For ‘Invited Talk at ‘International Conference on Indian History’ – January 9 - 10, 2009

Origin of Mathematics in the Vedas

Bhu Dev Sharma
Professor of Mathematics
JIIT University, Noida, UP 201307, India
e-mail: bhudev_Sharma@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

The current temper being scientific, from intellectual point of view, there is quite some
interest in tracing the history of mathematics and science. The scholarship has widened from
tracing the development to searching the origin of mathematics.
The paper presents
(a) Scholarly views of origin of mathematics in India.
(b) Presence of Indian mathematicians in China
(c) Direct internal evidence from the Vedas, that the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, ... 9, with 9 as
the largest single digit find mention in the Vedas;
(d) The Vedas refer to what in the modern terminology are called 'sequences of numbers’
and fractions, both unit and others.
*******

1. Introduction
The current scholarly outlook can rightly be called scientific. Therefore contemporary
intellectuals have quite some interest in the history of mathematics and science. The paper points
out how initially proposed theories by European scholars of mathematics, considering algebra and
geometry of Greek and / or Old-Babylonian origin came to be discarded as studies expanded to
Vedic works like Shatpath Brahamana and Tattiriya Samhita.
It also brings out some references of Indian mathematicians spending time in China in eighth
century and using Indian mathematics there for calendrical purposes.
Further, though it is universally accepted that the present number system, called 'Hindu Numerals'
originated in India. However, there is a lot of speculation as when and where did the so called
'Hindu Numerals' first came to be recorded and used in Indian works.
Going to the very roots, presenting direct internal evidence from Vedas, the paper presents the
following points:
1. The numbers 1, 2, 3, ... 9, with 9 as the largest single digit find mention in the 'richaas' and
mantras of the Vedas;
2. There is enough evidence that a method to denote 'zero' was known to Vedic seers.
3. The Vedas refer to what in the modern terminology are called 'sequences of numbers';
4. That the idea of fractions, both unit and others, has also found clear mention in Vedas.
2. Theories of Origin of Mathematics in Greece and Babylonia
The European renaissance of 1300 – 1600 traced roots of everything to Ionian Greece, in
particular to sixth century BC. Following these lines, WWR Hall in 1901 wrote, “The history of
Mathematics cannot with certainty be traced back to any school or period before that of Ionian
Greeks.”
 In these early years of European intellectual growth, contributions of India were obviously not
considered. After Sanskrit studies attracted some European scholars, this situation changed. In
1875 G. Thibaut, a Sanskrit scholar with a view to inform the learned world about Indian
mathematics, translated a large part of ‘Sulvasutras.’ In 1877 Cantor realizing the importance of
Thibaut’s work, began a comparative study of Greek and Indian mathematics. Initially he concluded
that Indian geometry is derived from Alexandrian knowledge. However, some 25 years later, with
greater study, he concluded that the Indian geometry and Greek geometry are related. The process
of assigning dates also picked up. Later Cantor eventually conceded a much earlier date to Indian
geometry.
There then came another turn. In 1928 Neugebauer, published a paper in which he traced that
the so called Pythagoras theorem was known well over a thousand years before Pythagoras, but in
1937 made a hazard guess of geometry being of Babylonian origin.
Seidenberg expanded the study of Vedic sources, including ‘Shatpath Brahmana’ and
‘Taittiriya Samhita’ closely comparing ‘Greek and Vedic Mathematics’ as well as ‘Old-Babylonian
and Vedic Mathematics, concluded as follows:
“… geometric algebra existed in India before the classical period of Greece.”
“A comparison of Pythagorean and Vedic mathematics together with some chronological
considerations showed … [that] a common source for Pythagorean and Vedic mathematics is to be
sought either in Vedic mathematics or in an older mathematics much like it. The view that Vedic
mathematics is a derivative of Old-Babylonian [is] rejected.”
3. Indian Mathematicians in China
Another interesting study has recently been brought out by Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen (The
Argumentative Indian, 2005). In a chapter on ‘China and India’, he mentions, “Several Indian
mathematicians and astronomers held positions in China’s scientific establishment, and an Indian
scientist, Gautam Siddhartha (Qutan Xida, in Chinese) even became the president of the official
Board of Astronomy in China in the eighth century.”
Sen further writes: “Calendrical studies, in which Indian astronomers located in China in the
eighth century, … were particularly involved, made good use of the progress of trigonometry that
had already occurred in India by then (going much beyond the original Greek roots of Indian
trigonometry). The movement east of Indian trigonometry to China was part of a global exchange of
ideas that also went west around that time. Indeed this was also about the time when Indian
trigonometry was having a major impact on the Arab world (with widely used Arabic translations of
the works of Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and others) which would later influence
European mathematics as well, through the Arabs.”
Sen points out, “Gautam (Qutan Xida) produced the great Chinese compendium of astronomy
Kaiyvan Zhanjing – an eighth-century scientific classic. He was also engaged in adopting a number
of Indian astronomical works into Chinese. For example, Jiuzhi li, which draws on a particular
planetary calendar in India (‘Navagraha calendar) is clearly based on the classical
Panchsiddhantika, produced around 550 CE by Varahamihira. It is mainly an algorithmic guide to
computation, estimating such things as the duration of eclipses based on the diameter of the moon
and other relevant parameters. The techniques involved drew on methods that were established by
Aryabhata and then further developed by his followers in India such as Varahamihira and
Brahmagupta.”
4. Number Evidence Directly from Vedas:
 As we proceed to bring direct evidence of the presence of numbers in Vedas, it may be pointed
out that our decimal system uses 10 digits, 1, 2, … , 9, 0, and represent numbers higher than 9 in
multiple of these digits. In this representation a digit has a place and a value. This place value
system has itself being a matter of great ingenuity of Indian mind.
The famous dictum of RgVeda, ‘ekam sad vipra bahuda vadanti’ uses ‘ekam’ meaning ‘one’ as
the cardinal number. Further to search numbers in Vedas, let us refer to the the famous and
fundamental stanza - ‘purush-sukta’ - of RgVeda:
s;hs;>x;I{;;* p;uo{;/ s;hs;>;Z;/ s;hs;>p;;t;< = s; B;Uim;] iv;Sv;t;;e v;&tv;; aty;it;{@äx;;V<g;ulm;< ==
p;uo{; Av;edg;] s;v;*m;< y;d<B;Ut;] y;cc; B;vy;m;< = Wt;;m;&t;tv;sy;ex;;n;/ y;dáen;;Iit;r;ehit; ==
At;;v;;n;sy; m;ihm;; at;;e jy;;y;;g;]Sc; p;Uo{;/ = p;;d;eCsy; iv;Sv;; B;ut;;in;, iF;p;;dsy;;m;&t;] idiv; ==
iF;p;;dUQv;*] WsWtp;uo{;/ p;;d;eCsy;eh;CCB;v;;tp;un;/ = t;t;;e iv;{v;V<vy;k>:;m;t;<, s;;x;n;;n;x;n;e aiB; ==
t;sm;;d< iv;r;#j;;y;t;, iv;r;j;;e aiQ; p;Uo{;/ = s; j;;t;;e aty;ircy;t;, p;Sc;;d< B;Uim;m;q;;e p;ur/ ==
y;tp;uo{;e[; hiv;{;;, dev;; y;Nm;t;nv;t; = v;s;nt;;e asy;;s;Id;jy;m;<, g;>I{m; wQm;xx;ràiv;/ ==
s;pt;;sy;;s;np;irQ;y;/ iF; s;pt; s;im;Q;/ k&:t;;/ = dev;; y;d< y;N] t;nv;;n;;/, abQn;np;uo{;] p;x;um;< ==
t;] y;N] b;ih*i{; p;>;EZ;n;<, p;uo{;] j;;t;m;g;>t;/ = t;en; dev;; ay;j;nt;, s;;Qy;; P{;y;Sc; y;e ==
t;sm;;êN;ts;v;*hut;/, s;]B;&t;] p;&{;d;jy;m;< = p;x;Ug;]st;;g;]Sc;k>:e v;;y;vy;;n;<, a;r[y;;ng;>;my;;Sc; y;e ==
t;sm;;êN;ts;v;*hut;/, Pc;/ s;;m;;in; j;iNre = %nd;g;<]is; j;iNre t;sm;;t;<, y;j;ustsm;;d j;;y;t; ==
t;sm;;dSv;; aj;;y;nt;, y;e ke: c;;eB;y;;dt;/ =g;;v;;e h j’;iNre t;sm;;t;<, t;sm;;jj;;t;; aj;;v;y;/ ==
y;tp;uo{;] vy;dQ;u/, k:it;Q;; vy;k:Dp;y;n; = m;uK;] ik:m;sy; k:;E b;;hU, k:;v;UO p;;d;v;ucy;et;e ==
b;>;É[;;eCsy; m;uK;m;;s;It;<, b;;hU r;j;ny;/ k&:t;/ = ~O t;dsy; y;d< v;Exy;/, p;d<B;Y;g;] x;Uë;e aj;;y;t; ==
c;nëm;; m;n;s;;e j;;t;/, c;Z;;e s;Uy;;e* aj;;y;t; = m;uK;;idnëû;igíû, p;>;[;;è;y;ur j;;y;t; ==
n;;By;; a;s;Idnt;irZ;m;<, x;I{[;;e* ê;E/ s;m;v;t;*t;=p;åY;] B;Uim;id*x; XeF;;t;<, t;q;; l;ek:;g;] ak:Dp;y;n;< ==
v;ed;hm;et;] p;uo{;] m;h;nt;m;<, a;idty;v;[;*] t;m;s;st;u p;;re = s;v;;*I[; Op;;i[; iv;ic;ty; Q;Ir/, n;;m;;in; k&:tv;;CiB;v;dn; y;d;st;e ==
Q;;t;; p;urst;;êm;ud;j;h;r, x;k>:/ p;>iv;è;np;>idx;ût;s;>/ = t;m;ev;] iv;è;n;m;&t; wh B;v;it;, n;;ny;/ p;nq;; ay;n;;y; iv;êt;e ==
y;Nen; y;Nmy;j;nt; dev;;/, t;;in; Q;m;;*i[; p;>q;m;;ny;;s;n;< = t;e h n;;k:] m;ihm;;n;/ s;c;nt;e, y;F; p;Uv;e* s;;Qy;;/ s;int; dev;;/ ==
Here, look at bold words, one clearly finds use of the words ‘sahasra’, ‘dash’, ‘tri’, ‘sapta’, etc. for
numbers.
5. Atharva-Veda Sukta On Numbers:
Besides sporadic use of numbers in Vedic texts, there is a complete suktam in AtharvaVeda that
is devoted to numbers from 1 to 11, with all the names – eik, dvi, tri, chatur, panch, shad, sapt, ast,
nav, dash, eik-dash – in proper order. These names of numbers are practically intact to the present
day. The use of base ten is also very clear in this suktam when 11 is referred to ‘eikadash’. The
suktam is as follows:
y;êek: v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; = y;id ièv;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; =
 y;id iF;v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; = y;id c;t;u v;*&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; =
y;id p;Jc;v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; = y;id {;#<v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; =
y;id s’pt;v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; = y;d< a{!v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; =
y;id n;v;v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; = y;id dx;v;&{;;eCis; s;&j;;rs;;eCis; =
y;d< Ak:;dx;;eCis; s;;eCp;;edk:;eCis; = aq;v;*v;ed p;Jc;m; k:;[#m;<, c;t;uq;;e*Cn;uv;;k:, s;Ukt;m;< 16
It is of some significance to see that the sukta ends after introducing ‘ekadash’ for 11, as it is
easy to now name 12 as ‘dvaadash’, 13 as ‘tryodash’ and so on. Thus the sukta introduces the
numbers 1 to 9 to the base 10 fully and clearly.
6. Use of Zero Suggested in Atharvaveda
In a rather implicit manner, we find, elsewhere in AtharvaVeda again, special place for numbers
and their multiples of ten. A complete ‘suktam’ outlining special use of numbers and their ten-
multiples, viz., of 1 and 10, 2 and 20, 3 and 30, 4 and 40, …., 10 and 100 is as follows:
Ak:; c; m;e dx; c; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
èe c; m;e iv;]x;it;xc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
it;>s;>xc; m;e iF;]x;cc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; … Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
c;t;s;>xc; m;e c;tv;;ir]x;cc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
p;Jc; c; m;e p;Jc;;x;cc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
{;!< c; m;e {;i{!xcc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
s;pt; c; m;e s;pt;it;xcc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
a{! c; m;e ax;Iit;xcc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
n’;v; c; m;e n’;v;it;xcc; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
dx; c; m;e x;t;] c; m;eCp;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
x;t;] c; m;e s;hs;>] c;;p;v;T;:;r a;e{;Q;e = Pt;j;;t; Pt;;v;ir m;Q;u m;e m;Q;ul; k:r/ ==
aq;v;*v;ed p;Jc;m; k:;[#m;<, c;t;uq;;e*Cn;uv;;k:, s;Ukt;m;< 15
7. Nine the Largest Single Digit Number - RgVeda Evidence
From above references, it can be inferred without doubt that the Vedic rishis had a fully
developed number system with names and clear evidence of using base ten for higher numbes.
That nine was taken to be the single largest number is indicated in another mantra of RgVeda. In
the following mantra addressed to Indra, the use of repeated 9 is to construct a large number. What
it says is that like a terrified hawk, you (Indra) have crossed rivers whose number is formed from
repeated 9’s (meaning many) rivers:
ahey;;*t;;r] k:m;xy; wnë ìid y;T;e j;Gn;u{;;e B;Irg;c%t;< =
n;v; c; y;áv;it;] c; s;>v;nt;I/ xy;en;;e n; B;It;;e at;r;e rj;;]is; == Pgv;ed m;]#l 1, aQy;;y; 7, s;Ukt; 32, Pc;; 14
8. Symbols For Numbers:
As is well known, giving symbols to any concept is a well recognized Vedic practice. However,
* Vedas are ‘shrutees’, meaning thereby that these were preserved by oral transmission.
* The numbers, were naturally, in Vedas, to be given names even though symbol
representations were in use for them.
* Therefore it is incorrect to infer that -- since Vedas do not contain symbols for numbers
– that the symbols were not in use during the Vedic times.
* In fact the names like ‘ekadash’ indicate that numbers greater than 10 were given names
that had representation in some symbols, with turning points coming at TEN, TWENTY,
…. NINTY, …. HUNDRED, etc., which indicates knowledge and use of place-value
system.
* The sukta devoted to numbers and their ten-multiples brings us, in fact, close to inferring
that if a number from 1 to 9 was written in some way, their 10-multiples were written in
a certain related way to this base number. This suggests use of some symbol for zero.
* We can not expect to get in Vedas those symbols for numbers that were used by Vedic
seers.
9. Evidence of Written Numbers:
When did the numbers start to be written in some symbol forms ? Vedic system being rich in
symbolism, the correct guess is -- right from the time their concepts developed and matured.
The earliest thoughts of India’s learned and the elite are represented in RgVeda, wherein we
find references of written numbers. Mentioning the demerits of gambling, in 10:34:2 we find:
°aZ;sy;;hm;ek:p;rsy; het;;e°
Here use of word ‘dice’ (aksha), in the game indicates the faces should have some marks –
perhaps of numbers - on them.
Also another mantra from RgVeda that clearly talks of written numbers is
wnëe[; y;uj;; in;/s;&j;nt; v;;G;t;;e v;>j;] g;;em;nt;m;iSv;n;m;< =
s;hs;>] m;e ddt;;e a{!k:[y;*/ Xv;;e dev;e{v;F;:t; == 10/62/7
Here it mentioned that ‘1000 cows, which had figure of 8 written on their ears, were given to
me.’
In fact writing numbers, in some form, must have started with any other form of written word if
not before. As we know so well, the tradition of a written language also goes to antiquity in India.
Mother of most of the language of the world, Vedic Sanskrit, was once written in Brahmi script,
which is considered to be the precursor of devanagari, and so many other alphabet of India.
Another script used in ancient India was kharosthi, which unlike brahmi was written right to left. It
is believed to have originated in the northwest and was in use from the 5th century B. C. to 3rd
century A. D.
 In terms of physical evidence available today, world’s oldest written document that uses present
day numerals 1, 2, …, 9, is of 595 A.D. It is a piece of ‘gurjar desh’. Also the earliest known written
zero is found on ‘Gwalior inscription’ of 870 A. D.
10. Mohanjoddro & Ashoka Writings:
* From Mohanjodro writings, there is evidence of written numbers from 1 to 13. Evidence
of written language, in a kind of brahmi script, is found on the vessels, estimated to of be
3000 - 6000 BC, in Madras museum.
* Most of the stone writings of Emperor Ashoka are in Brahmi and some in kharosthi.
Kharosthi numbers are certainly not the ancestors of the Sanskrit or present numerals.
* Brahmi script had symbols for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90,
100, 200, … ,1000, 2000, etc.
* We will not go into linguistic details in the present article. But it is well recognized that
from Sanskrit resulted Greek and Iranian languages in 500 BC, Latin in 300 BC, Gothic
in 400 AD, Celtic, N&W Germanic and Old High German in 800 AD, Old Savic in 900
AD, Lithunian in 1700 AD, etc.
11. Numbers are Abstract concepts in Vedic thought.
How and when did the number thoughts started in the Vedic mind ?
Most people think that these must have started with counting, but then this would not give rise
to discovery of zero, as also not to mystic significance of numbers in Hindu-Vedic tradition.
The ten digits 1, 2, … , 9, 0, in my opinion, also do not arise from the simplistic thought that
there are ten fingers in two hands, which again suggest counting as the basis of numbers. This is
again due to the fact that 0 then again remains un-explained.
Obviously, Hindu concept of numbers is related to abstract philosophical thoughts.
Let me quote again from Atharva-Veda, a richa that mystifies the number 1.
t;im;d] in;g;t;] s;h s; A{; Ak: Ak:v;&dek: Av;, s;v;e* aism;n;< dev;; Ak:v;&t;;e B;v;int; = aq;v;*v;ed 13,4,12,13
He has that power. He is this ONE. There is only ONE with the strength of ONE. All devas
share that strength of ONE.
Translated in mathematical terms, this richa would mean -- ONE multiplied with ONE, remains
ONE, and that ONE is always a factor of any quantity.
The place-value system also must have got its stimulus by the social system in which people of
higher rank sit in a rather place ordered way.
12. Series & Sequences In Vedas:
Interestingly, there is enough internal evidence in Vedas, that mathematical patterns that, in
today’s language may be termed as ‘series and sequences’, were considered an important part of
Vedic knowledge.
Chapter 18 of the Yajur Veda, in fact this forms what is called the Vajsaneyi samhita, is
considered important from the point of view of knowing a vast spectrum of religious obligations,
agriculture and agricultural produce, domestication of animals, live and inert things, objects of
worship, duties & behavior of men, duties and behavior of a ruler, existed as well as concepts and
ideas, both worldly and spiritual, that prevailed during the Vedic samhita period. In this chapter
names of all domestic animals, all different types of grains are listed and there seems to be
instructions to obtain them through ‘yajna’.
Mathematical concepts about sequences appear here in two stanzas, as follows:
Ak:; c; m;e it;s;>Sc; m;e it;s;>Sc; m;e p;Jc; c; m;e
p;Jc; c; m;e s;pt; c; m;e s;pt; c; m;e n;v; c;
n;v; c; m;CAk:;d]x; c; m;CAk:;dx; c; m;e F;y;;edx; c; m;e
F;y;;edx; c; m;e p;Jc;dx; c; m;e p;Jc;dx; c; m;e s;pt;dx; c; m;e
s;pt;dx; c; m;e n;v;dx; c; m;e n;v;dx; c; m;CAk:iv;¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e
CAk:iv;¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e F;y;;eiv;]x;it;Sc; m;e F;y;;eiv;]x;it;Sc; m;e p;Jc;iv;¯]x;it;Sc; m;e
p;Jc; iv;¯]x;it;Sc; m;e s;pt;iv;¯]x;it;Sc; m;e s;pt;iv;¯]x;it;Sc; m;e n;v;iv;¯]x;it;Sc; m;e
n;v;iv;¯]x;it;Sc; m;CAk:iF;iv;¯]x;it;Sc;
m;CAk:iF;iv;¯]x;it;Sc; m;e y;Nen; k:Dp;t;;m;< == y;j;uv;e*d 18/24==
The sequence of pair of numbers given here is
(1, 3), (3, 5), (5, 7), (7, 9), (9, 11), (11, 13), (13, 15), (15, 17), (17, 19), (19, 21), (21, 23), (23, 25),
(25, 27), (27, 29), (29, 31).
These are obviously pairs of odd numbers. By giving them in pairs, it seems that several
patterns arising by their pair-wise sum, difference and product, etc., must have been explained by
the teacher.
The pattern arising by sum of these pairs is;
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56, 60, …..
Here the terms are progressing by the same number 4.
While the pattern arising by their product is
3, 15, 35, 63, 99, 143, 195,…,
where the numbers are progressing with variable difference pattern
12, 20, 28, 36, …..
Yet another sequence of paired numbers found in Yajur Veda is:
c;t;s;>Sc; m;eC{!;E c; m;e C{!;E c; m;e è;dx; c; m;e
è;dx; c; m;e {;;e#x; c; m;e {;;e#x; c; m;e iv;¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e
iv;¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e c;t;uiv;*¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e c;t;uiv;*¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;eC{!;iv;*¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e
C{!;iv;*¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e è;iF;¯‚]x;it;Sc; m;e è;iF;¯‚]x;it;cc; m;e {;!<iF;¯‚]x;it;cc; m;e
{;!<iF;¯‚]x;it;cc; m;e c;tv;;ir¯‚]x;it;cc; m;e
c;tv;;ir¯‚]x;it;cc; m;e c;t;uSc;tv;;ir¯‚]x;it;cc; m;e
c;t;uSc;tv;;ir¯‚]x;it;cc; m;eC{!;c;tv;;ir¯‚]x;it;cc; m;e y;Nen; k:Dp;t;;m;< ==25==
The sequence of pair of numbers given here is
(4, 8); (8, 12), (12, 16), (16, 20), (20, 24), (24, 28), (28, 32), (36, 40), (40, 44), (44, 48), ….
 Which must have been selected for its many properties not listed. It may be mentioned that
unless these sequences had some very interesting properties, these will not find place in the Veda. It
was a method of Vedas, perhaps to encourage creativity and spirit of inquiry that details were, in
general left out.
In conclusion, the birth place of mathematics, specially that of numbers, is India. These are
enshrined in Vedas. Further mathematics also developed in Vedic tradition and from here went to
other parts of the world to the West through Arabs and to the east by individual traveling
mathematicians and through its great centers of learning. After all, according to Albert Burk, the
original proof of Pythagoras theorem was copied by Pythagoras on his visit to India.

References:
Amartya Sen: The Argumentative Indian, Penguin Books, 2005
Aryabhatta: Aryabhatiya, Editor: Ramniwas Rai; Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi,
1976
AtharvaVeda: Dayanand Sansthan , New Delhi - 110005 (India); 1975
Cantor, M.: Grako-indische Studien, Zeit. Fur Math, u., Physik, 22 (1977)
Hall, WWR: A Short History of Mathematics, London, 1901
Menninger, Karl: - Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers; (English
Translation from original German, by Paul Broneer), MIT Press, Cambridge, 1969
RgVeda (Two Parts): Dayanand Sansthan , New Delhi - 110005 (India); 1975
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