CIVE 140001

This question paper consists

of 4 printed pages, each of
which is identified by
the Code Number...CIVE 140001

 UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS

May/June 2001

Examination for the degree of

BEng/ MEng
Civil Engineering

CIVE 1400 - FLUID MECHANICS

Time allowed: 2 hours

Attempt 4 questions

Useful formulae:
Parallel axis theorem I oo = I GG + Ax 2 ,
bd 3 bd 3
2nd moment of area for a rectangle, I GG = , and for a triangle I GG =
12 36

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 CIVE 140001

1.a The following terms are used when performing dimensional analysis for the purpose of
constructing physical models: dynamic similarity, kinematic similarity and geometric
similarity. Exaplain the meaning of these terms and the uses of dimensional analysis.
(12 marks)

1.b It can be assumed that the drag force, F, exerted on an object inersed in a fluid is a function
of the following
fluid density ρ
fluid viscosity µ
diameter d
velocity u
Show that this force can be expressed as
F = d 2 u 2 ρ φ ( Re)
where φ is some unknown function and Re is the Reynolds number.
(13 marks)

1.a.
Dimensional analysis is used when constructing physical models of prototype structures. Physical models are used
when the fluid flow is particularly complex and difficult to analyse by other means. It enables physical
measurements - forces, velocities etc. - taken from the scale models to be converted to the equivalent measurement
which would be found on a prototype.

The term similarity relates to physical a scale models.

Geometric similarity - all dimensions are in the in the same ratio.
Dynamic similarity - all velocities are in the same ratio - requires geometric similarity
Kinematic similarity - all forces are in the same ration - requires dynamic similarity.

1.b.

F = f (ρ , µ , d , u )
0 = φ (F , ρ , µ , d , u )

Assume the governing variables ρ, u, d

According to Buckingham’s π theorem there are n-m groups

where
n = number of variables (5) and
m = number of dimensions (i.e. MLT, giving 3)
n-m = 5-3 = 2 groups

0 = φ (π 1 , π 2 )
π1 = ρ a ub d c µ
1 1 1

π 2 = ρ a ub d c F
2 2 2

Dimensions of the variables are:

ρ = density (kg/m3) = ML-3
µ = viscosity (kg/m/s) = ML-1 T-1
u = velocity (m/s) = ML-1
d = length (m) = L
F = newtons (kg m /s2) = MLT-2

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 CIVE 140001

For π1
(
0 = ML−3 ) (LT ) (L )
a1 −1 b1 c1
ML−1T −1
0 = a1 + 1
0 = −3a1 + b1 + c1 − 1
0 = −b1 + 1
a1 = −1
b1 = −1
c1 = −1
µ
π1 =
ρud

For π2
0 = ML−3 ( ) (LT ) (L )
a2 −1 b2 c2
MLT −2
0 = a2 + 1
0 = −3a2 + b2 + c2 + 1
0 = −b2 − 2
a 2 = −1
b2 = −2
c 2 = −2
F
π2 =
ρu 2 d 2

0 = φ (π 1 , π 2 )
 u F 
0 = φ  , 2 2 
 ρud ρu d 
ρud
Inverting π1 gives Re =
µ
 F 
0 = φ  Re, 2 2 
 ρu d 
Rearranging this gives F = ρu d φ (Re )
2 2

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 CIVE 140001

2 A 5m long tank with an inverted T-shaped cross section, as shown in Figure 1, has a gate at
its left hand side which is hinged at the top. The tank is filled with water to a level of 10m.
i) What is the pressure at the base of the tank? (2 marks)
ii) What is the weight of the water ? (2 marks)
iii) The base area of the tank is 50 m (10m × 5m) what is the force on the base of the
tank due to the water? (2 marks)
iv) Why is the force on the base not equal to the weight of the water? (2 marks)
v) What is the magnitude of the force F required to keep the gate closed?
(17 marks)

3.0m 3.0m

hinge
10.0m

gate
4.0m

10.0m

Figure 1

Force on gate = pressure at centroid × area of gate

= ρg (6 + 2 ) × (4 × 5)
= 9810 × 8 × 20
= 1569 600 N

Position of action of force = Sc from the point O

The point O is the point where a line from the gate crosses the top water surface level

X
Sc

R
Position of this force is through the centre of pressure, Sc.

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 CIVE 140001

Using the parallel axis theorem,

I oo 2nd momnt of area
Sc = =
Ax 1st moment of area
I oo = I GG − Ax 2
I GG
Sc = +x
Ax

x is the distance along the face to the centroid

bd 3 5 × 4 3
I GG = = = 26.666
12 12
A x = 5 × 4 × 8 = 160
x =8
bd 3 1 1 16
Sc = +8 = + 8 = 8.167 m
12 bd 8 96

Torque required = (8.167 − 6)×1569600 = 3400 800 Nm anti-clockwise

Force on base = PA = ρghA = 4905 kN

Weight of water = (10×4×5 + 4×6×5)×9810 = 5101 200 N

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 CIVE 140001

3 Water flows at a rate of 0.5m3/s round a 50 , contracting pipe bend which lies in a
horizontal plane. The diameter at the bend entrance is 500 mm and at the exit 250 mm - as
shown in Figure 2.
Pipe section

in
50°

out
Figure 2.

The pressure at the entrance to the bend is measured at 200 kN/m2.

What is the magnitude and direction of the force required to couteract the force excerted by
the fluid on the bend.
(25 marks)
d1 = 0.5 m
d2 = 0.25 m

A1= πd12 / 4 = 0.1963 m2

A2= πd2 2/ 4 = 0.0490 m2
u1 = Q/A1 = 0.5/0.1963 = 2.547 m/s
u2 = Q/A2 = 0.5/0.049 = 10.207 m/s
p1 = 200 kN/m2 = 200 000 N/m2

Calculate the total force

In the x-direction:

FT x = ρQ(u 2 x − u1 x )
u1 x = u1
u 2 x = u 2 cos θ
FT x = ρQ(u 2 cos θ − u1 )
= 1000 × 0.5(10.204 cos 50 − 2.547 )
= 2006.0 N
In the y-direction:

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 CIVE 140001

(
FT y = ρQ u 2 y − u1 y )
u1 y = u1 sin 0 = 0
u 2 y = u 2 sin θ
FT y = ρQu 2 sin θ
= 1000 × 0.5 × 10.204 sin 50
= 3908.4 N
Calculate the pressure force
Use Bernoulli to calculate force at exit, p2

p1 u12 p 2 u 22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + h f
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
the friction loss hf can be ignored, hf=0
As the pipe is in the horizontal plane, z1=z2
By continuity, Q= u1A1 = u2A2

ρ 2
p 2 = p1 −
2
(u 2 − u12 )
= 200000 −
1000
2
(10.204 2 − 2.547 2 )
= 200000 − 48817
= 151183N

FP = pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2

FP x = p1 A1 cos 0 − p 2 A2 cosθ = p1 A1 − p2 A2 cosθ

= 200000 × 0.1963 − 151183 × 0.049 cos 50
= 39260 − 4762
= 34498N
FP y = p1 A1 sin 0 − p2 A2 sin θ = − p 2 A2 sin θ
= −151183 × 0.049 sin 50
= −5675 N
Calculate the body force
There are no body forces as the pipe is in the horizontal plane.
Calculate the resultant force

FT x = FR x + FP x + FB x
FT y = FR y + FP y + FB y

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 CIVE 140001

FR x = FT x − FP x − 0
= ρQ(u 2 cosθ − u1 ) − p1 A1 + p 2 A2 cosθ
= 1000 × 0.5(10.204 cos 50 − 2.547 ) − 200000 × 0.1963 + 151183 × 0.049 × cos 50
= 2006 − 39260 + 4762
= −32492 N

FR y = FT y − FP y − 0
= ρQu 2 sin θ + p 2 A2 sin θ
= 1000 × 0.5 × 10.204 × sin 50 + 151183 × 0.049 sin 50
= 3908 + 5675
= 9583N
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
FRy
FResultant

FRx

FR = FR2 x − FR2 y = 33876 N

And the direction of application is

 FR y 
 = tan −1 
9583 
φ = tan −1   = −71.27

  − 3249 
 FR x 

the force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction
R = − FR

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 CIVE 140001

4.a Define the following terms in connection with the flow of a liquid

i. Mean velocity
ii. Mass flow rate
iii. Volume flow rate
iv. Steady flow
v. Unsteady flow
vi. Uniform flow
vii. Discharge
viii.Continuity
(16 marks)

4.b Water flows in a circular pipe which reduces in diameter from 400mm at point A to
350mm at point B. Then pipe then splits into two branches of diameters 150mm and
225mm discharging at C and D respectively.

If the velocity at A and D is 1.0m/s, what is the discharge at C and D and the velocity at B
and C?
(5 marks)

4.c If point A is 10m higher than point B and the pressure at A is 10kN/m2, what is the
pressure at point B?
(4 marks)
Solution

4a)
i. Mean velocity
ii. Mass flow rate
iii. Volume flow rate
iv. Steady flow
v. Unsteady flow
vi. Uniform flow
vii. Discharge
viii. Continuity

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 CIVE 140001

4 b)
  

uA = 1.0 m/s dA = 0.4 m/s AA = 0.1257 m2

dB = 0.35 m/s AB = 0.0936 m2

dC = 0.15 m/s AC = 0.0177 m2

uD = 1.0m/s dD = 0.225 m/s AD = 0.0398 m2

Qtotal = uA AA = 0.1257 m3/s

QD = uD AD = 0.0398 m3/s
QB = Qtotal = 0.1257 m3/s
QB = QC + QD
QC = QB - QD = 0.1257 - 0.398 = 0.0859 m3/s

uB = QB / AB = 0.1257 / 0.0962 = 1.307 m/s

uC = QC / AC = 0.0859 / 0.0177 = 4.853 m/s

4.c)
pA u A2 pB u B2
+ +zA = + + zB
ρg 2g ρg 2g
ρ
pB ( )
= p A + u A2 − u B2 + ρg ( z A − z B )
2
pB = 10000 +
1000 2
(
1 − 1.307 2 + 9810(10) )
2
pB = 107 746 N

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 CIVE 140001

5.a Air flows through a duct in which a Pitot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of
the air flow. The tube is attached to a differential gauge manometer containing water. If
the deflection of the gauge is 100mm, calculate the air velocity, assuming the density of
air is constant at 1.22 kg/m3 and that the coefficient of the tube is 0.98.
(10 marks)
5.b The actual velocity in a contracted section of a jet of liquid flowing from a 50mm
diameter orifice in a tank is 8.5m/s when the level of the liquid in the tank is 4.6m above
the orifice.
i) What is the value of the coefficient of velocity?
ii) If the measured discharge is 0.01 m3/s, determine the coefficients of contraction
and discharge
(15 marks)

5.a)

Consider the manomenter

p B − p A 0.1× 9.81× 1000

= = 81.96 m of air
ρg 1.22 × 9.81

Ptot tube equation

V = 0.98 2 × 9.81(81.96)
= 39.3 m / s

5.b)

i) velocity coefficient
u actual = cv 2 gH
8.5 = cv 2 × 9.81× 4.6
cv = 0.895

Qactual = cd A 2 gH
 π 0.05 2 
0.1 = cd   2 × 9.81× 4.6
 4 
cd = 0.5.36

c d = cv × cc
0.536
cc = = 0.599
0.895

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 CIVE 140001

6.a Using continuity and the Bernoulli equation derive the following expression that can be
used to measure flow rate with a Venturi meter.
 p − p2 
2g  1 + z1 − z 2 
 ρg 
Q actual = C d A1 A2
A1 − A2
2 2

(12 marks)

6.b A manometer may be attached to the Venturi meter to measure the pressure difference
between point 1 and 2 in figure 3 below. Show that in this situation it is not necessary to
know the inclination of the Venturi meter to measure flow rate.
(8 marks)

6.c A Venturi meter is being used to measure flow in a pipeline of diameter 250 mm which
carries water. When the pressure difference between the throat and the entrance of the
Venturi meter is 300 mm on a mercury manometer, determine the flow in the pipeline.
The Venturi meter has a throat diameter of 80 mm and a coefficient of discharge of 0.97.
The relative density of mercury is 13.6.
(5 marks)
out

1
z2
in

z1

datum

Figure 3
5.a
Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat of the Venturi meter we have

p1 u12 p2 u22
+ +z = + +z
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2
By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

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 CIVE 140001

Q = u1 A1 = u2 A2
u1 A1
u2 =
A2
Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

u12  A1  
2
p1 − p2
+ z1 − z 2 =   − 1
ρg 2 g  A2  
 p − p2 
2g 1 + z1 − z 2 
 ρg 
u1 = 2
 A1 
  −1
 A2 

 p − p2 
2g 1 + z1 − z 2 
 ρg 
= A2
A1 + A2
2 2

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual discharge taking in to account the
losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of discharge
Qideal = u1 A1
Qactual = Cd Qideal = Cd u1 A1
 p1 − p2 
2g + z1 − z 2 
 ρg 
Qactual = Cd A1 A2
A1 − A2
2 2

5.b
This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings
p1 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρman gh + ρg ( z2 − h)
p1 − p2 ρ 
+ z1 − z2 = h man − 1
ρg  ρ 
Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading::

ρ 
2 gh man − 1
 ρ 
Qactual = Cd A1 A2
A1 − A2
2 2

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 CIVE 140001

out

1
z2
in

z1

h datum

5.c
A1 = π 0.252 /4 = 0.049 m2
A2 = π 0.082 /4 = 0.005 m2
h = 0.3 m
ρHg = ρman = 13 600 kg/m3
ρH20 = ρ = 1000 kg /m3
Cd = 0.97

2 × 9.81 × 0.3(13.6 − 1)
Qactual = 0.97 × 0.049 × 0.005
0.049 2 − 0.0052
74.16
= 0.0002376
0.002376
= 0.042 m 3 / s

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