http://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMTHsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=fals e INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.

1 Scope of Civil Engineering Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of engineering which puts scientific knowledge to practical use. It involves planning, design, construction and maintenance of structures such as bridges, roads, canals, dams, tunnels and multi-storeyed buildings. It also involves in water treatment units, waste management system, preserving, protecting and restoring the environment etc. Civil engineering aims at providing basic facilities, services, amenities and needs of the public in urban as well as rural areas for efficient and economical distribution of the available resources in nature. 1.2 Different fields of civil engineering: 1. Surveying 2. Geotechnical and Foundation engineering 3. Structural engineering 4. Hydraulics 5. Water Resources and Irrigation engineering. 6. Transportation engineering 7. Environmental engineering 8. Material technology Surveying: Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of the points on, above or below the surface of the earth by measuring distance, direction and elevation. Surveying is carried out before planning and design of all civil engineering projects such as construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc. The object of surveying is to prepare a plan or map of the area surveyed. Earlier conventional instruments like chain, tape, and leveling instrument are used. Now modern equipments like total station, Distance meters are used.

Applications: 1. To obtain the areas of fields or plots and other figures with irregular boundaries. 2. Layingthe roads or gas /water pipes at designed gradient 3. Determination of elevations of stations and preparing contour maps 4. Calculation of earthwork involved in the construction of project. 5. Design and setout curves on communication routes such as roads, railways etc for bringing about the change of direction gradually.

Geotechnical engineering: It deals with the study of soil properties and engineering behavior of soil under the action of loads. The bearing capacity of soil must be considered for design of foundations, roads, buildings etc.

The Knowledge of geotechnical engineering is helpful in the following problems of civil engineering

1. Foundation design and construction 2. Highway pavement design 3. Design of underground buildings and drainage structure 4. Design of earth retaining structures. 5. Design of earth dams 6. Estimation of bearing capacity of soil and improving the bearing capacity

Structural Engineering: This is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the safe and economical design of structures. A structure is the assemblage of two or more basic elements connected together in such a way that it serves the function to carry the loads. Finding the internal stresses in the components of structure is known as structural analysis. Finding suitable size of the structure is known as design

Structural engineering deals with planning, analysis and design of structure. It also deals with the causes and prevention of failure of structures. Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance of structure also come under structural engineering.

Applications: 1. Design of concrete members, bridges. 2. Design of steel structures and water tanks.

3. Design of super structure and sub structure 4. Investigation of failure of member or structure for assigning responsibility and avoiding causes of failure. Hydraulics: Study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics is known as hydraulics.

Applications: 1. Design of pipe lines and pumping system for oils gas water etc 2. Design of valves, gates for control of flow in pipes as well as in open channels. 3. Dimensional analysis and model studies 4. Measurement of flow properties such as velocity, pressure. 5. Determining frictional and minor losses of energy in convey system.

Water resources and irrigation engineering: It deals with the identification and development of resources of water for agricultural fields and water power generation. It also includes estimation of quality and quantity of water available, its storage and distribution through open canals or pipe networks either under gravity or by pumping. It also deals with ground water utilization, ground water recharge and rain water harvesting.

Applications: 1. Calculation of reservoir capacity, catchments area, command area etc. 2. Design and construction of reservoir and dams. 3. Water supply schemes for cropping, drinking and other purposes. 4. Design and laying canals, pipes, pumps and allied structures such as gates, weir, notches etc 5. Flood control arrangements, diversion work etc.

Transportation Engineering: It includes design, construction, maintenance of roads, railways, navigation and air routes, design, construction and maintenance of railway lines, signal system are part of transportation engineering. For planning of transportation facility, traffic survey is to be carried out. Carrying out traffic survey, design, construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, railway, harbor and airport is transportation engineering.

Applications: 1. Design and construction of different types of roads. 2. Traffic management and parking facility.

3. Design and provision of curves and allied structures such as bridge, culvert, tunnel etc. 4. Survey, design and provision of different modes of transportation i.e. airport, railways, roads, harbours etc. Environmental Engineering: It deals with study of natural environment, co system, relation between biotic and biotic factors. Safety of people against different types of pollution and treatment disposal of wastes. Industrialization and increase in traffic are creating air pollution problems. Environmental engineering while tackling all these problems provides healthy environment to the public.

Applications: 1. Water treatment for supplying potable water 2. Waste water treatment-Design, construction and maintenance of plant. 3. Determining standards for effluents. 4. Monitoring, control and prevention of different types of pollution 5. Design, construction, and maintenance of water filters and water supply schemes.

Material technology: It deals with wide range of construction materials in use along with their physical, chemical and mechanical behavior. Material technology aims at inventing new materials with better properties, durability and economy Stone, brick, timber, lime, cement, sand, jellies and tiles are the traditional building materials. The mixture of lime, cement and sand is known as mortar. The mixture of cement, sand and jelly with water is known as concrete. The use of concrete with steel bars placed in appropriate position helped in building strong and durable structures. This composite material of steel and concrete is known as reinforced cement concrete.

1.3 Role of Civil Engineers

A Civil Engineer is one who deals with the planning, designing, construction and maintenance of different types of Civil Engineering works. He should be competent in various fields such as surveying, analyzing, estimating, construction scheduling and construction management. A Civil Engineer will involve in various Engineering activities such as Surveying and preparation of estimates. Planning and designing and construction of houses, apartments, office buildings, commercial establishments and factory building. Planning and design of transportation facilities such as highways and Railways. Construction of ports and harbours, Railway stations, bus and truck terminals, airports and helipads. Construction of dams and canals for irrigation, drinking water supply for flood control purposes. Planning, design and construction of pollution control facilities such as sewage treatment plants.

1.4 Impact of Infrastructural developments on the economy of the country: The term infrastructure is used to denote the conditions which are available for economic development of a region. In other words infrastructure can be defined as the facilities to be provided by the state or central government or local administration for overall development of a region. The facilities include power generation, transportation, health, education, water and sanitation and other public utilities. The investments made on infrastructural developments have a profound impact on the economy of the country. Some of the effects of investment made on infrastructure is given below. Investment on infrastructural facilities results in increased job opportunities for both skilled and unskilled and literate and illiterate people. Eg: Construction of new roads, bridges & canals provide employment to large number of poor people. The creation of better infrastructure in a region motivates entrepreneurs to establish their own industries, service centers, commercial establishments etc. This will open up job opportunities to a number of unemployed people in the region. The improvements in job opportunities will have positive effect on economy.

Summary : Civil Engineering involves planning, design, construction and maintenance of structures such as buildings, bridges and roads. An Engineer who is competent to carry out Civil Engineering works is recognized as a Civil Engineer. The investments made on infrastructure projects result in creating a conducive environment for investments by entrepreneurs. This will lead to increased job opportunities and positive impact on the local economy.

2. FOUNDATION 2.1 Introduction: Foundation is that part of the structure which in direct contact with the ground and transmits the loads of the structure to the ground. 2.2 TYPES OF FOUNDATION: 1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION: If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation is called shallow foundation. EX; Masonry footing, Isolated footing, combined footing, strap and RCC footing etc

G.L. Df

Bf 2. DEEP FOUNDATION: If the depth of foundation is greater than the width of foundation is called Deep foundation. EX. Friction piles, Load bearing piles (End bearing piles), compaction piles, well foundation, caissons.

Df

WIDTH OF PILE CAP

2.3 TYPES OF FOOTING: 1. WALL FOOTING: They are used to support structural walls that carry loads for other floors or to support nonstructural walls. When the wall carries heavy load or when the SBC of soil is not very high, then one can go for stepped masonry footing. Masonry footing comes under stepped footing category which is the one that provides a continuous longitudinal bearing. The spread footing for a continuous wall is called strip footing. According to National Building Code in Brick and stone masonry slope is 0.5 H: 1V.

2. ISOLATED FOOTING (SPREAD FOOTING) They are used to support single columns. If single column is there it is called isolated footing. Spread footing, square or circular section commonly used below the columns.

3. COMBINED FOOTING:

If more than one column is placed on the bottom of the footing is called combined footing. The shape is generally rectangular, trapezoidal in section. A Combined footing is so proportioned that the center of gravity of the supporting are in line with the center of gravity of the two column loads.

4. STRAP R.C.C FOOTING: A Strap footing comprises of two or more footings of individual columns, connected by a Beam, called a Strap. The function of the strap beam is to transfer the load of heavily loaded outer column to inner one. In case of strap footing the individual footing areas are so arranged that the center of gravity of the combined loads of the two columns pass through the combined center of gravity of the footing area. Once this criterion is achieved, the pressure distribution below each individual footing will be uniform.

5. RAFT FOOTING: A raft /matt is a thick reinforced concrete slab, which supports all the loads bearing

wall and columns loads of a structure or a large portion of structure. Raft is used in following situations: - When the loads are heavy and soil is very weak or highly compressible and to avoid differential settlement in erratic soil. - Raft is very useful in resisting large hydraulic uplift. Types of Raft foundation: 1. Flat plate 2. Flat plate thickened under columns 3. Box Structure 4. Matt placed on piles

6. GRILLAGE FOUNDATION: A Grillage foundation is a special type of Isolated footing generally provided for heavy loaded steel structures. Types of Grillage: 1. Steel Grillage 2. Timber Grillage

7. PILE FOUNDATION: Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface. Following situations, Pile foundation is preferred. 1. The load of the super structure is heavy and its distribution is uneven. 2. The top soil has poor bearing capacity. 3. The subsoil water level is high so that pumping out of water from the open trenches for the shallow foundation is difficult and uneconomical. 4. The structure is situated on sea shore or river bed. 5. The top subsoil is expansive in nature.

FRICTION PILES: Friction piles are used to transfer loads by means of skin friction along the surface area of the piles.

END BEARING PILES: End Bearing Piles are used to transfer load through the pile tip to a suitable hard bearing stratum passing soft soil or transforming load through water.

Arches When an opening is made in a wall, a construction technique which would prevent the masonry above the opening from collapsing has to be adopted. Arches and lintels are used for this purpose. An arch is a structure constructed of wedge shaped units (bricks or stones) jointed together with mortar and spanning an opening to support the weight of the wall above it along with other superimposed loads. 3.10 Technical terms used in Arch work 1. Intrados: This is the inner curve of an arch. 2. Extrados: The outer curve of an arch. 3. Crown: The highest part of extrados. 4. Key: The stone or brick fixed at the crown of the arch.

5. Springing Point: These are the points from which the curve of the arch springs Springing Line: It is an imaginary line joining the springing points of either end Abutment: This is the end support of an arch. 6. Pier: This is an intermediate support of an arch. 7. Span: The clear horizontal between the supports. 8. Rise: The clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and the springing line. According to the shape, arches may be classified as the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Flat Arch Segmental Arch Semicircular Arch Horse Shoe Arch Elliptical Arch

4. Stone Masonry Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction, degree of refinement used in shaping the stone and finishing adopted, stone masonry can be classified as following: 1. Rubble Masonry 2. Ashlars Masonry Through Stone It is a stone header. Through Stones are placed across the wall at regular intervals. They should be strong, non porous and should be of sufficient thickness. 4.1 Rubble masonry 1. Un-coursed Rubble masonry The stones used vary in their shape and size and are directly obtained from the quarry. The stones are carefully laid so as to break joints as much as possible. To avoid thick joints, interior of the wall is properly filled with chips and mortar. The thickness of the joint is kept not more than 13 mm. In case of stone walls less than 60 cm in thickness, bond stones provided to interlock the two faces should extend up to the full thickness of wall. The quoins are chisel or hammers dressed and are laid as header and stretcher alternately. 2. Random Rubble Masonry The stones used in the work are hammer or chisel dressed. They are not suitably shaped or finished and the elevation shows irregular shaped stones with non uniform joints. The height of stones should not be greater than their breadth or length of tail into the work. The quoins are chisel or hammer dressed and is laid as header and stretcher alternately. The bond stones provided to interlock the two faces should extend up to the full thickness of wall, for walls less than 60 cm in thickness. 3. Coursed Rubble Masonry It is commonly used in the construction of low height walls of public buildings, residential buildings, abutments and piers of ordinary bridges. The stones used in every course should be of equal height. The joints are about 1.5 cm thick. The width of the header is more than the height and is inserted into the wall at least three times its height. The quoins about 50 cm in length should have the same height as that of the course.

4.2 Ashlar Masonry The work built from carefully dressed stones with accurate bedding and jointing is termed as ashlar masonry. It is costly and is of superior quality. By arranging the stone blocks in various patterns, different types of appearances can be obtained. The backing of ashlar masonry walls may be built of ashlar or rubble masonry. The size of the stone blocks should be in proportion to wall thickness. Ashlar masonry can be classified under the following categories: o Ashlar Fine o Ashlar rough tooled o Ashlar Rock o Ashlar Chamfered o Ashlar facing o Ashlar block in course

6. LINTELS

Lintel

6.1 Lintel: A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the portion of the structure above it. 6.2 Types and Classification: 1. Wood Lintel 2. Stone Lintel 3. Brick Lintel 4. Steel Lintel 5. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintel 1. Wood Lintel: Used in Hilly area, where timber available in cheep rate, minimum thickness 80 mm. Disadvantage of wood lintels are liable to be destroyed by fire and decay. 2. Stone Lintel: Used in Stone masonry structures or building faced with stone. Minimum thickness 80 cm/30 cm length of span. Disadvantage of stone masonry possess low tensile resistance. It is difficult to obtain a good stone of required depth. Hence lintels are proved to be costly at places where stone is not available. 3. Brick Lintel: Used for Brick masonry. Minimum thickness is depth equal to twice the thickness of brick. They are suitable for small opening (generally not more than 90 cms in span), with light loading condition.

4. Reinforced Brick Lintels: When Brick lintels are to be provided over large spans, they are reinforced with mild steel bars. The depth of the lintel is limited to 10 cms or multiple of one brick

thickness. Bricks are so arranged that 1.9 cm to 3.8 cm wide space is left length wise for the insertion of reinforcements. The gap is then filled with rich cement mortar or cement concrete. 5. Reinforced Concrete Lintels: Used for span greater than 1 meters. Minimum thickness upto 1.2 m length of span a 15 cms deep lintel is found to be safe. As a general rule add 25 mm for every additional 30 cm span.

Sterrips2L8 Supporting R/f

Main R/F

7. BALCONY CANOPY & CHEJJA 7.1 Balcony: It is an external balustrade platform with access from an upper floor. Functions: For relaxation and from architectural point of view. 7.2 Canopy: It is a shelter to an opening in a building consisting of a small roof with or without side walls Functions: It can be used for parking vehicles. 7.3 Chejja: The chejja gives protection to the opening space against rain water and direct sunshine. Method of construction: 1. Centering plates are fixed at the chejja bottom level with the help of acre span &manual apparated jack. 2. Oil is smirred on the top of the plates. 3. Reinforcement rods with proper cover are placed. 4. Side shuttering is fixed. 5. Height of concrete at the wall side as well as at the end of chejja is marked. 6. Concrete is laid while laying concrete care is taken to see that reinforcement is top not at bottom. 7. Proper curing is done. After 28 days shuttering is removed.

8. ROOFS 8.1 Roof: It is defined as the uppermost part of a building which is constructed in the form of a framework to give protection to the building against rain, heat, snow, wind etc. 8.2 Requirements of a Roof: It should have adequate strength and stability to carry the superimposed dead and live load. It should protect the building against rain, sun, wind etc. It should be water proof. It should be fire resistant.

- Flat Roof: A roof lay at an angle of less than 10 degree to the horizontal is called flat roof. All the flat roofs in the modern age are generally constructed by R.C.C. - R.C.C roof: Its design may be done in two ways as one way slab and two way slabs. The code IS: 456- 2000 recommends maximum center to center spacing of beams in a RCC slab is 3 meters only. - Sloped Roof: A sloped roof is also known as Pitched roof. 8.3 Parts of a Roof: 1. Battens: These are the thin strips of wood which are fixed on the rafter or ceiling as shown in figure. They support the roof ceiling. 2. Cleats: These are small blocks of wood which are fixed on trusses to prevent the sliding of purling. 3. Eaves: The lower edges of a roof which are resisting upon or projecting beyond the supporting walls are known as eaves. 4. Pitch: The inclination of sides of a roof to the horizontal plane is known as pitch. Hip: The angle formed at the intersection of two roof slopes is known as Hip. 5. Purling: The wooden pieces which are placed horizontally on principal rafters to carry the common rafters are known as Purling. 6. Rafters: These are the pieces of timber which extend from the eaves to the ridges. Common Rafter: These are the intermediate rafters which give support to the roof covering.

7. Principal Rafter: These are the inclined members of the truss. 8. Span: The horizontal distance between the internal faces of walls or supports are known as a span or a clear span. 9. Effective span: The horizontal distance between the centers of walls or supports. 8.4 TILES ROOFINGs: Advantages: Residential buildings and country houses are using these types of tile roofings. This is because country tiles are manufactured from locally available earth. Process of manufacture is same as brick. The various types of tiles generally used are: - Plain or flat tiles made up of clay and having a size of 25 cm X 15 cm X 9 to 15 cm thick. - Curved or pan tiles - Pot tiles or half round country tiles - Spanish tiles - Italian or Allahabad tiles - Inter-locking tiles. 8.5 LEAN-TO-ROOF: This is the simplest form of a pitched roof and it is also known as pent roof or Aisle roof. In this type of roof one wall is carried up sufficiently higher than the other one to give necessary slope to the roof. Rafters are suitably secured on the wall plates and eaves boards, battens and roof covering are provided as shown in figure. The uses of this type in Sheds, Outhouses attached to main buildings. It is suitable for maximum span of 2.4 meters.

9. TRUSS 9.1 Trussed Roof A roof is the uppermost part of a building which is supported on structural members and covered with a roofing material Roof trusses are generally used when the span exceeds 5m and when there are no inside supporting walls or partitions for the purlins. King-Post Truss It is suitable for spans varying from 5 m to 9m. King post truss consists of two principal rafters, a tie beam, king post and two struts. The spacing of the king post truss is limted to 3m centre to centre. The trusses are supported on the bed blocks of stone or concrete, embedded in the supporting walls. The principal rafters support the framework of the roof. The tie beam receives the end of the principal rafters and prevents the wall from spreading outwards due to the thrust. The king post prevents the tie beam from sagging at its centre. The struts support centres of the principal rafters and prevent their sagging. Queen-Post Truss It is suitable for spans varying from 9 to 14m. It differs from king post as it has two wooden uprights or vertical members known as queen posts. Queen posts consist of two queen posts, twp principal rafters, struts, tie beam, straining beam, straining sills, cleats, purlins. Queen post prevents sagging in the tie beam. The upper ends of the queen posts are kept in position by straining beam. The straining sill, which is fixed on the tie beam, between the feet of queen posts counteracts the thrust of struts.

9.2 Steel Truss It is one of the cheapest and most convenient roofing systems for various types of buildings. It is commonly used for industrial buildings, workshops, storage go-downs, ware houses, residential and school buildings. The erection of the truss can be done within a short duration. The choice of a particular type of truss largely depends upon the span.

Some commonly used ones:

9.3 Steel Roof truss Steel trusses are stronger, rigid, fire proof and termite proof. They are commonly fabricated form angle sections and plates. Some common terms: 1. Principal Rafter: The top inclined members of the truss extending from the eaves level to the ridge is known as principal rafter. 2. Main Tie: Bottom most member of the truss which supports other members of the truss. 3. Ties: Tension members of the truss. 4. Struts: Compression members of the truss.

5. Purlins: Structural members which are supported on the principal rafter and which run transverse to the trusses. Purlins support the roof covering. Principal rafters and main ties are generally made of two angle sections placed side by side. Struts and ties are generally made of single angle sections. The members of a roof truss are joined together using gusset plate either by welds, bolts or rivets. 9.4 Tubular Truss: They are quite popular as they are light in weight and economical. They are fabricated from round steel tubes. Round Tubular section has less surface area and less weight than an equivalent rolled steel shape. The members of a roof truss are joined together by welding. To support the purlins (rectangular plates with hole) are also welded to the principal rafters at the joints.

9.5 Roof Covering: It is an essential component of pitched roof to be placed over the roof frame work to protect it from rain, snow, wind and other atmospheric agencies. Selection of the type of roof materials depends upon Type of building Type of roof frame work Initial cost Maintenance requirements Fabrication facilities Availability of the material Climate

10. WEATHER PROOFING COURSE The process of treating the surface of the roof against the weather is called as weather proofing course. It is done by several ways .They are listed as follows:

11. Stairs 11.1 Stairs: It is a set of steps leading from one floor to other. 11.2 Stair case: The room or enclosure of the building where stair is located. 11.3 Stair way: The opening or space occupied by the stair. 11.4 Components of stair:

1. 2.

Step: It is a portion of stair which permits ascent or descent, it consist of tread and riser. Tread: It is the upper horizontal portion of the step upon which the foot is placed while ascending or descending.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Riser: It is the vertical portion of the step providing a support to the tread. Flight: It is defined as unbroken series of steps between landings. Landing: It is a level plat form at the top or bottom of a flight between the floors. Rise: It is the vertical distance between two successive tread faces.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Going: It is the horizontal distance between two successive riser faces. Nosing: It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of riser. Strings or stringers: These are the sloping members which support the steps of the stair. Newel post: It is a vertical member which is placed at the ends of the flights to connect the ends of the strings and hand rails. Baluster: It is Vertical member of wood or metal supporting the hand rail. Baluster: It is a row of balusters surmounted by hand rail, to provide protection for users of stair. Hand rail: It is rounded or moulded member of wood or metal following the contour of nosing line, and fixed on the top of balusters. Head Room: It is the min clear vertical distance between the tread and ceiling.

13.

14.

15. 16.

Run: It is total length of stairs on a horizontal plane, including landings. Header: It is the horizontal structural member supporting stair stringers or landings

17.

Line of Nosings: It is an imaginary line parallel to the strings and tangential to the nosings.

18.

Pitch or slope: It is the angle which the line of nosing of stair makes with the horizontal.

11.5 Dimensions of Step: For Residential buildings: Rise: 16cm For Public buildings: Rise: 10cm Tread: 26cm Tread: 30cm

11.6 Classification of stairs: Stairs are broadly classified as 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Straight stairs Turning stairs Quarter turn stairs Half turn stairs Three quarter turn stairs Bifurcated stairs.

1. Straight stairs: The stairs runs straight between the two floors. Used for small houses where there are restrictions on available width. The stair may consist of either one single flight or more than one flight with a landing.

2. Turning stairs: They are of three types. i. Newel stairs ii. Open Newel stairs. iii. Geometrical stairs.

i. Newel stairs: It is the one which has a newel at the foot and head of each flight of the stair. ii. Open Newel stairs: In this type, Lateral space is left between the turning flights. iii. Geometrical stair: The strings and hand rails are continuous and are set out in accordance with the geometrical principles. They may be circular, spiral, helical or elliptical. 3. Quarter turn stairs: A quarter turn stairs is the one which changes its direction either to the left or to the right. Turn is effected by introducing quarter space landing or by providing winders. Quarter turn stairs are of 2 types. i. Newel quarter turn stairs ii. Geometrical stairs. i. Newel quarter turn stairs: These have newel post at the beginning and ending of each flight. At the quarter turn there may be quarter space landing or winders.

ii. Geometrical Quarter turn stairs: The stringer and hand rail is continuous with no newel post at the landing.

4. Half turn stairs: It is the one which has its direction reversed or changed for 180.There are of three types i. Dog legged or Newel half turn stairs ii. Open newel half turn stairs iii. Geometrical half turn stairs

i. Dog legged or Newel half turn stairs: Name is given because of its appearance in sectional elevation. Newel posts are placed t the beginning and end of each flight. There is no space between the outer strings of two flights.

ii. Open newel half turn stair: It has a space or well between the outer strings. Additional width is required between the two flights. The space between the strings may vary from 15cm to 100cm.When the space left is more, small flight consisting of two or four steps is introduced at the turn between the two quarter space landing

iii. Geometrical half turn stairs: The stringers and hand rails are continuous, without any intervening newel post.

5. Three quarter turn stairs: This type of stair is used when the vertical distance between the two floors is quite large and length of stair room is limited. A three quarter turn stair has its direction changed three times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one

6. Bifurcated stairs: It is used in public building at the entrance hall. The stair has wider flight at the bottom which bifurcates in to two narrower flights, one turning to the left and the other to the right at the landing.

7. Continuous stairs: These stairs do not have either landing or any intermediate newel post. They are geometrical in shape & are of following types. a. Circular stair b. Spiral stair c. Helical stair

Spiral stair: Made of R.C.C or metal and is employed at a location where there is space limitation. Also used as emergency stairs and provided at the back. Helical stair: Made of R.C.C. Large portion of steel is required to resist bending.