Philippine Normal University Center for Educational Technology and Distance Education Educ 2: Child and Adolescent Development,

Theories of Learning and Guidance

Section 1:

Overview of Human Development

Objectives a. Determine the goals in understanding development. b. Identify the characteristics involved in the physical development of learners. Why study children and adolescent development? As a teacher, you will be responsible for a new wave of students each year in your classroom. The more you learn about childrens development, the more you can understand at what level is appropriate to teach them. Development is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that begins at conception and continues throughout the lifespan. Most development involves growth, although it eventually involves decay (dying). Important Terms in the Study of Development Growth - physical changes that occur from conception to maturity Aging - in a biological sense, is the deterioration of organisms (including human beings) that leads inevitably to their death. Development does involve growth in early life, stability in early adulthood, and the declines associated with aging in later life. Maturation - the biological unfolding of an individual according to a plan contained in the genes (the hereditary material passed from parents to child at conception). Learning - the process through which experience brings about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings or behavior. Environment - all the external physical and social conditions and events that can affect us, from crowded living quarters to stimulating social interactions. Processes and Periods The pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of several processes: biological, cognitive and socioemotional. Development can also be described in terms of periods. The Processes Biological processes involve changes in the childs body. Genetic inheritance plays a large part. Biological processes underlie the development of the brain, gains in height, changes in motor skills, and pubertys hormonal changes.

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Cognitive processes involve the childs thinking, intelligence, and language. Cognitive developmental processes enable a growing child to memorize a poem, imagine how to solve a math problem, come up with a creative strategy, or speak meaningfully connected sentences. Socioemotional processes involve changes in the childs relationships with other people, changes in emotion, and changes in personality. Parents nurturance toward a child, a boys aggressive attack on a peer, a girls development of assertiveness, and an adolescents feelings of joy after getting good grades all reflect socioemotional processes in development. The Periods Stage Age Period Conception to childhood Major Features

1. Prenatal

Physical Development

2. Infancy

Birth at full term to about 18 months

Locomotion established; rudimentary language; social attachment Language well established, sex typing; group play; ends with readiness for schooling Many cognitive processes become adult except in speed of operation; and team play. Begins with puberty, ends at maturity, attainment of highest level of cognition; independence from parents; sexual relationships Career and family development

3. Early Childhood

About 18 months to about 6 years

4. Late Childhood

About 6 to about 13 years

5. Adolescence

About 13 to about 20 years

6. Young adulthood

About 20 to about 45 years

7. Midlife

About 45 to about 65 years

Career reaches highest level: selfassessment; empty nest crisis; retirement Enjoys family achievements; dependency; widowhood; poor health

8. Latelife

About 65 years to death

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Life-Span Perspectives 1. Development is a lifelong process 2. Development is multidirectional 3. Development always involves both gain and loss 4. Development is characterized by lifelong plasticity Plasticity refers to the capacity to change in response to positive or negative experiences 5. Development is shaped by its historical/cultural context 6. Development is multiply influenced 7. Understanding development requires multiple disciplines Basic Issues in Human Development 1. Assumptions about Human Nature a. Original Sin: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) portrayed children as inherently selfish and bad, believing that it was societys task to control their selfish and aggressive impulses and to teach them to behave in positive ways. b. Inherently Good: Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that children were innately good, that they were born with an intuitive understanding of right and wrong, and that they would develop in positive directions as long as society did not interfere with their natural tendencies c. Tabula Rasa: John Locke (1632-1704) maintained that an infant is a tabula rasa, or a blank slate waiting to be written on by his or her own experiences. Locke believed that children were neither innately good nor bad; they could develop in any number of directions depending on their own experiences 2. Nature and Nurture Nature refers to the behavior and characteristics manifested because of the influence of biological forces (heredity and biologically-based dispositions) Nurture refers to the influences brought about by the exposure to the environment (includes learning, experiences, child-rearing methods, societal changes and culture) 3. Activity and Passivity Some theorists believe that children are curious, active creatures who in a very real sense orchestrate their own development by exploring the world around them or by shaping their own environment. Other theorists view humans as passive beings who are largely products or forces beyond their control-usually environmental influences (but possibly strong biological forces) 4. Continuity and Discontinuity Continuity theorists view human development as a process that occurs in small steps, without sudden changes.

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Discontinuity theorists picture the course of development as more like a series of stair steps, each of which elevates the individual to a new ( and presumably more advance) level of functioning.

Quantitative changes are changes in degree and indicate continuity (a person becomes taller, knows more vocabulary words, or interacts with friends more or less frequently). Qualitative changes are changes in kind and suggest discontinuity changes that make the individual fundamentally different in some way that he or she was before (a nonverbal infant into a speaking toddler, or a prepubertal child into a sexually mature adolescent). 5. Universality and Context-Specificity The extent to which developmental changes are common to everyone (universal) or different from person to person (context specific).

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Principles of Human Development Principle Normative sequence Description Physical, motor, mental, and social emotional development takes place in certain orders even though speed varies from one individual to another. and Global patterns of behavior are broken to smaller ones can put together. Growth and size and development of motor control take place in a cephalocaudal or head-to-tail direction, motor control also taking a proximodistal or midline to extremities direction. The organism grows as though seeking a target to be reached by using any available resources. At certain limited time in this development, the organism is most able to make use of certain environment or experiences and most vulnerable to certain other environments and experiences. Growth builds upon the organism that is already there, transforming it, but preserving some continuity. Different measures of growth correlate imperfectly with each other, suggesting some general overall controlling factors and some independent controls. Completed growth are shown by different issues, by individuals, and by the two sexes. Educational Implications Children must acquire skills necessary for the development of other skills.

Differentiation integration

Not all our children in the classroom have the same rate of development. The directions of human development must be considered in planning activities for the children to assure satisfaction.

Developmental direction

Optimal tendency

The children should be given a target or goal to be reached to sustain enthusiasms and interest. The early development is more critical than later development. Teachers should always remember this.

Critical periods

Epigenesis

Develop more the potentials and keep them and continue building other traits Some skills are needed in the development of more complex sequence activities in the classroom The rate of development is unique to each individual. Teacher should refrain from comparing children.

Dynamic interrelations

Variations of rates and terminals

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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
A developmental task is one that arises predictably and consistently at or about a certain period in the life of the individual (Havighurst, 1948, 1953). The concept of developmental tasks assumes that human development in modern societies is characterized by a long series of tasks that individuals have to learn throughout their lives. Some of these tasks are located in childhood and adolescence, whereas others arise during adulthood and old age (see also Heckhausen, 1999). Successful achievement of a certain task is expected to lead to happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure may result in unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later tasks. Developmental tasks arise from three different sources (Havighurst, 1948, 1953). First, some are mainly based on physical maturation (e.g., learning to walk). Another source of developmental tasks relates to sociostructural and cultural forces. Such influences are based on, for instance, laws (e.g., minimum age for marriage) and culturally shared expectations of development (e.g., age norms; Neugarten, Moore, and Lowe, 1965), determining the age range in which specific developmental tasks have to be mastered. The third source of developmental tasks involves personal values and aspirations. These personal factors result from the interaction between ontogenetic and environmental factors, and play an active role in the emergence of specific developmental tasks (e.g., choosing a certain occupational pathway). Childhood and adolescence Early childhood is characterized by basic tasks such as learning to walk, to take solid food, and to control the elimination of body wastes. In addition, young children have to achieve more complex cognitive and social tasks, such as learning to talk, to form simple concepts of reality, and to relate emotionally to other people. In middle childhood, developmental tasks relate to the expansion of the individual's world outside of the home (e.g., getting along with age mates, learning skills for culturally valued games) and to the mental thrust into the world of adult concepts and communication (e.g., skills in writing, reading, and calculating). Achieving adolescent developmental tasks requires a person to develop personal independence and a philosophy of life. Adolescents are confronted, for example, with learning to achieve new forms of intimate relationships, preparing for an occupation, achieving emotional independence of parents, and developing a mature set of values and ethical principals. The peer group plays a major role in facilitating the achievement of adolescents' developmental tasks by providing a context in which some of these tasks can be accomplished. Adulthood and old age The concept of developmental tasks describes development as a lifelong process. Thus, it is also an early and significant contributor to the emerging field of lifelong human development (e.g., life-span psychology and life-course sociology; Setterstery, 1999).

In young adulthood, developmental tasks are mainly located in family, work, and social life. Family-related developmental tasks are described as finding a mate, learning to live with a marriage partner, having and rearing children, and managing the family home. A developmental task that takes an enormous amount of time of young adults relates to the achievement of an PNU | Educ 2

occupational career. Family and work-related tasks may represent a potential conflict, given that individuals' time and energy are limited resources. Thus, young adults may postpone one task in order to secure the achievement of another. With respect to their social life, young adults are also confronted with establishing new friendships outside of the marriage and assuming responsibility in the larger community. During midlife, people reach the peak of their control over the environment around them and their personal development. In addition, social responsibilities are maximized. Midlife is also a period during which people confront the onset of physiological changes (Lachman, 2001). Developmental tasks during midlife relate to, for example, achieving adult responsibilities, maintaining a standard of living, assisting children with the transition into adulthood, and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age (e.g., menopause). Old age has often been characterized as a period of loss and decline. However, development in any period of life consists of both gains and losses, although the gain-loss ratio becomes increasingly negative with advancing age (Heckhausen, Dixon, and Baltes, 1989; Baltes, 1987). A central developmental task that characterizes the transition into old age is adjustment to retirement. The period after retirement has to be filled with new projects, but is characterized by few valid cultural guidelines. Adaptation to retirement involves both potential gains (e.g., self-actualization) and losses (e.g., loss of self-esteem). The achievement of this task may be obstructed by the management of another task, living on a reduced income after retirement. In addition, older adults are generally challenged to create a positive sense of their lives as a whole. The feeling that life has had order and meaning results in happiness (cf. ego-integrity; Erikson, 1986). Older adults also have to adjust to decreasing physical strength and health. The prevalence of chronic and acute diseases increases in old age. Thus, older adults may be confronted with life situations that are characterized by not being in perfect health, serious illness, and dependency on other people. Moreover, older adults may become caregivers to their spouses (e.g., Schulz and Beach, 1999). Some older adults have to adjust to the death of their spouses. This task arises more frequently for women than for man. After they have lived with a spouse for many decades, widowhood may force older people to adjust to loneliness, moving to a smaller place, and learning about business matters. Other potential gains in old age relate to the task of meeting social and civic obligations. For example, older people might accumulate knowledge about life (Baltes and Staudings, 2000), and thus may contribute to the development of younger people and the society. The development of a large part of the population into old age is a historically recent phenomenon of modern societies. Thus, advancements in the understanding of the aging process may lead to identifying further developmental tasks associated with gains and purposeful lives for older adults. References BALTES, P. B. "Theoretical Propositions of Life-Span Developmental Psychology: On the Dynamics Between Growth and Decline." Developmental Psychology 23 (1987): 611626. ERIKSON, E. H. Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton, 1968.

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HAVIGHURST, R. J. Developmental Tasks and Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948. HAVIGHURST, R. J. Human Development and Education. New York: Longmans, Green, 1953. HECKHAUSEN, J.; DIXON, R. A.; and BALTES, P. P. "Gains and Losses in Development Throughout Adulthood as Perceived by Different Adult Age Groups." Developmental Psychology 25 (1989): 109121. NEUGARTEN, B. L.; MOORE, J. W.; and LOWE, J. C. "Age Norms, Age Constraints, and Adult Socialization." American Journal of Sociology 70 (1965): 710717. SANTROCK, J. (2006). Educational psychology 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill International. NY USA. SCHULZ, R., and BEACH, S. "Caregiving as a Risk Factor for Mortality: The Caregiver Health Effects Study." Journal of the American Medical Association 282 (1999): 22152219. SIGELMAN, C. 1999). Life-span human development 3rd ed. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. CA USA.

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