TOTAL PRESSURE DROP IN PIPE

The total pressure drop in the pipe is typically calculated using these five steps. (1) Determine the total length of all horizontal and vertical straight pipe runs. (2) Determine the number of valves and fittings in the pipe. For example, there may b two gate valves, a 90o elbow and a flow thru tee. (3) Determine the means of incorporating the valves and fittings into the Darc equation. To accomplish this, most engineers use a table of equivalent lengths. This table lists the valve and fitting and an associated length of straight pipe of the same diameter, which will incur the same pressure loss as that valve or fitting. For example, if a 2 90o elbow were to produce a pressure drop of 1 psi, the equivalent length would be a length of 2 straight pipe that would also give a pressure drop of 1 psi. The engineer then multiplies the quantity of each type of valve and fitting by its respective equivalent length and adds them together. (4) The total equivalent length is usually added to the total straight pipe length obtained in step one to give a total pipe equivalent length. (5) This total pipe equivalent length is then substituted for L in Equation 2 to obtain the pressure drop in the pipe.

One of the most basic calculations performed by any process engineer, whether in design or in the plant, is line sizing and pipeline pressure loss. Typically known are the flow rate, temperature and corresponding viscosity and specific gravity of the fluid that will flow through the pipe. These properties are entered into a computer program or spreadsheet along with some pipe physical data (pipe schedule and roughness factor) and out pops a series of line sizes with associated Reynolds Number, velocity, friction factor and pressure drop per linear dimension. The pipe size is then selected based on a compromise between the velocity and the pressure drop. With the line now sized and the pressure drop per linear dimension determined, the pressure loss from the inlet to the outlet of the pipe can be calculated.

Calculating Pressure Drop

The most commonly used equation for determining pressure drop in a straight pipe is the Darcy Weisbach equation. One common form of the equation which gives pressure drop in terms of feet of head { hL} is given by:
The term is commonly referred to as the Velocity Head.

Another common form of the Darcy Weisbach To obtain pressure drop in units of psi/100 ft, the value of 100 replaces L in Equation 2.

An Example

The fluid being pumped is 94% Sulfuric Acid through a 3, Schedule 40, Carbon Steel pi
Mass Flow Rate, lb/hr: Volumetric Flow Rate, gpm: Density, lb/ft3: S.G. Viscosity, cp: o Temperature, F: Pipe ID, in: Velocity, fps: Reynold's No: Darcy Friction Factor, (f) Pipe: Pipe Line DP/100 ft. Friction Factor at Full Turbulence (t): Straight Pipe, ft:

63,143 70 112.47 1.802 10 127 3.068 3.04 12,998 0.02985 1.308 0.018 31.5

Fittings

Leq/D

Leq2, 3

K1, 2 =t Quantity Total Leq Total K (L/D)

90o Long Radius Elbow Branch Tee Swing Check Valve Plug Valve 4 3 x 1 Reducer TOTAL

20 60 50 18 None5

5.1 15.3 12.8 4.6 822.685

0.36 1.08 0.9 0.324 57.92

2 1 1 1 1

10.23 15.34 12.78 4.6 822.68 865.633

0.72 1.08 0.9 0.324 57.92 60.944

1. K values and Leq/D are obtained from reference 1. 2. K values and Leq are given in terms of the larger sized pipe. 3. Leq is calculated using Equation 5 above. 4. The reducer is really an expansion; the pump discharge nozzle is 1 (Schedule 80) but the connecting pipe is 3. In piping terms, there are no expanders, just reducers. It is standard to specify the reducer with the larger size shown first. The K value for the expansion is calculated as a gradual enlargement with a 30o angle. 5. There is no L/D associated with an expansion or contraction. The equivalent length must be back calculated from the K value using Equation 5 above.

Straight Pipe DP, psi Total Pipe Equivalent Length DP, psi Valves and Fittings DP, psi Total Pipe DP, psi

Typical Equivalent Length Method Not applicable 11.734 Not applicable 11.734

K Value Method 0.412 Not Applicable 6.828 7.24

The line pressure drop is greater by about 4.5 psi (about 62%) using the typical equivalent length method (adding straight pipe length to the equivalent length of the fittings and valves and using the pipe line fiction factor in Equation 1).

One can argue that if the fluid is water or a hydrocarbon, the pipeline friction factor would be closer to the friction factor at full turbulence and the error would not be so great, if at all significant; and they would be correct. However hydraulic calculations, like all calculations, should be done in a correct and consistent manner. If the engineer gets into the habit of performing hydraulic calculations using fundamentally incorrect equations, he takes the risk of falling into the trap when confronted by a pumping situation as shown above.

Another point to consider is how the engineer treats a reducer when using the typical equivalent length method. As we saw above, the equivalent length of the reducer had to be backcalculated using equation 5. To do this, we had to use t and K . Why not use these for the rest of the fittings and apply the calculation correctly in the first place?

Final Thoughts - K Values

The 1976 edition of the Crane Technical Paper No. 410 first discussed and used the two-friction factor method for calculating the total pressure drop in a piping system ( for straight pipe and t for valves and fittings). Since then, Hooper2 suggested a 2-K method for calculating the pressure loss contribution for valves and fittings. His argument was that the equivalent length in pipe diameters (L/D) and K was indeed a function of Reynolds Number (at flow rates less than that obtained at fully developed turbulent flow) and the exact geometries of smaller valves and fittings. K for a given valve or fitting is a combination of two Ks, one being the K found in CRANE Technical Paper No. 410, designated KY, and the other being defined as the K of the valve or fitting at a Reynolds Number equal to 1, designated K1. The two are related by the following equation:

K = K1 / NRE + KY (1 + 1/D) The term (1+1/D) takes into account scaling between different sizes within a given valve or fitting group. Values for K1 can be found in the reference article2 and pressure drop is then calculated using Equation 7. For flow in the fully turbulent zone and larger size valves and fittings, K becomes consistent with that given in CRANE.

Darby3 expanded on the 2-K method. He suggests adding a third K term to the mix. Darby states that the 2-K method does not accurately represent the effect of scaling the sizes of valves and fittings. The reader is encouraged to get a copy of this article.

The use of the 2-K method has been around since 1981 and does not appear to have caught on as of yet. Some newer commercial computer programs allow for the use of the 2-K method, but most engineers inclined to use the K method instead of the Equivalent Length method still use the procedures given in CRANE. The latest 3-K method comes from data reported in the recent CCPS Guidlines4 and appears to be destined to become the new standard; we shall see.

mine the total length of all e pipe. For example, there may be e valves and fittings into the Darcy ts the valve and fitting and an ss as that valve or fitting. For uld be a length of 2 straight pipe h type of valve and fitting by its y added to the total straight pipe nt length is then substituted for L

Pressure losses distributed in the pipes

The calculation of the linear pressure loss, that corresponding to the general flow in a rectilinear conduit, is given by the following general formula:

D p = pressure loss in Pa L = friction factor (a number without dimension)

p = density of water in kg/m3 V = flow rate in m/s D = pipe diameter in m L = pipe length in m

The expression above shows that calculations of pressure losses rest entirely on the determination of the coefficient L.

hedule 40, Carbon Steel pipe:

FLUID PARAMETERS

PIPE PARAMETERS

Allowance in Equivalent Length of Pipe for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings

Diameter of fitting in inches

90 std. ell, ft.

45 std. ell, ft.

90 side tee, ft.

Coupling or straight run of tee, Gate valve, Globe ft. feet valve, feet

3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 5 6

1 2 2.5 3 4 5 7 8 10 12 14 17 20

0.6 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12

1.5 3 4 5 6 7 10 12 15 18 21 25 30

0.3 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.6 4 5 6

0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1 1.3 1.6 2 2.4 2.7 3.3 4

8 15 20 25 35 45 55 65 80 100 125 140 165

Absolute Pipe Roughness

p = density of w

Loss pressure

Included here is a sampling of absolute pipe roughness e data taken from Binder (1973). These values are for new pipes; aged pipes typically exhibit in rise in apparent roughness. In some cases this rise can be very significant. Pipe Absolute x 10-6 feet micron (unless

drawn brass 5 1.5 drawn 5 1.5 commercial 150 45 wrought iron 150 45 asphalted 400 120 galvanized 500 150 cast iron 850 260 wood stave 600 to 3000 0.2 to 0.9 concrete 1000 to 0.3 to 3 mm riveted steel 3000 to 0.9 to 9 mm Relative pipe

Example:

FIRE HOSE Friction Loss Charts

P.S.I. Per 100' Single Line
Hose U.S. GPM 30 60 95 125 150 200 250 1" 26 ------------1" 4 9 22 38 54 ----1" 2" 3" ------1 2 3.5 5 4" ------------1.5 1.5 --6 1 14 2 25 3.5 35 5 62 8 --13 Add 5 P.S.I. Per Storey 3" 2 4 7.5 12 Hose L/Min. 1900 2850 3800 4750

P.S.I. Per 100' Dual Line

Hose U.S. GPM 500 750 1000 1250 3"WI 2" 2" CPL 13 3 32 6 56 10 87 15 Add 5 P.S.I. Per Siamese or Wye 10 P.S.I. Per Portable Monitor

Kpa Per 30 Meter Dual Line

76mm 65mm CPL 90 20 220 40 390 70 600 100 Add 30 Kpa Per Siamese or Wye 70 Kpa Per Monitor 65mm

Back to Top

nd Threaded Fittings

Angle valve, feet

4 8 12 15 18 22 28 34 40 50 55 70 80

The Reynolds number is defined is:

According to kinematics viscosity

According to dynamics viscosity

V = flow rate in m/s d = pipe diameter in mm v = viscosity of water in mm/s (or centistokes) (legal System (S.I) in m/s = 1000000 centistokes or mm/s)

p = density in kg/m3 V =speed in m/s D = hydraulic diameter of the pipe in m = dynamic viscosity in Pa.s (or kg/m.s) (kg/m.s = One tenth of a poise = 10 poises)

Reynolds number is inversely proportional to kinematics viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is a characteristic which makes it possible to determine resistance to the movement of the fluid. The higher kinematic viscosity will be and the more difficult it will be to move the fluid in the pipe.

Kinematics viscosity (v is the ratio of dynamic viscosity on the density of the fluid. Kinematics viscosity in m2/s kinematics viscosity in mm/s (or centistokes)

v = kinematics viscosity in mm/s (or centistokes) - (legal system (S.I) in m/s = 1000000 centistokes) = viscosity dynamic of water Pa.s or (kg/m S) p = density of water in kg/m3

Loss pressure Laminar flow (Re 2000) In rate of laminar, the nature or the surface quality of the interior walls of the lines does not intervene in the calculation of the pressure loss.

The loss pressure is determined by the following function:

L = friction factor (a number without dimension)

Re = Reynolds number

The laminar flow meets in practice only in the transport and the handling of the viscous fluids, such as the crude oil, fuel oil, oils, etc.

Turbulent flow (Re > 2000) In the critical zone, i.e. between 2000 and 4000 Reynolds the formula of computation employed will be treated in the manner that in situation of mode of turbulent flow. In rate of turbulent, the factor of friction is translated by the formula of Colebrook considered as that which translates best the phenomena of flow into turbulent mode.

It is noted that this formula is in implicit form; consequently search can be done only by successive approaches (iterative calculation) With:

L = friction factor (a number without dimension)

D = pressure loss coefficient. k = index of roughness of the pipe. d = pipe diameter in mm. Re = Reynolds number. Usual value index of roughness (k) in mm Nature of interior surface Index roughness K Copper, lead, brass, stainless 0,001 to 0,002 PVC pipe Stainless steel Steel commercial pipe Stretched steel Weld steel Galvanized steel Rusted steel New cast iron Worn cast iron Rusty cast iron Sheet or asphalted cast iron Smoothed cement Ordinary concrete Coarse concrete Well planed wood Ordinary wood 0,0015 0,015 0,045 0,09 0,015 0,045 0,15 0,1 to 1 0,25 to 0,8 0,8 to 1,5 1,5 to 2,5 0,01 to 0,015 0,3 1 5 5 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Influence rate of antifreeze (glycol) In the case of an addition of antifreeze (glycol) to water, kinematics viscosity (into centistokes) varies in the following way:

t = temperature at 0C a = percentage of glycol

Pipe dia. [d mm.] = Flow Rate l/min = Flow velocity [m/s] = Viscosity [mm^2/s] =

50 120 #DIV/0!

50 mm PVC pipe, 120 l/min

Kpa Per 30 Meter Single Line

Hose L/Min. 130 225 350 475 570 760 950 25mm 180 ------------38mm 44mm 65mm --7 14 24 35 55 90 76mm ------7 14 24 35 100mm ------------10 28 10 60 40 150 95 260 170 370 240 --425 ----Add 30 Kpa Per Storey

eter Dual Line

76mm 14 28 50 85

Siamese or Wye er Monitor

Pipe Head Loss Calculator

Input Data Fluid Parameters Flow rate (Q) = 100 Kinematic Viscosity (v ) = 0.00001216 Pipe Parameters Inside Diameter (D) = 4.026 Length (L) = 100 Specific Roughness (e) = 0.00015 Output Data GPM Ft2/s Inches Ft Ft Velocity (V) = 2.52 Ft/s Reynold's Number (Re) = 69527.96 Velocity Head (Hv) = 0.1 Ft Friction Factor2 (f ) = 0.021265 Friction Loss1 (Hf) = 0.625 Ft

Input Data Fluid Parameters Velocity = 2.52 Kinematic Viscosity = 0.00001216 Pipe Parameters Inside Diameter = 4.026 Length = 100 Absolute Roughness = 0.00015

Output Data Ft/s Ft2/s Inches Ft Ft Flow Rate = 100 GPM Reynold's Number = 69527.96 Velocity Head (Hv) = 0.1 Ft 2 Friction Factor = 0.021265 Friction Loss1 = 0.625 Ft

1. Friction head loss calculation based on Darcy-Weisbach equation. 2. Friction factor calculation based on approximated Colebrook equation (Swamee-Jain equation) when R e >5000.

Common Fluid Properties Kinematic Viscosity, v (Ft2/s) Fluid Water, clear (32F) 0.00001931 Water, clear (40F) 0.00001664 Water, clear (60F) 0.00001216 Water, clear (85F) 0.00000869 Saltwater, 5% (68F) 0.00001118 Saltwater, 25% (60F) 0.00002583 Propylene Glycol, 35% (20F)1 0.0001 1 Propylene Glycol, 25% (40F) 0.00004783 Ethylene Glycol, 35% (20F)1 0.0001 1 Ethylene Glycol, 25% (40F) 0.00003161
NOTE: 1. Aqueous solution, concentration in volume percent.

Common Piping Material Properties Specific Roughness, e (Ft) Material Steel and wrought iron 0.00015 Cast iron 0.00085 Galvanized steel and iron 0.0005 Copper and brass 0.000005 Cast iron, tar coated 0.0004 Cast iron, cement lined 0.000008 Plastic 0.000005 Fiberglass 0.000017

Visit us at http://www.syncroflo.com/
Copyright 2003, SyncroFlo, Inc.
The information contained on this chart has been carefully prepared and is believed to be correct. SyncroFlo makes no warranties regarding this information and is in no way responsible for loss incurred from the use of such information.

Wall drag and changes in height lead to pressure drops in pipe fluid flow. To calculate the pressure drop and flowrates in a section of uniform pipe running from Point A to Point B, enter the parameters below. The pipe is assumed to be relatively straight (no sharp bends), such that changes in pressure are due mostly to elevation changes and wall friction. (The default calculation is for a smooth horizontal pipe carrying water, with answers rounded to 3 significant figures.) Note that a positive Dz means that B is higher than A, whereas a negative Dz means that B is lower than A.

Inputs Pressure at A (absolute): Average fluid velocity in pipe, V : Pipe diameter, D : Pipe relative roughness, e/D: Pipe length from A to B, L : Elevation gain from A to B, Dz : Fluid density, r: Fluid viscosity (dynamic), m:
100 1 1.2 0 50 15 1 1 kPa m/s m m/m m m kg/l cP

Answers

5 Reynolds Number, R:1.00 10 Friction Factor, f: 0.0180 Pressure at B: 95.5 kPa Pressure Drop: 4.50 kPa Volume Flowrate: 7.85 l/s Mass Flowrate: 7.85 kg/s

Select desired output units for next calculati on.

kPa l/s kg/s

Calculate Again Hint: To Calculate a Flowrate

Default Values

You can solve for flowrate from a known pressure drop using this calculator (instead of solving for a pressure drop from a known flowrate or velocity). Proceed by guessing the velocity and inspecting the calculated pressure drop. Refine your velocity guess until the calculated pressure drop matches your data.

Equations used in the Calculation Changes to inviscid, incompressible flow moving from Point A to Point B along a pipe are described by Bernoulli's equation,

where p is the pressure, V is the average fluid velocity, r is the fluid density, z is the pipe elevation above some datum, and g is the gravity acceleration constant.

Bernoulli's equation states that the total head h along a streamline (parameterized by x ) remains constant. This means that velocity head can be converted into gravity head and/or pressure head (or viceversa), such that the total head h stays constant. No energy is lost in such a flow. For real viscous fluids, mechanical energy is converted into heat (in the viscous boundary layer along the pipe walls) and is lost from the flow. Therefore one cannot use Bernoulli's principle of conserved head (or energy) to calculate flow parameters. Still, one can keep track of this lost head by introducing another term (called viscous head ) into Bernoulli's equation to get,

where D is the pipe diameter. As the flow moves down the pipe, viscous head slowly accumulates taking available head away from the pressure, gravity, and velocity heads. Still, the total head h (or energy) remains constant. For pipe flow, we assume that the pipe diameter D stays constant. By continuity, we then know that the fluid velocity V stays constant along the pipe. With D and V constant we can integrate the viscous head equation and solve for the pressure at Point B,

where L is the pipe length between points A and B, and Dz is the change in pipe elevation (z B - z A ). Note that Dz will be negative if the pipe at B is lower than at A.

The viscous head term is scaled by the pipe friction factor f. In general, f depends on the Reynolds Number R of the pipe flow, and the relative roughness e/D of the pipe wall,

The roughness measure e is the average size of the bumps on the pipe wall. The relative roughness e /D is therefore the size of the bumps compared to the diameter of the pipe. For commercial pipes this is usually a very small number. Note that perfectly smooth pipes would have a roughness of zero. For laminar flow (R < 2000 in pipes), f can be deduced analytically. The answer is,

For turbulent flow (R > 3000 in pipes), f is determined from experimental curve fits. One such fit is provided by Colebrook,

The solutions to this equation plotted versus R make up the popular Moody Chart for pipe flow,

The calculator above first computes the Reynolds Number for the flow. It then computes the friction factor f by direct substitution (if laminar; the calculator uses the condition that R < 3000 for this determination) or by iteration using NewtonRaphson (if turbulent). The pressure drop is then calculated using the viscous head equation above. Note that the uncertainties behind the experimental curve fits place at least a 10% uncertainty on the deduced pressure drops. The engineer should be aware of this when making calculations.

>>

Unit Conversion Guide

Area

To convert square meters (m) square meters (m) square kilometers (km) square kilometers (km)

Into square centimeters (cm) square feet (ft) (statute) square miles (mi) nautical square miles (nm)

Multiply by 10000 10.763911 0.386109

0.291181

square kilometers (km) (statute) square miles (mi) acres acres hectares(ha)
Reset

acres acres square yards (yd) square feet (ft) acres

247.105381 640

2.386109 00.763911 10000 47.105 .291181 0 1

1
4840

1
43560

2 1.4
2.47105381

Length

To convert

Into

Multiply by

100

meters (m) meters (m) meters (m) meters (m) kilometers (km) kilometers (km) feet (ft)
Reset

centimeters (cm) inches (in) feet (ft) yard (yd) (statute) miles (mi) nautical miles (nm) inches (in)

100 39.37008 3.28084 1.093613 0.621371 0.539612 12

100 3 19.3701 3 1.28084 1.09361 0 1.62137 0 1.53961 12.0

Mass

To convert kilograms (kg) kilograms (kg) grams (g)

Reset

Into grams (g) pounds (lb) ounce (oz)

Multiply by 1000 2.204627 0.035274

1000 2 1.204627 0 1.035274

Pressure To convert atmospheres (atm) atmospheres (atm) atmospheres (atm) Into millibar (mb) feet of water (at 4C) inches of mercury (at 0C) Multiply by 1013.25 33.9 29.92

1013.25 3 13.90 2 19.92 7 16.0

atmospheres (atm) atmospheres (atm)

centimeters of mercury kgs/cm

76 1.0333

1.0333 14.70

atmospheres (atm) atmospheres (atm)

Reset

lbs/in tons/ft

14.7 1.058

1.058

Reset

Speed

To convert

Into

Multiply by

0 1.27778
kilometers/hour (km/h) meters/second (m/s) kilometers/hour (km/h) miles/hour (mi/hr) knots(kn)
Reset

0.277778 0.6214 0.514444

0 1.6214 0 1.51444

meters/second (m/s)

Temperature To convert Fahrenheit (F)-32 Into Celsius (C) Multiply by 9-May 9-May 1.8 1

Fahrenheit (F)+459.67 kelvin (K) Celsius (C)+17.7778 Fahrenheit (F) Celsius (C)+273.15 kelvin (K)
Reset

0 32 2 055.3722 3 02 2 073.15

Volume To convert cubic meters (m) cubic meters (m) cubic meters (m) liter(l)
Reset

Into cubic centimeters (cm) cubic feet (ft) U.S. gallons (gal) U.S. gallons (gal)

Multiply by 1,000,000 35.31467 264.1721 0.2641721

1000000 3 15.31467 2 164.1721 0 1.2641721

For questions and comments, please contact: Dr. L. Charles Sun, Email: Charles.Sun@noaa.gov

Plumbing Conversions

To Change

To

Multiply By

Atmospheres Atmospheres Atmospheres Btu/min. Btu/min. Btu/min. Centimeters of mercury Centimeters of mercury Cubic inches Cubic feet Feet of water Feet of water Gallons Gallons Gallons Gallons per min. Gallons per min. Horsepower Inches Inches of water Inches of water Inches of water Inches of water Inches of mercury Inches of mercury Inches of mercury Ounces (fluid)

Pounds per square inch Inches of mercury Feet of water Foot-pounds/sec Horsepower Watts Atmospheres Feet of water Cubic feet Cubic inches Atmospheres Inches of mercury Cubic inches Cubic feet Pounds of water Cubic feet sec. Cubic feet hour Foot-lbs/sec. Feet Pounds per square inch Inches of mercury Ounces per square inch Ounces per square foot Inches of water Feet of water Pounds per square inch Cubic inches

14.696 29.92 34 12.96 0.02356 17.57 0.01316 0.4461 0.00058 1728 0.0295 0.8826 231 0.1337 8.33 0.002228 8.0208 550 0.0833 0.0361 0.0735 0.578 5.2 13.6 1.1333 0.4914 1.805 27.72 2.31 2.04 0.0681

Pounds per square inch Inches of water Pounds per square Feet of water inch Pounds per square inch Inches of mercury Pounds per square inch Atmospheres

Length (Unit of length of S.I. = meter) US & Imperial >>: Metric system 1 Inch (in) - US 25.40005 mm 1 Inch (in) - Imp 1 Foot (ft) = (12.in) - US 1 Foot (ft) = (12.in) - Imp 1 Yard (yd) = (3.ft) - US 1 Yard (yd) = (3.ft) - Imp 1 Mile (mi) = (1760.yd) - US 1 Mile (mi) = (1760.yd) - Imp 1 Nautical mile (imp) 25.39996 mm 0.3048006 m 0.3047995 m 0.9144018 m 0.9143984 m 1.609347 km 1.609341 km 1.853181 km Metric system >> US & Imperial 1 millimeter (mm) 0.03937 in (US) 1 millimeter (mm) 0.03937 in (imp) 1 meter (m) 1 meter (m) 1 meter (m) 1 meter (m) 1 kilometer (km) 1 kilometer (km) 1 kilometer (km) 3.28083 ft (US) 3.28083 ft (imp) 1.093611 yd (US) 1.093611 yd (imp) 0.6213699 mi (US) 0.6213724 mi (imp) 0.5396127 n.mi (imp)

Surface (the unit of area of S.I. = square meter) US & Imperial >> Metric system 1 Acre - US 0.4046873 ha Metric system >> US & Imperial 2.471044 acre 1 hectare (ha) (US) 1 hectare (ha) 1 Square centimeter (cm2) 1 Square centimeter (cm2) 1 Square meter (m2) 1 Square meter (m2) 1 Square meter (m2) 1 Square meter (m2) 1 Square kilometer (km2) 1 Square kilometer (km2) 2.4711 acre (imp) 0.1549997 sq. in (US) 0.1550 sq.in (imp) 10.76387 sq.ft (US) 10.7639 sq.ft (imp) 1.195985 sq.yd (US)

1 Acre - Imp 0.4046842 ha 1 Square inch (sq in) - US 6.451626 cm2 1 Square inch (sq in) - Imp 6.451578 cm2 1 Square foot (sq ft) = 144 sq in US 1 Square foot (sq ft) = 144 sq in Imp

0.09290341 m2

0.09290272 m2

1 Square yard (sq yd) = 9 sq.ft - US 0.8361307 m2 1 Square yard (sq yd) = 9 sq.ft - Imp 0.8361245 m2 1 Square mile (sq mi) = 640 acres US 2.589998 km2 1 Square mile (sq mi) = 640 acres Imp 2.589979 km2

1.1960 sq.yd (imp) 0.3861006 sq.mi (US)

0.3861 sq.mi (imp)

Volume (the unit of volume of S.I. = cubic meter) US/imp >> Metric Metric system >> --------system US/imp Volume -------------

1 Cubic inch (cu in) - US 16,3871 cm3 1 Cubic inch (cu in) - Imp 16.38698 cm3 1 Cubic foot (cu ft) - US 28.31702 dm3 1 Cubic foot (cu ft (Imp) 28.31670 dm3 1 Cubic yard (cu yd) - US 0.7645594 m3 1 Cubic yard (cu yd) - Imp 0.7645509 m3 Measure of ----capacity 1 fluid ounce (fl 29,5735 cm3 (or oz) - US ml) 1 fluid ounce (fl 28,4131 cm3 (or oz) - Imp ml) 35.23829 dm3 (or 1 Bushel (US) litre) 36.36770 dm3 (or 1 Bushel (imp) liter) 3.785329 dm3 (or 1 Gallon (US) liter) 4.545963 dm3 (or 1 Gallon (imp) liter) 0.4731661 dm3 1 Liquid pint (US) (or liter) 1 Pint(pt) = 20 fl 0.5682454 dm3 oz - Imp (or liter)

1 Cubic centimeter (cm3) 1 Cubic centimeter (cm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic meter (m3) 1 Cubic meter (m3) ----1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm3)

0.06102509 cu in (US) 0.0610241 cu in (imp) 0.03531544 cu ft (US) 0.0353148 cu ft (imp) 1.307943 cu yd (US) 1.307957 cu yd (imp) ----33.814 fl oz 35.195 fl oz 0.0283782 bu (US) 0.02749692 bu (imp) 0.2641779 gal (US) 0.2199754 gal (imp) 2.113423 liq.pt (US) 1.759803 pt (imp)

Mass (the unit of mass of S.I. = kilogram) Attention not to confuse mass and weight. The mass (kg) is a intrinsic characteristic of the body and is measured in kilogram. Masse spcifique ou volumique = quotient de la masse d'un corps par son volume.

Specific mass = quotient of the mass of a body by its volume

Weight is a force which depends on terrestrial attraction and it is the equivalent of the mass of a body by the acceleration of gravity (9.80665 at the sea level) and is measured in Newton [ N ].

For example a man of 75 kg (it is its mass, and not its weight contrary to the current expression), has a weight of: 75 * 9.80665 = 735,5 N on the sea level. US/imp >> Metric system 1Grain (gr) - US 64.79892 mg Metric system >> US/imp 0.01543236 gr 1 milligram (mg) (US)

1Grain (gr) - Imp

64.79892 mg

1 milligram (mg) 1 gram (g) 1 gram (g) 1 kilogram (kg) 1 kilogram (kg)

1Ounce (oz) - US 28.34953 g 1Ounce (oz) - Imp 28.34953 g 1Pound (Ib) = 16 oz - US 0.4535924 kg 1Pound (Ib) = 16 oz - Imp 0.4535924 kg 1Short hundredweight(sh cwt)= 100 Ib - US 45.35924 kg 1Cental (imp) 1Long ton (l tn) = 2240 Ib - US 1Ton (imp) Specific Gravity 45.35924 kg 1.016047 t 1.016047 t

0.01543236 gr (imp) 0.03527396 oz av. (US) 0.03527396 oz av. (imp) 2.204622 lb av. (US) 2.204622 lb av. (imp)

1kilogram (kg) 1 kilogram (kg) 1 ton 1 ton

0.02204622 sh.cwt (US) 0.02204622 ctl (imp) 0.9842064 l.tn (US) 0.9842064 tn (imp)

The density of gas, relative to air, is called specific gravity. The specific gravity of air is defined as 1. Since propane gas has a specific gravity of 1.5, propane-air mixtures have a specific gravity of greater than 1.

Design 1: (1) Determine the total length of all horizontal and vertical straight pipe runs.

2) Determine the number of valves and fittings in the pipe. For example, there may be two gate valves, a 90o elbow and a flow thru

(3) Determine the means of incorporating the valves and fittings into the Darcy equation.

(4) The total equivalent length is usually added to the total straight pipe length obtained in step one to give a total pipe equivalent le

(5) This total pipe equivalent length is then substituted for L in Equation 2 to obtain the pressure drop in the pipe

ay be two gate valves, a 90o elbow and a flow thru tee.

ained in step one to give a total pipe equivalent length.

n the pressure drop in the pipe