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CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Example: Hydrogen + Oxygen Water H2 + O2 H2O + +

- Note there is not enough hydrogen to react with oxygen - It is necessary to balance equation. reactants + products

2 H2 + O2 2 H2O (balanced equation)

CONSERVATION OF MASS
During a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed. - i. e. the number of atoms of each element remains constant

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

- ensures # of reactant atoms = # of product atoms C2H4 + Cu + Fe2O3 + Sc2O3 + CH3NH2 + O2 S8 C H2O O2 CO2 + Cu2S Fe + CO2 H2O

Sc(OH)3 CO2 + H2O + N2

- Sometimes it is more convenient to balance groups of atoms (polyatomic ions) than individual atoms. AgNO3 + CaCl2 Ca(NO3)2 + AgCl

- Balance NO3- ions rather than N and O atoms. Ba(ClO4)2 + Na2SO4 BaSO4 + NaClO4

- Balance ClO4- and SO42- ions

GENERAL TYPES OF REACTIONS

1) Combination A + B C - two or more substances react two form a single substance a) formation reactions elements compound 4 Fe (s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 Fe2O3 (s) 8 C (s) + 9 H2 (g) C8H18 (l) b) hydration reactions - addition of water CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (s)
CaO (lime) when heated emits a very bright white light (limelight). Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime) is added to plaster to make it harder.

P2O5 (s) + 3 H2O (l) 2 H3PO4 (aq)

P2O5 is a very effective dehydration agent.

2) Combustion - combination with O2 (as in burning fuel) - products are CO2, H2O and N2 2 C8H18 (l) + 25 O2 (g) 16 CO2 (g) + 18 H2O (g)
2,2,4 trimethylpentane (isooctane) is the major component of gasoline.

4 (CH3)3N (l) + 21 O2 (g) 12 CO2 (g) + 18 H2O (g) + 4 N2 (g)

Trimethylamine is responsible for the smell of rotten fish.

3) Decomposition A B + C - one substance decomposing into two or more substances a) decomposition of carbonates CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Calcium carbonate is the major component of seashells and egg shells.

b) decomposition of chlorates 2 NaClO3 (s) 2 NaCl (s) + 3 O2 (g)

Sodium chlorate is used in the manufacture of bleach (sodium hypochlorite, NaClO).

c) many others

4) Single replacement reactions - when a metal ion in a compound is replaced with another metal ion SnSO4 (aq) + Ni (s) NiSO4 (aq) + Sn (s)
Tin bonds with iron very well and helps prevent the corrosion of iron. Tin cans are steel(iron) with thin covering of tin.

3 AgNO3 (aq) + Cr (s) Cr(NO3)3 (aq) + 3 Ag (s)

Chromium is added to iron to make stainless steel.

5) Metathesis (double replacement) reactions - cations and anions in two ionic compounds switch places Na2SO4 (aq) + Ba(C2H3O2)2 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2 NaC2H3O2 (aq)
Barium sulfate is ingested by X-ray patients to improve the visibility of GI tract to X-ray radiation.

Pb(ClO3)2 (aq) + 2 KCl (aq) PbCl2 (s) + 2 KClO3 (aq)

Lead(II) chloride combined with lead(II) hydroxide is used as a white paint pigment.

6) Addition - combination reaction where a substance is added to a compound with a double bond.
H C H H C H C H H
H H C O H C H H
H H C Cl H C H H C H H

+ H2O H

C H

H H H C H C H H
H C C H

C H C H

+ HCl H

C H

+ H2 H
C H

H C H

7) Substitution - an atom or a functional group in molecule in substituted for another atom or functional group.
H H C H O
C Cl

H I

H O +I
-

+ OH-

C H H C H

H H C H

H C H
H H C H H C H H

+ H

C H
H O C

H H C C H C H C C C H H

C H

C H

+ HCl

H C

H C C

+ HNO3

C C

+ H2O
O N O

C H

8) Elimination - decomposition reaction where a double bond is created.

H H C H H C H H O H H C + H2O H

C H

(when water is a product, the reaction is also known as a dehydration reaction.)

H H C H H H
C C C H H C H H O H

H C Br

H C H

H H C H

H C

H C H H + HBr

H H C

O C

H C H H
H H H H C C C H H H C H
O H C H H

+H

FORMULA AND MOLECULAR MASS

Formula Mass (Weight) sum of atomic masses in chemical formula Molecular Mass (Weight) same as formula mass for molecular compounds - technically not defined for ionic compounds Clarification of definitions - often the words mass and weight are used interchangeably even though they are technically not the same thing. - often formula mass and molecular mass are used interchangeably even though they are technically not the same things Calculating Formula Mass Example: C3H6 (cyclopropane) 3 (12.011 amu) + 6 (1.00794 amu) = 42.806 amu Example: Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) 40.08 amu + 2 (15.9994 amu) + 2 (1.00794 amu) = 74.09 amu

THE MOLE
***A mole is 6.022 x 1023 items.*** 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 items Analogy 1 dozen = 12 items 18 eggs = 1.5 dz. - to convert from eggs from dozen, we need to multiply by conversion factor
18 eggs = 18 eggs 1 dz = 15 dz . 12 eggs

Example: How many eggs in 3.2 dozen?

3.2 dz = 3.2 dz 12 eggs = 38 eggs 1 dz

Analogy #2 1 gross = 144 items Example: How many gross is 68 pencils?

68 pencils = 68 pencils 1 gross = 0.47 grosspencils 144 pencils

1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 items - 6.022 x 1023 is called Avogadros number and is abbreviated NA. 6.022 x 1023 molecules = 1 molemolecule 12.044 x 1023 molecules = 2 molemolecule Example: How many moles of atoms is 7.43 x 1021 atoms?

Example: How many moles of ions is 2.5 x 1025 ions?

Example: How many molecules are in 8.333 mol of molecules?

MOLAR MASS
Definition of Molar Mass Mass of 1 mole 12C is 12.000000 g BY DEFINITION Recall 1 atom of 12C is 12.000000 amu *This is not a coincidence* Definition of amu and a mole are made to ensure coincidence 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 kg = 1/NA grams 1 molC-12 = 12.000000 g 2 molC-12 = 24.000000 g
47.36 mol C 12 = 47.36 mol C 12 12.000000 g C 12 = 568.3 g C 12 mol C 12

ATOMIC MOLAR MASS

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C: 1 atom = 12 amu 1 mol = 12 g M(12C) = 12 g/mol 24 Mg: 1 atom = 24 amu 1 mol = 24 g M(24Mg) = 24 g/mol 56 Fe: 1 atom = 56 amu 1 mol = 56 g M(56Fe) = 56 g/mol

AVERAGE ATOMIC MOLAR MASS

- Elements often have two or more naturally occurring isotopes - Average atomic molar mass is average all atomic molar masses of the naturally occurring isotopes according to each isotopes relative abundance - Except for units, identical to average atomic mass - Note: mass of isotopes not integers because of nuclear forces Example: Neon nuclide abundance 20 Ne 90.48% 21 Ne 0.27% 22 Ne 9.25% mass(g/mol) 19.992 20.994 21.991

M(Ne) = 0.9048 (19.992 g/mol) + 0.0027 (20.994 g/mol) + 0.0925 (21.991 g/mol) = 20.18 g/mol - Note: example is the same as example for average atomic mass Example: How many moles of atoms are in 96.3 grams of carbon?

Example: How much mass does 0.0840 moles of uranium have?

FORMULA MOLAR MASS

- add molar masses for all atoms within a chemical formula Example: ethene, C2H4 M(C2H4) = 2 x 12.011 g/mol + 4 x 1.00794 g/mol Example: How many moles are in 538 g of Ba(NO3)2 First calculate formula weight. 137.33 g/mol 2 x 14.0067 g/mol 6 x 15.9994 g/mol 261.35 g/mol
538 g = 538 g 1 mol = 2.06 mol 26135 g .

= 28.054 g/mol

SCHEME: Converting mass to moles to number

M Molar mass NA Avogadros number

Mass (g)

Moles (mol)

Number (atoms or molecules)

Note: Molar mass and Avogadros number are conversion factors Example: How many atoms are in 20.21 g of He?

Example: How many F atoms are in 13.11 g of CaF2?

THEORETICAL STOICHIOMETRY
- coefficients of balanced equations relate moles of reactants to moles of products Example: N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) +

- 1 mole of N2 is stoichiometrically equivalent to 2 moles of NH3. - in other words, for every 1 mole of N2 reacted, 2 moles of NH3 are produced. - 1 mol N 2 2 mol NH 3 - equivalence is only true for specific chemical reaction - equivalence can be considered a conversion factor 1 mol N 2 2 mol NH 3 or 1 mol N 2 2 mol NH 3 2 mol NH 3 1 mol N 2 - other equivalences are - 1 mol N 2 3 mol H 2 - 3 mol H 2 2 mol NH 3
The Haber process is essential in the production of fertilizer, which in turn, is essential for sustenance of Earths 7,000,000,000 people.

Example: a) What are all of the stoichiometric equivalences for the reaction? 2 C2H2 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 4 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)?
2 mol C 2 H 2 5 mol O 2 1 mol C 2 H 2 1 mol H 2 O 5 mol O 2 2 mol H 2 O

1 mol C 2 H 2 2 mol CO 2 5 mol O 2 4 mol CO 2 2 mol CO 2 1 mol H 2 O

b) How many moles of carbon dioxide are formed when 5 moles of acetylene (C2H2) is combusted?

c) How many moles of oxygen are needed to fully burn 29.8 moles of acetylene (C2H2)?

Acetylene is a welders fuel.

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PRACTICAL STOICHIOMETRY
- cant measure moles directly in the real world. - must measure amount of substance with grams. ***- cannot compare substances stoichiometrically by mass, must convert to moles.*** SCHEME: Mass of reactant (g)
M Molar mass

Mass of product (g)

M Molar mass Balanced equation

Moles of reactant (mol)

Moles of product (mol)

Example: For the reaction, NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl (s), a) how much NH3 is needed to react with 92.3 g of HCl? 1) First convert grams of reactant to moles of reactant

2) Compare moles of one reactant to other reactant.

3) Convert moles of other reactant to grams.

b) How much ammonium chloride is produced when 92.3 g of HCl is fully reacted? - Note with dimensional analysis, we can do problems all on one line.

The reaction of ammonia with hydrogen chloride gas is used to a smokescreen.

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Example: For the reaction 4BaCO3 (s) + Y2(CO3)3 (s) + 6 CuCO3 (s) 2 YBa2Cu3O7 (s) + 13 CO2 (g) + 3 O2 (g) a) calculate how many grams of BaCO3 is needed to fully react with 0.104 g of CuCO3,

b) calculate how many grams of YBa2Cu3O7 is formed from 0.104 g of BaCO3 fully reacting.

Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) is a superconducting ceramic. It is superconducting below a temperature of 95 K.

LIMITING REAGENTS
- Often starting materials are not available in proper stoichiometric proportions. - Given unbalanced amounts of reactants, we would like to know how much product could be produced. Analogy: Bicycle Factory The equation to make a bicycle is 2 wheels + 1 frame + 1 handlebar 1 bicycle If the parts inventory is as follows: 240 wheels 150 frames 135 handlebars, we ask ourselves - What reactant limits production? - How much product can be produced? Limiting reactant: wheels Production: 120 bicycles ***In limiting reagent problems, we need to compare moles to moles*** - need to convert all masses to moles - To find limiting reactant, calculate number of moles of product formed from each number of moles of reactant - Limiting reactant will yield lowest number of moles produced. (The lowest number of moles produced is the actual number of moles of product produced.)

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Example: For the reaction 2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) 2 H2SO4 (aq), if 5.6 mol of SO2, 4.8 mol of O2 and 28.8 mol of H2O are reacted together, a) how many moles of H2SO4 are produced? For the SO2: 5.6 mol SO
2

1 mol H 2SO 4 1 mol SO 2

= 5.6 mol H 2SO 4

For the O2:

4.8 mol O 2

2 mol H 2SO 4 1 mol O 2

= 9.6 mol H 2SO 4

For the H2O: 28.8 mol H O

2

1 mol H 2SO 4 1 mol H 2 O

= 28.8 mol H 2SO 4

SO2 is limiting reactant and therefore 5.6 moles of H2SO4 is produced. b) how much O2 is remaining after reaction is complete? - to answer the question, we need to know how much O2 was used. - then O2 remaining is the amount of O2 reacted subtracted from the starting amount of O2. O2 used: 5.6 mol SO
2

1 mol O 2 2 mol SO 2

= 2.8 mol O 2

O2 remaining = O2 starting O2 used = 4.8 mol 2.8 mol = 2.0 mol

Sulfur dioxide is a pollutant from burning coal that is a contributor to acid rain. Sulfur dioxide is removed from air with calcium oxide. SO2 (g) + CaO (s) CaSO3 (s)

Example: For the reaction Zn (s) + CuCl2 (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + Cu (s) a) How much copper metal is produced from the reaction of 2.00 g of Zn and 2.00 g of CuCl2?

Thus CuCl2 is the limiting reactant and the amount of copper produced is

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b) How much reactant was left over? Since CuCl2 is the limiting reactant, all of it was consumed in the reaction. Thus some Zn is left over. Moles of Zn used
0.0149 mol Cu 1 mol Zn = 0.0149 mol Zn 1 mol Cu

Total original moles moles used = moles left over 0.0306 molZn 0.0149 molZn = 0.0157 molZn
0.0157 mol Zn 65.38 g Zn = 1.03g Zn 1mol Zn

EMPIRICAL FORMULA FROM MASS PERCENT ANALYSIS

Given: Percent Mass Composition Find: Empirical Formula Strategy: 1) Assume 100 g of matter. 2) Multiply 100 g by mass percent to find amount of each element. 3) Convert mass of each element to moles using molar mass. 4) Find whole number ratios by dividing each number of moles by lowest number of moles. Example: Find the empirical formula for a compound with the following mass percentages: 79.73 % Cl 18.01 % C 2.26 % H

2 3

Cl: 100.0 g x 0.7973 = 79.73 g C: 100.0 g x 0.1801 = 18.01 g H: 100.0 g x 0.0226 = 2.26 g Cl:

C:

H:

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3 molCl mol Cl 2.242 molCl = = 1.495 1.5 = mol C 1.500 molC 2 molC 3 molH mol H 2.249 mol H = = 1.499 1.5 = mol C 1.500 molC 2 molC

Empirical Formula is C2H3Cl3

COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
A mass of hydrocarbon is burnt with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O and N2. From the mass of CO2, H2O and N2 produced and mass of oxygen used, find the empirical formula for the compound. Ultimately, we want to find molar ratios that well use to find the empirical formula. 1. Convert mass of CO2 to moles of carbon atoms. - calculation yields moles of carbon in hydrocarbon sample.
CO2 (g) + KOH (s) KHCO3 (s)

2. Convert mass of H2O to moles of hydrogen atoms. - because there are two moles of hydrogen to one mole of water, multiply result by 2 to yield moles of hydrogen in hydrocarbon sample.
H2O (g) + CaCl2 (s) CaCl2 2H2O (s)

3. Convert mass of N2 to moles of nitrogen atoms. - because there are two moles of nitrogen atoms in one mole of nitrogen molecules, multiply result by 2 to yield moles of nitrogen in hydrocarbon sample. 4. Calculate moles of oxygen in products. - moles of oxygen = 2 moles of CO2 + moles of H2O 5. Calculate moles of oxygen in hydrocarbon - moles of hydrocarbon oxygen = moles of oxygen atoms in products moles of oxygen atoms used 6. Divide molar amounts by smallest of the values to find molar ratios in terms of whole numbers.

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Example: Find the empirical formula for a sample of hydrocarbon that produces 7.61 g of CO2, 4.15 g of H2O and uses 7.392 g of O2 during combustion. Moles of carbon
7.61g 1molC = 0.173molC 44.0 g CO2 1molCO2 1molCO2

Moles of hydrogen
4.15g 1molH2O 18.0 g H2O 2 molH = 0.461molH 1molH2O

Moles of oxygen in products

molO( hydrocarbon ) = molO( products ) molO2 = 0.577 molO 7.39 g = 0.577 molO 0.462 molO = 0.115 molO 1molO2 32.0 g O2 2 molO 1molO2

Moles of oxygen in hydrocarbon

molO( hydrocarbon ) = molO2 molO( products ) = 7.39 g 1molO2 32.0 g O2 2 molO 0.577 molO 1molO2

= 0.577 molO 0.462 molO = 0.115 molO

Molar ratios

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REACTION YIELDS
- an actual chemical process is rarely perfect - actual yield is less than theoretical perfect yield - we have been calculating theoretical yields - we often want to compare actual yield to theoretical yield Example: For the reaction Cr2O3 (s) + 2 Al (s) 2 Cr (s) + Al2O3 (s), 18.7 g of Chromium (III) oxide reacts to form 10.8 g of chromium metal. What the percent yield of this process?
% yield = actual yield 100% theoretical yield

Theoretical yield of chromium metal is

Thus the percent yield is