INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.

1 (PAGE 902)

CHAPTER 17. ORDINARY DIFFEREN- Since the DE is linear and homogeneous,

TIAL EQUATIONS
y = Ay1 + By2 = A cos(kx) + B sin(kx)
Section 17.1 Classifying Differential
Equations (page 902) is a solution for any constants A and B. It will satisfy

dy 3 = y(π/k) = A cos(π ) + B sin(π ) = − A

1. = 5y: 1st order, linear, homogeneous.
dx 3 = y
(π/k) = − Ak sin(π ) + Bk cos(π ) = −Bk,
d2 y
2. + x = y: 2nd order, linear, nonhomogeneous. provided A = −3 and B = −3/k. The required solution
dx2
dy is
3. y = x: 1st order, nonlinear. 3
dx y = −3 cos(kx) − sin(kx).
k
4. y


+ x y
= x sin x: 3rd order, linear, nonhomogeneous.
5. y

+ x sin x y
= y: 2nd order, linear, homogeneous.
6. y

+ 4y
− 3y = 2y 2 : 2nd order, nonlinear.
14. Given that y1 = ekx is a solution of y

− k 2 y = 0, we
d3 y dy suspect that y2 = e−kx is also a solution. This is easily
7. +t + t 2 y = t 3:
dt 3 dt verified since
3rd order, linear, nonhomogeneous.
dx y2

− k 2 y2 = k 2 e−kx − k 2 e−kx = 0.
8. cos x + x sin t = 0: 1st order, nonlinear, homogeneous.
dt
9. y (4) + e x y

= x 3 y
: 4th order, linear, homogeneous. Since the DE is linear and homogeneous,
1
10. x 2 y

+ e x y
= : 2nd order, nonlinear. y = Ay1 + By2 = Ae kx + Be −kx
y
11. If y = cos x, then y

+ y = − cos x + cos x = 0.
If y = sin x, then y

+ y = − sin x + sin x = 0. Thus is a solution for any constants A and B. It will satisfy
y = cos x and y = sin x are both solutions of y

+ y = 0.
This DE is linear and homogeneous, so any function of 0 = y(1) = Aek + Be −k
the form 2 = y
(1) = Ake k − Bke −k ,
y = A cos x + B sin x,
where A and B are constants, is a solution also. There- provided A = e−k /k and B = −ek /k. The required
fore sin x − cos x is a solution ( A = −1, B = 1), and solution is
1 1
y = ek(x−1) − e−k(x−1) .
sin(x + 3) = sin 3 cos x + cos 3 sin x k k

is a solution, but sin 2x is not since it cannot be repre-

sented in the form A cos x + B sin x.
12. If y = e x , then y

− y = e x − e x = 0; if y = e−x , then 15. By Exercise 11, y = A cos x + B sin x is a solution of
y

− y = e−x − e−x = 0. Thus e x and e−x are both y

+ y = 0 for any choice of the constants A and B.
solutions of y

− y = 0. Since y

− y = 0 is linear and This solution will satisfy
homogeneous, any function of the form
0 = y(π/2) − 2y(0) = B − 2 A,
y = Ae x + Be −x A B
3 = y(π/4) = √ + √ ,
is also a solution. Thus cosh x = 12 (e x + e−x ) is a solu- 2 2
tion, but neither cos x nor x e is a solution. √ √
provided A = 2 and B = 2 2. The required solution is
13. Given that y1 = cos(kx) is a solution of + y


= 0, k2 y
we suspect that y2 = sin(kx) is also a solution. This is √ √
easily verified since y= 2 cos x + 2 2 sin x.

y2

+ k 2 y2 = −k 2 sin(kx) + k 2 sin(kx) = 0.

627
 SECTION 17.1 (PAGE 902) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

16. y = e r x is a solution of the equation y

− y
− 2y = 0 if dy xy

2. = 2 Let y = vx
r 2 er x − r er x − 2er x = 0, that is, if r 2 − r − 2 = 0. dx x + 2y 2
This quadratic has two roots, r = 2, and r = −1. dv vx 2
Since the DE is linear and homogeneous, the function v+x =
y = Ae 2x + Be −x is a solution for any constants A and dx (1 + 2v 2 )x 2
B. This solution satisfies dv v 2v 3
x = − v = −
dx 1 + 2v 2 1 + 2v 2
1 = y(0) = A + B, 2 = y
(0) = 2 A − B,


1 + 2v 2 dx
dv = −2
v3 x
provided A = 1 and B = 0. Thus, the required solution
1
is y = e2x . − 2 + 2 ln |v| = −2 ln |x| + C1
2v
17. If y = y1 (x) = x, then y1
= 1 and y1

= 0. Thus x2
y1

+ y1 = 0 + x = x. By Exercise 11 we know that − 2 + 2 ln |y| = C1
2y
y2 = A cos x + B sin x satisfies the homogeneous DE
y

+ y = 0. Therefore, by Theorem 2, x − 4y 2 ln |y| = C y 2.
2

y = y1 (x) + y2 (x) = x + A cos x + B sin x

is a solution of y

+ y = x. This solution satisfies dy x 2 + x y + y2

3. = Let y = vx


dx x2
1 = y(π ) = π − A, 0 = y (π ) = 1 − B,
dv x 2 (1 + v + v 2 )
v+x =
provided A = π − 1 and B = 1. Thus the required dx x2



solution is y = x + (π − 1) cos x + sin x. dv dx
=
18. If y = y1 (x) = −e, then y1
= 0 and y1

= 0. Thus 1 + v2 x
y1

− y1 = 0 + e = e. By Exercise 12 we know tan−1 v = ln |x| + C
y  
that y2 = Ae x + Be −x satisfies the homogeneous DE
= tan ln |x| + C
y

− y = 0. Therefore, by Theorem 2, x  
y = x tan ln |x| + C .
y = y1 (x) + y2 (x) = −e + Ae x + Be −x

is a solution of y

− y = e. This solution satisfies

B B dy x 3 + 3x y 2
0 = y(1) = Ae + − e, 1 = y
(1) = Ae − , 4. = 2 Let y = vx
e e dx 3x y + y 3
provided A = (e + 1)/(2e) and B = e(e − 1)/2. Thus the dv x 3 (1 + 3v 2 )
required solution is y = −e + 12 (e +1)e x−1 + 12 (e −1)e1−x . v+x = 3
dx x (3v + v 3 )
dv 1 + 3v 2 1 − v4
Section 17.2 Solving First-Order Equations x = − v =
dx 3v + v 3 v(3 + v 2 )
(page 907)
2

(3 + v )v dv dx
= Let u = v 2
dy x+y 1 − v4 x
1. = Let y = vx
du = 2v dv
dx x−y 1 3+u
du = ln |x| + C1
dv x(1 + v) 2 1 − u 2
v+x = 3  u + 1  1
dx x(1 − v) ln − ln |1 − u 2 | = ln |x| + C1
dv 1+v 1 + v2 4 u − 1 4
x = −v =  2   4 4 
 y + x2  

d x 1−v
1−v
3 ln  2  − ln  x − y  = 4 ln |x| + C2
1−v dx y − x2   x4 
dv =  
1 + v2 x  x 2 + y 2 3 1 

−1 1 ln  2  = C2
tan v − ln(1 + v2 ) = ln |x| + C1  x − y2 x 4 − y4 
2  2 
1 x 2 + y2  (x + y 2 )2 
tan−1 (y/x) − ln = ln |x| + C1 ln  2  = C2
2 x2 (x − y 2 )4 
−1 2 2
2 tan (y/x) − ln(x + y ) = C. x 2 + y 2 = C(x 2 − y 2 )2 .

628
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.2 (PAGE 907)

dy y
5. x = y + x cos2 (let y = vx) then
dx x
dv dη dy a(ξ + x0 ) + b(η + y0 ) + c
xv + x 2 = vx + x cos2 v = =
dx dξ dx e(ξ + x0 ) + f (η + y0 ) + g
dv aξ + bη + (ax0 + by0 + c)
x = cos2 v =
dx eξ + f η + (ex0 + f y0 + g)
dx aξ + bη
sec2 v dv = =
x eξ + f η
tan v = ln |x| + ln |C| provided x0 and y0 are chosen such that
y
tan = ln |C x|
x ax0 + by0 + c = 0, and ex0 + f y0 + g = 0.
−1
y = xtan (ln |C x|).
10. The system x 0 +2y0 −4 = 0, 2x0 − y0 −3 = 0 has solution
dy y x0 = 2, y0 = 1. Thus, if ξ = x − 2 and η = y − 1, where
6. = − e−y/x (let y=vx)
dx x dy x + 2y − 4
dv = ,
v+x = v − e−v dx 2x − y − 3
dx
dx then
ev dv = − dη ξ + 2η
x = Let η = vξ
ev = − ln |x| + ln |C| dξ 2ξ − η
 
C  dv 1 + 2v
e y/x = ln   v+ξ =
x
  dξ 2−v
C  dv 1 + 2v 1 + v2
y = x ln ln   . ξ = −v =
x dξ 2−v 2−v

 

2−v dξ
dy 2x dv =
7. We require = . Thus 1 + v2 ξ
dx 1 + y2
1


2 tan−1 v − ln(1 + v2 ) = ln |ξ | + C1
2
(1 + y 2 ) d y = 2x d x −1 η
4 tan − ln(ξ 2 + η2 ) = C.
ξ
1 3
y+ y = x 2 + C. Hence the solution of the original equation is
3
y−1  
Since (2, 3) lies on the curve, 12 = 4 + C. Thus C = 8 4 tan−1 − ln (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = C.
x −2
1
and y + y 3 − x 2 = 8, or 3y + y 3 − 3x 2 = 24.
3
11. (x y 2 + y) d x + (x 2 y + x) d y = 0
dy 2y  
8. =1+ Let y = vx 1 2 2
dx x d x y + xy = 0
2
dv x 2 y 2 + 2x y = C.
v+x = 1 + 2v
dx
dv 12. (e x sin y + 2x) d x + (e x cos y + 2y) d y = 0
x =1+v

x
d
d(e x sin y + x 2 + y 2 ) = 0
dv dx e x sin y + x 2 + y 2 = C.
=
1+v x
ln |1 + v| = ln |x| + C1 13. e xy (1 + x y) d x + x 2 e xy d y = 0
 
y d xe xy = 0 ⇒ xe xy = C.
1 + = C x ⇒ x + y = C x 2.
x  
Since (1, 3) lies on the curve, 4 = C. Thus the curve has y2 2y
equation x + y = 4x 2 . 14. 2x + 1 − 2 d x + dy = 0
x x
 
9. If ξ = x − x0 , η = y − y0 , and y2
d x2 + x + =0
x
dy ax + by + c y2
= , x2 + x + = C.
dx ex + f y + g x

629
 SECTION 17.2 (PAGE 907) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

15. (x 2 + 2y) d x − x d y = 0 18. 2y 2 (x + y 2 ) d x + x y(x + 6y 2 ) d y = 0

M = x 2 + 2y, N = −x (2x y 2 + 2y 4 )µ(y) d x + (x 2 y + 6x y 3)µ(y) d y = 0
 
1 ∂M ∂N 3 ∂M
− = − (indep. of y) = (4x y + 8y 3 )µ(y) + (2x y 2 + 2y 4 )µ
(y)
N ∂y ∂x x ∂y
dµ 3 1 ∂N
= − dx ⇒ µ = 3 = (2x y + 6y 3 )µ(y).
µ x x ∂x
  For exactness we require
1 2y 1
+ 3 dx − 2 dy = 0 (2x y 2 + 2y 4 )µ
(y) = [(2x y + 6y 3 ) − (4x y + 8y 3 )]µ(y)
x x x
 y y(2x y + 2y 3 )µ
(y) = −(2x y + 2y 3 )µ(y)
d ln |x| − 2 = 0 1
x yµ
(y) = −µ(y) ⇒ µ(y) =
y y
ln |x| − 2 = C1
x 3 2 2
(2x y + 2y ) d x + (x + 6x y ) d y = 0
y = x 2 ln |x| + C x 2 .
d(x 2 y + 2x y 3 ) = 0 ⇒ x 2 y + 2x y 3 = C.
19. Consider y d x − (2x + y 3 e y ) d y = 0.
∂M ∂N
Here M = y, N = −2x − y 3 e y , = 1, and = −2.
∂y ∂x
  Thus
x2
16. (xe x + x ln y + y) d x + + x ln x + x sin y d y = 0 µ
3 1
y =− ⇒ µ= 3
x2 µ y y
 
M = xe x + x ln y + y, N= + x ln x + x sin y 1 2x y
y d x − + e dy = 0
∂M x ∂N 2x y2 y3
= + 1, = + ln x + 1 + sin y  
∂y y ∂x y x
    d − ey = 0
1 ∂M ∂N 1 x 1 y2
− = − − ln x − sin y = − x
N ∂y ∂x N y x − e y = C, or x − y 2 e y = C y 2.
y2
dµ 1 1
= − dx ⇒ µ =
µ x x 20. If µ(x y) is an integrating factor for M d x + N d y = 0,
  
x y x then
e + ln y + dx + + ln x + sin y d y
x y ∂ ∂
 
d e x + x ln y + y ln x − cos y = 0 (µM) = (µN ), or
∂y ∂x
e x + x ln y + y ln x − cos y = C. ∂M ∂N
xµ
(x y)M + µ(x y) = yµ
(x y)N + µ(x y) .
∂y ∂x
Thus M and N will have to be such that the right-hand
side of the equation
 
17. If µ(y)M(x, y) d x + µ(y)N (x, y) d y is exact, then µ
(x y) 1 ∂N ∂M
= −
µ(x y) x M − yN ∂x ∂y
∂   ∂  
depends only on the product x y.
µ(y)M(x, y) = µ(y)N (x, y)
∂y ∂x    
y2 x sin x

∂M ∂N 21. For x cos x + dx − + y d y we have
µ (y)M + µ =µ x y
∂y ∂x
 
µ
1 ∂N ∂M y2 x sin x
= − . M = x cos x + , N =− −y
µ M ∂x ∂y x y
∂M 2y ∂N sin x x cos x
= , =− −
Thus M and N must be such that ∂y x ∂x y y
 
∂N ∂M sin x x cos x 2y
  − =− + +
1 ∂N ∂M ∂x ∂y y y x
−
M ∂x ∂y x M − y N = x 2 cos x + y 2 + x sin x + y 2
 
1 ∂N ∂M 1
− =− .
depends only on y. x M − yN ∂x ∂y xy

630
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.3 (PAGE 915)

Thus, an integrating factor is given by a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 2, y5 = 2.436502.

b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 2, y10 = 2.436559.
µ
(t) 1 1
=− ⇒ µ(t) = . c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 2, y20 = 2.436563.
µ(t) t t
4. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
We multiply the original equation by 1/(x y) to make it
exact: xn+1 = xn + h, yn+1 = hxn e−yn .
   
cos x y sin x 1
+ 2 dx − + dy = 0 a) For h = 0.2 we get x10 = 2, y10 = 1.074160.
y x y2 x
 
sin x y b) For h = 0.1 we get x20 = 2, y20 = 1.086635.
d − =0
y x 5. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
sin x y
− = C.
y x xn+1 = xn + h, u n+1 = yn + hxn e−yn
h
The solution is x sin x − y 2 = C x y. yn+1 = yn + (xn e−yn + xn+1 e−u n+1 .
2

Section 17.3 Existence, Uniqueness, and a) For h = 0.2 we get x10 = 2, y10 = 1.097897.
Numerical Methods (page 915)
b) For h = 0.1 we get x20 = 2, y20 = 1.098401.
A computer spreadsheet was used in Exercises 6. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
1–12. The intermediate results appearing in the
spreadsheet are not shown in these solutions. xn+1 = xn + h
1. We start with x0 = 1, y0 = 0, and calculate pn = xn e−yn
 
h
qn = xn + e−(yn +(h/2) pn
xn+1 = xn + h, yn+1 = yn + h(xn + yn ). 2
 
h
rn = xn + e−(yn +(h/2)qn
a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 2, y5 = 1.97664. 2
sn = (xn + h)e−(yn +hrn )
b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 2, y10 = 2.187485.
h
c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 2, y20 = 2.306595. yn+1 = yn + ( pn + 2qn + 2rn + sn ).
6
2. We start with x0 = 1, y0 = 0, and calculate
a) For h = 0.2 we get x10 = 2, y10 = 1.098614.
xn+1 = xn + h, u n+1 = yn + h(xn + yn ) b) For h = 0.1 we get x20 = 2, y20 = 1.098612.
h
yn+1 = yn + (xn + yn + xn+1 + u n+1 ). 7. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
2
xn+1 = xn + h, yn+1 = yn + h cos yn .
a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 2, y5 = 2.405416.
b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 2, y10 = 2.428162. a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 1, y5 = 0.89441.
c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 2, y20 = 2.434382. b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 1, y10 = 0.87996.
3. We start with x0 = 1, y0 = 0, and calculate c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 1, y20 = 0.872831.
8. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
xn+1 = xn + h
pn = xn + yn xn+1 = xn + h, u n+1 = yn + h cos yn
h h h
qn = xn + + yn + pn yn+1 = yn + (cos yn + cos u n+1 ).
2 2 2
h h
rn = xn + + yn + qn
2 2 a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 1, y5 = 0.862812.
qn = xn + h + yn + hrn
b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 1, y10 = 0.865065.
h
yn+1 = yn + ( pn + 2qn + 2rn + sn ).
6 c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 1, y20 = 0.865598.

631
 SECTION 17.3 (PAGE 915) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

x 2
9. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate 13. y(x) = 2 + y(t) dt
1
dy  2
xn+1 = xn + h = y(x) , y(1) = 2 + 0 = 2
pn = cos yn dx
dy 1
qn = cos(yn + (h/2) pn ) = dx ⇒ − =x +C
y2 y(x)
rn = cos(yn + (h/2)qn ) 1 3
qn = cos(yn + hrn ) − =1+C ⇒ C =−
2 2
h 1 2
yn+1 = yn + ( pn + 2qn + 2rn + sn ). y=− = .
6 x − (3/2) 3 − 2x

x
a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 1, y5 = 0.865766. 14. u(x) = 1 + 3 t 2 u(t) dt
2
b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 1, y10 = 0.865769. du
= 3x 2 u(x), u(2) = 1 + 0 = 1
c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 1, y20 = 0.865769. dx
du
= 3x 2 d x ⇒ ln u = x 3 + C
u
10. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
0 = ln 1 = ln u(2) = 23 + C ⇒ C = −8
3 −8
xn+1 = xn + h, yn+1 = yn + h cos(xn2 ). u = ex .

15. For the problem y
= f (x), y(a) = 0, the 1-step Runge-

a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 1, y5 = 0.944884. Kutta method with h = b − a gives:
b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 1, y10 = 0.926107.
x0 = a, y0 = 0, x1 = x0 + h = b
c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 1, y20 = 0.915666.    
h a+b
p0 = f (a), q0 = f a+ = f = r0
2 2
11. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
s0 = f (a + h) = f (b)
h
xn+1 = xn + h, u n+1 = yn + h cos(xn2 ) y1 = y0 + ( p0 + 2q0 + 2r0 + s0 )
6   
h b−a a+b
yn+1 = yn + (cos(xn2 ) + cos(xn+1
2
)). = f (a) + 4 f + f (b) ,
2 6 2

a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 1, y5 = 0.898914. which is the Simpson’s Rule approximation to

b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 1, y10 = 0.903122.
c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 1, y20 = 0.904174.
12. We start with x0 = 0, y0 = 0, and calculate
xn+1 = xn + h
pn = cos(xn2 )
qn = cos((xn + (h/2))2 )
rn = cos((xn + (h/2))2 )
qn = cos((xn + h)2 )
h
yn+1 = yn + ( pn + 2qn + 2rn + sn ).
6
a) For h = 0.2 we get x5 = 1, y5 = 0.904524.
b) For h = 0.1 we get x10 = 1, y10 = 0.904524.
c) For h = 0.05 we get x20 = 1, y20 = 0.904524.

b
f (x) d x based on 2 subintervals of length h/2.
a
16. If φ(0) = A ≥ 0 and φ
(x) ≥ kφ(x) on an interval [0, X],
where k > 0 and X > 0, then
 
d φ(x) ekx φ
(x) − kekx φ(x)
= ≥ 0.
dx ekx e2kx
Thus φ(x)/e kx is increasing on [0, X]. Since its value at
x = 0 is φ(0) = A ≥ 0, therefore φ(x)/ekx ≥ A on
[0, X], and φ(x) ≥ Aekx there.
17. a) Suppose u
= u 2 , y
= x + y 2 , and v
= 1 + v 2 on
[0, X], where u(0) = y(0) = v(0) = 1, and X > 0
is such that v(x) is defined on [0, X]. (In part (b)
below, we will show that X < 1, and we assume this
fact now.) Since all three functions are increasing on
[0, X], we have u(x) ≥ 1, y(x) ≥ 1, and v(x) ≥ 1
on [0, X].

632
INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.4 (PAGE 919)

If φ(x) = y(x) − u(x), then φ(0) = 0 and The values are still in reasonable agreement at

2 2
φ (x) = x + y − u ≥ y − u 2 2 x = 0.9, but they start to diverge quickly thereafter.
This suggests that X is slightly greater than 0.9.
≥ (y + u)(y − u) ≥ 2φ
on [0, X]. By Exercise 16, φ(x) ≥ 0 on [0, X], and
so
u(x) ≤ y(x) there. Section 17.4 Differential Equations of
Second Order (page 919)
Similarly, since X < 1, if φ(x) = v(x) − y(x), then
φ(0) = 0 and
φ
(x) = 1 + v 2 − x − y 2 ≥ v 2 − y 2 1. If y1 = e x , then y1

− 3y1
+ 2y1 = e x (1 − 3 + 2) = 0, so y1
≥ (v + y)(v − y) ≥ 2φ is a solution of the DE y

− 3y
+ 2y = 0. Let y = e x v.
Then
on [0, X], so y(x) ≤ v(x) there.
b) The IVP u
= u 2 , u(0) = 1 has solution y
= e x (v
+ v), y

= e x (v

+ 2v
+ v)
1
u(x) = , obtained by separation of variables. y − 3y + 2y = e (v + 2v
+ v − 3v
− 3v + 2v)



x


1−x
This solution is valid for x < 1. = e x (v

− v
).
The IVP v
= 1 + v 2 , v(0) = 1 has solution
v(x) = tan x + π4 , also obtained by separation of y satisfies y

− 3y
+ 2y = 0 provided w = v
satisfies
variables. It is valid only for −3π/4 < x < π/4. w
− w = 0. This equation has solution v
= w = C1 e x ,
Observe that π/4 < 1, proving the assertion made so v = C1 e x + C2 . Thus the given DE has solution
about v in part (a). By the result of part (a), the y = e x v = C1 e2x + C2 e x .
solution of the IVP y
= x + y 2 , y(0) = 1, increases
on an interval [0, X] and → ∞ as x → X from 2. If y1 = e−2x , then y1

− y1
− 6y1 = e−2x (4 + 2 − 6) = 0,
the left, where X is some number in the interval so y1 is a solution of the DE y

− y
− 6y = 0. Let
[π/4, 1]. y = e−2x v. Then
c) Here are some approximations to y(x) for values of
x near 0.9 obtained by the Runge-Kutta method with y
= e−2x (v
− 2v), y

= e−2x (v

− 4v
+ 4v)
x0 = 0 and y0 = 1: y

− y
− 6y = e−2x (v

− 4v
+ 4v − v
+ 2v − 6v)
For h = 0.05 = e x (v

− 5v
).
n = 17 xn = 0.85 yn = 12.37139
n = 18 xn = 0.90 yn = 31.777317 y satisfies y

− y
− 6y = 0 provided w = v
satisfies
w
− 5w = 0. This equation has solution
n = 19 xn = 0.95 yn = 4071.117315.
v
= w = (C1 /5)e5x , so v = C1 e5x + C2 . Thus the given
For h = 0.02 DE has solution y = e−2x v = C1 e3x + C2 e−2x .
n = 43 xn = 0.86 yn = 14.149657
n = 44 xn = 0.88 yn = 19.756061 3. If y1 = x on (0, ∞), then
n = 45 xn = 0.90 yn = 32.651029
n = 46 xn = 0.92 yn = 90.770048 x 2 y1

+ 2x y1
− 2y1 = 0 + 2x − 2x = 0,
n = 47 xn = 0.94 yn = 34266.466629.
so y1 is a solution of the DE x 2 y

+ 2x y
− 2y = 0. Let
For h = 0.01 y = xv(x). Then
n = 86 xn = 0.86 yn = 14.150706
y
= xv
+ v, y

= xv

+ 2v

n = 87 xn = 0.87 yn = 16.493286
n = 88 xn = 0.88 yn = 19.761277 x 2 y

+ 2x y
− 2y = x 3 v

+ 2x 2 v
+ 2x 2 v
+ 2xv − 2xv
n = 89 xn = 0.89 yn = 24.638758 = x 2 (xv

+ 4v
).
n = 90 xn = 0.90 yn = 32.703853
n = 91 xn = 0.91 yn = 48.591332 y satisfies x 2 y

+ 2x y
− 2y = 0 provided w = v
satisfies
n = 92 xn = 0.92 yn = 94.087476 xw
+ 4w = 0.
This equation has solution v
= w = −3C1 x −4 (obtained
n = 93 xn = 0.93 yn = 636.786465 by separation of variables), so v = C1 x −3 + C2 . Thus the
n = 94 xn = 0.94 yn = 2.8399 × 1011 . given DE has solution y = xv = C1 x −2 + C2 x.

633
 SECTION 17.4 (PAGE 919) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

4. If y1 = x 2 on (0, ∞), then Therefore y = x −1/2 cos x is a solution of the Bessel

equation  
x 2 y1

− 3x y1
+ 4y1 = 2x 2 − 6x 2 + 4x 2 = 0, 1
x 2 y

+ x y
+ x 2 − y = 0. (∗)
4
so y1 is a solution of the DE x 2 y

− 3x y
+ 4y = 0. Let
y = x 2 v(x). Then Now let y = x −1/2 (cos x)v(x). Then

1
y
= x 2 v
+ 2xv, y

= x 2 v

+ 4xv
+ 2v y
= − x −3/2 (cos x)v − x −1/2 (sin x)v + x −1/2 (cos x)v

2
x 2 y

− 3x y
+ 4y = x 4 v

+ 4x 3 v
+ 2x 2 v 3
y

= x −5/2 (cos x)v + x −3/2 (sin x)v − x −3/2 (cos x)v

− 3x 3 v
− 6x 2 v + 4x 2 v 4
= x (xv

+ v
).
3 − x −1/2 (cos x)v − 2x −1/2 (sin x)v
+ x −1/2 (cos x)v

.

If we substitute these expressions into the equation (∗),

y satisfies x 2 y

− 3x y
+ 4y = 0 provided w = v
satisfies
many terms cancel out and we are left with the equation
xw
+ w = 0. This equation has solution v
= w = C1 /x
(obtained by separation of variables), so v = C1 ln x + C2 .
(cos x)v

− 2(sin x)v
= 0.
Thus the given DE has solution
y = x 2 v = C1 x 2 ln x + C2 x 2 .
Substituting u = v
, we rewrite this equation in the form
5. If y = x, then y
= 1 and y

= 0. Thus
du
2


(cos x) = 2(sin x)u
x y − x(x + 2)y + (x + 2)y = 0.
dx

du
= 2 tan x d x ⇒ ln |u| = 2 ln | sec x| + C0 .
Now let y = xv(x). Then u

y
= v + xv
, y

= 2v
+ xv

. Thus v
= u = C1 sec2 x, from which we obtain

Substituting these expressions into the differential equa- v = C1 tan x + C2 .

tion we get
Thus the general solution of the Bessel equation (∗) is
2
3

2 3

2x v + x v − x v − 2xv − x v
y = x −1/2 (cos x)v = C 1 x −1/2 sin x + C2 x −1/2 cos x.
− 2x 2 v
+ x 2 v + 2xv = 0
x 3 v

− x 3 v
= 0, or v

− v
= 0,

which has solution v = C1 + C2 e x . Hence the general 7. If y1 = y and y2 = y
where y satisfies

solution of the given differential equation is
y

+ a1 (x)y
+ a0 (x)y = f (x),
y = C1 x + C2 xe x .
then y1
= y2 and y2
= −a0 y1 − a1 y2 + f . Thus
      
6. If y = x −1/2 cos x, then d y1 0 1 y1 0
= + .
dx y2 −a0 −a1 y2 f
1
y
= − x −3/2 cos x − x −1/2 sin x
2
3 8. If y satisfies
y

= x −5/2 cos x + x −3/2 sin x − x −1/2 cos x.
4
y (n) + an−1 (x)y (n−1) + · · · + a1 (x)y
+ a0 (x)y = f (x),
Thus
  then let
2


1 2
x y + xy + x − y
4 y1 = y, y2 = y
, y3 = y

, ... yn = y (n−1).
3
= x −1/2 cos x + x 1/2 sin x − x 3/2 cos x Therefore
4
1 1
− x −1/2 cos x − x 1/2 sin x + x 3/2 cos x − x −1/2 cos x y1
= y2 , y2
= y3 , ...

yn−2 = yn−1 , and
2 4
= 0. yn
= −a0 y1 − a1 y2 − a2 y3 − · · · − an−1 yn + f,

634
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.5 (PAGE 923)

and we have
⎛ ⎞
⎛y ⎞ 0 1 0 ... 0 ⎛y ⎞
1 1
⎜ 0 0 1 ... 0 ⎟ Section 17.5 Linear Differential Equations
d ⎜ y2 ⎟ ⎜ .. ⎟ ⎜ y2 ⎟
⎜ . ⎟ = ⎜ .. .. .. ⎟⎜ ⎟ with Constant Coefficients (page 923)
d x ⎝ .. ⎠ ⎜ . . . . ⎟ ⎝ .. ⎠
⎝ 0 .
0 0 ... 1 ⎠
yn −a0 −a1 −a2 ... −an y n 1. y


− 4y

+ 3y
= 0
⎛ ⎞ Auxiliary: r 3 − 4r 2 + 3r = 0
0
⎜0⎟ r (r − 1)(r − 3) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, 1, 3
⎜.⎟
+⎜ .⎟
⎜ . ⎟.
General solution: y = C1 + C2 et + C3 e3t .
⎝0⎠
2. y (4) − 2y

+ y = 0
f Auxiliary: r 4 − 2r 2 + 1 = 0
(r 2 − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ r = −1, −1, 1, 1
9. If y = C1 eλx v, then General solution: y = C1 e−t + C2 te−t + C3 et + C4 tet .

y
= C1 λeλx v = C1 eλx Av = Ay 3. y (4) + 2y

+ y = 0

Auxiliary: r 4 + 2r 2 + 1 = 0
provided λ and v satisfy Av = λv. (r 2 + 1)2 = 0 ⇒ r = −i, −i, i, i
 
2 − λ 1  General solution:
10.  = 6 − 5λ + λ2 − 2
 2 3 − λ y = C1 cos t + C2 sin t + C3 t cos t + C4 t sin t.
= λ2 − 5λ + 4 4. y (4) + 4y (3) + 6y

+ 4y
+ y = 0
= (λ − 1)(λ − 4) = 0 Auxiliary: r 4 + 4r 3 + 6r 2 + 4r + 1 = 0
if λ = 1 or λ = 4. (r + 1)4 = 0 ⇒ r = −1, −1, −1, −1
 
2 1 General solution: y = e−t (C1 + C2 t + C3 t 2 + C4 t 3 ).
Let A = .
2 3
5. If y = e2t , then y


− 2y
− 4y = e2t (8 − 4 − 4) = 0.
If λ = 1 and Av = v, then The auxiliary equation for the DE is r 3 − 2r − 4 = 0,
     for which we already know that r = 2 is a root. Dividing
2 1 v1 v1 the left side by r − 2, we obtain the quotient r 2 + 2r + 2.
A= = ⇔ v1 + v2 = 0.
2 3 v2 v2 Hence the other two auxiliary roots are −1 ± i .
  General solution: y = C1 e2t + C2 e−t cos t + C3 e−t sin t.
1
Thus we may take v = v1 = . 6. Aux. eqn: (r 2 − r − 2)2 (r 2 − 4)2 = 0
−1
If λ = 4 and Av = 4v, then (r + 1)2 (r − 2)2 (r − 2)2 (r + 2)2 = 0
     r = 2, 2, 2, 2, −1, −1, −2, −2.
2 1 v1 v1 The general solution is
A= =4 ⇔ 2v1 − v2 = 0.
2 3 v2 v2
y = e2t (C1 + C2 t + C3 t 2 + C4 t 3 ) + e−t (C5 + C6 t)
 
Thus we may take v = v2 =
1
. + e−2t (C7 + C8 t).
2
By the result of Exercise 9, y = ex v1 and y = e4x v2 are
solutions of the homogeneous linear system y
= Ay. 7. x 2 y

− x y
+ y = 0
Therefore the general solution of the system is aux: r (r − 1) − r + 1 = 0
r 2 − 2r + 1 = 0
y = C1 e x v1 + C2 e4x v2 ,
(r − 1)2 = 0, r = 1, 1.
that is Thus y = Ax + Bx ln x.
     
y1 x 1 4x 1 8. x 2 y

− x y
− 3y = 0
= C1 e + C2 e , or
y2 −1 2 r (r − 1) − r − 3 = 0 ⇒ r 2 − 2r − 3 = 0
y1 = C1 e x + C2 e4x ⇒(r − 3)(r + 1) = 0 ⇒ r 1 = −1 and r2 = 3
y2 = −C1 e x + 2C2 e4x . Thus, y = Ax −1 + Bx 3 .

635
 SECTION 17.5 (PAGE 923) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

9. x 2 y

+ x y
− y = 0 For a particular solution yp of the given equation try

aux: r (r − 1) + r − 1 = 0 ⇒ r = ±1 y = A. This satisfies the given equation if A = −1/2.
B Thus the general solution of the given equation is
y = Ax + .
x
1
10. Consider x 2 y

− x y
+ 5y = 0. Since a = 1, b = −1, and y = − + C1 e−2x + C2 e x .
2
c = 5, therefore (b −a)2 < 4ac. Then k = (a −b)/2a = 1
and ω2 = 4. Thus, the general solution is
y = Ax cos(2 ln x) + Bx sin(2 ln x).
2. y

+ y
− 2y = x.
11. x 2 y

+ x y
= 0 The complementary function is yh = C1 e−2x + C2 e x , as
aux: r (r − 1) + r = 0 ⇒ r = 0, 0. shown in Exercise 1. For a particular solution try
Thus y = A + B ln x. y = Ax + B. Then y
= A and y

= 0, so y satisfies the
given equation if
12. Given that x 2 y

+ x y
+ y = 0. Since a = 1, b = 1, c = 1
therefore (b − a)2 < 4ac. Then k = (a − b)/2a = 0 and x = A − 2(Ax + B) = A − 2B − 2 Ax.
ω2 = 1. Thus, the general solution is
y = A cos(ln x) + B sin(ln x). We require A − 2B = 0 and −2 A = 1, so A = −1/2 and
13. x 3 y


+ x y
− y = 0. B = −1/4. The general solution of the given equation is
Trying y = x r leads to the auxiliary equation
2x + 1
r (r − 1)(r − 2) + r − 1 = 0 y=− + C1 e−2x + C2 e x .
4
r 3 − 3r 2 + 3r − 1 = 0
(r − 1)3 = 0 ⇒ r = 1, 1, 1.
3. y

+ y
− 2y = e−x .
Thus y = x is a solution. To find the general solution, The complementary function is yh = C1 e−2x + C2 e x , as
try y = xv(x). Then shown in Exercise 1. For a particular solution try
y = Ae −x . Then y
= − Ae −x and y

= Ae −x , so y
y
= xv
+ v, y

= xv

+ 2v
, y


= xv


+ 3v

. satisfies the given equation if

Now x 3 y


+ x y
− y = x 4 v


+ 3x 3 v

+ x 2 v
+ xv − xv e−x = e−x (A − A − 2 A) = −2 Ae −x .

2 2






= x (x v + 3xv + v ),
and y is a solution of the given equation if v
= w is We require A = −1/2. The general solution of the given
a solution of x 2 w

+ 3xw
+ w = 0. This equation equation is
has auxiliary equation r (r − 1) + 3r + 1 = 0, that is
(r + 1)2 = 0, so its solutions are 1
y = − e−x + C1 e−2x + C2 e x .
2
C2 2C3 ln x
v
= w = +
x x
v = C1 + C2 ln x + C3 (ln x)2 . 4. y

+ y
− 2y = e x .
The complementary function is yh = C1 e−2x + C2 e x , as
The general solution of the given equation is, therefore, shown in Exercise 1. For a particular solution try
y = Axe x . Then
y = C1 x + C2 x ln x + C3 x(ln x)2 .
y
= Ae x (1 + x), y

= Ae x (2 + x),

so y satisfies the given equation if

Section 17.6 Nonhomogeneous Linear
Equations (page 929)
e x = Ae x (2 + x + 1 + x − 2x) = 3 Ae x .
1. y

y

+ − 2y = 1.
The auxiliary equation for y

+ y
− 2y = 0 is We require A = 1/3. The general solution of the given
r 2 + r − 2 = 0, which has roots r = −2 and r = 1. Thus equation is
the complementary function is
1 x
y= xe + C1 e−2x + C3 e x .
yh = C1 e−2x + C2 e x . 3

636
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.6 (PAGE 929)

5. y

+ 2y
+ 5y = x 2 . 8. y

+ 4y
+ 4y = e−2x .
The homogeneous equation has auxiliary equation The homogeneous equation has auxiliary equation
r 2 + 2r + 5 = 0 with roots r = −1 ± 2i . Thus the r 2 + 4r + 4 = 0 with roots r = −2, −2. Thus the
complementary function is complementary function is

yh = C1 e−x cos(2x) + C2 e−x sin(2x). yh = C1 e−2x + C2 xe−2x .

For a particular solution, try y = Ax 2 + Bx + C. Then For a particular solution, try y = Ax 2 e−2x . Then
y
= 2 Ax + B and y

= 2 A. We have y
= e−2x (2 Ax −2 Ax 2 ) and y

= e−2x (2 A−8 Ax +4 Ax 2 ).
We have
x 2 = y

+ 2y
+ 5y
e−2x = y

+ 4y
+ 4y
= 2 A + 4 Ax + 2B + 5 Ax 2 + 5Bx + 5C.
= e−2x (2 A − 8 Ax + 4 Ax 2 + 8 Ax − 8 Ax 2 + 4 Ax 2 )
Thus we require 5 A = 1, 4 A + 5B = 0, and = 2 Ae−2x .
2 A + 2B + 5C = 0. This gives A = 1/5, B = −4/25, and
C = −2/125. The given equation has general solution Thus we require A = 1/2. The given equation has gen-
eral solution
x2 4x 2  2 
y= − − + e−x (C1 cos(2x) + C2 sin(2x)). −2x x
5 25 125 y=e + C1 + C2 x .
2

6. y

+ 4y = x 2 . The complementary function is 9. y

+ 2y
+ 2y = e x sin x.

y = C1 cos(2x) + C2 sin(2x). For the given equation, The homogeneous equation has auxiliary equation
try y = Ax 2 + Bx + C. Then r 2 + 2r + 2 = 0 with roots r = −1 ± i . Thus the
complementary function is
x 2 = y

+ 4y = 2 A + 4 Ax 2 + 4Bx + 4C
yh = C1 e−x cos x + C 2 e−x sin x.
Thus 2 A + 4C = 0, 4 A = 1, 4B = 0, and we have
1 1 For a particular solution, try y = Aex cos x + Be x sin x.
A = , B = 0, and C = − . The given equation has Then
4 8
general solution
y
= (A + B)e x cos x + (B − A)e x sin x
1 1 y

= 2Be x cos x − 2 Ae x sin x.
y = x 2 − + C1 cos(2x) + C2 sin(2x).
4 8
This satisfies the nonhomogeneous DE if
7. y

y

− − 6y = e−2x . e x sin x = y

+ 2y
+ 2y
The homogeneous equation has auxiliary equation
= e x cos x(2B + 2(A + B) + 2 A)
r 2 − r − 6 = 0 with roots r = −2 and r = 3. Thus the
complementary function is + e x sin x(−2 A + 2(B − A) + 2B)
= e cos x(4 A + 4B) + e x sin x(4B − 4 A).
x

yh = C1 e−2x + C2 e3x .
Thus we require A + B = 0 and 4(B − A) = 1, that is,
For a particular solution, try y = Axe−2x .
Then B = − A = 1/8. The given equation has general solution
y
= e−2x (A − 2 Ax) and y

= e−2x (−4 A + 4 Ax). We ex
have y= (sin x − cos x) + e −x (C1 cos x + C 2 sin x).
8
e−2x = y

− y
− 6y
= e−2x (−4 A + 4 Ax − A + 2 Ax − 6 Ax) = −5 Ae −2x . 10. y

+ 2y
+ 2y = e−x sin x.
The complementary function is the same as in Exercise 9,
Thus we require A = −1/5. The given equation has but for a particular solution we try
general solution
y = Axe −x cos x + Bxe −x sin x
1 y
= e−x cos x(A − Ax + Bx) + e −x sin x(B − Bx − Ax)
y = − xe−2x + C1 e−2x + C2 e3x .
5 y

= e−x cos x(2B − 2Bx − 2 A)
+ e−x sin x(2 Ax − 2 A − 2B).

637
 SECTION 17.6 (PAGE 929) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

This satisfies the nonhomogeneous DE if 13. y

+ y
− 2y = e−x .

The complementary function is yh = C1 e−2x + C2 e x . For
e−x sin x = y

+ 2y
+ 2y a particular solution use
= 2Be−x cos x − 2 Ae −x sin x.
y p = e−2x u 1 (x) + e x u 2 (x),
Thus we require B = 0 and A = −1/2. The given
equation has general solution where the coefficients u1 and u 2 satisfy

1 −2e−2x u
1 + e x u
2 = e−x
y = − xe−x cos x + e −x (C1 cos x + C 2 sin x).
2 e−2x u
1 + e x u
2 = 0.

Thus
11. y

+ y
= 4 + 2x + e−x . 1 1 −2x
u
1 = − e x u
2 = e
The homogeneous equation has auxiliary equation 3 3
r 2 + r = 0 with roots r = 0 and r = −1. Thus the 1 1
u1 = − ex u 2 = − e−2x .
complementary function is yh = C1 + C2 e−x . For a 3 6
particular solution, try y = Ax + Bx 2 + C xe−x . Then
1 1 1
Thus y p = − e−x − e−x = − e−x . The general
3 6 2
y
= A + 2Bx + e −x (C − C x) solution of the given equation is
y

= 2B + e−x (−2C + C x).
1
y = − e−x + C1 e−2x + C2 e x .
This satisfies the nonhomogeneous DE if 2

4 + 2x + e−x = y

+ y

14. y

+ y
− 2y = e x .
= A + 2B + 2Bx − Ce −x . The complementary function is yh = C1 e−2x + C2 e x . For
a particular solution use
Thus we require A + 2B = 4, 2B = 2, and −C = 1,
that is, A = 2, B = 1, C = −1. The given equation has y p = e−2x u 1 (x) + e x u 2 (x),
general solution
where the coefficients u1 and u 2 satisfy
y = 2x + x 2 − xe−x + C1 + C2 e−x .
−2e−2x u
1 + e x u
2 = e x
e−2x u
1 + e x u
2 = 0.
12. y

+ 2y
+ y = xe−x .
The homogeneous equation has auxiliary equation Thus
r 2 + 2r + 1 = 0 with roots r = −1 and r = −1. Thus the 1 1
u
1 = − e3x u
2 =
complementary function is yh = C1 e−x + C2 xe−x . For a 3 3
particular solution, try y = e−x (Ax 2 + Bx 3 ). Then 1 1
u 1 = − e3x u 2 = x.
9 3
y
= e−x (2 Ax + (3B − A)x 2 − Bx 3 ) 1 1
y

= e−x (2 A + (6B − 4 A)x − (6B − A)x 2 + Bx 3 ). Thus y p = − e x + xe x . The general solution of the
9 3
given equation is
This satisfies the nonhomogeneous DE if
1 1
y = − e x + xe x + C1 e−2x + C2 e x
xe−x = y

+ 2y
+ y 9 3
1 x
= e−x (2 A + 6Bx). = xe + C1 e−2x + C3 e x .
3
Thus we require A = 0 and B = 1/6. The given equation
has general solution 15. x 2 y

+ x y
− y = x 2 .
If y = Ax 2 , then y
= 2 Ax and y

= 2 A. Thus
1 3 −x
y= x e + C1 e−x + C2 xe−x .
6 x 2 = x 2 y

+ x y
− y
= 2 Ax 2 + 2 Ax 2 − Ax 2 = 3 Ax 2 ,

638
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.6 (PAGE 929)

so A = 1/3. A particular solution of the given equation

is y = x 2 /3. The auxiliary equation for the homogeneous
19. x 2 y

− (2x + x 2 )y
+ (2 + x)y = x 3 .
equation x 2 y

+ x y
− y = 0 is 4r (r − 1) + r − 1 = 0, or
Since x and xe x are independent solutions of the corre-
r 2 − 1 = 0, which has solutions r = ±1. Thus the general
sponding homogeneous equation, we can write a solution
solution of the given equation is
of the given equation in the form
1 2 C2
y= x + C1 x + . y = xu 1 (x) + xe x u 2 (x),
3 x
where u 1 and u 2 are chosen to satisfy
16. x 2 y

+ x y
− y = x r has a solution of the form y = Ax r
provided r
= ±1. If this is the case, then xu
1 + xe x u
2 = 0, u
1 + (1 + x)e x u
2 = x.
 
Solving these equations for u
1 and u
2 , we get u
1 = −1
x r = Ax r r (r − 1) + r − 1 = Ax r (r 2 − 1).
and u
2 = e−x . Thus u 1 = −x and u 2 = −e−x . The
particular solution is y = −x 2 − x. Since −x is a solution
Thus A = 1/(r 2 − 1) and a particular solution of the DE of the homogeneous equation, we can absorb that term
is into the complementary function and write the general
1
y= 2 xr . solution of the given DE as
r −1
y = −x 2 + C1 x + C2 xe x .
17. x 2 y

+ x y
− y = x.
Try y = Ax ln x. Then y
= A(ln x + 1) and y

= A/x.  
1
We have 20. x 2 y


+ x y

+ − x2
y = x 3/2 .
4
A A particular solution can be obtained in the form
x = x2 + x A(ln x + 1) − Ax ln x = 2 Ax.
x
y = x −1/2 (cos x)u 1 (x) + x −1/2 (sin x)u 2 (x),
Thus A = 1/2. The complementary function was ob-
tained in Exercise 15. The given equation has general where u 1 and u 2 satisfy
solution
1 C2
y = x ln x + C1 x + . x −1/2 (cos x)u
1 + x −1/2 (sin x)u
2 = 0
2 x  
1
− x −3/2 cos x − x −1/2 sin x u
1
2
18. x 2 y

+ x y
− y = x.  
1 −3/2
1 − x sin x − x −1/2 cos x u
2 = x −1/2 .
Try y = xu 1 (x) + u 2 (x), where u 1 and u 2 satisfy 2
x

u
2 u
2 1 We can simplify these equations by dividing the first by

xu
1 + = 0, u
1 − = . x −1/2 , and adding the first to 2x times the second, then
x x2 x
dividing the result by 2x 1/2 . The resulting equations are
Solving these equations for u
1 and u
2 , we get
(cos x)u
1 + (sin x)u
2 = 0
x 1 −(sin x)u
1 + (cos x)u
2 = 1,
u
2 = − , u
1 = .
2 2x
which have solutions u
1 = − sin x, u
2 = cos x, so that
1 x2 u 1 = cos x and u 2 = sin x. Thus a particular solution of
Thus u 1 = ln x and u 2 = − . A particular solution is
2 4 the given equation is

1 x y = x −1/2 cos2 x + x −1/2 sin2 x = x −1/2 .

y= x ln x − .
2 4
The general solution is
The term −x/4 can be absorbed into the term C1 x in the
complementary function, so the general solution is  
y = x −1/2 1 + C2 cos x + C 2 sin x .
1 C2
y= x ln x + C1 x + .
2 x

639
 SECTION 17.6 (PAGE 929) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

Section 17.7 Series Solutions of Differential

Equations (page 933) ∞

2. y

= x y. Try an x n . Then
1. y

= (x − 1)2 y. Try n=0

∞
 ∞ ∞
 
y= an (x − 1)n . y
= nan x n−1 = nan x n−1
n=0 n=0 n=1
∞ ∞ ∞
 
y

= n(n − 1)an (x − 1)n−2 y

= n(n − 1)an x n−2 = (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n .
n=2 n=2 n=0
∞

= (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 (x − 1)n Thus we have
n=0



0 = y − (x − 1)2 y 0 = y

− x y
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

 
= (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 (x − 1)n − an (x − 1)n+2 = (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n − an x n+1
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0
∞ ∞ ∞
 ∞

 
= (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 (x − 1)n − an−2 (x − 1)n = (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n − an−1 x n
n=0 n=2 n=0 n=1
∞ 
 
= 2a2 + 6a3 (x − 1)
∞  = 2a2 + (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 − an−1 x n .
 
+ (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 − an−2 (x − 1)n . n=1

n=2 an−1
Thus a2 = 0 and an+2 = for n ≥ 1.
an−2 (n + 2)(n + 1)
Thus a2 = a3 = 0, and an+2 = for n ≥ 2. Given a0 and a1 , we have
(n + 1)(n + 2)
Given a0 and a1 we have a0
a0 a3 =
a4 = 2×3
3×4 a3 a0 1 × 4 × a0
a4 a0 a6 = = =
a8 = = 5×6 2×3×5×6 6!
7×8 3×4×7×8 a6 1 × 4 × 7 × a0
.. a9 = =
8×9 9!
.
a0 ..
a4n = .
3 × 4 × 7 × 8 × · · · × (4n − 1)(4n) 1 × 4 × · · · × (3n − 2)a0
a0 a3n =
= n (3n)!
4 n! × 3 × 7 × · · · × (4n − 1)
a1 a1 2 × a1
a5 = a4 = =
4×5 3×4 4!
a5 a1 a4 2 × 5 × a1
a9 = = a7 = =
8×9 4×5×8×9 6×7 7!
.. ..
. .
a1 2 × 5 × · · · × (3n − 1)a1
a4n+1 = a3n+1 =
4 × 5 × 8 × 9 × · · · × (4n)(4n + 1) (3n + 1)!
a1 0 = a2 = a5 = a8 = · · · = a3n+2 .
= n
4 n! × 5 × 9 × · · · × (4n + 1)
a4n+3 = a4n+2 = · · · = a3 = a2 = 0. Thus the general solution of the given equation is
The solution is  ∞

 1 × 4 × · · · × (3n − 2) 3n
 ∞
 y = a0 1+ x
 (x − 1)4n (3n)!
y = a0 1 + n
n=1
4 n! × 3 × 7 × · · · × (4n − 1) ∞

 n=1
 2 × 5 × · · · × (3n − 1) 3n+1
∞ + a1 x .
 (x − 1)4n+1 (3n + 1)!
+ a1 x − 1 + . n=1
4n n! × 5 × 9 × · · · × (4n + 1)
n=1

640
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 17.7 (PAGE 933)

⎧
⎨ y

+ x y
+ 2y = 0 Thus,
3. y(0) = 1
⎩
y
(0) = 2 0 = y

+ x y
+ y
Let ∞ ∞
 ∞

∞ ∞
= (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n + x nan x n−1 + an x n
 
y= an x n y
= nan x n−1 n=0
∞ 
n=1 n=0
 
n=0 n=1
∞ ∞
= 2a2 + a0 + (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 + (n + 1)an x n .
 
y

= n(n − 1)an x n−2 = (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n . n=1

n=2 n=0 Since coefficients of all powers of x must vanish, there-

fore 2a2 + a0 = 0 and, for n ≥ 1,
Substituting these expressions into the differential equa-
tion, we get
(n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 + (n + 1)an = 0,
∞ ∞ −an
  that is, an+2 = .
(n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n + nan x n n+2
n=0 n=1
∞ −1 1
 If y(0) = 1, then a0 = 1, a2 = , a4 = 2 ,
n 2 2 · 2!
+2 an x = 0, so
−1 1
n=0 a6 = , a8 = 4 ,. . .. If y
(0) = 0, then
∞ 23
· 3! 2 · 4!
a1 = a3 = a5 = . . . = 0. Hence,
2a2 + 2 + [(n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 + (n + 2)an ]x n = 0.
n=1  (−1)n ∞
1 2 1 4 1 6
y =1− x + x − x + ··· = x 2n .
It follows that 2 8 48 2n · n!
n=0
an
a2 = −1, an+2 =− , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
n+1 5. y

+ (sin x)y = 0, y(0) = 1, y
(0) = 0. Try

Since a0 = y(0) = 1, and a1 = y
(0) = 2, we have y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 + a5 x 5 + · · · .

a0 = 1 a1 = 2 Then a0 = 1 and a1 = 0. We have

a2 = −1 2
a3 = − y

= 2a2 + 6a3 x + 12a4 x 2 + 20a5 x 3 + · · ·
1 2  
a4 = 2
3 a5 = x3 x5
1 2×4 (sin x)y = x − + −···
a6 = − 6 120
3×5 2
a7 = − × (1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 + a5 x 5 + · · ·)
1 2×4×6  
a8 = 2 1
3×5×7 a9 = . = x + a2 − x 3 + a3 x 4
2×4×6×8 6
 
1 1
The patterns here are obvious: + a4 − a2 + x5 + · · · .
6 120
(−1)n (−1)n 2 Hence we must have 2a2 = 0, 6a3 + 1 = 0, 12a4 = 0,
a2n = a2n+1 =
3 × 5 × · · · × (2n − 1) 2n n! 1
(−1)n 2n n! 20a5 + a2 − = 0, . . . . That is, a2 = 0, a4 = 0,
= 6
(2n)! 1 1
a3 = − , a5 = . The solution is
6 120
 
∞ 2n n!x 2n x 2n+1
Thus y = n=0 (−1)
n + n−1 . 1 3 1 5
(2n)! 2 n! y =1− x + x +···.
6 120
∞
 ∞
4. If y = an x n , then y
= n=1 nan x
n−1 and
n=0 6. (1 − x 2 )y

− x y
+ 9y = 0, y(0) = 0, y
(0) = 1. Try
∞
 ∞
 ∞

y

= n(n − 1)an x n−2 = (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n . y= an x n .
n=2 n=0 n=0

641
 SECTION 17.7 (PAGE 933) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

an−1
Then a0 = 0 and a1 = 1. We have Thus 3µ2 − µ = 0 and an = − for
3(n + µ)2 − (n + µ)
∞
 n ≥ 1. There are two cases: µ = 0 and µ = 1/3.
y
= nan x n−1 an−1
n=1
CASE I. µ = 0. Then an = − . Since a0 = 1
n(3n − 1)
∞
 we have
y

= n(n − 1)an x n−2
n=2 1 1
a1 = − , a2 =
0 = (1 − x 2 )y

− x y
+ 9y 1×2 1×2×2×5
∞ ∞
 1
a3 = −
= (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x n − n(n − 1)an x n 1×2×2×5×3×8
n=0 n=2 ..
∞
 ∞
 .
− nan x n + 9 an x n (−1)n
an = .
n=1 n=0 n! × 2 × 5 × · · · × (3n − 1)
= 2a2 + 9a0 + (6a3 + 8a1 )x
∞   One series solution is
+ (n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 − (n 2 − 9)an x n . ∞
n=2
 (−1)n x n
y =1+ .
n! × 2 × 5 × · · · × (3n − 1)
Thus 2a2 + 9a0 = 0, 6a3 + 8a1 = 0, and n=1

(n 2 − 9)an
an+2 = . 1
(n + 1)(n + 2) CASE II. µ = . Then
3
Therefore we have
−an−1 −an−1
an =     = n(3n + 1) .
a2 = a4 = a6 = · · · = 0 1 2
1
3 n+ − n+ 3
3
4
a3 = − , a5 = 0 = a7 = a9 = · · · .
3 Since a0 = 1 we have
The initial-value problem has solution 1 1
a1 = − , a2 =
4 3 1×4 1×4×2×7
y=x− x . 1
3 a3 = −
1 × 4 × 2 × 7 × 3 × 10
..
7. 3x y

+ 2y
+ y = 0. .
Since x = 0 is a regular singular point of this equation, (−1)n
an = .
try n! × 1 × 4 × 7 × · · · × (3n + 1)
∞
y= an x n+µ (a0 = 1) A second series solution is
n=0
 ∞

∞ 
1/3 (−1)n x n
y
= (n + µ)an x n+µ−1 y=x 1+ .
n! × 1 × 4 × 7 × · · · × (3n + 1)
n=0 n=1
∞

y

= (n + µ)(n + µ − 1)an x n+µ−2 .
n=0 8. x y

+ y
+ x y = 0.
Since x = 0 is a regular singular point of this equation,
Then we have
try
∞
0 = 3x y

+ 2y
+ y
y= an x n+µ (a0 = 1)
∞   ∞
 n=0
= 3(n + µ)2 − (n + µ) an x n+µ−1 + an−1 x n+µ−1 ∞

n=0 n=1 y
= (n + µ)an x n+µ−1
= (3µ2 − µ)x µ−1 n=0
∞    ∞

+ 3(n + µ)2 − (n + µ) an + an−1 x n+µ−1 . y

= (n + µ)(n + µ − 1)an x n+µ−2 .
n=1 n=0

642
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL REVIEW EXERCISES 17 (PAGE 934)

Then we have dy x 2 + y2
4. = (let y = xv(x))
dx 2x y
0 = x y

+ y
+ x y dv 1 + v2
∞  v+x =
  dx 2v
= (n + µ)(n + µ − 1) + (n + µ) an x n+µ−1 dv 1 + v2 1 − v2
n=0 x = −v =
∞
dx 2v 2v
 2v dv dx
+ an x n+µ+1 =−
v2 − 1 x
n=0
∞ ∞ 2 1 C
  ln(v − 1) = ln + ln C = ln
= (n + µ)2 an x n+µ−1 + an−2 x n+µ−1 x x
n=0 n=2 y2 C
−1= ⇒ y2 − x 2 = C x
= µ2 x µ−1 + (1 + µ)2 a1 x µ x2 x
∞   dy x+y
+ (n + µ)2 an + an−2 x n+µ−1 . 5. =
dx y−x
n=2
(x + y) d x + (x − y) d y = 0 (exact)
 2 
an−2 x y2
Thus µ = 0, a1 = 0, and an = − for n ≥ 2. d + xy − =0
n2 2 2
It follows that 0 = a1 = a3 = a5 = · · ·, and, since a0 = 1,
x 2 + 2x y − y 2 = C
1 1 dy y + ex
a2 = − 2
, a4 = 2 2 , . . . 6. =−
2 2 4 dx x + ey
(−1)n (−1)n (y + e ) d x + (x + e y ) d y = 0 (exact)
x
a2n = 2 2 2
= 2n .  
2 4 · · · (2n) 2 (n!)2 d x y + ex + e y = 0
One series solution is x y + ex + e y = C
 2
∞
 d2 y dy
(−1)n x 2n 7. = (let p = d y/dt)
y =1+ . dt 2 dt
22n (n!)2
n=1 dp dp
= p2 ⇒ 2 = dt
dt p
1
= C1 − t
p
Review Exercises 17 (page 934) dy 1
=p=
dt
C 1 −t
dy dt
1. = 2x y y= = − ln |t − C1 | + C2
dx C1 − t
dy
= 2x d x ⇒ ln |y| = x 2 + C1 d2 y dy
y 8. 2 +5 + 2y = 0
2 dt 2 dt
y = Ce x 2
Aux: 2r + 5r + 2 = 0 ⇒ r = −1/2, −2
dy y = C1 e−t/2 + C2 e−2t
2. = e−y sin x
dx
9. 4y

− 4y
+ 5y = 0
e y d y = sin x d x ⇒ e y = − cos x + C
Aux: 4r 2 − 4r + 5 = 0
y = ln(C − cos x)
1
(2r − 1)2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ r = ±i
dy dy 2
3. = x + 2y ⇒ − 2y = x x/2 x/2
dx dx  y = C1 e cos x + C 2 e sin x
d −2x dy
(e y) = e−2x − 2y = xe−2x 10. 2x 2 y

+ y = 0
dx dx

Aux: 2r (r − 1) + 1 = 0
x 1
e−2x y = xe−2x d x = − e−2x − e−2x + C 1
2 4 2r 2 − 2r + 1 = 0 ⇒ r = (1 ± i )
x
y = − − + Ce
1 2x   2  
2 4 y = C1 |x|1/2 cos 12 ln |x| + C2 |x|1/2 sin 12 ln |x|

643
 REVIEW EXERCISES 17 (PAGE 934) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

d2 y dy Thus A = 1, B = −4, C = 6. The general solution is

11. t2 −t + 5y = 0
dt 2 dt
Aux: r (r − 1) − r + 5 = 0 y = x 2 − 4x + 6 + C1 e−x + C2 xe−x .
2
(r − 1) + 4 = 0 ⇒ r = 1 ± 2i
y = C1 t cos(2 ln |t|) + C2 t sin(2 ln |t|)
d2 y
d3 y d2 y dy 16. x2 − 2y = x 3 .
12. + 8 + 16 =0 dx2
dt 3 dt 2 dt The corresponding homogeneous equation has auxiliary
3 2
Aux: r + 8r + 16r = 0 equation r (r − 1) − 2 = 0, with roots r = 2 and r = −1,
r (r + 4)2 = 0 ⇒ r = 0, −4, −4 so the complementary function is
y = C1 x 2 + C2 /x. A particular solution of the non-
y = C1 + C2 e−4t + C3 te−4t
homogeneous equation can have the form y = Ax 3 .
d2 y dy Substituting this into the DE gives
13. 2
−5 + 6y = e x + e3x
dx dx
Aux: r 2 − 5r + 6 = 0 ⇒ r = 2, 3. 6 Ax 3 − 2 Ax 3 = x 3 ,
Complementary function: y = C1 e2x + C2 e3x .
Particular solution: y = Aex + Bxe 3x so that A = 1/4. The general solution is

x 3x
y = Ae + B(1 + 3x)e
1 3 C2
y

= Ae x + B(6 + 9x)e3x y= x + C1 x 2 + .
4 x

e x + e3x = Ae x (1 − 5 + 6)
dy x2
3x
+ Be (6 + 9x − 5 − 15x + 6x) 17. = 2 , y(2) = 1
dx y
= 2 Ae x + Be 3x . y dy = x2 dx
2

y3 = x 3 + C
Thus A = 1/2 and B = 1. The general solution is
1 = 8 + C ⇒ C = −7
1 x y 3 = x 3 − 7 ⇒ y = (x 3 − 7)1/3
y= e + xe3x + C1 e2x + C2 e3x .
2 dy y2
18. = 2 , y(2) = 1
dx x
dy dx 1 1
d2 y dy = 2 ⇒ − = − −C
14. −5 + 6y = xe2x y2 x y x
dx2 dx
1 1
Same complementary function as in Exercise 13: 1= +C ⇒ C =
C1 e2x + C2 e3x . For a particular solution we try 2
 
2
y = (Ax 2 + Bx)e 2x . Substituting this into the given 1 1 −1 2x
DE leads to y= + =
x 2 x +2
dy xy
xe2x = (2 A − B)e 2x − 2 Axe 2x , 19. = 2 , y(0) = 1. Let y = xv(x). Then
dx x + y2
so that we need A = −1/2 and B = 2 A = −1. The dv v
general solution is v+x =
dx 1 + v2
  dv v v3
1 2 x = −v =−
y=− x + x e2x + C1 e2x + C2 e3x . dx 1+v 2 1 + v2
2 2
1+v dx
− dv =
v3 x
d2 y dy 1
15. +2 + y = x2 − ln |v| = ln |x| + ln C
dx2 dx 2v 2
Aux: r 2 + 2r + 1 = 0 has solutions r = −1, −1. x 2 1
Complementary function: y = C1 e−x + C2 xe−x . 2
= 2 = ln(Cvx)2 = ln(C 2 y 2 )
y v
Particular solution: try y = Ax 2 + Bx + C. Then 2 /y 2
C 2 y2 = ex , y(0) = 1 ⇒ C 2 = 1
2 /y 2 2 /(2y 2 )
x 2 = 2 A + 2(2 Ax + B) + Ax 2 + Bx + C. y2 = ex , or y = e x .

644
 INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL REVIEW EXERCISES 17 (PAGE 934)

dy We require 1 = y(0) = 1 + C1 and

20. + (cos x)y = 2 cos x, y(π ) = 1
dx   −2 = y
(0) = 2 + 2C2 . Thus C1 = 0 and C2 = −2. The
d   dy
esin x y = esin x + (cos x)y = 2 cos xesin x solution is y = e2t − 2 sin(2t).
dx dx
d2 y dy
esin x y = 2esin x + C 26. 2 2
+5 − 3y = 6 + 7e x/2 , y(0) = 0, y
(0) = 1
dx dx
y = 2 + Ce− sin x Aux: 2r 2 + 5r − 3 = 0 ⇒ r = 1/2, −3.
1 = 2 + Ce0 ⇒ C = −1 Complementary function: y = C1 e x/2 + C2 e−3x .
y = 2 − e− sin x Particular solution: y = A + Bxex/2
 x
y
= Be x/2 1 +
21. y

+ 3y
+ 2y = 0, y(0) = 1, y
(0) = 2  2
Aux: r 2 + 3r + 2 = 0 ⇒ r = −1, −2.

x/2 x
y = Be 1+ .
4
We need
y = Ae −x + Be −2x ⇒ 1= A+ B
 


y = − Ae −x
− 2Be −2x
⇒ 2 = − A − 2B. x 5x
Be x/2 2 + + 5 + − 3x − 3 A = 6 + 7e x/2 .
2 2
Thus B = −3, A = 4. The solution is
y = 4e−x − 3e−2x . This is satisfied if A = −2 and B = 1. The general
solution of the DE is
22. y

+ 2y
+ (1 + π 2 )y = 0, y(1) = 0, y
(1) = π
Aux: r 2 + 2r + 1 + π 2 = 0 ⇒ r = −1 ± πi . y = −2 + xe x/2 + C1 e x/2 + C2 e−3x .

y = Ae −x cos(π x) + Be −x sin(π x) Now the initial conditions imply that

y
= e−x cos(π x)(− A + Bπ ) + e −x sin(π x)(−B − Aπ ).
0 = y(0) = −2 + C1 + C2
Thus − Ae −1 = 0 and (A − Bπ )e−1 = π , so that A = 0 1 = y
(0) = 1 +
C1
− 3C2 ,
and B = −e. The solution is y = −e1−x sin(π x). 2

23. y

+ 10y
+ 25y = 0, y(1) = e−5 , y
(1) = 0 which give C1 = 12/7, C2 = 2/7. Thus the IVP has
Aux: r 2 + 10r + 25 = 0 ⇒ r = −5, −5. solution
1
y = Ae −5x + Bxe −5x y = −2 + xe x/2 + (12e x/2 + 2e−3x ).
7
y
= −5 Ae−5x + B(1 − 5x)e−5x .

We require e−5 = (A + B)e −5 and 0 = e−5 (−5 A − 4B). 27. [(x + A)e x sin y + cos y] d x + x[e x cos y + B sin y] d y = 0
Thus A + B = 1 and −5 A = 4B, so that B = 5 and is M d x + N d y. We have
A = −4. The solution is y = −4e−5x + 5xe−5x .
∂M
= (x + A)e x cos y − sin y
24. x 2 y

− 3x y
+ 4y = 0, y(e) = e2 , y
(e) = 0 ∂y
Aux: r (r − 1) − 3r + 4 = 0, or (r − 2)2 = 0, so that ∂N
r = 2, 2. = e x cos y + B sin y + xe x cos y.
∂x

y = Ax 2 + Bx 2 ln x These expressions are equal (and the DE is exact) if

y
= 2 Ax + 2Bx ln x + Bx.
We require e2 = Ae 2 + Be 2 and 0 = 2 Ae + 3Be. Thus
A + B = 1 and 2 A = −3B, so that A = 3 and B = −2.
The solution is y = 3x 2 − 2x 2 ln x, valid for x > 0.
d2 y
25. + 4y = 8e2t , y(0) = 1, y
(0) = −2
dt 2
Complementary function: y = C1 cos(2t) + C2 sin(2t).
Particular solution: y = Ae2t , provided 4 A + 4 A = 8, that
is, A = 1. Thus
y = e2t + C1 cos(2t) + C2 sin(2t)
y
= 2e2t − 2C1 sin(2t) + 2C2 cos(2t).
A = 1 and B = −1. If so, the left side of the DE is
dφ(x, y), where
φ(x, y) = xe x sin y + x cos y.
The general solution is xe x sin y + x cos y = C.
28. (x 2 + 3y 2 ) d x + x y d y = 0. Multiply by x n :
x n (x 2 + 3y 2 ) d x + x n+1 y d y = 0
is exact provided 6x n y = (n + 1)x n y, that is, provided
n = 5. In this case the left side is dφ, where
1 6 2 1 8
φ(x, y) = x y + x .
2 8

645
 REVIEW EXERCISES 17 (PAGE 934) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

The general solution of the given DE is Divide the first equation by x and subtract from the sec-
ond equation to get
4x 6 y 2 + x 8 = C.
−x sin xu
2 = x sin x.

29. x 2 y

− x(2 + x cot x)y
+ (2 + x cot x)y = 0 Thus u
2 = −1 and u 2 = −x. The first equation now
If y = x, then y
= 1 and y

= 0, so the DE is clearly gives u
1 = cos x, so that u 1 = sin x. The general solution
satisfied by y. To find a second, independent solution, try of the DE is
y = xv(x). Then y
= v + xv
, and y

= 2v
+ xv

. Sub-
stituting these expressions into the given DE, we obtain
y = x sin x − x 2 cos x + C 1 x + C2 x cos x.
2x 2 v
+ x 3 v

− (xv + x 2 v
)(2 + x cot x)
+ xv(2 + x cot x) = 0
x 3 v

− x 3 v
cot x = 0, 31. Suppose y
= f (x, y) and y(x0 ) = y0 , where f (x, y) is
continuous on the whole x y-plane and satisfies
or, putting w = v
, w
= (cot x)w, that is, | f (x, y)| ≤ K there. By the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, we have
dw cos x d x
=
w sin x y(x) − y0 = y(x) − y(x 0 )
ln w = ln sin x + ln C2
x
x  
v
= w = C2 sin x ⇒ v = C1 − C2 cos x. = y
(t) dt = f t, y(t) dt.
x0 x0

A second solution of the DE is x cos x, and the general Therefore,

solution is |y(x) − y0 | ≤ K |x − x0 |.
y = C1 x + C2 x cos x.
Thus y(x) is bounded above and below by the lines
30. x 2 y


− x(2 + x cot x)y

+ (2 + x cot x)y = x 3 sin x y = y0 ± K (x − x0 ), and cannot have a vertical asymptote
Look for a particular solution of the form anywhere.
y = xu 1 (x) + x cos xu 2 (x), where Remark: we don’t seem to have needed the continuity of
∂ f /∂ y, only the continuity of f (to enable the use of the
xu
1 + x cos xu
2 = 0 Fundamental Theorem).
u
1 + (cos x − x sin x)u
2 = x sin x.

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