Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 1

PERIODIC FUNCTIONS AND THE UNIT STEP FUNCTION

The Unit Step Function
The First Shifting Theorem tells us how to compute the transform of the product c
ot
(t). Now we
introduce a very valuable tool called the Unit Step Function
1
, which allows us to find transforms of
piecewise-defined functions.









Graphically, this function looks like a shifted version of the unit function u(t) = 1, t u:







For example, u
S
(t) is a function that is u until t = S and 1 theieaftei:







The idea is this: u
u
(t) turns a function off prior to t = o and on after that and so whereas the function
(t -o) is a horizontal translation of (t), u(t -o) (t -o) is a new function that equals (t -o) only
on the interval t o:








1
Also known as Heavisides function after the self-taught English mathematician, physicist, and electrical engineer
Oliver Heaviside (1850 1925).
u(t -a) = _
| t < o
1 | t a

The Unit Step Function, u(t -o) is defined by
This function is also denoted by u
a
(t).
1
u(t)
t
Figure 1
u
a
(t)
a
1
t
Figure 2
3
u
S
(t)
1
t
a
(t) (t -o)u(t -o)
a
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 2

Example 1 Graph the function (t) = t
2
u(t -S)
Solution
Since u(t -S) = u before t = S and 1 afterward, we can write
(t) = _
u i t < S
t
2
i t S

Thus, the effect of u(t -S) is to kill the function t
2
prior to t = S. The graph of (t)is shown
below.

Now suppose we want to describe the piecewise defined function (t) = _
1 i t < S
2 i t S
whose
graph is








How can we write this in terms of unit step functions? Idea: turn off the function 1 after t = S and
turn on the function 2 in its place. We know that u
a
(t) turns a function off until t = o and on
after that. Therefore, the function 1 -u
a
(t) does the opposite: it turns a function on until we get to
t = o and off after that:





Figure 3
t < o t a
u
a
0 1
1 -u
a
1 0

In other words, 1 -u
a
(t) leaves a function alone until t = o and kills it after that so the function
(t) = _
1 i t < S
2 i t S

May be written as follows:
3
g(t) = t
2

f(t) = t
2
u(t S)
S
2
1
S
a
1 -u
u
= 1 -_
u i t < o
1 i t o

= _
1 i t < o
u i t o

1 -u
a
(t)
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 3


(t) = 1 (1 -u
3
(t)) +2 u
3
(t)



This can easily be verified by noting that if t < S, u
3
(t) = u so (t) = 1 1 +2 u = 1 and if t S, then
(t) = 1 u +2 1 = 2.
Example 2 Express the function (t) = _
t
2
i u t < 2
1 i t 2

Solution
We wish the function t
2
to be on until t = 2 and off after that. This is accomplished by
multiplying t
2
by 1 u
2
(t). After that, we want to bring the function 1 to life. This is
accomplished by multiplying by u
1
(t):

(t) = t
2
(1 -u
2
(t)) +1 u
2
(t)




In terms of u(t -a) notation,
(t) = t
2
(1 -u(t -2)) +1 u(t -2)
Collect like terms and write:
(t) = t
2
+(1 -t
2
) u(t -2)
The key to solving initial value problems whose forcing function is piecewise defined is to first write the
forcing function in terms of unit step functions.
It is sometimes easier to use the pulse function instead, but the method described in the previous examples is
just as good.
The Pulse Function

What does p
o,b
look like? It is the difference of two step functions as shown below. Algebraically it is this:
p
o,b
= _
u u t < o
1 o t < b
u t b





p
o,b
(t) = u(t - o) - u(t - b)
Let t u. Define the pulse function p
a,h
(t) where u o < b is defined by
We also use the notation p
a,h
= u
a
- u
h

where p
,h
1 - u
h
and p
a,
u
a
. Alternatively, we may define u

= 1 and u

= .
Turn t
2
on until
t = 2, then off
Turn 1 on
after t = 2
Turn 1 off
after t= S
Turn 2 on
after t= S
u
a
a b

a b
u
b
a b
=
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 4

You can clearly see why p
a,h
= u
a
- u
h
is called a pulse function; that is exactly what it does and its
effect on other functions is to turn them off outside the interval (a, b), which is what we want to do when
we are dealing with piecewise defined functions.
Example 3 Plot the pulse p
2,S
.
Solution

Algebraically,
p
2,S
= _
u on (-, 2)
1 on |2,S)
u on |S, )

We can also write p
2,S
(t) = u(t - 2) - u(t - S). This will be the preferred way of expressing
the pulse when we study the Laplace Transform of these functions, and particularly when we
compute inverse transforms.
How do we use the pulse function to express piecewise defined functions un terms of the unit step
function? Here is how: suppose that f is given by
(t) = _

1
(t) u t < o
1

2
(t) o
1
t < o
2

.
.

n
(t) o
n-1
t <

We can write f in terms of pulse functions:
(t) =
1
(t) p
0,u
1
+
2
(t) p
u
1
,u
2
+
3
(t) p
u
2
,u
3
++
n
(t) p
u
n-1
,

Since p
o,b
= u
o
- u
b
with p
u,b
1 - u
b
and p
u,
u
u
, we can write
(t) =
1
(t) (1 -u
u
1
) +
2
(t) (u
u
1
-u
u
2
) +
3
(t) (u
u
2
-u
u
3
) ++
n
(t) u
u
n-1

(t) =
1
(t) (1 -u(t -a
1
)) +
2
(t) (u(t -a
1
) -u(t -a
2
)) ++
n
(t) u(t -a
n-1
)
Example 4 Write the function (t) = _
t u t < 2
t
2
2 t < S
1 S t <
in terms of unit step functions.
Solution
We first write it in terms of the pulse function:
(t) = t p
0,2
+t
2
p
2,5
+1 p
5,

Now in terms of unit step functions:
(t) = t (u
0
-u
2
) +t
2
(u
2
-u
5
) +1 (u
5
-u

)
Finally, since u

= 1 and u

= , we have:
(t) = t (1 -u
2
) +t
2
(u
2
-u
5
) +1 (u
5
-u)
(t) = t -t u
2
+t
2
u
2
-t
2
u
5
+1 u
5

= t +(t
2
-t) u
2
+(1 -t
2
) u
5

2 S
1
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 5

In terms of the more formal notation,
(t) = t +(t
2
-t) u(t -2) +(1 -t
2
) u(t -5)
Verify that this function reduces to what it should on the different intervals in which it is defined.
Laplace Transform of the Unit Step Function
By definition,
L{u(t -o)] = _ c
-st
u(t -o)

0
Jt
But since u(t -o) = u for t < o and 1 thereafter,
L{u(t -o)] = _
u t < o
_ c
-st
1

u
Jt t o

Evaluating this integral is a simple exercise, but by using the appropriate substitution we can avoid the limit
process associated with the improper integral altogether.
Let x = t -a. Then t = x +a and dt = dx. Also x = when t = a and x - as t - . Thus:
_ c
-st
1

o
Jt = _ c
-s(x+o)
1

u
Jx
= c
-us
_ c
-sx
1

0
Jx
This last integral is just I{1] with variable t replaced by x. Therefore,


Example 5 Find L{u(t -S)]
Solution
L{u(t -S)] = c
-3s

1
s
=
c
-3s
s

Example 6 Find L{S u(t -1)]
Solution
L{S u(t -1)] = S L{u(t -1)]
= S
c
-s
s

We may generalize formula (1) for the product (t) u(t -a):
L{(t) u(t -o) = _ c
-st
(t) u(t -o)

0
Jt
= _ c
-st
(t)

u
Jt
The substitution t = x +a dt = dx; x = when t = a transforms the last integral as follows:
_ c
-st
(t)

o
Jt = _ c
-s(x+o)
(x + o)

u
Jx = c
-os
_ c
-sx
(x + o)

u
Jx = c
-os
_ c
-sx
(t + o)

u
Jt
But this last integral is just L{(t +a)].
L{u(t -a)] = e
-ax
L{1] =
e
-ax
x
; x > (1)
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 6


Thus,


This looks very clumsy and we will fix it, but first notice that formula (2) is a special case of formula (1):
let (t) = 1. Then (t +o) = 1 and applying (2) gives us
L{1 u(t -o)] = L{1] c
-us

=
e
-ax
x

Example 7 Find L{t
3
u(t -2)]
Solution
Let (t) = t
3
and a = 2 in (3). Then (t +2) = (t +2)
3
. Thus,
L{t
3
u(t -2)] = L{(t +2)
3
]c
-2s

= L{t
3
+6t
2
+12t +8] c
-2s

= _
S!
s
4
+6
2!
s
3
+12
1
s
2
+8
1
s
] c
-2s

= _

x
4
+
12
x
3
+
12
x
2
+
8
x
] e
-2x

Example 8 Find L{c
2t
u(t -4)]
Solution
Let (t) = c
2t
and o = 4. Then (t +4) = c
2(t+4)
. Applying (2),
L{c
2t
u(t -4)] = L|c
2(t+4)
| c
-4s

= L{c
8
c
2t
] c
-4s

= c
8

1
s -2
c
-4s

=
1
x -2
e
-4x+8

Formula (2) is adequate when computing a transform, but essentially useless when we try to use it to find
inverse transforms.
We remedy this via the following observation: Suppose that we first express (t) as function of t -o, that
is, (t) = g(t -o). Then,
L{(t) u(t -o)] = L{g(t -o) u(t -o)] _ c
-st
g(t -o) u(t -o)

0
Jt
Using the same substitution used earlier results in the more useful formula which we call Second Shifting
Theorem:




Letting 6(x) = L{g(t)],
L{g(t -a) u(t -a)] = 6(x) e
-ax

This a much useful version when used to compute an inverse transform because it states that
L{g(t -a) u(t -a)] = L{g(t)] e
-ax
(3)
The Second Shifting Theorem
L{(t) u(t -a)] = L{(t +a)] e
-ax
(2)
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 7

L
-1
{6(x) e
-ax
] = g(t - a) u(t - a)
We will come back to this thought later; first let us look at examples of formula (S).
Example 9 Find L{t
3
u(t -2)].
Solution
In order to use (S), we need to express (t) = t
3
as a function of t -2. This is how it is done:
t
S
= (t - 2 + 2)
S

= ((t -2) +2)
3

= (t -2)
3
+6(t -2)
2
+12(t -2) +8
Therefore,
L{t
3
u(t -2)] = L{|(t -2)
3
+6(t -2)
2
+12(t -2) +8] u(t -2)]



Applying (4) with o = 2:
L{t
3
u(t -2)] = L{t
3
+6t
2
+12t +8] c
-2s

= _
S!
s
4
+6
2!
s
3
+12
1
s
2
+8
1
s
] c
-2s

Example 10 Find L{u(t -n) sint] using both formulas.
Solution
Method I using formula (2) with (t) = sint:
L{u(t -n) sint] = c
-ns
L{sin(t +n)]
= c
-ns
L{-sint]
= -c
-ns
L{sint]
= -e
-ax

1
x
2
+1

Method II using formula (S), we need to express (t) = sint as a function of t -n:
sin t = sin((t - n) + n)
= -sin(t -n)
Thus,
L{u(t -n) sint] = -L{u(t -n) sin(t -n)]
= -c
-ns
L{sint]
= -e
-ax

1
x
2
+1

Note: The identity sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B in both parts.
Example 11 Compute L{cos 4t u(t -1)]
Solution
We have (t) = cos 4t and o = 1. applying formula (2)
L{cos 4t u(t -1)] = L{(t +1)] c
-s

= L{cos(4t +4)] c
-s

g(t) = t
3
+t
2
+12t + 8
g(t - 2) where
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 8

= L{cos(4t) cos 4 -sin(4t) sin4] c
-s

= |cos 4 L{cos(4t)] -sin4 L{sin(4t)]] c
-s

= _cos 4
s
s
2
+16
-sin4
4
s
2
+16
] c
-s

Note: us 4 and stn 4 are just numbers.
Using formula (S) instead requires that we express cos 4t as a function of t 1:
cos 4t = cos|4(t - 1 + 1)]
= cos|4(t -1) +4]
= cos 4(t -1) cos 4 -sin4(t -1) sin4


Thus,
L{cos 4t u(t -1)] = L{(cos 4(t -1) cos 4 -sin4(t -1) sin4) u(t -1)]
= cos 4 L{cos 4(t -1) u(t -1)] -sin4 L{sin4(t -1) u(t -1)]
= cos 4 L{cos 4t] c
-s
-sin4 L{sin4t] c
-s

= _cos 4
s
s
2
+16
-sin4
4
s
2
+16
] c
-s

Example 12 Compute L{b(t)] where b(t) = _
u i u t < 2n
cos 2t i t 2n

Solution
We have (t) = u p
u,2n
+cos 2t p
2n,
= cos 2t u(t -2n). Thus,
L{b(t)] = L{cos 2t u(t -2n)]
In order to use formula (S), we must express cos 2t as a function of t -2n:
cos 2t = cos|2(t -2n +2n)] = cos|2(t -2n) +4n]
= cos|2(t -2n)] cos 4n -sin|2(t -2n)] sin4n
= cos 2(t -2n)
Therefore,
L{b(t)] = L{cos 2(t -2n) u(t -2n)]
= L{cos 2t] c
-2ns

=
x
x
2
+4
e
-2ax



The Inverse Transform of e
-ax
F(x)
From the transform of u(t -a) it follows that



Example 13 Find L
-1
]
c
-4s
s

L
-1
_
e
-ax
x
_ = u(t -a) (4)
(t) = cos 4t
(t - 1) where
(t) = sin 4t
(t - 1) where
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 9

Solution
L
-1
_
c
-4s
s
_ = u(t - 4)
Let us now find inverse transforms of function of the form e
-ax
F(x). Using formula (4),
L
-1
{F(x) e
-ax
] = (t -a) u(t -a)
A friendlier version of this is


which says: to find L
-1
{e
-ax
F(x)],
1) find L
-1
{F(x)]
2) evaluate it at t -o,
3) and multiply the result by u(t -a).
In plain English: the inverse transform of e
-ax
F(x) is the inverse transform of F(s) evaluated at t a and
the result multiplied by u(t a).
Example 14 Find L
-1
]
4c
-3s
s
2
+16

Solution
We can write this as L
-1
]c
-3s

4
s
2
+16
. Thus, using (5) with F(s) =
4
s
2
+16
and o = S:
L
-1
_c
-3s

4
s
2
+16
_ = u(t -S) L
-1
_
4
s
2
+16
__
t-3

= u(t -S) sin4t|
t-3

= u(t -S) sin4(t -S)
Example 15 Find L
-1
]
sc
-s
s
2
+1

Solution
Here we have L
-1
]c
-s

s
s
2
+1
and we can identify F(s) =
s
s
2
+1
and o = 1. Thus,
L
-1
]c
-s

s
s
2
+1
= u(t -1) L
-1
]
s
s
2
+1

t-1

= u(t -1) cos t|
t-1

= u(t -1) cos(t -1)
Example 16 Find L
-1
]
c
-2s
s
2
-s

Solution
Again,
c
-2s
s
2
-s
= c
-2s
1
s
2
-s
Hence, we identify F(s) =
1
s
2
-s
and o = 2. But F(s) is not an entry on
the table of transforms. However, using partial fractions we can write
1
s
2
-s
=
1
s(s -1)
=
1
s -1
-
1
s

Thus,
L
-1
_c
-2s
1
s
2
-s
_ = L
-1
_c
-2s
_
1
s -1
-
1
s
]_
= u(t -2) L
-1
__
1
s -1
-
1
s
]_
t-2

L
-1
{e
-ax
F(x)] = u(t -a) L
-1
{F(x)]|
t-a
(5)
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 10

= u(t -2) (c
t
-1)|
t-2

= u(t -2) (e
t-2
-1)
Note: L
-1
]
1
s
= 1 so if we evaluate this function at t -o we still get 1 for any o.
Example 17 (both shifting theorems) Find L
-1
]
sc
-2s
s
2
-2s+5

Solution
sc
-2s
s
2
-2s +S
= c
-2s
s
s
2
-2s +1 +4

= c
-2s
s
(s -1)
2
+4

= c
-2s
s -1 +1
(s -1)
2
+4

= c
-2s
_
s -1
(s -1)
2
+4
+
1
(s -1)
2
+4
]
Thus,
L
-1
_
sc
-2s
s
2
-2s +S
_ = u(t -2) L
-1
_
s -1
(s -1)
2
+4
+
1
(s -1)
2
+4
_
= u(t -2) _L
-1
_
s -1
(s -1)
2
+2
2
_ +
1
2
L
-1
_
2
(s -1)
2
+2
2
__
t-2




= u(t -2) _c
t
cos 2t +
1
2
c
t
sin2t_
t-2

= u(t -2) e
(t-2)
_us 2(t -2) +
1
2
stn2(t -2)_
Applications to Initial Value Problems
Let us solve some differential equations using the tools so far developed.
Example 18 Solve the IVP y
i
+4y = _
9 i u t < 1
S i t 1
; y(u) = 1
Solution
The traditional approach to this problem would be to break it into two separate problems: an initial
value problem defined on |u,1) and a differential equation with boundary conditions defined on
|1, ). This can be avoided by expressing the forcing function (t) = _
9 i u t < 1
S i t 1
in terms
of the unit step function:
(t) = 9 (1 -u(t -1)) +S u(t -1)
= 9 -9 u(t -1) +S u(t -1)
= 9 -6 u(t -1)
Thus,
y
i
+4y = 9 -6 u(t -1)
Applying the transform,
L{y
i
] +4 L{y] = L{9] -6 L{u(t -1)]
s(s) -y(u) +4(s) =
9
s
-6
c
-s
s

Shif t ed F(s) Shif t ed F(s)
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 11

(s +4)(s) -1 =
9
s
-6
c
-s
s

Solving for (s):
(s) =
1
(s +4)
+
9
s(s +4)
-6
1
s(s +4)
c
-s

Last two terms will require partial fractions:
1
s(s +4)
=
A
s
+
B
s +4
= A = 14, B = -14
1
s(s +4)
=
14
s
-
14
s +4

Thus,
(s) =
1
(s +4)
+
94
s
-
94
s +4
-6_
1
4
s
-
1
4
s +4
_. c
-s

Simplifying,
(s) =
9
4

1
s
-
5
4

1
s +4
-
S
2
_
1
s
-
1
s +4
] . c
-s


y(t) =
9
4
L
-1
_
1
s
_ -
S
4
L
-1
_
1
s +4
_ -
S
2
L
-1
_c
-s
_
1
s
-
1
s +4
]_
y(t) =
9
4
t -
S
4
c
-4t
-
S
2
u(t -1) (1 -c
-4t
)|
t-1

=
9
4
t -
5
4
e
-4t
+
3
2
u(t -1) |1 -e
-4(t-1)
]
Notice that the last term is u for t < 1. This is exactly what happens when one has a forcing term
that kicks in after certain amount of time has elapsed.
Example 19 Solve the IVP y
i
+y = (t); y(u) = 1 where (t) = _
1 i u t < 2
t i 2 t < 4
u i t 4

Solution
In order to solve this equation, we would have to solve three separate ones and match their
solutions at the boundaries - a lengthy process. Instead, we first use the pulse function to express
f(t) in a more workable way:
(t) = 1 p
0,2
+ t p
2,4
+u p
4,

= 1 (u
0
-u
2
) +t (u
2
-u
4
) +u (u
4
-u

)
= 1 (1 -u
2
) +t (u
2
-u
4
)
= 1 -u
2
+ t u
2
-t u
4

= 1 +(t -1)u
2
-t u
4

Thus, the differential equation we have to solve is
y
i
+y = 1 + (t -1)u
2
-t u
4
; y(u) = 1
L{y
i
+y] = L{1 +(t -1)u
2
-t u
4
]

L{y
i
] +L{y] = L{1] +L{(t -1) u
2
] -L{t u
4
]

(t) = t -1 g(t) = t
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 12

Thus,
s(s) -y() +(s) =
1
s
+L{(t +2)] c
-2s
-L{g(t +4)] c
-4s

s(s) -1 +(s) =
1
s
+L{t +1] c
-2s
-L{t +4] c
-4s

s(s) +(s) = 1 +
1
s
+_
1
s
2
+
1
s
] c
-2s
-_
1
s
2
+
4
s
] c
-4s

Solving for (s):
(s)(s +1) = 1 +
1
s
+_
1
s
2
+
1
s
] c
-2s
-_
1
s
2
+
4
s
] c
-4s

(s) =
1
(s +1)
+
1
s(s +1)
+_
1
s
2
(s +1)
+
1
s(s +1)
] c
-2s
-_
1
s
2
(s +1)
+
4
s(s +1)
] c
-4s

This looks horribly long, but notice that many of the terms are identical, except for the exponential
factors whose only job is to shift our final answer. Applying partial fractions to the expressions
1
s
2
(s+1)
and
1
s(s+1)
we get the following result:
1
s
2
(s +1)
= -
1
s
+
1
s
2
+
1
s +1

and
1
s(s +1)
=
1
s
-
1
s +1

Thus,
(s) =
1
(s +1)
+
1
s
-
1
s +1
+ _-
1
s
+
1
s
2
+
1
s + 1
+
1
s
-
1
s +1
] c
-2s
-_-
1
s
+
1
s
2
+
1
s +1
+
4
s
-
4
s +1
] c
-4s


Simplifying,
(s) =
1
s
+_
1
s
2
] c
-2s
-_
S
s
+
1
s
2
-
S
s +1
] c
-4s

We may now apply L
-1
:
y(t) = 1 +u(t -2) t|
t-2
-u(t -4) |S +t -Sc
-t
]
t-4

y(t) = 1 +u(t -2) (t -2) -u(t -4) |S +(t -4) -Sc
-(t-4)
]
y(t) = 1 +u(t -2) (t -2) -u(t -4) |t -1 -3e
-(t-4)
]
Periodic Functions
The functions listed in that table below are familiar to you. They are the trigonometric functions whose
graphs exhibit a high degree of regularity which we call periodicity. For example, we learn that the sine
function has period 2n and this means, as we also learned, that sin(x +2n) = sinx for all real numbers x.
We call the number 2n the period of the sine function because no other real number smaller than it has this
property.


Periodic functions are very important not only because they describe a multitude of natural phenomena but
also because they are mathematically beautiful and worthy of study. Of course, the trigonometric functions
f(t) Period
sint 2n
cos t 2n
tant n
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 13

are not the only periodic functions and the aim of this lecture is to study their general properties in the
context of the Laplace Transform.




Example 20 (the square wave) Often it is easier to describe periodic functions by their graph The square
wave is shown below:





This wave has period I = 2o and amplitude B where a and B are positive real numbers. We may describe
this function algebraically as follows:
(t) = _
B i u t < o
u i o t < 2o

but we need to indicate that this pattern repeats indefinitely. We do so by stating the additional condition:
(t +2a) = (t)
which conveys the information that the function does not end at t = 2o but repeats the same pattern
indefinitely.
Example 21 The saw-tooth wave shown below. Give an algebraic description of this wave.







Solution
Observe that the function is a straight line of slope 12 on the interval |u,2] and this line repeats
itself every two units. Therefore, p = 2 and
(t) = _

1
2
t i u t < 2
(t +2) = (t)

Example 22 (Half-wave rectification of sinkt). Give an algebraic formula that describes it. (this wave is called
the half-wave rectification of sinkt.







Solution
Definition
A functionf defined on |u, ) is periodic with period p > u if (t +p) = (t) for all t e |u, ).
2a
B
Sa 4a . . a
6
1
8 4
. .
2
n
k

2n
k

Sn
k

1
(t)
t
. . .
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 14

Rectifying means getting rid of the portion on which the wave has negative values. Since the
period of y = sinkt is 2nk the wave has negative values on the interval [
n
k
,
2n
k
. In the figure, that
portion has been removed thus leaving only the positive portions. Clearly the wave repeats
ot t = 2nk so this is the period and one period is described by
(t) = _
sinkt u t < nk
u nk t < 2nk

Adding the condition (t +2nk) = (t) completes the description of the wave.
Example 23 Show that is a periodic function with meriod p then if n is any positive integer, then np is
also a period in the sense that (t +np) = (t).
Solution (proof)
We proceed by induction. For n = 1 we have (t +p) = (t) since p is the period. Assume that
(t +kp) = (t). Then
(t +(k +1)p) = (t +kp +p)
= ((t +kp) +p)
= (t +kp)
= (t)
QED
How do we find transforms of periodic functions? Let us consider the square wave of example 1. In order
to find its transform, we apply the definition:
L{(t)] = B__ c
-st
u
0
Jt +_ c
-st
3u
2u
Jt +_ c
-st
5u
4u
Jt +_
Notice that the integral on the intervals (o, 2o), (So, 4o), is zero since the function is u. As you can see,
this is not very practical even in this simple case of the square wave. We need another, more efficient, way
of doing things. In the optional section of these notes we establish the following result:



Example 24 Find the transform of the square wave with o = 1 and B = 4
Solution
This wave has amplitude 4 and period p = 2o = 2. Thus,
L{(t)] =
1
(1 -c
-2s
)
_ c
-st
(t)
2
0
Jt
=
1
(1 -c
-2s
)
__ c
-st
4
1
0
Jt +_ c
-st
u
2
1
Jt _
=
4
(1 -c
-2s
)
_
c
-st
s
_
1
0

=
4
(1 -c
-2s
)
_
1 -c
-s
s
]
L{(t)] =
1
(1 -e
-px
)
_ e
-xt
(t)
p

dt ()
if f is a periodic function with period p, then its transform is given by
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 15

=
4
(1 +c
-s
)(1 -c
-s
)
_
1 -c
-s
s
]
=
4
x(1 +e
-x
)

Note: 1 -c
-2s
= 1 -(c
-s
)
2
is a difference of squares.
Example 25 Find the transform of the saw-tooth wave shown below:
Solution
The function is described by
(t) = _

1
2
t i u t < 2
(t +2) = (t)

Applying (6)
L{(t)] =
1
1 -c
-2s
_ c
-st
_
1
2
t]
2
0
Jt
=
1
2(1 -c
-2s
)
_ c
-st
t
2
0
Jt
This requires integration by parts, which may be accomplished though tabular integration (review a
calculus text for this procedure as it is encountered often the table for this particular example
appears at the end of these notes). The integral is
_ c
-st
t
2
0
Jt = _-t
1
s
c
-st
-
1
s
2
c
-st
]
0
2

= _t
1
s
c
-st
+
1
s
2
c
-st
]
2
0

=
1
s
2
-_
2
s
c
-2s
+
1
s
2
c
-2s
_
Thus,

1
2(1 -c
-2s
)
_ c
-st
t
2
0
Jt =
1
2(1 -c
-2s
)
_
1
s
2
-
2
s
c
-2s
-
1
s
2
c
-2s
]
Therefore,
L{(t)] =
1
2x
2
(1 -e
-2x
)
(1 -2xe
-2x
-e
-2x
)
Observe that (1 -2sc
-2s
-c
-2s
) = (1 -c
-s
)
2
and that (1 -c
-2s
) = (1 -c
-s
) (1 +c
-s
).
Hence,
L{(t)] =
1
2s
2
(1 -c
-s
)(1 +c
-s
)
(1 -c
-s
)
2

Finally,
L{(t)] =
1 -c
-s
2s
2
(1 +c
-s
)

Example 26 (Half-wave rectification of sinkt). Find the transform of the half-wave rectification of sinkt
Solution
One period if this wave is given by
(t) = _
sinkt u t < nk
u nk t < 2nk

Using p = 2nk,
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 16

L{(t)] =
1
1 -c
-[
2n
k
s
_ c
-st
(t)
2nk
0
Jt
Since (t) = u on nk t < 2nk,
L{(t)] =
1
1 -c
-[
2n
k
s
_ c
-st
sinkt
nk
0
Jt
The integral may be evaluated by two applications of integration by parts. Instead, we will use the
help of MATHEMATICA for this purpose. The output is
_ c
-st
sinkt
nk
0
Jt =
[1 +c
-
ns
k
k
k
2
+s
2

Thus,
L{(t)] =
1
1 -c
-[
2n
k
s

[1 +c
-
ns
k
k
k
2
+s
2

The denominator is again a difference of squares. Hence:
L{(t)] =
k
(k
2
+x
2
) [1 -e
-
ax
k


Example 27 Evaluate ] c
-st
cos
2
t
n
0
Jt.
Solution
First observe that the period of (t) = cos
2
t is n, not 2n.

Thus,
L{cos
2
t] =
1
(1 -c
-ns
)
_ c
-st
cos
2
t
n
0
Jt
Solving for ] c
-st
cos
2
t
n
0
Jt:
_ c
-st
cos
2
t
n
0
Jt = (1 -c
-ns
) L{cos
2
t]
Using the reduction formula cos
2
t =
1
2
+
1
2
cos 2t,
_ c
-st
cos
2
t
n
0
Jt = (1 -c
-ns
) L_
1
2
+
1
2
cos 2t_
=
1
2
(1 -e
-ax
) _
1
x
+
x
x
2
+4
]
Example 28 Here is an interesting thought: the constant function (t) = 1 can be thought of as a wave with
infinite period. What happens if we apply formula (6) to this function?
Solution
Le p = in formula (6):
1 2 3 4 5 6
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
n
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 17


1
(1 -e
-px
)
_ e
-xt
(t)
p

dt
Replacing p = gives us

1
(1 -c
-s
)
_ c
-st
1

0
Jt = L{1]; s > u
Periodic Forcing Functions
Example 29 (The spring-mass revisited) suppose a spring mass system has equation
x +4x = sint ; x(u) = u, x (u) = u
If we had to solve this equation with the methods already developed, we would follow these steps:
1) Find the complementary solution x
c
(t) by solving the homogeneous equation
x +4x = u.
2) Find a particular solution x
p
(t) which can be done by using the variation of parameters method or
undetermined coefficients.
3) The general solution is then x(t) = x
c
(t) +x
p
(t)
4) Apply the initial conditions to determine the arbitrary constants.
Instead, we will use the Laplace transform. Taking the transform of both sides:
L{x +4x] = L{sint]
L{ x]

+4L{x] = L{sint]
s
2
X(s) -sx(u) -x (u) +4X(s) =
1
s
2
+1

where X(s) = L{x(t)]. Since x(u) = u, x (u) = u we have
s
2
X(s) +4X(s) =
1
s
2
+1

Solving for X(s),
X(s) =
1
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+4)

Finally, we can reproduce x(t) using the inverse transform:
x(t) = L
-1
_
1
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+4)
_
At this point, we could use partial fractions, the convolution integral or, even better, use a table of
transforms in which you will find the following entry:


Thus,
L
-1
_
1
(s
2
+o
2
)(s
2
+b
2
)
_ =
o sinbt -b sinot
ob(o
2
-b
2
)

Identifying o = 1 anu b = 2,
x(t) =
sin2t -2sint
2(1 -2
2
)

x(t) = -
1
6
sin2t +
1
S
sint


o sinbt -b sinot
ob(o
2
-b
2
)

1
(s
2
+o
2
)(s
2
+b
2
)

Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 18

Using the Convolution Integral
The convolution of two functions f and g is defined by
( - g)(t) = _ (z)g(t -z)
t

dz
and can be used to find inverse transforms of products. The Convolution Theorem states that
L
-1
{F(s) 0(s)] = ( - g)(t)
where f and g are the inverse transforms of F and G, respectively. We can use this in the previous example:
L
-1
_
1
(s
2
+o
2
)(s
2
+b
2
)
_ =
1
ah
_ stn(z) stn(t -z)
t

dz
Thus,
x(t) = L
-1
_
1
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+4)
_
=
1
2
L
-1
_
1
(s
2
+1)

2
(s
2
+4)
_
=
1
2
_ sin
t
0

1
2
sin2(t -) J
Example 30 (The RC circuit) suppose you have an RC circuit with R = S.S and C = u.u6 f. However,
instead of having a steady source of power it has one that turns off after a few seconds:
E(t) = _
S i u t < 2
u i t 2

If q(u) = u find the charge q(t) on the capacitor at time t > u.
Solution
The differential equation that governs this circuit is
Ri +
1
C
q = E(t); q(u) = u
Since E(t) is given piecewise, we either break down the differential equation into different time
intervals or we use the Laplace Transform. If we opt for the second choice, we need first to express
E(t) in terms of the unit step function and also the equation in terms of the charge only:
E(t) = S (1 -u(t -2))
does the trick. Also note that i =
dq
dt
. Thus,
R
Jq
Jt
+
1
C
q = S(1 -u(t -2); q(u) = u
Applying the transform,
R L_
Jq(t)
Jt
_ +
1
C
L{q(t)] = S L{(1 -u(t -2)]
R(s(s) -q(u)) +
1
C
(s) = S_
1
s
-
c
-2s
s
_
Substituting the initial condition q(u) = u and solving for Q(s)
(s) _Rs +
1
C
] = S _
1
s
-
c
-2s
s
_
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 19

(s) = S_
1
s [Rs +
1
C

-
c
-2s
s [Rs +
1
C

_
The term
1
s [Rs +
1
C

=
1
R

1
(s -u) [s +
1
RC

has the form
1
(x-a)(x-h)
with a = and h = -1RC. Consulting a basic table of transforms we
find that
L
-1
_
1
(x -a)(x -h)
_ =
e
at
-e
ht
a -h

Hence,
q(t) = L
-1
_S _
1
s [Rs +
1
C

-
c
-2s
s [Rs +
1
C

__
=
S
R
L
-1
_
1
s [s +
1
RC

-
c
-2s
s [s +
1
RC

_
=
S
R
_
c
ut
-c
bt
o -b
-u(t -2) _
c
ut
-c
bt
o -b
__
t-2
_
=
S
R
_
c
ut
-c
bt
o -b
-
c
u(t-2)
-c
b(t-2)
o -b
u(t -2)_
where a = and h = -1RC. Substituting these in the expression above,
q(t) =
S
R
_
c
0
-c
-[
1
RC
t
u +
1
RC
-
c
0
-c
-[
1
RC
(t-2)
u +
1
RC
u(t -2)_
= SC _1 -c
-(1RC)t
-_1 -c
-(
1
RC
)(t-2)
] u(t -2)_
Since R = S.S and C = u.u6 ,
q(t) = . 18 |1 -e
-4.7t
-(1 -e
-4.7(t-2)
) u(t -2)]
Example 31 (periodic forcing function) Consider the equation u
ii
-u
i
= "squorc wo:c" with u(u) =
u, u
i
(u) = u [the square wave is shown below]. Find its solution.




Solution
This square wave is a periodic function with period p = 4. Accordingly, we apply the transform to
obtain
|s
2
u(s) -su(u) -u
i
(u)] -|su(s) -u(u)] =
1
1 -c
-4s
_ c
-st
"onc pcrioJ"
4
0
Jt
Applying the initial conditions and transforming the periodic function:
1
2 4 6
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 20

s
2
u(s) -su(s) =
1
1 -c
-4s
_ c
-st
1
2
0
Jt
(s
2
-s)u(s) =
1
s(1 -c
-4s
)
(1 -c
-2s
)

Simplifying the right hand side and Solving for u(s):
u(s) =
1
s
2
(s -1)(1 +c
-2s
)

Thus,
u(t) = L
-1
_
1
s
2
(s -1)(1 +c
-2s
)
_
How de we handle the
1
(1+c
-2s
)
term? We use the geometric series expansion:
1
1 +x
= 1 -x +x
2
-
1
1 +c
-2s
= 1 -c
-2s
+c
-4s
-c
-6s
+
Therefore,
u(t) = L
-1
_
1
s(s -1)

1
s
(1 -c
-2s
+c
-4s
-c
-6s
+ )_
Let (t) = L
-1
]
1
s(s-1)
and g(t) = L
-1
][
1
s
-
c
-2s
s
+
c
-4s
s
-
c
-6s
s
+ . Then
u(t) = ( - g)(t) = _ (z) g(t -z)
t

dz
We may obtain (t) using partial fractions:
(t) = L
-1
_
1
s -1
-
1
s
] = e
t
-1
However, observe that g(t) is an infinite sum of unit step functions:
L
-1
_
1
s
(1 -c
-2s
+c
-4s
-c
-6s
+ )_ = L
-1
_
1
s
-
1
s
c
-2s
+
1
s
c
-4s
-
1
s
c
-6s
+ _
= 1 -u(t -2) +u(t -4) -u(t -6) +
Thus, it behooves us to use the commutative property of convolution and write instead
u(t) = (g - )(t) = _ g(z) (t -z)
t

dz
From which it follows that
u(t) = _ (1 -u( -2) +u( -4) -u( -6) +)
t
0
(e
t-z
-1)J
= _ e
t-z
(1 -u( -2) +u( -4) -u( -6) +)
t
0
J
-_ (1 -u( -2) +u( -4) -u( -6) +)
t
0
J
PROOF OF THE PERIODIC FUNCTION FORMULA
Theorem Let f be a periodic function with period p defined on the interval |u, ) which has a Laplace
Transform. Then
Copyright Rene Barrientos Page 21

L{(t)] =
1
1 -c
-ps
_ c
-st
(t)
p
0
Jt
Proof
By definition,
L{(t)] = _ c
-st
(t)

0
Jt
Applying the properties of integration,
_ c
-st
(t)
p
0
Jt +_ c
-st
(t)

p
Jt
Let x = t -p In the second integral. Then
L{(t)] = _ c
-st
(t)
p
0
Jt +_ c
-s(x+p)
(x +p)

0
Jx
Since fis a periodic with periodp,(x +p) = (x).Therefore,
L{(t)] = _ c
-st
(t)
p
0
Jt +c
-ps
_ c
-sx
(x)

0
Jx
= _ c
-st
(t)
p
0
Jt +c
-ps
L{(t)]
Solving for L{(t)]:
L{(t)] -c
-ps
L{(t)] = _ c
-st
(t)
p
0
Jt
Thus,
L{(t)] =
1
1 -e
-px
_ e
-xt
(t)
p

dt
TABULAR INTEGRATION
Tabular integration is an organized way of doing integration by parts. In example 2 is as follows:
Differentiate these Integrate these Products
t c
-st

1 -
1
s
c
-st

-t
1
x
e
-xt

u
1
s
2
c
-st
1
1
x
2
e
-xt

_e
-xt
t = -t
1
x
e
-xt
-1
1
x
2
e
-xt