588

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON

MICROWAVE

THEORY

AND

TECHNIQUES,

VOL.

MTT-14,

NO.

12,

DECEMBER,

1966

Quantitative

Comparison

of Solid$tate

Microwave
A. M. COWLEY,
MEMBER,

Detectors
AND

IEEE,

H. O. SORENSEN,

MEMBER,

IEEE

AbstractA method for quantitative comparison of solid-state microwave square-law detectors is presented. The threshold response of the square-law detectors are compared for unit video bandwidth using the concept of Noise Equivalent Power (NEP). NEP is the microwave input power required for unity signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the detector. Contours of conin a 1 Hz bandwidth stant NEP in the microwave (RF) and video frequency plane clearly describe the dependence of threshold sensitivity on both video and radio frequencies, and thereby provide comparison of the threshold sensitivities of devices over the entire video and RF frequency spectrum. A criterion for the upper RF power lid of square-law operation for detectors is also presented. Dynamic range for a device can be found using this criterion and the threshold sensitivity of the device. Six solid-state detection devices are described briefly, then compared on the basis of the foregoing concepts. Four of these devices are familiar: the point-contact and planar Schottky-barrier ((hot carrier) diodes, and the tunnel and back diodes. Two relatively new devices are also discussed: the so-called hot carrier thermoelectric detector, and the space-charge-limited (SCL) dielectric diode.

i = Total f.= contact iN = Noise video

current diode current bandwidth density

through current in

detector carrier circuit or pointfor 1 Hz

Saturation

of a hot video

J=

Current

k = Boltzmanns

constant coefficient ampl seel function for

KN = Noise
kl

corner

. . . kl = Coefficients

in current-voltage diode Power Power for in factor

SCL NEP (NEP) = Noise o = Noise

fV>>fN ~c =

dielectric Equivalent Equivalent

f~.<<f.

and

Effective band of

density-of-states semiconductor density power power absorbed elements limit ideality

conduction

m = Electron

P = Microwave PEF = Total

cluding PRF(USL) = Upper element RF

by

a device,

in-

SYMBOLS

parasitic square-law power

of PRF in nonlinear device of P~

A = Microwave B = Bandwidth B.= Low-frequency

C= Capacitance CB = Barrier vice, and i.e., back

voltage

amplitude,

device

area

PB = Microwave
PB(USL) = Upper

dissipated

of barrier-type square-law charge limit

susceptance

g = Electronic
for barrier-type detunnel, decurwhen mihot carrier, point-contact, for or barrier-type

capacitance diodes capacitance direct flows signal

R.= Series RB = Barrier Rv = Video

r.= TSS Contact

resistance resistance resistance radius for TED

CO= Zero-bias vice A-i = Incremental rent which

= Tangential

sensitivity (degrees Kelvin), electron

low-frequency circuit to

T= Temperature
transit t = Noise .L = White time temperature noise) applied bias voltage

in video is applied

crowave device

nonlinear dev

ratio temperature ratio to detector

~(u) = Current-voltage vice f(l) . . .

function of

of nonlinear respect to

v = Total Vo = Applied WM= Noise W= P = Current

voltage voltage

f()= f.= f.=

fN =

Derivatives Video Cutoff

f(v)

with

fRF = Lficrowave

(RF)

freqUenCY (RF)

Thickness linear

(SCLD) responsivityamperes/watt, mobility coefficient-cmZ/voltZ for for for a device small with signal with microseries ~ responsivity series resistance very device responsivity
nOn-

frequency frequency

Noise
Direct plied

corner
conductance current in power in video is applied circuit to when a detector the absence of apbias

~=

Current parasitic

GO= Low-frequency 10= microwave power

@O= Current wave ~0 = Current resistance Y= voltage 70= Al= Low-level Square-law

signal responsivity and small microwave volts/watt volts/watt

~, = Incremental microwave ( =Ai)

current

responsivity,

Manuscript received May 31, 1966; revised September 8, 1966. The authors are with -hp- Associates, Palo Alto, Calif.

voltage responsivity, deviation term

COWLEY AND

SORENSEN: COMPARISON

OF SOLID-STATE

DETECTORS

589

A2 = Square-law A = Square-law e = Dielectric 0 = Transit PO= Low y,= field

deviation deviation constant angle =coT;

term term =Al AZ

The

tangential

sensitivity to NEP for

thus a known the

bears

simple and

fixed either

relationship quantity of a detector.

bandwidth, threshold

completely

specifies

performance

T== transit mobility

time

electron mobility

Electron

11. resistivity All =pe of the

NONLINEAR

DEVICE

ANALYSIS

p = Semiconductor rd = Dielectric ~~ = Energy

Tp =

devices

considered on a

here nonlinear

depend

for

their

relaxation relaxation

time time time

detection characteristic. analysis detector. device can of

properties It

current-voltage to briefly review the

is therefore device

useful

Momentum

relaxation frequency a method Six for basic hot diodes, backward dielectric threshold

a nonlinear

operated function

as a low-level of a nonlinear

a = Radian N I THIS PAPER, of is in the

The

current-voltage by i = j-(v).

be denoted

quantitative square-law device classes (Schottky

comdeare bardeand bases freExpanding the imthe stituting as follows: (4), (3) we ILlicrowave bias; v as therefore, the detectors for (3) operated write voltage with the
?70

parison tectors diodes, tunnel considered rier) tectors,

solid-state presented. comparison:

microwave carrier

are of

often bias

a dc voltage and a

generality,

we will a dc

point-contact diodes,

thermoelectric tunnel diodes. diodes, The

superposition input voltage

microwave

A cos d Colt.
series about lFO, and and dc

space-charge-limited chosen quency operation. authors portan for comparison

(SCL) are

sensitivity, of or

v==-Vo+Acos
in a power the

(4)
subterms

response, The feel to

and be

dynamic of

range a survey current

square-law of what

paper

is essentially devices the

obtain

fundamental

potential basis,

ce as detectors. to compare will can equivalent microwave I. devices that, the with to the on an equal appropriate RF power that by the all be made to tuning, source. of the

In order assumption each This

available

device is

be matched

assumption is absorbed SENSITIVITY sensitivity Power required for power

power THRESHOLD threshold input ratio this

device. where

f(l), . . . , f()
at
VO,

are

derivatives 10 isf( power over

VO).

of ~(v)

with

rmpect

to V, evaluated M[e in will of express the as the RF of each device which an of The vice This average and terms Noise Equivalent of unity, (NEP) a bandwidth a measure the device video which eted current rent ratio can due of A; is evident term A;, to on the the can

and

microwave by integrating following

P absorbed
(5) by for the one microwave

by input

the

de-

be found to the

multiplying

voltperiod.

is defined output one of

to produce

age A cos d leads

signal-to-noise By using

expression

P:

hertz. threshold

definition,

we obtain of

sensitivity circuitry. low

characteristic of the any LITith

(6)
almost by inspection. side of the of (5) The first brackdetected in curThe /3, and

itself,

completely

independent

associated

amplification ity of extremely

present-day this

availabilseems to to the time right-hand average application form is the increase power. responsivity

noise

video since

amplifiers, it The but is now

be a reasonable measure noise concept quencies among to may bandwidth for in detector is not the

procedure, sensitivity a limitation,

practical amplifier

in circuits ri~ther A

where assumption

incremental microwave current

be essentially examining I/j

ignored. devices noise of

of unit useful freis practice diodes video

a very at

to P is called in the Ai

operating

be written

region. microwave for

common detector

manufacturers diode larger

=p=(jo P
where

[11+1

l+

AI (7)

specify often

performance than

a large This

video

bandmakes at low ~o=_ 2

f(l)

width,

10 lWHz. for devices

practice

comparison video For gential

impossible

operating

~ j(2)

frequencies. a square-law Sensitivity detector, (TSS) TSS = the commonly tcl NEP by (1) used Tanand is related 2.5(NEP)@3 Equation

(8)

A!2 Al=FT

f(4)

(9)
A2 f(3)

where in dB

B is the video
becomes TSSdB =

bandwidth.

(1) expressed AZ=. ~

NEP~B

4 +

5 Iog~O B.

(2)

f(1)

(10)

590

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON

MICROWAVE

THEORY AND

TECHNIQUES

DECEMBER

Using

(6),

and

making

suitable

approximations,

(7)

can

A.

Hot
Hot

Carrier
carrier diodes by two

and Point-Contact
(planar are the Schottky

Diodes
barrier) and devices of rectification chief metal difference point Hot film Some closer into by caron obvicontrol shock. with mathe followed point-contact sometimes a metal pointwhich at

be written p~~o[l where + AI Az] = Po[l + A] (11)

contact are

metal-semiconductor Schottky contact theory

described the

a metal-semiconductor between is their by

[2 ]. The a fine

construction; pressing

(12)

diode

is fabricated of the are

the surface The the quantity device. the The /?0 is the quantity low-level A shows current how, responsivity for from higher true of power squarean electrical rier the ous diodes prepared

semiconductor, forming by

or mechanical fabricated surface of and the of the latter

operation.

depositing semiconductor. method are

levels, law

detector The

response upper as that reasons limit

deviates

operation.

of square-law input will at 0.3

operation, power from which squarebelow, is, we

advantages

P(USL), produces law we wish

is defined a maximum For maximum

microwave which

of geometry It is difficult, Hot jority carrier carrier carrier

better

resistance to make

to mechanical hot carrier diodes

prescribed

deviation

however, as small and

operation. set this to satisfy

be stated dB; that

capacitance

as that point-contact in

of a point-contact diodes contrast P-n junction depend to the

diode. on minority Since de-

deviation

conduction, of ordinary

operation are no

diodes. these

10 log,o Using (12), this leads

(1 + to

\ A I ) =

0.3 dB.

(13)

there vices cies

minority

carrier capable

storage of operation of the

effects,

are potentially approaching time rd of the this frequency other and in upper carrier by the v ; the hot the

up to frequendielectric For relaxapractical GHz. reimfor

reciprocal

0.56f(1j
P(USL) =
f(4) f(2)

(14) # j(l) range of crystal [1] deviation. the (pointchoose The comwhen the rms

tion

semiconductor will

crystal. order

devices However, sistance portant practical their Hot electrically and by

be of the

of 1000

considerations, capacitance, and limit determination

particularly will be diodes, values. are of frequency

series more response

junction carrier frequency and the

In a paper contact) 0.1 dB reason monly operated TSS. detector ammeter When for

dealing detectors,

with

dynamic and dB

Sorger of 0.3

Weinschel is as follows: limit of

point-contact at lower

placing

rather our

arbitrarily choice lower detector input

as a maximum

point-contact equivalent

diodes circuit

described in Fig. 1,

accepted as a the

power is power the

a device to TSS, by an

shown

tangential is equal example,

sensitivity

relationship

level for by

output,

as measured, is given

or voltmeter,

= s[exkii--v)-+
(17) where n is a number diodes, diodes. Referring respectively, associated to the with Fig. 1, the elements resistance or series barrier, resistance and
RB

somewhat and very

greater nearly

than unity for

unity hot

for car-

But

since

input in dB,

power is given

is equal and the by

to

TSS, in

we

know

that power,

point-contact rier

(A;),i~..l expressed

= 2.5(Ai).0i~e

error

measuring

and

CB are,
of the -

incremental the junction,

and

capacitance region

100d(ttlY2= 101010(1+(+))1
device, while = 0.3 dB. A comparison for upper in equal of and error. OF DEVICES; of the electrical NEP CONTOURS of in this the pointthe (13) and (16) limits shows that our (16) definiwith the bulk tions result III. A brief the lower of square-law operation DESCRIPTION description detection in order. since method, the

R. is a parasitic
semiconductor

associated any contact

substrate

characteristics

&
Fig. 1. RF equivalent

RR

solid-state is now diodes, contour

devices We two is also will

to be considered begin carrier by describing and in their in this

paper electrical contact theory NEP

characteristics of operation.

of hot A useful

diodes

are similar comparison introduced

physical
circuit of barrier-type devices: hot

technique,

carrier,

section.

point-contact,

tunnel,

and back diodes.

1966

COWLEY

AND

SORENSEN: COMPARISON

OF SOLID-STATE

DETECTORS

591

resistance etc. rent Equation

arising (17) not

from is the the area,

soldered static, series the The is obtained

connections, or dc, current,

whisker, of cur-

The (22),

result the

will

be denoted current

by

fl.

Referring for

to

(20)

and

characteristic

low-level

responsivity

the

device

the junction, on the used ciated junction

including and

resi:~tance and

R,. The
and semiconductor

becomes O; .

1, is called
to form with

saturation

depends

metal

_&
1 + +

1
[1 + (f/f.)

.
1
denominator. upper

(23)

the junction. the barrier

dynamic from

resistance (17) as

asso-

[1
(18) Note entirely Using with be uniexlaw limit that the in the (13) frequency last and dependence term obtains for DO is contained in the the

RB =
where For form pressed

nk T q(lo + 18)

bracketed (22), one

Io is the direct
a diode impurity as fabricated density,

bias the

current. a semiconductor capacitance C~ can

square-

from

of P~ as

(24) cB=

~ ~. ~ ()
co

l/i-

(19,)

Using wave

(20),

the input

upper to

square-law the device is

limit

for

total

micro-

VB

power

where

CO is the

zero-bias having potential; the not the the

junction dimensions

capacitance of volts, on the II take

and

VB
and hot acabthe

P~~(USL)

= 0.56

is a parameter
as the upon carrier count sorbed of the of the tance Fig. power diffusion the or the applying fact

known

[%Y+J[

a
(25)

VB depends
impurity theory diode, all of the we

metal to the into power

semiconductor point-contact that i.e.,

density. of Section must microwave In order to of l/f noise to in Fig. calculate or the device the threshold hot must sensitivity diode, Both of the either noise of devices point-contact noise, carrier

Before

properties exhibit (white

be known. to a uniform

in the device device, power

is absorbed nonlinear in of

in th,e nonlinear resistance the the parasitic equivalent for the

portion

in addition

tspectrulm device for with the

RB. A portion
series circuit ratio resisof

[3 ] [6 ]. The in the terms video of

noise its

of either circuit

(Xln be

is dissipated analysis following in RB, to

characterized Referring shown

noise

temperature

mtio
diode its video resisbarrier

~.

R.. A simple
1 yields absorbed the

equivalent

relation the
total

of the

2, the

device

has associated source the sum i~. (The

absorbed power PRF: (20)

resistance tance source hibits ture resistance. i# ratio

a noise

current

video and

PB . pm

1
1 + : [1 [1 + (f/f.)]

RV is simply

RB +R,,

of series have it. the The noise

) A resistor = 4k TB/Rv noise t, for so the the diode

of value associated

Rv would
with by

a current diode extemperasource ear-

excess

characterized

where 112 l+% fc =

corresponding is 4kTBtfRv. As

current discussed work

(squared) lier,

the video

bandwidth

B for the present

Fig. to 2, the a given incremental input

is taken

[1 2rCB(RJ?LI) 112
II that with the

to be unity.

(21)
of Section in underrefers carrier

Again current simply

referring corresponding

to

detected P.RF is

power

We

can

now that power

use the power

theory

standing to the diode. must The and

P, as used
the is used when

section, or hot

P~

for (20)

point-contact microwave input using

i, = Ai = /30PRF.

(26)

Equation be referred ratio is Ai _

a detector (8),

parameter power. (11), (12),

to total

of A; to PB, as obtained

(17)

l~

!l

E
The ing ratio

2nkT [ Ai/PB
engineer by multiplying will

nkT(IO

PB . + 1,) 1

(22)

be denoted the quantity ratio @ by the

by ~, as in the precedof ratio interest which given in to may the be (20).

Fig. 2. V~deo

[Hz

section.

However,

is= Ai
equivalent

=&
circuit

Prf
for barrier-type devices.

microwave obtained

is the

AijPRE,

592 The noise current in the

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON MICROWAVE

THEORY AND

TECHNIQUES

DECEMBER

device

is

the

expression

can

be rewritten

4kTt iN= [1 RV
for unit The power power, the video noise which bandwidth. equivalent results Hence, in using power equal equal (26)

1/2 (27)
NEP = (NEP), 1 + 1

[
Note (NEP) output and (27) is signal noise that and current input noise at device in by Figs, (31) devices addition, that this 1 and whose are the expression equivalent 2, and threshold backward to the which

(fc)ll+fl]o
is general, circuits has are and applies forms Examples

31)
to any given of in

whose

of the can the and

1/~ noise. and

or equivalently,

signal and

performance diode hot carrier

be described diode, point-contact

output.

tunnel

of course,

NEP=~.

(28)

diodes. In the course [8], carrier form

fN =
KN1o.

of it

studies been

conducted found that

at the

the noise fits

authors corner

A device given by the

with

I/f

noise

has a noise

temperature

ratio

laboratory
fN

has and

expression

of hot of

point-contact

diodes

an equa-

tion

the

(29)
The where quency,
fN is

(32) depending for carrier hot indicating on the diode diodes l/f 3 this Figure during

constant It for

k-v

varies much for of

widely smaller diodes, the the hot

the less

familiar

noise white-noise unity and

corner, [7]. (29),

~v the temperature

video

freratio;

type. than noise

is typically point-contact

carrier superior diode.

and

tw the
than (27),

tW is usually Using (23), manipulation:

characteristics a plot of some

(28),

we obtain

after

some

shows study.

data

obtained

Equations NEP = for the analysis given of or

may

(30)

and

(31) carrier

are

particularly point-contact for value the i.e., of bias

convenient diodes, device, current TSS 4 dB (25). TSS and 10, for to The and

of hot the v-i

and

%[%112[+%12

because the value

f.,

characteristic quantities, any for

KN,
(31)

all other
can be used

RB, CB, fN,

[1+(3T+:112
The video last two bracketed terms in (30) The depend remainder If by the on RF of

30)
and the

and

be calculated

and unit NEP, frequency, respectively.

(30)

to calculate by be simply found

ISEP. adding from

bandwidth and

is obtained ~RF(uSL) can the in dB.

expression independent

is frequency part of (30)

independent. is denoted

frequency then

dynamic PRF(USL),

range

is

difference

between

(NEP)O,

expressed

50

40

30

10

tw=l ASYMPTOTE ,2, T pwN ASYMPTOTE tw=0,85 FORHOT 10 CARRIER

100

1000

10000

100000

I mH.

I
10mHz lo(lmHa

FREQUENCY
Fig. 3. Noise characteristics of hot carrier and point-contact diodes,

1966

COWLEY

AND

SORENSEN: COMPARISON

OF SOLID-STATE

DETECTORS

593

B.

iVEP
The

Contours
responsivity of (23) the for PO for microwave the but hot a detector frequency carrier it and can may is, in genfRF, point-connot be be Simalways as

A conservative The smaller white than noise

value unity, For

of R, for but will

either

diode as unity

is 20 ohms. somewhat for these

current a function by diodes. by for

temperature

tw is typically be taken

eral, tact

exemplified expressed obtained ilarly,

calculations. range bias (30), diode. a is for the Hot veniently section. in order entire relatively corner can necessity general, and A (19) simple it of both conditions, (assuming Table other carrier One RF-video

these (NEP)
f<<f.

parameter is about o as calculated and

fV>>fN) is

values, 59.5 dB. for

the For

dynamic the same from for the carrier

This analytically,

functional

dependence in practice

devices

the diodes dBm hot the data

experiment with

as a graph excess

of Do vs. fRF. the noise

93.5

a detector video circuit

noise,

current

point-contact

diode

and

95 dBm this data

for and

iV in the
fv; video therefore

is a function paper one of both as the

of video noise

frequency for NEP is (33)

I contains devices. and only

calculated

iN is defined bandwidth

in this of

current (28),

hertz.
fRF

Using and fv;

fV)

point-contact by needs the to know plane. or

diodes method of the These calculate; found, current, each carrier with for the

are

very in over the

conthis the are noise corner the In (18) (18). to be

a function NEP

that

compared to compare easy parameter for to

presented devices if

R., R~, C~, n, an~d ~iv,

parameters noise

NEp(fRF,

performance measure

frequency

in functional of NEP, plane. By Such

notation. generates a curve several can be the will

Equation a curve in the be defined of

(33),

for

a fixed

value

R. F-video as an NEP a family

frequency

KN
for

is once
any bias

contou~.
of NEP com-

be calculated

eliminatin~g bias diodes tzR1.O current. that for C~

picking

values obtained, threshold @o(fRr) derived very for points two of

NEP, and

measuring for very

fN

contours pletely Given

these

contours

is observed obeyed

hot

specify the

performance and i,V@V),

of a detector. as NEP measured contours using plotted of on contours frequency of superior devices. to construct a hot carrier for of the in To (28). the of

are

closely, of CO and 6 shows showing

functions or contours the line generate divides

measurement via hot (19). carrier Figure

VB allows CD and near

experimentally can If same equal plane. threshold illustrate NEP diode, (NEP)o, two noise Fig. diode contact contact preference parison forward that, in the were such data 4. In has be constructed, NEP graph, NEP This

analytically, straightforwardly, devices intersection in the intc, of the are

calculated a typical ment C. with

Tunnel

RB vs. bias for

p(erfect agree-

diode, (19).

(18) and
and

a line

R. F-video regions two used

Back Diodes
and back diodes depend upon [9]. impurity produce can lower then tunnel direction at the for their interestof essenis narrow easily. ~made P-n Tun-

the plane for each (31)

The ing

tunnel

sensitivity this principle, for a and diodes, shown the superior

current-voltage

behavior tunneling whose order at to

phenomenon They density are

has been

quantum-mechanical tial y p-n junctions high across current than operated in the in

contours and
fN

two

familiar

devices, diode. from (21), contours region, sensitivity (19), The

point-contact f. were using in lower Fig. calculated (18), left-hand threshold 3. The

values typical and shown (30), are

purposely junction neling voltage as forward When ily what tunnel reports biased detector for ther signed diode. usually acteristic origin peak The this in Back biased lower the into

a very tunnel values current, diodes

data

which occurs ordinary

electrons much P-n

of applied increasing again. ordinarsomepeak diode a video data furdeare charof are

junction

the to region,

hot the the

carrier pointpointtwo comof fact

voltage

is increased, forward the voltage results

decreasing a voltage to the one a tunnel as

as detectors,

diode. diode

In the upper is superior. clearly. assumed It

right-hand Figure The to

5 shows diodes chosen with

these for the

than

corresponding at of using least

regions each current.

current

1P [10].
the negative to the

However,

author

be biased

50 pA

preliminary

is worthwhile diode

emphasizing is clearly region,

resistance scarcity it will

region

while higher diode in of hot reason its

the

point-contact and video video

superior the hot For the in an L-

[11 ]; due mode this for They diodes are [12 ]. resistance current. RF equivalent the bulk paper. are

of experimental not be discussed which usual ;-v are they

RF

frequency video to radio for frequency up

of operation, simply peak called on They than the

carrier example, hot band The despite l/j hot It Figs. carrier-

is superior a 1 kHz diode This diode this

at lower

frequencies. application, frequencies since the comparison.

tunnel current

diodes than diodes portion have the

carrier

is superior was result

a lower

tunnel

excess

10 GHz. carrier for poorer diode

is indeed chosen is

surprising, quite evident,

back reverse typically tunnel circuit the of

because of the higher due

operated

however; the superior of than range and the the of in hot 1.0.5.

valu{es

high-frequency i.e., it lower compare for values the two are of n for at to lower video enables

reslponse, noise to perform the

diodes, for

to, their or back hot carrier

lower (diode and and a

noise carrier is

performance, diode response 5. The

corner, better

a tunnel for have and the

point-contact square-law 4 and

frequencies. dynamic diodes point-contact compared 1..5 and

is essentially point-contact due ance to and the parallel

same

as that diodes

interesting

diodes;

a series contacts, junction

resistance conductci~w-rier

semiconductor incremental Tunneling

combination capacitance.

diodes,

respectively,

typically

is a majority

594

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON MICROWAVE

THEORY AND

TECHNIQUES

DECEMBER

, 1, 111 , I 1I I , 8 1 1 t , I , II I NEPCONTOURS NEPO -95dBm = HOT CARRIERIODEf,.21GH~, fN. I()()IIZ D [ { fe=22.5GHi, iN=30 POINT CONTACT DIODE~Epo =-93.5dB VIDEO BANDWIDTH = Itiz

,
I

1 1 , I [ 11
rAT v

1 [ 141 ,- 103

%ooA%lAS)

{A

---zs

++-

1,.1

d,m, l

1 1

Ill

11

, 1 Ill , II 10

# 1

IL(I 102

, t , 1 , , JIu 103

Ki2

Ii-

10

fv VIDEOFREQUENCY (KHz)
Fig. 4. NEP plots for hot carrier and point-contact diodes

, 1 , 1

, 1 1I

1 1 1 I

DEVICE PROPERTIES - (NEP)O NOISE EQUIVALENT POWER FOR >>f~ , frf < C fv

102 . frf ) (GHz 10. : : .

lo~ # 1 1 k1,
ii-2

PREFERENCE REGIONOR F HOTCARRIER IODE D WITH50PA BIAS f~ =2,1GHZ (NEP)O= -95df3m fN =IOOHZ
1(?

1 1 111i r1 I , , , , ,1 , 10 10
carrier and point-contact diodes whose

PREFERENCE BOUNDARY ASYMPTOTE -93.5 d13mL

, 1,t

.
, 0 a ,

,1

102
NEP plots are shown in Fig. 4.

103

fv VIDEOFREQUENCY (KHz)
Fig.

5.

Preference

regions

for

hot

1966

COWLEY AND

SORENSEN: COMPARISON

OF SOLU3-STATE DETECTORS

.595

TABLE

COMPARISON OF TYPICAL DEVICES

Device Bias (/.LA) $;
RB (Q)I

R,(Q)

CB(PF)

~c (GHz)

~,v(kHz) voltl

(yBEJP)

(2) P&(u:,)

Dy]n. (3) RanBge

.
93.5 87 95 88.5 95.5 90 95.5 90.5 93 97.5 97.5 54 60.5 62..5 67.0 82.5 70.0 --30 18
--31..s --19.5 31.5 21.0 31.5 21.5

(Low Noise PC Diode PC Diode HC HC HC HC HC HC Back Tunnel Tunnel Diode Diode Diode Diode Diode Diode Diode Diode Diode Detector Detector Detector Detector

=50 5-600

=500 5 3CI 50CI 30 50CI 4CI 50CI 45

20 20

=0.10 =0 .20 1.2 1.4 0.9 u 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0

20 30

300 >5000 0.1-0.2 ;:; 2.0 0.2 2.0

= =

13 8 19 12 19.5 16 20 18 25

59.5 65
59.5 65 tiO 65 60 ti5

;: 10 10 5 5 10 5 5

5.8 8.1 8.2 10.7

u
5.5

o
1 mA ) -

90 45 45

--35.5 43.5 --43.5 + 4.5 2 5 :12 6 11

53.5 50 50 54.5 54.5 53.5 51 ;72.5 55.5

11.2 11.2
m m m

50 1050 o 0 o 0

100 100 0.003 0.006 0.007 0.009 1.0 0.2

Thermoelectric Thermoelectric Thermoelectric Thermoelectric SCLD SCLD 1) Overall 2) j<<fc. 3) jv>>f,v.

177=1000$7 l?V= 5000Q

Rv= 500 (l Rj. = 2000 !2
for j<<~e.

RF= 100 !2 Rv= 500Q

l.OpF

cc

0.57)
2.OV current responsitity

1.OPF

2350 H F-

CARRIER10[ No. 127 0 CO SI)i3pF : I~=8xlo T

I
t
,.O1 , ,,, ,,,,

IF

2
resistance

16
BIASCURRENT (mA) I
and capacitance carrier diode. vs. bias

10

Fig.

6.

Barrier

for

typical

hot

596 phenomenon; are therefore limitations fact, cisely diodes, for age vices. able the tunnel the the as hot and same tunnel to carrier back way and and

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON MICROWAVE

THEORY AND

TECHNIQUES

DECEMBER

back

diode the

characteristics same frequency diodes. in In pre-

order back of the

1 kHz and order the the peak

for of

moderate diodes, 10 kHz but and Table the

(=100 above, II

PA) for

bias

levels

for

subject

basically

tunnel

considerably

higher devices

values, biased

point-contact may carrier be analyzed and

diodes hot

near from

current. in

presents laboratory

a compilation and taken

as the .&,

point-contact

of data

measured literature.

authors

if the quantities operating point analytic is not is for the

R~, CII, fN, and ~o, are known

for the and the current and have are are of the in not voltback debeen readily in reason-

in question. expression for hot carrier [14];

TABLE II

A convenient function as it diodes computed

available tunneling [13],

tunnel

NOISE CORNER FOR TUNNEL AND BACK DIODES Device

Back Diode Back Diode Back Diode Tunnel Diode

point-contact

Bias Condition
50100 PA 100 PA 1 mA

Source
Eng [15] Follmer [18] Authors messt Authors messt

Theoretical numerically agreement in the

characteristics these but

fli
3050 <1 <1 50 kHz kHz kHz kHz

with design

experiment, and analysis

useable microwave Recent facturers responsivity order reverse current, however, of dynamic noise. Dynamic very made forward near mission the high the back the tunnel narrow and low, of

devices

applications. publications specification of 30 bias. this By tunnel at current and the biasing voltsl [15], sheets, and zero the [16], back and tunnel as well diodes moderate diode can by instability as many that can near the be its manucurrent of the or peak loss I/f Let back current, the noise tively. us compare diode, using corner For are the unbiased and the back the performance diode of Chase cutoff 93,5 11 diode are The data, of a 100 Q unbiased biased and dBm, GHz, frequency, and near corner 97.5 near Chang the [1o]. (NEP) zero, ~p~~k, the dBm, is an with peak For O and respeccorand a tunnel data diode,

indicate

forward be obtained; a serious and

5.5 GHz, tunnel 50 kHz. II. This

enormous range

sensitivities onset of

biased noise

increase

is accompanied

responding approximately based

quantities

estimate data

on Table other

together

similar I.

resistance often bias, peak of the while current Series diode. to junction tunnel Burrus for

of order

the

tunnel

devices

is usually can be

for

the

detectors, range for the

is summarized tunnel and without devices high operates poorer as As is best into the

in Table back diodes In when an diodes open are

of 10 Q. Back at must a match of the Capacitance greater diodes zero diode

diodes or often

Dynamic cult pression dynamic amplifier i.e., when Dynamic nearer to for

is diffiexvideo circuit. biased of may the be general,

to have

50 Q total

resistance to obtain

moderate be biased

to predict, the range presents the range the range,

theoretically, current-voltage for these a very detector gets peak let

an analytical the

a tunnel resistance Capacitance point-contact width, diodes [12]

function. impedance

to 50 Q transis typically due to

line. compared

R, can be as low as 5 Q for

diodes, mainly

to the detector,

of commercial than 0.5 pF. less tun-

current. us first

a crude that

estimate

is usually has reported

dynamic written

observe

(22)

However, than nel 0.1 pF diodes Noise number [17] one related current tunnel current; the narrow

capacitances point-contact

special

experimental

used in tunnel

as detectors. and l/~ way occurs peak back in was to in and the the diodes [17], has been Yajima tunnel noise iexcess direction onset of p-n I/f studied and seems after by a Esaki diodes; to be a the current, for have L from the hot (34) carrier (18). as [15], noise [18]. that diode forward the used

B = Bo[l
and find We the

*@oRBP.]

(34)
diodes, where we term

point-contact square-law

of authors measured

deviation

germanium

of their in which current it p-n

observations some

if we consider (35) we can

,,02RB+(1+EJ
frequencies as less than .P~~(USL)

before the

junction is due to microwave write of the noise in genthe back bias Eng back higher his back lowwe of the using holds carrier clynamic and the for and criterion the range of tunnel for (36) in (12) the (13). P~~(USL)

(35)
~,. From

is thought of defect junction. ratio extremely typical data while that 10 to mixer measured

that levels

excess [18]

current deduced and found, that

presence

in the diodes, and I/f noise

forbidden

gap the

Follmer

temperature eral diode levels, [15] diodes, l/f noise have back noise agreement has with presents and than

t for back
Yajima low noise for his of

0.14
=
B02RB

with

Esaki, for than in less noise the

1+: () now as from well we assume as can for that the

(36)
(36) hot the

moderate 1 kHz. biased for

corners the l/~

If

we diodes,

devices

data

indicates

somewhat noise for diode.

point-contact for the ratios

estimate is equivalent of the

Follmer, less l/f and point-contact noise find

the devices

knowledge devices derivatives for and the hot tunnel carrier

of R~, R,,

diodes

is still Doppler ourselves and

15 dB

than for

a so-called Finally, number of

/3.. Use used

tunnel of the same

to assuming function as they

that

the

i-v

a small

are the

devices diodes.

tunnel

diodes,

noise

corners

are for

point-contact

1966

COWLEY AND

SORENSEN: COMPARISON

OF SOLID-STATE

DETECTORS

597
n

This namic biased

probably range, near

results particularly the peak

in

an

overestimation case of the device

of tunnel

the

dy-

in the current; by the

diode

I ~ / .:....::, ., ,:, ::,,:,,, !!i~\C1i~;!&CT

the

is particularly signal change in this in video

sensitive region

to self-biasing of operation, with

microwave

a consequent

resistance.

D.

Thermoelectric
The thermoelectric upon carriers by the

Detector
detector the in depends for effect r. The field, and its detection for carriers the hot are lattice to hemi[19] a I i

SEMICONDUCTOR CRYSTAL

1
r. ~.

properties majority heated temperature Fig. have detailed an analysis linear the an seen Its 7, the

thermoelectric a semiconductor RF

LARGEAREAOHMIC CONTACT

microwave relatively can

remains device geometry discussion which in this on

unchanged. analyzed and l$Te have the and analysis, account

Referring in and effect will the

be readily

spherical

shown. an approximate of takes the the

Harrison device.

Zucker present

performed

=IRV VP
o

performed of nonpresent imposes this device. as bias.

10

RF E(lUIV CKT.
Fig.

VIOEO EC!UIV. KI (6-ltiz) C

detector.

into

7.

Thermoelectric

mobility results in limit the

semiconductor Nonlinear operation is an

section. square-law

mobility of ohmic from

II
THERMOELECTRIC OETECTOR Rv=Ioofz I 1

upper The by video

thermoelectric video resistance resistance contact circular contact circuit,

detector and be can

device standard

is operated calculated In flat, actual

without

spreading smaller planar is

formulas. nearly of radius

practice, and video

the for a

is often

or planar,

r~, the

resistance

given by
R, = p/4ro (37)

~.uL.J
Ii

3
Fig. 8,

Iiz
Voltage ~e~p~n~ivity vs. applied

1(
POWER INPUT (mW)

10
detector

where The venience provides

p is resistivity

of the geometry the which

semiconductor. has been chosen conformity for per for conand with

hemispherical in deriving a result The

of thermoelectric RF power.

responsivity is in reasonable which

of the is derived in volts

device,

experiment. open circuit

expression

7, the
watt is,

power from ation been

is a constant a constant is positive observed Laboratories, 8. the field

for according

low

power to (41). for

levels, This

but

deviates The devihas in in

voltage

responsivity

as larger experimentally 1 and

powers

are absorbed. in devices

behavior constructed device

=*[++ln%l[+08-7*:ro31

38)

-hpFig.

is shown

a typical

= TO(1 + @
where

(39)

Qualitatively, high electric

operation at of

of the

the small

TED

is simple; causes more contact

strength heating tend

contact These the

(40) =z%[:+]n%

localized energetic into positive. The electric carriers. the

electrical electrons silicon, frequency

electrons. away from thereby

to move

the bulk upper

the small limit by will the

contact of operation

becoming thermofor hot to fre-

=08[$z:roJ
~E = energy
70 = small ~ = carrier

(41)

of the time

relaxation

time

for h

(hot)>

carriers

detector Generally

is set signal about seconds. detector

the the begin

relaxation response to decrease of in the practical the

contact raclius concentration of electronic mobility mobility microwave charge. voltage

speaking,

of carriers as the momentum of silicon, purposes,

semiconductor in conduction band

microwave time,

N,=

density

states coefficient

quency relaxation with

approaches

reciprocal 1000 GHz for

of semiconductor @= nonlinear po = low field

case

TP=10*3

Thus, when

the de-

in semiconductor power

thermoelectric tector has

used

as a microwave limit.

PRY = absorbed
q = electronic The open circuit

virtually

no upper

frequency

developed

for

unit

absorbed

Alto,

1 This data Calif.

was kindly

furnished

by L. Wright

of -hp- Labs.,

Palo

598

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON MICROWAVE

THEORY AND

TECHNIQUES

DECEMBER

Noise ple: whose corner result The sistor ance may given also the

considerations device has the value is Rv, the verified

for video zero,

the

TED

are

also of

very the noise.

sim(noise This re-

noise

properties

a resistor

resistance. i.e., there laboratories. appears its

Thus, is no l/~

is essentially has been thermoelectric to the microwave to its

in our detector circuit; The by

as a simple

microwave i.e., the the of the geometry; contact

impedspreading device for yields y a given the

FL -wA-

is equal

video only

impedance, changing

resistance

of the

contact.

impedance a smaller Voltage smaller and the the at

p/rO.

be controlled resistivity with increases If

semiconductor, higher as the contact resistance. contact radius both practical and the

a device

sensitivity for

is made is limit that to resistance resistance to is the

resistivity. resistivity There desires sistance mission (37) n, the we is an for that line.

fixed,

increasing sensitivity. resistance maximum some value,

increases upper

one retransby
p Fig. 9. The

a detector, can If we fixed the can small as fix the

be matched quantity

microwave Resistivity to carrier for the the small

space-charge-limited tion and electronic

P
CB, ,. / ,., V B.

/zz/-BlAS APPLIED

diode band

(SCLD); diagrams.

device

configura-

have (40)

is range the of 50 to device 100 kfl. The thermal noise voltage from

approximately so from For sensitivity as has to I/roz.

inversely a desired

proportional sensitivity of resistance by value

density device, contact contact units formed technique by by conshock, from to fabrihere is in techand NEP dBm, lent to solving from the for (2). NEP. dBm. detector, statements (13), the device dB, for Table for for For the to NEP device (31), in question sensitivity notice that = (NEP)
ancf

voltage

is proportional making

is simply VN = ~ 4hTRv one noise the = hertz, or about power 4X

be maximized possible. in

(42)
10-9 NEP

radius size using heating has tacts, and unit cate the nology diameter. Let practical the

Extremely some

been

obtained contact,

commercial plated it. and This with

for volts can

a video for

bandwidth

of The writing ~o(NEP)

a point or usual primarily lack to unit.

presumably current through

R.=

10000.
by

equivalent equation T)N

passing lack Planar

be obtained

disadvantages

associated

point

(43) we find is 58.5 for the the

of resistance in performance techniques detectors; It can the contacts

to mechanical parameters also limiting with a few be used factor present

of uniformity

= 62.5

Tangential

thermoelectric size of the to make

Referring

contact. planar

is practical

thermoelectric

o; this

is equiva-

microns

f,v=O
for the upper

f.-+ co.Applying
limit has with a dynamic p=O.2 a dynamic in summary L?-cm range

criterion us make some estimates detector. of the sensitivity silicon, of a we can This thermoelectric ~m2 For we have

equation calculate particular 53.5

thermoelectric

detector, as 5 dBm. range A similar and of form

square-law

therefore a 1 Hz video

of about

bandwidth. and

,8=5 X1

O-8-) Voltz NC ~

PO = 1350 cm2/volt-see,

calculation 54.5 dB. data

a 100 Q device TSS the = 50 dBm this detectors. other I contains

VO= 2.5 ~ yields \l,ith

data

3 X 1019 cms.
of sensitivity Let to of us the say to From 7.-7 range point and Al. previously 100 fix 1000 a carrier (40) This we is disvideo Q !J

On video

the

basis we resistance of

of

measurements ~~c=10-13 a point point-contact at

E.

The Space-Charge-Limited
The space-charge-limited equivalent diode and will the in SCLD, power For

Dielectric
dielectric of the

Diode
diode (SCLD) is

devices resistance A practical (37) find indeed cussed, Al. have diodes, ~.

estimate a biased that about voltage compared have

seconds. comparable diode,

the the

solid-state thermionic and

space-charge-limited limited known, here. A and flow the

(SCL) analysis for the mental

[20]. Prim be rise

Space-charge is well [21] considered transport to the in with e.g., the is most

contact of

radius

is 0.1 mil

or 2.5 microns.

From

in insulators device

semiconductors

we find for the low, which

p = 1 a-cm,

corresponding

of Shockley as it difference in the diode.

appropriate fundamechanism component correspondSCL ther

density

6 X 1015 electrons/cm3. responsivitity to the To =floRv detectors to hot in the using carrier high video detectors

current as compared component

in semiconductors of current ing mionic thermal three-halves

gives

to a square-law

of 500 to 3000 contacts point-contact in the can

Thermoelectric comparable but have

a semiconductor of carriers,

a nonnegligible electrons, the

extremely

resistance,

concentration

1966

COWLEY AND

SORENSEN: COMPARISON

OF SOLID-STATE

DETECTORS

599

lo3rrr3
SPACECHARGE LIMITED OIOOE I I

03pI-T--7]
102

Y - (MEASUREDURRENT) C (EXTRAPOLATE OHMIC CURRENT) ~

J JO

10: : -:

/ EXACT APPROX I

10.

!iiul i
2 i
Fig. 11. SCLD

10

IO

BIAS (vOLTS) i-zJ characteristic.

Ii -

triangles polated Iiz I(iz Ii 10? L 10 square-law Nonlinear dict

Fig. 10. Exact analysis equation of Schocldey and (44) in normalized Prim, and form. approximate

are points linear

generated from

by data

subtracting points,

the leaving

extrathe

current

component. mobility and device. considerations terms the If

J.%? =

in in

the the

SCLD i-v [23]

pre-

third-

fourth-order

ch arac-

teristic

of the

we use
MO(I

relation

/3.E2)
mobility with

(45) electric

to exact analysis of be transit to current obtained time calculate in Fig. the the the flow in is complicated, parametric If voltage form, one function but can with naively of the [22], nevertheless electron proceeded the SCL one device current would

describe we

the obtain
J =

behavior

of

the

field,

T as a parameter.
current simply 9 by low-level

klV + k2V2 + k3V3 -1- k~V4

two terms are in (44), and

(46]

where

the

first

shown upon obtain

superimposing current

(ohmic)

equation

(47)

(44)
where the n is the carrier semiconductor e the carrier dielectric concentration, constant, In Fig. the V ~, the These factor tuting For are approximate than two, relations, and and obtained accurate by simply within su~bstia

mobility, and of

of less (45) n-type

applied exact mate the tion current

voltage, analysis form (44)

J the current
and in The compared good. function introduces Referring voltages at current higher higher

density. Prim and

10 the

for pe in (44) silicon, and for in [25] be to the the

approximating @ is

E by
about thick, to from thermal of the we be [24],

V/W.
have space[25]. noise dewice. at this For

Shockley

approxiform. form The for

coefficient

5 X 10-8

are

normalized approximate considerable again the to (ohmic voltages, (fewer the

cm2/volt2

a device devices

10 microns is expected thermionic that less the than the

agreement voltage into approximation,

is indeed current and the that prevails, analysis. for low while (SCL) with linear region

@/ Tv=o.o5
The charge noise Ziel should

volt. SCL as in the suggests much dynamic diode noise

is an adequate

engineering simplificaFig. or the 10, we linear spaceFor free of SCL experiin the the a car-

suppressed, der

Van device

an SCL

observe

appropriate Unfortunately, time lack either of such that made

resistance data existing we shall

charge-limited semiconductor riers), current mental authors the occurs data

begins resistivity

to dominate. onset

no experimental to verify the by noise or contradict data, in and the experimental

is available theories.

is smaller, voltage.

and Fig. are

conservatively to thermal has also

at a lower from the

11 shows fabricated data

assume noise been

device This

is equal assumption [26].

a typical

SCLD circles

at ambient

temperature. Webb

laboratories:

points,

Wright

600 For device, low from frequencies, (8) and the (46), is

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON MICROWAVE

THEORY AND

TECHNIQUES

DECEMBER

current

responsivity

of

the

remains frequency been rent cally for

relatively value, by a fixed

constant varying Wright up microwave at least

at

about

one

half 0.

its It

lowhas cur-

periodically [28] input that voltage It the

with remains would

predicted constant, that for large this

detected

(49)

practitherefore

to ON27r.

where For rent

we a device

have with

neglected perfect would

terms

containing response,

ks and
the

kd.
cur-

appear detector tremely microwave

device and

could

be useful

as a broadband Its useful exin

square-law be

UHF

microwave range would

frequencies. make it

responsivity

dynamic power

measuring response

instrumentation, is desired over a

where wide

/30(perf

sq. law)

--+

(50)

accurate range.

square-law

The

dynamic

video

resistance 1

is 1 (51) A several cost where 1.25X Using we 103 (49), have cmz, Q-cm (52), volt-, The and most quantitative detectors burnout, important

IV.

SUMMARY between if equal which threshold response. for comparing viewpoint, method over are frequency method bandwidth This other or not are two, or among e.g.,

comparison is appropriate are either

v where again Let thickness n-type (53), and

F)

(k, + k,V)A
area, with to 0.5 and area from volt.

factors,

important. amenable sensitivity, ITre viz. have the for RF a to

A is the
neglected us

cross-sectional

properties

ks and
microns, and (8)

kd.
fabricated 10000

quantitative square-law obtained from NEP detailed and video a

comparison range, narrow and video plot

consider 10

a device biased and

a convenient

devices

silicon, and AE37 finally

(49),

we obtain

6,@l.O

contour

method. spectrum.

is useful the entire

PRF. Considering
equilibrium circuit
(13), sensitivity is 72.5 500 ohms. I. dB, The with

thermal earlier,
dBm. Iaw

to of Fig.
we

the device as a resistor at calculate noise, as discussed Rv, and

(NEP)o to dBm, be

quantitative frequency

comparison

we can use (51)

Using

to calculate
2, we find ~RF(USL) is 78.5 video

using
6 from this

the

The

effectiveness in bias in order RF values of the NEP the examined Fig. current

of comparison 12. Here in By hot we

by show

NEP the and

contours results

is

equivalent
Tangential range

to be and

82.5 dBm. square(51), device ,p are been

emphasized creasing diodes 50 ohm those contour ary shape The has NEP no

of in-

find TSS The

carrier

point-contact match contours of bias change to a with on the boundin ~.~ the cc,

to obtain in Figs. and ATotice

a better comparing 4 and

broadband these effects the

resistance, data area the but for

source.

is about and shown The developed mental vices. for

calculated the same for [27], theory,

5, the

a device in Table RF

W~25 has

on the shape boundary. detector, as such,

of the preference

are obvious.

in particular since The

equivalent by Shao and for the

circuit Wright their

SCLD present CdS

preference contours

who using circuit

experiSCL de-

thermoelectric

jN = O and surface is simply with other we

verification They obtain and resistance

describing a plane The therdevices show in deresisat by

equivalent

as a parallel the device video and has resus-

for

thermoelectric to NEP can plane,

detector = (NEP) be compared and as an diode. because small cutoff is superior

conductance no series sistance ceptance

capacitive as such. low

susceptance; In terms of

corresponding moelectric on Fig. hot vice tance, high the (f,

O= constant.

the

detector fRF) and very hence

Rv,
can

the

frequency

conductance

example This of in

be written (52)

12 a 100 Q thermoelectric carrier has radio of its I range range we the are poor at hot or PCD and point-contact low sensitivity has a very It high

detector

compared particular its this low

to the

preference frequency. of out We (NEP) of the have

region region

frequencies. extremely shows for the typical in for see the expense and the that most

(53)

virtue Table namic classes dynamic In

comparison devices this paper. where increased sensitive, point-contact range. the increase case

o and six and

dy-

where electron

O =uT transit

is the
time signal.

transit and relation The transit

angle co the time

of the radian can

device; frequency be obtained

T is the
of the con-

device

considered

calculated
fV>>fN.

microwave veniently

fRF<<f.

from

the

general, devices

dynamic sensitivity; i.e., tunnel diodes,

range the and but of range There ceases back

is bar-

T ~
where For the Shao ductance is steadily stant value C is the device and geometrical considered Wright find somewhat, roughly

3RvC
capacitance above, that and we when that find of d >0, the

(54)
device. ns. the con-

gained rier diodes, relatively HCD

of threshold

carrier

have the is is a to video

T~2

dynamic

Dynamic by biasing in

range to lower

can be improved although by

decreases increasing,

the susceptance it were a con-

resistances, accompanied point beyond

dynamic

as though

a degradation biasing the

in sensitivity. PCD or HCD

capacitance.

Above

O = 27r, the

conductance

which

1966

COWLEY

AND

SORENSEN: COMPARISON

OF SOLID-STATE

DETECTORS

601

}Rv=jgOQ~-----

----:!~

-Miwd==lo l----------t----------#
., ,., ,,,

barrier region; ment in

(hot this l/f

carrier) superiority noise

diode

in the

low

video to the

frequency improveits clisad-

is due in

entirely Fig. 3. the

shown

Despite ability mini will for

vantages,

however, diode due to in the at least

it is clear

that

of the point meter assure years been diode wave its to

contact

to operate its small microwave until Schottky to planar

~~ell into diode

the field

%# %----i

---------

(GHI)

region, existence come, stantially The

capacitance,

some

techniques or hot of are

have carrier

subis a

improved. planar barrier the field units newcomer microwave presently obey extremely and analyzed, at will this ideal detection available: Schc,ttky low theorckical and time circuits rather that the and indicate this time, Chief barrier replace I/f

~-&__
100000

relative and these

fy (kHz) + Fig. contours and preference regions for hot carrier and point-contact diode biased to 50 ohms. Also included is a thermoelectric detector with R,= 100 ohms.

mixing. have

Commercial a high degree

of uniformity, and uniformity readily certain diode in be designed have

12.

NEP

theory noise. using than planar the mixing that

almost Because these empirical Schottky point-contact

perfectly, of their they are can It barrier diode indeed, carrier frequencies for the

performance,
improve in to the dynamic diode; it range, is obviously due to series resistance to bias the effects device

devices y.

theoretically eventually detection [29] at their reports

impossible

seems

a video

resistance

Rv less than
noise due region, to an

R,. Also,
a further increase

at video decrease of I/f

frein noise

quencies sensitivity with bias.

in

the

1/~

microwave recent

is suffered

applications; practical factor hot for

diodes planar technology

can, devices

even is

Dynamic the other

range devices. sensitivity The

is larger This

for device

the

5010 fl SCLD has somewhat

than

for

be fabricated limiting capacitance; this problem advantages readily niques,

in the

SO GHz

range.

poorer devices, for this

threshold however. device toring

than dynamic potential

the

barrier-type predicted in

as planar is of sure the to have when

is further C)ther are that

developed, practical they are tech-

larger its

range usefulness

to planar

be

overcome. devices

suggests

power-moni-

instrumentation. V. DISCUSSION of solid-state paper. paper, frequency the AND CONCLUSIONS detectors and present have dynamic some gen-

adaptible and the can point-contact diodes, better They are,

low-inductance better diodes. biased sensitivity speaking, which results range the sharp near burnout

packaging

characteristics the peak any current, other limited an extremely is, genof noise Schottky the deby

than provide vice. junction narrow erally device

Six been were range. eral

classes compared sensitivity, To

microwave The criteria response, we now

Tunnel

in this

for comparison

threshold generally Dynamic due to

than

severely from of these

conclude

capacitance, junction. poor, near but also, its

observations point-contact over other

regarding diode detectors, from

each has,

of the six device as its chief

classes. adarea

devices

The vantage

technical low

nonlinearity

an extremely the Other use and the advantages and

junction include in back a the

peak to

current. be to those

Low-frequency than for of the planar

charbar-

capacitance, point-contact long field almost ductor one history

resulting geometry. of successful

small-junction

acteristics diodes, rier and Back cept

appear inferior back diodes,

better

point-contact

development extending of

diodes. identical are during they Since have with to video as for to usually tunnel diodes in their they In condo this

of microwave thirty

detection From the inherent fact by

mixing, stancipoint

years.

semiconconcept chief is one

of operation, require bias

designed

so that

technology, which these not has

point-contact disadvantages. that fabrication methods,

diode The many

not mode hot low,

operation have to good the the hot series no that l/f

as detectors. noise, and can

of operation, carrier the device, diodes, devices a high along barrier

current and be made response that offer in the

among are in with still

is the well

of these

devices of which are, their of

responsivity

comparable

of

point-contact

is accomplished principle, Schottky The

empirical barrier

resistance high-frequency It carrier and diode, stemming offers millimeter complete of I/f would

understood. almost theory,

Point-contact devices; show to noise problem detectors certain of the device that mostly never good the

diodes however, method

Schottky

despite this area bility tremely The sensitivity Its serious

capacitance.

appear will diode

i-rJ characteristics fabrication. present tion of the

agreement

diode, mixing. from promise

due

competition

point-contact

low-frequency severe as video is almost

characteristics where the I/f the operamixers noise rein

of microwave to accidental low

detection the tunnel

A possiiti of absence exhigh of

a particularly devices it lack of

ble disadvantage,

is its suscepti-

or Doppler

burnout, resistance. detector detection are and at absence

is concerned; sults and the 4 and from lack

zero-bias video

of stability over technique. shows

semiconductor properties of a planar reference

surface inherent Schottky to Figs.

thermoelectric advantages

control

wavelengths. noise. A serious

manufacturing 5 clearly

Indeed,

inherent

almost

the superiority

a cutoff

frequency,

602

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON MICROWAVE

THEORY AND

TECHNIQUES

disadvantage is the fact that high sensitivity in these devices is always obtained at the expense of extremely typically in the range of high video and RF resistance,
100 kfl. in the This RF poor implies circuit, inherently and poor in the narrow-band pulse video by fidelity, frequency nonlinear by burnout operation or equivacircuit. mobility and of

Proc. IRE (Correspondence), vol. 49, pp. 12261227, July 1961. Noise in silicon microwave diodes, Proc. IEE [5] G. R. Nicoll, (London), vol. 101, pt. 3, pp. 317-324, September 1964. Jr., Characterization of crystal diodes for low-level [6] A. Uhlir, ~~~wave detection, Microwave J., vol. 6, pp. 59-67, July

.,
[7]
[8] [9] [10]

.,.

lently,

bandwidth range is also studies

Square-law effects. Zucker these The the little paper.

limited reported the

Burnout [19] devices

Harrison resistance

indicate is superior diodes.

that

to that

of conventional diode received

silicon is probably in this [12] or been [13] relatively

point-contact least It

space-charge-limited familiar is also of in the From the six a device

dielectric devices has either work by has the which

[11]

discussed experimentally which work

attention

literature, the recent

theoretically. done, it

has

as particularly seem that and paper, of

exemplified the device

of Wright, as a microprehave (e.g., large experimore Due anticiburnout

[19] [18] [16] [17] [15]

would

promise the the

[14]

wave sented the range of the mental than to its

detector in this

mixer.

From that

calculations device impedance to a very since no can

it is seen convenient operation.

advantages of square-law device data a few is has times

video in addition The question for of the

500 Q), moderate

sensitivity, perhaps been the in

frequency frequencies transit it

response

reported

reciprocal

time,

large-area that this

planar device will

construction, have extremely

is also high

pated

[20] [21]

resistance. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would for like to express that their this appreciation be underduring Hall, and J. are
[25] [22] [23] [24]

to S. Krakauer taken, its and for

suggesting

work

numerous

stimulating with were W. also

discussions Grove, very R. D.

course. and

Discussions J. L. Mo1l

Lepoff, gratefully

helpful,

acknowledged.
[26]

REFERENCES [1] G. U. Sorger and B. O. Weinschel,. Comparison of deviations from square-law for RF crystal diodes and barrettes, IRE Tram. on lrsskw-nentatiors, vol I-8, pp. 1031 11, December 1959. vol. 15, [2] H. C. Torrey and C. A. Whitmer, Crystal Rect@rs.
M.I.T. Rad. Laboratory Ser. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948. [3] K. Ishii and A. L. Brault, Noise output and noise figure of biased millimeter-wave detector diodes, IRE Tmns. on MicroY;KZ Theory and Techniques, vol. MTT-10, pp. 258-262, July [27]

[28]

[29]

[4] B. G. Bosch et al., Excess

noise in microwave

mixer

crystals,

A. Van der Ziel and A. G. T. Becking Theory of junction diode and junction transistor noise, Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 589594, M arch 1958. H, 0. Sorensen, Using the hot carrier diode as a detector, ffezvlett-Packa~d J., vol. 17, PD. 2-5, December 1965. L. Esaki, New phenomenon in narrow germanium p-n junctions, Phys. Rev., vol. 109, pp. 603604, 1958. Tunnel diodes as millimeter P. E. Chase and K. K.. N. Chang, wave detectors and mixers, IRE Tram. on Microwave Theory and Techniques (Correspondence), vol. MTT-11, pp. 560561, November 1963. M. D. Montgomery, The tunnel diode as a highly sensitive microwave detector, Proc. IRE (Correspondence), vol. 49, pp. 826-827, April 1961. C. A. Burru~, Jr., Backward diodes for low-level millimeterwave detection, IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techrz@es, vol. MTT-11, pp. 357362, September 1963. T. P. Brody and P. H. Boyer, Evaluation of Esaki integrals and approximation of tunnel diode characteristics, Solid-State Electronics, vol. 2, pp. 209-215, May 1961. C. W. Bates, Tunnelinsz currents in Esaki diodes, . Phvs. Reo.. , . . vol. 121, p. 1071, 1961. S. T. Eng, Low-noise properties of microwave backward diodes, IRE Trans. On Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. MTT-9, pp. 419-425, September 1961. R. B. Mouw and F. M. Schumacher, Tunnel diode detectors, Microwave J., vol. 9, pp. 2736, January 1966. T. Yajima and L. Esaki, Excess noise in narrow germanium p-n junctions, J. Phys. Sot. (Japan), vol. 13, pp. 1281-1287, November 1958. W. C. Follmer, Low-frequency noise in backward diodes, Proc. IRE (Correspondence), vol. 49, pp. 19391940, December 1961. R. I. Harrison and J. Zucker, Hot-carrier microwave detector, Proc. IEEE, vol. 54, pp. 588-595, April 1966. G. T. Wright, Mechanisms of space-charge-limited current in solids, Solid-State Electronics, vol. 2, pp. 1651 89, 1961. W. Shockley and R. C. Prim, Space-charge limited emission in semiconductors, P@Is. Rev., vol. 90, pp. 753758, June 1, 1953. M. A. Lampert, Injection currents in insulators, Proc. IRE, VO1. 50, pp. 17811796, August 1962. M. A. C. S. Brown, Deviations from Ohms law in germanium and silicon, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, vol. 19, pp. 218227, May 1961. V. Sergiescu, Space-charge reduction of shot noise for spacecharge-limited current in solids, Brd. J. A@@l. Phys., vol. 16, pp. 14351447, October 1965. A. Van der Ziel, Low frequency noise suppression in spacecharge-limited solid-state diodes, Solid-State Electronics, vol. 9, pp. 123-127, February 1966. P. W. Webb and T. T. Wright, Dielectric triode: A low-noise solid-state amplifier, J. Brd. IRE, vol. 23, pp. 11 11 13, February 1962. J. Shao and G. T. Wright, Characteristics of the space-charge limited diode at very high frequencies, Solid-State Electronics, vol. 3, pp. 291303, November/December 1961. G. T. Wright, Transit time effects in the space-charge-limited Electronics, vol. 9, pp. silicon microwave diode, Sohd-State 16, January 1966. D. T. Young and J. C. Irvin, Millimeter frequency conversion using Au-n-type GaAs Schottky barrier epitaxial diodes with a novel contacting technique, Proc. IEEE (Correspondence), vol. 53, pp. 2130-2131, December 1965.