The Cold War

Ideological Struggles in the Nuclear Age Religion is regarded by the common people as true, by the wise as false, and by the rulers as useful. - Seneca (Roman philosopher) Religion is the opiate of the masses. - Karl Marx Stalins Cult of Personality The Cold War Cold War was the conflict between the Communist nations, led by the Soviet Union, and the democratic nations, led by the United States. It was fought by all means - propaganda, economic war, diplomatic haggling, and occasional military clashes (ie. proxy war). It was fought in all places - in neutral states, in newly independent nations in Africa, Asia, and even in outer space. After the Second World War, the Soviets literally dismantled whole factories in Germany and brought them back, piece-by-piece, to the Soviet Union. Stalin began rewriting history to exaggerate the accomplishments of the Soviet Union (previously a nation of farmers and peasants). Berlin became a lynchpin for the Cold War - everything would come apart if it is attacked. Causes of the Cold War There were deep-rooted ideological, economic, and political differences between the United States and the Soviet Union before the Second World War. The 3 worlds: 1st World - industrialized nations 2nd World - Communist nations, no hard currency, not based on a market economy (state controlled and owned) 3rd World - non-industrialized nations, poor infrastructure Modern: Developed, Developing, Undeveloped/Underdeveloped, Not Developed Communist nations did not have a hard currency - money that is universally accepted, able to be exchanged for other currencies around the world (as opposed to soft currency, which cannot be traded) These differences were intensified as a result of their mutual suspicions immediately after the Second World War Underlying Causes Ideological: The American system of government is based on democracy.

The people choose their leaders from among their ranks. These people are meant to represent the needs and desires of the population in the government. The American system was born out of revolution. They did not want to be ruled by an unelected autocratic dictatorship. The Soviet Union was also born out of revolution. They too despised the rule of the monarchy (the ruler is called a Tsar or Czar). The system is called communism (but it was actually based on a version of the political theory developed by Karl Marx, Marxism-Leninism) To get away from the privileges of the ruling class, communism espoused a philosophy of no private property. The Communists wanted to create a utopian workers paradise where ones labour was valued. The thought of no private ownership went against the very basis of the American philosophy. In the USA, any person could work their way up to become rich. This presented a form of economic freedom that did not coincide with the Communist philosophy. This is at the root of the ideological fight between the two nations.

Economic: The economic differences created great rivalry between the two nations. The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout the world. They had seen how the economic devastation of Germany after World War II had led to the Great Depression. The Marshall Plan was an attempt to avoid a similar fate for Europe. The Soviet Union wanted to shield off her own sphere from international commerce. Russia feared that trade with the west would involve the risk of Russia being opened to Western influences, which would have eroded the strength of the totalitarian regime. These differences led to much ill feeling between the United States and the Soviet Union. The power struggle that erupted in Europe helped intensify the Cold War. The two new superpowers each worked hard to gain dominance in Europe. The USSR had acquired several Satellite States around her border. These states became a buffer zone for the USSR. To compensate the USSR for the heavy losses they suffered during the war, the Allied powers allowed the Soviets to create a buffer zone along their border. These occupied countries would be under the control of the USSR. The Soviets allowed them to maintain their nationhood status but installed puppet regimes to support the Soviet Union in all global affairs.

 Behind the Iron Curtain = in the Soviet sphere of influence The Iron Curtain Winston Churchill is on a speaking tour in the USA. While speaking at the university in Fulton Missouri he makes the following statement: From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow The Eastern Bloc would now be forever known as the Iron Curtain. Life behind the Iron Curtain was oppressive and fearful. Berlin becomes a divided city. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cggRzZ_N30M Summary of the Berlin Airlift and Rise of the Berlin Wall Germany was divided up into 4 sectors so that it could never start another war again: French, British, American, and Soviet Union. The French, British, and American sectors merge to form West Germany, while the Soviet sector becomes known as East Germany (DDR - German Democratic Republic). Berlin, although deep in Soviet territory, is also divided up; the only way to get from West to East and vice versa was by designated land routes or by airplanes. Life in West Berlin is better, so many people try to escape from East Berlin. The Soviets tighten border crossings and put up barb wire in order to discourage people from escaping. When this does not prove to be enough, they build a wall (Berlin Wall) to divide East Berlin from West Berlin (the Iron Curtain). West Berlin needs goods from the outside in order to survive. The Soviets block the border between West and East Germany in the hopes of starving the city into submission. However,

the Allies can still deliver food and supplies using airplanes: the United States create a massive airlift to constantly supply Berlin. The Soviets do not dare to shoot down the planes because it would mean war. In the end, the Soviets surrender and remove the blockade. Spandau Prison in West Germany - the West wants to release the final Nazi, but the Soviet Union objects because the rotation of guards means that they have a chance to plant a spy The Cold War in Canada

Following the end of the Second World War, there was a general sense of optimism. On the evening of September 5th, 1945, Igor Gouzenko, a cipher clerk (one who decodes secret messages) for the military attach, Colonel Nikolai Zabotin of the Soviet embassy in Ottawa, left the embassy carrying a number of secret documents. went to press, RCMP, and Minister of Justice, but no one believed him KGB: Soviet secret police, good at making people disappear Gouzenko tried to give the documents to the Ottawa Journal and to the Minister of Justice, Louis St. Laurent, but both turned him away. Frustrated and fearful, he returned to his Somerset Street apartment on the evening of September 6th with his wife and child and appealed to his neighbours for help. The Gouzenko Affair

One of them alerted the Ottawa City Police while another took the Gouzenko family in for the night. Meanwhile, the officials from the Soviet embassy forced their way into Gouzenkos apartment. When Ottawa City Police arrived on the scene, there was an angry exchange and the Soviets left without their cipher clerk or the stolen documents. On the advice of the Undersecretary of State for External Affairs, Norman Robertson, Gouzenko was taken by the city police to RCMP headquarters on the morning of September 7th for questioning. Once there, he officially defected. With him, he had over 100 secret documents stolen from the Soviet embassy. These documents revealed an intricate network of spying that shook the Canadian political scene. In the documents, it was revealed that the Soviets - a wartime ally and supposed friend - had an extensive network of spies in all walks of Canadian political and economic life. The Soviets had infiltrated Canadian Parliament, labour unions, and the civil service. This was considered the start of the Cold War. Igor Gouzenko was moved to Camp X with his family. He would appear in public on talk shows but always hidden by a hood - see picture on right.

Fallout from the Defection Gouzenkos defection ushered in the modern era of Canadian security intelligence. The evidence provided by Gouzenko led to the arrest of 39 suspects. A total of 18 were eventually convicted of a variety of offences. Among those convicted were Fred Rose, the only Communist Member of Parliament in the Canadian House of Commons; Sam Carr, the Communist Partys national organizer; and scientist Raymond Boyer. The Gouzenko Affair not only exposed Canada to the threat of Soviet infiltration, but also showed that the spy networks were active in other countries.

Espionage The world was forever changed. Gouzenko provided many vital leads which assisted greatly with ongoing espionage investigations in Britain and North America. His testimony is believed to have been vital in the successful prosecution of Klaus Fuchs, the German communist physicist who emigrated to Britain and who later stole atomic secrets for the Soviets. Fuchs spent some time at the Chalk River Laboratories, northwest of Ottawa, where atomic research had been underway since the early 1940s. It is also likely that his information helped in the investigation of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in the United States. Gouzenko, being a cipher clerk by profession, likely also assisted with the Venona investigation, which probed Soviet codes and which eventually led to the

discovery of vital Soviet spies such as Donald Maclean, Guy Burgess, Kim Philby, Anthony Blunt, and John Cairn Cross (the so-called Cambridge Five), as well as Alan Nunn May. MI6 - British spy agency - top 5 in MI6 were Russian spies (moles) recruited out of Cambridge drop boxes: places where spies would hide information poisoned umbrella Proxy Wars in the Cold War The two superpowers were constantly aware of the dangers of direct confrontation. Term 2 Project The Cold War was marked by the five themes of the Cold War: Espionage, Propaganda, Proxy Wars, Space Race/Arms Race, Economic Influence. People in the time of the Cold War lived in constant fear. The nuclear age was still unknown. We didnt know the extent of nuclear power. We thought that nuclear energy would mutate people and things. The Term 2 Project will reflect one of the fears of life during the Cold War. These fears include: fear of nuclear energy, fear of Communism, fear of espionage, fear of the unknown.

The Korean War: The Cold War Heats Up

Background 1949: Mao Zedong and his communist forces take over China Chiang Kai Chek flees to Taiwan with the remnants of his Nationalist forces Mao is supported by the Soviet Union The western world refuses to recognize communist China The United Nations The delegate from the Soviet Union is Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev had a habit of banging his shoe to emphasize a point. He was famous for threatening to bury the west. The USSR is angry at the United Nations. Khrushchev is angry that the UN refuses to recognize mainland China as the legitimate government. In protest, he storms out of the United Nations. With the USSR go all of the Warsaw Pact countries. Khrushchev takes with him the veto. The Veto In order to make the UN function, it was imperative that all nations join. The only way that the Soviet Union would join was if they were given a veto.

The veto would nullify ANY formal UN vote. This veto was given to the major countries. The USA, the USSR, Britain, and France were all given a veto. The Abuse of the Veto

The North Attacks It was a fluke of history that led the North Korean dictator Kim Il Sung to choose that moment to reunite Korea. North Korea forces flood into the South on June 25th, 1950. Initially, the Communist army advanced against increasing resistance as it forced the UN defenders into the Pusan perimeter in the most southeastern part of South Korea. Syngman Rhee Syngman Rhee is the leader of the ROK - Republic of Korea. He was born in the north, but moved to the south upon his return to Korea. After the Japanese defeat in World War II, General Douglas MacArthur asked Chinese strongman Chiang Kai-shek who could best lead Korea and he recommended Syngman Rhee. Rhee at the age of 71 returned to Korea aboard General MacArthurs personal plane and became the temporary President of Korea until being formally elected the President of the Republic of Korea in 1948. In his early years as President of the ROK, Rhee worked hard to suppress any political challengers to his rule in the guise of clamping down on communist sympathizers. At the same time, Rhee continued to advocate for the reunification of the nation, by force if necessary. Realizing Rhees ambitions to reunite the peninsula by force if necessary caused the US military to not field the Korean military with weapons that would give them a military edge over the North Koreans because of the fear Rhee would launch an offensive campaign against the North. The United States had just come out of a bloody World War II battle and was not about to fight a major war in Asia to reunite Korea. Ironically, the US militarys policies would actually help lead them to the war that they tried to prevent because not fielding the South Korean military with better weapons actually

caused the North Koreans to have too much of a military edge over the south that they quickly took advantage of and invaded the South in 1950. During the Korean War, Rhee would become an annoyance to the UN forces because of his rhetoric advocating for renewed offensive operations to reclaim North Korean lands after the entry of the Chinese into the Korean War. No veto for you!

There is an emergency session of the UN Security Council. The vote is overwhelmingly in favour of invading on the side of the South. With the absence of the USSR and their veto, there is no one strong enough to stop the vote. The United Nations Invades

President Harry S. Truman puts General Douglas MacArthur in charge of the UN forces. MacArthur plans a brilliant but very dangerous invasion. He lands the UN forces in the bay of Incheon; this bay experiences strong tides. The Invasion

The landing succeeds: MacArthur manages to cut the North Korean army off from its supply route; the fighting intensifies. Many soldiers who are trapped in the South change sides. MacArthur drives the North back over the 38th parallel. MacArthur makes a very momentous decision: he wants to continue the drive right into China. The Third World War

MacArthur suggests that the use of nuclear weapons would allow the USA to get rid of the communist threat in China. Truman is in a difficult position: MacArthur is advocating the start of a new world war. China threatens the west. The Yalu River

The Chinese warned the United Nations not to come too close to China. MacArthurs forces approach the Yalu River. This is the river that separates China and the Korean peninsula. China Enters the War

The Chinese see the proximity of the UN forces as a threat. The Chinese Premier, Zhou Enlai, orders the invasion three months after the war began. With the addition of thousands of forces of the Peoples Liberation Army, the war becomes more brutal. The war is now destined to last longer.

Canada Decides The UN Security Council votes to intervene. On June 28th, the Minister of External Affairs - Lester Pearson - argued for the intervention. In December, 1950, the first Canadian troops land on the Korean peninsula. They are the PPCLI (Princess Patricia Canadian Light Infantry aka Princess Pats) Hill 677 In a valley north of Seoul, there are 3 strategic hills. The Canadians are on Hill 677. These are designations from old Japanese maps. Thousands of Chinese troops pour into the valley.

Movie: Test of Will - Canada in Korea The Canadian contribution to the Korean War was great. Over 26 000 Canadians served in the war. Another 7 000 remained to help in the aftermath of the war. The Korean War ended much as it had begun. The dividing line remained at the 38th parallel. Korea Today Officially the Korean War is not over. There would continue to be incidents between the two Koreas. In the 60s - the USS Pueblo Incident In 1976, two US soldiers were hacked to death by North Korean soldiers in the DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) Many other incidents

The Suez Crisis: More Trouble in the Cold War

Background The Suez Canal is a vital transportation route from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. This link was of extreme importance to both France and England. Both countries had colonial interests in Asia. The canal is in Egyptian territory. History of the Canal The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, having been financed by France and the Egyptian government.

In 1875, the British government bought out the Egyptian share, giving it partial control over the canal. In 1882, during foreign intervention in Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the canal. The importance of the canal became apparent during the two World Wars. In 1952, officers in the Egyptian Army overthrew the monarchy under King Farouk. Abandoning policies cooperative with European powers, the new government asserted an independent and Arab nationalist identity. Conflict develops between Egypt and the West over the canal. The new state of Israel causes anger in the Arabic world. Egypt disrupts traffic destined for Israel. Throughout 1956, tensions increased between Israel and Egypt, with Egyptian fedayeen launching frequent incursions into Israeli territory and Israel launching retaliatory raids into Egyptian territory. Tensions Build Importance of the Canal

On July 26th, 1956, Egypt, under the leadership of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, announced the nationalization of the canal. England and France are worried that they will lose access to the canal (even though Nasser had said nothing of that nature). This would have forced them to take the longer route to the east (see picture on right). Meanwhile

Egypt was planning to build the Aswan High Dam on the River Nile. This would provide an important source of power for the developing nation. It was dependent upon American investment. The USA was also in the middle of an election. Diplomatic Solution?

Britain and France conspire to retake the canal. They recruit Israel in their plan. The day after the nationalization of the canal, the British Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, forms a committee to plan how to retake the canal. August: a conference of nations meets to discuss a solution. Diplomacy Fails

3-9 September, 1956: Nasser rejects the proposal of the nations.

The United States refuses to get involved. American suggests a United Nations plan to grant access to the canal. The USSR vetoes the proposal. The Plot Thickens

14 October: Sir Anthony Eden holds secret discussion with French officials over a military operation to recover use of the canal. The talks result in the formation of a plan by which Israel would invade Egypt and thus allow British and French forces to seize the canal as an act of intervention between warring nations. They Did What?

25 October: Eden gets approval for his plan. His propaganda machine had been working hard to convince the British that this was necessary. 29 October: Israel invades Egypt. 30 October: The British and French ultimatum for an end to hostilities is rejected by Nasser. Invasion

On the night of 5-6 November, British and French troops invade Port Said and take control of the Suez Canal. International Response

The invasion sparked an international crisis. America shows tacit support for the British. The USSR threatens that further action will result in retaliation. Khrushchev threatens the West with nuclear bombs. Condemnation for the attack grows. Canada Steps In

The Canadian secretary of state for external affairs, Lester Pearson, was, however, able to negotiate a diplomatic solution. He makes his proposal to the United Nations for the UNEF (UN Emergency Force). The UNEF

Pearsons formula is for the United nations to create a distinct military force directly under the control of the UN. It would be called the United Nations Emergency Force. This forces allegiance would be to the UN only. All member nations would contribute troops. On November 7, Pearson had collected enough offers of troops to make his plan work.

The force would oversee the withdrawal of the British and French forces and restore peace. Nasser agrees to the force. Nasser, however, does not want the Canadians. Nasser stated that the Canadians were too British. His ban on Canadians is a blow to Pearson. Canada is allowed to send support troops only. Pearsons idea is supported in the United Nations by the USA. The idea is adopted and Pearson draws up plans for the creation of the force. The UNEF is formed and sent to Egypt. Tensions remained high until 15 November, when United Nations forces were brought into Egypt to provide a buffer between the Egyptians and the invasion forces. The Commonwealth

Nasser was getting support from the Soviet Union. This had angered the West and led them to cut off aid. Eden was counting on support from the USA and the Commonwealth countries. The Commonwealth, with the exception of Australia and New Zealand, did not. Most members saw what the British were doing as another form of old British Imperialism. Canada had no interest in the canal but they did have an interest in the newer members of the Commonwealth. This was placing great strains on the Commonwealth as they sided against Britain. Canada also realized that the violent actions of the United Kingdom would not be received well by the Americans. They knew that the plan would be disastrous. The USSR would be delighted and the USA and the UK would be at odds. The Soviet Union issues an ultimatum. Breaks in the Chain

The USSR states that atomic bombs would rain down on London and Paris if the invasion did not stop. The Americans were outraged. They feel that they are being placed in a morally inferior position to the Soviets. Pearson Wins the Nobel Peace Prize

Lester B. Pearson wins the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957. This was in recognition of the great effort in diplomacy. His solution avoided the escalation of the conflict. Aftermath

When the Canadian forces landed in Egypt, they were viewed with suspicion. The Canadian flag was still the British ensign.

The Egyptians saw the Canadians as another colony of Britain. Back home, Pearson begins to call for a new flag. Pearsons achievement was impressive. He had found the formula which kept Britain and France from utter humiliation. NATO and the Commonwealth survived the crisis. The Suez Crisis brought the world to yet another close call. It also showed how the nuclear powers were too easily able to threaten the world. Canada also arose from this crisis with a new role in global affars. Canada becomes a middle power.

Egypt and Israel attacked each other from across the Sinai Peninsula.

The Cold War 1957-1972:

The Spy Who Came in from the World
Cuba Viva la revolucin Cuba was the playground for the American elite. The American mafia had control of Cuba. Cuba itself was divided into 3 groups: the big landowners, corrupt clergy, and transnational corporations supported by Batista the national bourgeoisie, capitalists among whom a small group would support the revolution

the masses: the 600 000 Cubans without work, the 500 000 farm labourers who lived in run-down shacks, the 100 000 small farmers would could barely eke out an existence, 100 000 underpaid and overworked teachers Ready For Change

Fidel Castro was leader of the rebels. He was supported by his brother Raul, and his second in command, Ernesto (Che) Guevara. The revels launch a landing in 1956. Batistas soldiers cause a lot of damage to the rebel force. The Battle

In 1958, Batista launches a major offensive against the rebels. The rebels are hiding in the Sierra Maestra: these mountains are a formidable fortress. Outnumbered

Although the rebels are greatly outnumbered and outgunned, they succeed in driving back the forces of Batista. The guerrilla fighting style of Che Guevara and the rebels succeeded in demoralizing Batistas troops. Batista Flees

The small rebel army repels the attacks. Batista flees to Spain with 300 million dollars in money he embezzled. The Revolucin Succeeds

Batista fled Havana at 2 am on 1 January 1959. A military junta replaced him. Camilo and Che continued to lead their guerrilla columns into Havana. Workers and peasants all over Cuba responded to Castros call for a general strike. The Revolution triumphed. Fidel Castro

Fidel Castro takes over Cuba. Cuba becomes communist, supported by the USSR. America is upset at having a communist nation so close to its borders. America severs all ties with Cuba. The Missile Crisis

The USSR supports Cuba with aid and weapons. They convince Cuba to take Soviet missiles and establish a missile base on the Island. The Americans Find Out

The Americans had developed a new secret spy plane called the U2. It would fly at 21 000 m: too high to be detected by most radar, too high to be shot down by surface to air rockets, too high to be challenged by other aircraft. I Spy in the Sky

Combined with new advances in photography, the U2 was the ultimate spy plane. A new camera was developed that could take a photo from a great altitude. This new camera could not only identify individual soldiers, it could also identify the weapon that they were carrying. Flights Over Cuba

During a U2 flight over Cuba, the Americans notice some anomalies. After analysis, it is determined that the Cubans are building missile bases. NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard)

The Americans are not going to allow first strike weapons so close to American soil. Now, Washington would be in reach of a nuclear missile. If launched, Washington would have only 2 minutes to prepare. The World Watches

The Americans begin secret flights over Cuba to confirm the existence of the missiles. Once confirmed, the new president John F. Kennedy issues an ultimatum to the Soviets. He imposes a naval blockade of the island. Ships heading to Cuba from the USSR are chased at sea. Tensions Rise

Soviet ships headed for Cuba are turned back. This escalates tensions as this is an act of piracy; the Soviets are furious. The Americans show no signs of backing down; America is on high alert. Canada Responds

Kennedy asks Canada to also go on red alert; Diefenbaker refuses. He does not see the problem affecting Canada. The Canadian military ignores the Prime Minister and hold exercises at sea. Aftermath

The crisis is averted when a compromise is reached. Kennedy had shown no signs of backing down. He offers the Soviets a face-saving way out: he agrees to a gradual dismantling of missile bases in Turkey (which he had already planned to scrap anyways). The Soviets agree and pull out their missiles from Cuba.

The U2 Incident
Lieutenant Gary Powers
High Flying Spy The Americans had developed the U2 Spy Plane. They are eager to see behind the Iron Curtain. The CIA recruits a young pilot named Gary Powers for a top secret mission. The Americans are confident that their new secret plane will be untouchable. They send Lt. Powers on a mission over Soviet territory. Disaster Lt. Powers takes off from an American base in Pakistan. He flies high over the Soviet Territory.

The United States is looking for proof of Soviet missile superiority. The Soviets get lucky and a rocket damages the U2 flown by Lt. Powers. He manages to eject; the plane survives the crash. The Soviets now have living proof of the American espionage. Embarrassment

The capture of Lt. Powers causes great embarrassment to the American. Lieutenant Powers is paraded in front of Soviet cameras. The wreckage of the aircraft is put on display in the Soviet Union. Powers is sent to a Soviet prison. Aftermath

The U2 incident forces the Americans to rethink their spying methods. One thing that is revealed is that the Soviets are behind the Americans in the arms race.

JFK and Vietnam: Death of Innocence

John Fitzgerald Kennedy Of Irish descent, JFK was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, on May 29th, 1917. Graduating from Harvard in 1940, he entered the navy. In 1943, when his PT boat was rammed and sunk by a Japanese destroyer, Kennedy, despite grave injuries, led the survivors through perilous waters to safety. JFK was the youngest president ever elected in the USA. He was the first catholic president in a predominantly protestant nation. He was from a large family. Joseph Kennedy was ambassador to Britain. Joseph Kennedy Sr. was a millionaire; he was part of the Boston elite. He had made his money as a rumrunner during the depression. Joseph carefully groomed his boys for political office. The oldest son of the Kennedy clan was Joseph Jr. Joseph Jr. does not survive the war. It then falls to John to pick up the political mantle. Back from the war, he became a Democratic Congressman from the Boston area, advancing in 1953 to the Senate. In 1953, JFK marries Jacqueline Bouvier. In 1955, while recuperating from a back operation, he wrote Profiles in Courage, which won the Pulitzer Prize in history. The USA is smitten by this charismatic young politician. Kennedy is not without his detractors: Many criticize his Catholicism. Others criticize his youth.

People question his ability to lead a nation that has just emerged from a World War, the Korean War, and the building hostilities of the Cold War. JFKs presidency becomes marked by frequent confrontations with the Soviet Union. Kennedy was also working towards a withdrawal from the Vietnam crisis. The Kennedy assassination is one of the seminal moments in American history. America was experiencing a growing economic prosperity like no other. The Kennedy brothers had revitalized American politics. Their youth and determination had endeared them to the American public like no other president before them. Kennedy is on a political tour in Dallas, Texas. His motorcade is travelling 11 mph through Dealy Plaza. Then, Kennedy slumps forward as the first shot hits him in the back of the head. Then a second shot tears at his head. His wife panics and tries to climb out of the car. A Nightmare for the Nation

Kennedys death was considered a nightmare for the nation. Many Americans believed that their dreams for a peaceful world, a prosperous world, their dreams died that day in Dallas, Texas. The assassination of JFK continues to be one of the most hotly contested events in western history. There are many theories about who and why JFK was killed. The official story remains that he was killed by the lone gunman Lee Harvey Oswald. This theory has many holes

Vietnam
One thing that JFK had wanted was to pull out of the conflict in Vietnam. Vietnam was a French colony. A group of communists called the Vietminh were fighting to free their country from colonial control; the leader was Ho Chi Minh. Ho Chi Minh had been a student in Paris after World War II. He had heard about the Truman Doctrine and hoped that the USA would help him rid his country of the French. He failed in his attempts to get an audience with Truman. Dejected, he returned to Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh builds a rebel army in neighbouring Laos. His people are accustomed to the thick jungle of Vietnam. He begins plans for an all out attack on the French outpost of Dien Bien Phu. The French felt safe in this outpost as it lay in the densest of jungles. Dien Bien Phu was located in a remote, forest covered area in northwestern Vietnam.

It was located in a bowl-shaped valley that had a flat enough bottom for a major airbase, and was surrounded by easily defendable hills. Dien Bien Phu

The Vietminh were commanded by General Vo Nguyen Giap. Operationally, General Giap wanted to engage in a set piece battle to decisively defeat the French, but would only do this when he had his forces massed, had artillery support, and secured his lines of communication. In early 1954, the Vietminh had massed four divisions totaling 50 000 troops surrounding Dien Bien Phu. This was compared to the only 13 000 French troops. The Vietminh were much more mobile than the French had anticipated, surrounding the area within a month after the initial drops, and had managed to get over 200 pieces of heavy artillery into the surrounding hills, something no one thought possible given the regions terrain. At the beginning of the attack in early March, the Vietminh had dug over 100 km of trenches around the northern French strong points of Beatrice, Gabrielle, and Anne-Marie. The attack began on March 13, 1954, with the strong point of Beatrice completely engulfed in artillery fire. The command post at Beatrice was destroyed in the initial artillery attack and all radio communication with the outpost ceased. At the same time, the Vietminh bombarded the airfield, leaving Dien Bien Phu completely cut off from reinforcements. Beatrice finally fell to human wave attacks by the Vietminh.

The loss of Dien Bien Phu signaled the start of the Vietnam War. The French called for help from her allies; the Americans respond. The American president during the 50s was Dwight D. Eisenhower. He had suggested that communism was intent on taking over the world one country at a time; this theory was known as the DOMINO THEORY.

After the fall of Dien Bien Phu, many in the American War department pushed for strong intervention in Vietnam. The American government was under increasing pressure to stop the spread of communism. By the time that JFK came to power, American troops had been sent as advisors to the government of South Vietnam. Kennedy was looking to decrease American involvement in Asia. His death led to a dramatic increase in American intervention. America was in crisis: the US government began the draft. All eligible men over 19 years of age were forced to serve in the army. Thousands of young Americans chose to resist compulsory military service. Many did not understand the reason for the war; they became draft dodgers. They would burn their draft cards in protest. Many escaped to Canada as refugees. Canada stayed out of the Vietnam War. 14 000 Canadians did, however, go south and enlist. The Vietnam War was the first televised war in history. TV cameras brought the daily horror home to American living rooms. The war tore the nation apart; it was a brutal affair. Young Americans learned how brutal jungle fighting could be: Agent Orange Hippies grew hair long in protest Pinkville (Lieutenant Calley) Resistors Body Bags Napalm The American troops were demoralized as the lines between right and wrong were blurry or non-existent Under President Nixon, a bombing campaign began that was mean to subdue the Vietcong. It too was a failure. Vietnam would forever haunt the American psyche. The war ended for the Americans with the Fall of Saigon in 1975. The last American troops withdrew. This led to the complete takeover by the Vietcong.

The Vietcong began a campaign of ethnic cleansing. Ethnic Chinese were forced to leave. The Boat People

The flood of refugees from Vietnam grew steadily after the fall of Saigon. Thousands of people, mostly ethnic Chinese, fled on makeshift boats. They tried to get to Australia, American, anywhere. They were the Boat People. Summary

The Vietnam War cost thousands of American lives. Countless thousands of Vietnamese died during the conflict. America was changed forever. The Vietnam War introduced a new level of atrocity to the Americans. Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs)

Polaris = could be fired from a submarine; weapon head had 10 separate nuclear warheads for 10 different targets Thermonuclear Weapons = 20 Hiroshimas, so, so powerful American missiles kept in silos (eg. Iowa); Russians favoured mobile ones

Fly over boundaries to gauge the response time of the enemy

The End of the Cold War

Detente The Cold War was a tense time for the world. The world had come close to nuclear war so many times that people built bomb shelters in their backyards. The threat of nuclear annihilation was very real. Both superpowers had developed the idea of MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction). This was the idea that each country would create such a devastating arsenal of nuclear weapons that the other country would never be able to get them all in a first strike. This meant that the country being attacked could still launch enough nuclear weapons to destroy the other country. This Mexican Standoff would then make it impossible for one country to successfully attack the other without themselves suffering such devastation that they too would not survive. During the height of the Cold War, the Americans and the Russians were racing to outdo each other in nuclear capabilities. While the Soviets had more nuclear warheads, the Americans still held the lead in delivery systems.

This eventually led to the development of the ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles). This new missile could leave Earths orbit and come down in another part of the world virtually undetected. This effectively made the DEW Line obsolete. Since both the Americans and the Soviets could control the worlds destiny, talks began to reduce the threat of nuclear annihilation. SALT Talks

The American president Richard Nixon began talking to both the USSR and China. Richard Nixon became the first American president to visit Communist China. This signaled a new era as the world began to open up. Nixon also started the SALT talks. These were the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks. The USA and the USSR both agreed to limit the number of certain missiles. Reagan

In the 1980s, the new American president, Ronald Reagan, began a new course in weapons development. since the SALT treaty limited offensive weapons, Reagan began the development of an orbiting platform of nuclear defensive weapons. This became known as Star Wars. It was the Americans way of circumventing the SALT treaty. Soon, billions of dollars were being spent in developing new weapons technologies. The Soviets tried to keep up. Glasnost

The problems within the Soviet Union increased. The Soviets were finding it harder and harder to keep pace with American spending. Eventually, with the arrival of Mikhail Gorbachev, the USSR began to open up. He instituted a policy of Glasnost, which meant openness. The fall of the soviet Union was beginning. It started in 1989 when protestors in the East German town of Leipzig began marches in protest of the lack of freedom. The Leipzig Riots

The east Germans were happy to see the new leadership of Gorbachev but wanted the movement to go faster. They began meeting during the summer of 1989. Soon, the movement built up steam and by early October, around 70 000 and 100 000 peaceful protestors began moving in the streets. The once feared STASI (East German Secret Police) did nothing to stop them. This inaction would begin an avalanche of change in the USSR.

The Fall of the Wall The protests spilled over into Berlin. Berlin had all through the Cold War been the symbol of the ideological struggle between the East and the West. Late October, people began to chip away at the wall. In the beginning, the East German police used water cannons to stop the destruction. The mayor of East Berlin called Moscow for help. A new age was dawning: Moscow refused to help. Soon the wall began to crumble. The collapse of the Berlin wall was significant as it signaled an end to the Soviet Union. The Cold War officially ended. There were no clear winners or losers; the world had become a divided place. Gorbachev had brought the Soviet Union out of the closet, and for the first time in many years, the world could relax. The world view, however, had not changed too much. Later, American presidents like George Bush would help to close America off from the world. The world view of some presidents is lacking. DEW Line The Americans form NATO to protect Western Europe from communism. NATO is a military force = the command of NATO changes every few years. Because NATO is a military force, they are a constant target of Soviet espionage. The Americans, with Canadian approval, begin to build a series of radar stations in the Canadian Arctic. These stations are meant to detect any intrusion by Soviet planes into Canadian airspace. This becomes known as the DEW Line (Distant Early Warning).