing clusters in which case cluster mean is recalculated. Clusters are merged if too many of them are formed by adjusting the threshold value of the cluster means. 2. Statistical Clustering It overlooks the spatial relationship between adjacent pixels. The algorithm

uses 3x3 windows in which all pixels have similar vector in space. The process has two steps Testing for homogeneity within the window of pixels under consideration. 2. Cluster merging and deletion
1.

Here the windows are moved one at time through the image avoiding the overlap. The mean and standard derivation are calculated for each band of the window. The smaller the standard deviation for a given band the greater the homogenity of the window. These values are then compared by the user specified parameter for delineating the upper and lower limit of the standard deviation. If the window passes the homogenity test it forms cluster. Clusters are created untill then number exceeds the user defined maximum number of clusters at which point some are merged or deleted according to their weighting and spectral distances. 2. Iso Data Clustering (Iterative Self Organising Data Analysis Techniques) Its repeatedly performs an entire classification and recalculates the statistics. The procedure begins with a set of arbitrarily defined cluster means, usually located evenly through the spectral space. After each iteration new means are calculated and the process is repeated until there is some difference between iterations. This method produces good result for the data that are not normally distributed and is also not biased by any section of the image. 3. RGB Clustering It is quick method for 3 band, 8 bit data. The algorithm plots all pixels in spectral space and then divides this space into 32 x 32 x 32 clusters. A cluster is required to have minimum number of pixels to become a class. RGB Clustering is not baised to any part of the data.

Projection System Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are curved. Transforming, threedimensional space onto a two dimensional map is called "projection". This process inevitably distorts at least one of the following properties:

Shape, Area, Distance, Direction, and often more.

It is known that a globe is a true representation of the earth, which is divided into various sectors by the lines of latitudes and longitudes. This network is called 'graticule'. A map projection denotes the preparation of the graticule on a flat surface. Theoretically map projection might be defined as "a systematic drawing of parallels of latitude and meridians of longitudes on a plane surface for the whole earth or a part of it on a certain scale so that any point on the earth surface may correspond to that on the drawing." Necessity of Map Projection An ordinary globe is rendered useless for reference to a small country. It is not possible to make a globe on a very large scale. Say, if anyone wants to make a globe on a scale of one inch to a mile, the radius will be 330 ft. It is difficult to make and handle such a globe and uncomfortable to carry it in the field for reference. Not only topographical maps of different scales but also atlas and wall maps would not have been possibly made without the use of certain projections. So a globe is least useful or helpful in the field of practical purposes. Moreover it is neither easy to compare different regions over the globe in detail, nor convenient to measure distances over it. Therefore for different types of maps different projections have been evolved in accordance with the scale and purpose of the map. Selection of Map Projection There is no ideal map projection, but representation for a given purpose can be achieved. The selection of projection is made on the basis of the following: The location and the extension of the feature of the globe. 1. The shape of the boundary to be projected. 2. The deformations or distortions of a map to be minimized. 3. The mathematical model to be applied to preserve some identity of graphical features. Based on these characteristics the utility of the projection is ascertained. Some Interesting Links :

Map Projection Overview An Article by Peter H. Dana Map Projections An Article by Brian Klinkenberg Map Projection By Worlfram Research Map Projection Tutorial Why are map projections an issue in GIS? - British Columbia

Classification Potentially there exits an unlimited number of map projections possessing one property or the other. The natures of these properties are so complex that they often possess one or more common properties. There is no projection, which can be grouped, in a single class. Moreover, if one attempts to obtain a rational classification of map projection, it will be rather difficult to achieve it. There can be as many classifications as many bases. Depending on different bases the following classifications may be suggested:
Basis 1. Method of Construction 2. Preserved qualities 3. Developable surface area 1. Perspective 2. Non-perspective 1. Homolographic / Equal Area 2. Orthomorphic / Conformal 1. Cylindrical 2. Conical 3. Azimuthal / Zenithal 4. Conventional 1. Polar 2. Equation/Normal 3. Oblique 1. Gnomonic 2. Stereographic 3. Orthographic 4. Others Classes

4. Position of tangent surface

5. Position of viewpoint or light

Classification based on methods of construction Mathematically the term 'projection' means the determination of points on the plane as viewed from a fixed point. But in cartography it may not be necessarily restricted to 'perspective' or geometrical projection. On the globe the meridians and parallels are circles. When they are transferred on a plane surface, they become intersecting lines, curved or straight. If we stick a flat paper over the globe, it will not coincide with it over a large surface without being creased. The paper will touch the globe only at one point, so that the other sectors will be projected over plane in a distorted form. The projection with the help of light will give a shadowed picture of the globe which is distorted in those parts which are farther from the point where the paper touches it. The amount of distortion increases with the increase in distance from the tangential point. But only a few of the projections imply this perspective method. The majority of projections represent an arrangement of lines of latitude and longitude in conformity with some principles so as to minimize the amount of distortion. With the help of mathematical calculations true relation between latitude and longitudes is maintained. Thus various processes of non-perspective

projections have been devised. Some Interesting Links :

Classification of Map Projection An Article from University of Waterloo

Classification based on preserved qualities While transferring the globe on a plane surface some facts should be kept in view: 1. Preservation of area, 2. Preservation of shape, 3. Preservation of bearing i.e. direction and distance. It is, however, very difficult to make such a projection even for a small country, in which all the above qualities may be well preserved. Any one quality may be thoroughly achieved by a certain map projection only at the cost of others. According to the quality they preserve, projections may be classified into three groups :1. Equal area (Homolographic projection), 2. Correct shape (Orthomorphic or Conformal projection), 3. True bearing (Azimuthal projection). Classification based on developable surface area There are some surfaces over which the sphere may be projected. After projection such surfaces may be cut open onto flat surface. These developable surfaces include 1. Cylinder and 2. Cone. Cylindrical Projection When the graticule is prepared on the surface of a hollow cylinder it is called Cylindrical Projection. 1. Normal Cylindrical Projection - This is a perspective cylindrical projection. When a cylinder is wrapped round the globe so as to touch it along the equator, and the light is placed at the centre, the true cylindrical projection is obtained. Limitations:

The scale is true only along the equator. The exaggeration of the parallel scale as well as the meridian scale would be very greatly increasing away from the equator. The poles can't be shown, because their distances from the equator becomes infinite. 2. Simple Cylindrical Projection - It is also called Equidistant Cylindrical Projection as both the parallels and meridians are equidistant. The whole network represents a series of equal squares. All the parallels are equal to the equator and all the meridians are half of the equator in length. The projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic. Limitations : The scale along the equator is true. The meridian scale is correct everywhere because the parallels are drawn at their true distances. Latitudinal scale increases away from the equator. This leads to great distortion in shape and exaggeration of area in high latitudes. 3. Cylindrical Equal Area Projection - This cylindrical projection was introduced by Lambert. The properties are almost the same. The area between two parallels is made equal to the corresponding surface on the sphere at the cost of great distortion in shape towards higher latitudes; this is why it is an equal area projection. Limitations: Same as (ii). General Properties of Cylindrical Projection

Cylindricals are true at the equator and the distortion increases as on moves towards the poles. Good for areas in the tropics

Conical Projection A cone may be imagined to touch the globe of a convenient size along any circle (other than a great circle) but the most useful case will be the normal one in which the apex of the cone will lie vertically above the pole on the earth's axis produced and the surface of the cone will be tangent to the sphere along some parallel of latitude. It is called 'standard parallel'. If the selected parallel (SP) is nearer the pole the vertex of the cone will be closer to it and subsequently the angle at the apex will be increasing proportionately. When the pole itself becomes the selected parallel, the angle of the apex will become 180 degrees, and the surface of the cone will be similar to the tangent plane of Zenithal Projection. On the other hand, when the selected parallel is nearer to the equator, the vertex of the cone will be moving farther away from the pole. in case equator is the selected parallel, the vertex will be at an infinite distance, and the cone will

become a cylinder. Thus the Cylindrical and Zenithal Projections may be regarded as special cases of Conical Projections. Properties

Conics are true along some parallel somewhere between the equator and the pole and the distortion increases away from this standard. Good for Temperate Zone areas

Zenithal Projection In Zenithal Projection a flat paper is supposed to touch the globe at one point and the light may be kept at another point so as to reflect or project the lines of latitude and longitude on the plane. Here the globe is viewed from a point vertically above it, so these are called Zenithal Projections. They are also called 'azimuthal' because the bearings are all true from the central point. In respect of the plane's position touching the globe, Zenithal Projection is of three main classes :1. Normal or Equatorial Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at equator), 2. Polar Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at pole), 3. Oblique Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at any other point). According to the location of the view point Zenithal Projection is of three types :1. Gnomonic / Central (view point lies at the centre of the globe), 2. Stereographic (view point lies at the opposite pole) 3. Orthographic (view point lies at the infinity). Properties

Azimuthals are true only at their centre point, but generally distortion is worst at the edge of the map. Good for polar areas.