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TITLE OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A Research Proposal Submitted to the Department of Curriculum and Evaluation in Partial Fulfillment for the Masters Degree in Education.

Submitted by Name:

2012 2013

TECHNICAL WRITING FOR MAKING RESEARCH PROPOSAL (Research Proposal) Title: substantive words or phrases that describe the research study Consist of not more than 15 words (Nieswiady, 1993) The variables (IV and DV) are reflected in the title: o The relationship among variables o Proposed target population..

3 Chapter I INTRODUCTION The introduction is the opening of the paper and because of its unique location, does not require a heading or label. It provides an introduction and statement of the problem that will be studied (or reviewed). It sets the stage for the entire paper by establishing the nature of the question. It should demonstrate why this question was important to you by providing brief background information. I. Background of the Study o Three- Part Structure: The Introductory Section Main Body Conclusion Section The Introductory Section: Starting Points Brief History Issue and Argument Define a Key Point Issue and Arguments Main Body Requires a logical sequence: Top-down Approach Arguments or Propositions global scene national local setting Show the GAP (Argue that problem exist by showing data (Statistic) as evidence and present possible solution between the existing problem and theoretical base): Use in-text citation properly Justification of doing your research: follow the guides below by answering each question carefully. 1. What: In no more than two sentences, what is the problem that the research will address? Remember, a problem is, essentially, something that is going wrong. Who: List three current, peer-reviewed references that support the presence of that problem and briefly describe the nature of that support. 2. How, Where, and When: Again, in no more than two sentences, describe the impact of the problem. How are people or researchers understanding negatively impacted by the problem? When and where is the problem evident? Who: List three current, peer-reviewed references that support the impact of the problem that the research proposes addressing and briefly describe the nature of that support. 3. Why: In no more than two sentences, identify the conceptual basis for the problem. That is, what does the literature outline as the cause of the problem? Who: List three current, peer-reviewed references that support the conceptual basis of the problem and briefly describe the nature of that support.

4 Conclusion Section State your Thesis Statement a road map for your research study Formula Example o Topic: Industrial Pollution o Opinion: Increased Respiratory Problems among Children o Thesis: Industrial pollution can cause an increased of respiratory problems among children. State Rationale of your study: What prompted you or motivate you to make this research topic? o Dont: Start the paragraph with a question Quotation o 1 and pages Length of Introduction II. Theoretical Framework Theory Interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions that specify the relationships among variables Describes how and why variables are related Forms include Set of hypotheses Series of if-then statements Visual model The Deductive Approach Used in Quantitative Research

5 Placing Theory in a Quantitative Study Placement In the introduction In the literature review After hypotheses or research questions In a separate section Advantages Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base Disadvantages Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process

Theory Use in Qualitative Research Theory may be used as: A broad explanation A theoretical lens or perspective Feminist perspective Racialized discourse Critical theory Queer theory Disability inquiry An endpoint, a theory that is generated Researcher may also choose not to employ theory in a qualitative study The Inductive Logic of Research in a Qualitative Study

III.

Conceptual framework What is a conceptual Framework?

o o

It is the researchers own position on the problem and gives direction to the study. It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previous study, with modifications to suit the inquiry. Aside from showing the direction of the study, through the conceptual framework, the researcher can be able to show the relationships of the different constructs that he wants to investigate. Guidelines for writing about formulating a research studys conceptual framework: Show the direction of the study. o Strategy uses a conceptual map that graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and statements Conceptual map includes all of the major concepts in a theory Linked by arrows expressing the proposed linkages between concepts Point out the dependent and intervening variables; o Identify your variables; Variables o Research Variables Extraneous Variables Demographic Variables

In the studys methodology section Explain how the framework is being operationalized in the studys design. Explain how data collection methods (such as questionnaire items) reflect the concepts in the framework.

In the studys discussion section Describe how study findings are consistent (or inconsistent) with the framework. Offer suggestions for practice and further research that are congruent with the frameworks concepts and propositions.

Example 1:

Figure 1. News values, and the pressures and constraints shape the newspapers and television newscasts. The result of this relationship is selective reporting of events. Example 2:

Figure 1: Operational Framework. Foreign news sections of Philippine newspapers and foreign news segments of television newscasts are shaped by the interests of owners, editorial policies, audience and advertisements. The criteria for selection of foreign news, the news values, also affect the foreign news coverage. These factors result in unequal treatment of stories and paved way for the dominance of some topics and of some regions in foreign news coverage of media Based on the foregoing example, how should the conceptual framework formulated? 1. 2. 3. 4. cite your conceptual framework or paradigm; Identify your variables; Point out the dependent and intervening variables; Show the direction of the study.

Once the conceptual framework has been determined, the next for the researcher is to determine what research methods to employ to best answer the research problem through the proposed framework. Research design depends on the nature of the data to analyze: Quantitative data when your thesis or research problem requires numerical measurements of traits, trends, characteristics or attributes of the subject matter;

Analysis leads researcher to: depict what is typical and atypical among the data; show the degree of difference or relationship between two or more variables; determine the likelihood that the findings are real for the population as opposed to having occurred only by chance in the sample. Qualitative data when your thesis problem focuses on the meanings, perceptions, symbols or description of the subject matter. Analysis leads researcher to: observe behaviors, situations, interactions and environments; scrutinize these observations for patterns and categories; answer research questions based on what can be deduced from the findings. IV. Statement of the Problem Problem Statement identifies the basic issue and problem to be addressed. Research Questions divide problem statement into manageable topics to be researched. Qualitative Research Questions Qualitative researchers pose research questions Not objectives Not hypotheses Two types of qualitative research questions to focus a study's purpose: Central question broad question that asks for exploration of the central phenomenon Subquestions Questions that narrow the focus of the study Writing Qualitative Research Questions Ask 1-2 central questions and no more than 5-7 subquestions These questions should: Relate the central question to the strategy of inquiry Begin with "what" or "how" Focus on a single phenomenon or concept Use exploratory verbs like discover or describe Avoid directional words such as "affect" or "impact" Evolve during the study Be open-ended without reference to the literature Specify the participants and research site (unless stated previously)

A Script for Writing a Qualitative Central Question (How or What) is the (story for for narrative research; meaning of the phenomenon for phenomenology; theory that explains the process of for grounded theory; culture-sharing pattern for ethnography; issue in the case for case study) of (central phenomenon) for (participants) at (research site).

Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses Quantitative researchers pose research questions or hypotheses to focus the study's purpose Quantitative research questions: Questions about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know Predictions that the researcher makes about the expected relationships among variables Predictions about the population values that the researcher will estimate based on data from a sample Write questions or hypotheses, not both Consider 3 approaches to the variables for a question or hypothesis: Compare groups Relate variables Describe responses

Quantitative hypotheses:

Specify questions and hypotheses based on theory if possible Measure the independent and dependent variables separately Generally use demographic information as intervening variables Use consistent words and ordering for independent and dependent variables

Scripts for Writing Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses Does (name the theory) explain the relationship between (independent variable) and (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of (control variable)? There is no significant difference between (the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on (dependent variable).

Forms for Writing Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses If writing hypotheses, use a consistent form: Null hypotheses (predict no difference or no relationship) Directional hypotheses (predict direction of difference or relationship) Nondirectional hypotheses (predict a difference or relationship, but not its direction) First, specify descriptive questions for each important variable

If writing research questions:

10 Next, state inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups Finally, add questions in which variables are controlled

Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses Advance both qualitative and quantitative research questions (or hypotheses) Use guidelines for writing good qualitative and quantitative questions and hypotheses Order questions to match the mixed methods design In a two-phase design, order to match the phases In a one-phase design, order according to the method given the most weight

Include a mixed methods research question that Directly addresses the mixing of the two strands Is written to convey the procedures or the content of the study

Different Ways to Write Questions and Hypotheses into a Mixed Methods Study Write separate qualitative questions and quantitative questions or hypotheses: At the beginning or as they emerge in phases This places emphasis on the two approaches

Write separate questions or hypotheses followed by a mixed methods question: This highlights the two approaches as well as their combined strength Write only a mixed methods question: This emphasizes the integration and not the individual parts

How to write a good qualitative purpose statement: a statement that provides the major objective or intent or roadmap to the study. Fulfill the following criteria: Single sentence Include the purpose of the study Include the central phenomenon Use qualitative words e.g. explore, identify, discover Note the participants (if any) State the research site Research questions serve to narrow the purpose. There are two types: Central

The most general questions you could ask Subdivides central question into more specific topical questions Limited number

Sub-questions

Use good qualitative wording for these questions. Begin with words such as how or what Tell the reader what you are attempting to discover, generate, explore, identify, or describe Ask what happened? to help craft your description Ask what was the meaning to people of what happened? to understand your results

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Ask what happened over time? to explore the process Avoid words such as: relate, influence, impact, effect, cause V. Hypothesis The educated, informed, best guess or prediction that answers the research question The hypothesis states the expected relationship between single or two or more independent and dependent variables The hypothesis or prediction is derived from a thorough review of past research

Purposes of Hypotheses
1. Hypotheses unify theory and reality by evaluating theory on the basis of

observable facts or reality.

2. Hypotheses give direction to research by determining research design, data

collection procedures, analysis and interpretation of data.

3. Hypotheses enhance knowledge by inducing critical thinking and deepening

insights There are four elements in a hypothesis: (1) dependent and independent variables, (2) some type of relationship between independent and dependent variable, (3) the direction of the change, and (4) it mentions about the subjects, i.e. population being studied. It is defined as A tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences (Webster, 1968). Sources of Hypotheses
1. The problems, issues or concerns raised in the research study. 2. The theoretical framework, experiences, observations, replications, the related

literature.
3. Induction and deduction

Induction these are observation patterns, trends of phenomena with a tentative explanation or prediction of phenomenon (generalization). Process of rationalization from simple or specific situations to a complex or general one. Deduction starts with general theories or principles that are applied to a particular situation. The process of rationalization is from general or complex situation to simple or specific situations. Types of Hypotheses The hypothesis states the relationship between the independent and dependent variables and the population to which the relationship applies. It is simple, clear and concise and defines the variables in concrete and operational terms (Polit and Hungler, 1995). 1. Simple vs. Complex Hypotheses

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a. Simple Hypothesis states an expected relationship between an

independent and a dependent variable. Also called as Univariate Hypothesis.

b. Complex Hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more

independent variables and two or more dependent variables. Also called as Multivariate Hypothesis.
2. Directional vs. Non-directional Hypotheses a. Directional Hypothesis specifies clearly the characteristics or qualities of

the variables being investigated and the extent of relationship between or among them.
b. Non-directional Hypothesis merely predicts the type of relationship;

does not predict the extent of the relationship or the specific qualities or characteristics of variables being investigated. 3. Research vs. Statistical Hypotheses
a. Research Hypothesis referred to substantive or declarative hypothesis;

statements of expected relationships between variables. Also known as Alternative Hypothesis (Ha).
b. Statistical Hypothesis states in null form that there exists no significant

relationship or difference between the independent and dependent variables. Also known as Null Hypothesis (Ho). Assumptions What do you need to take for granted to answer your question or test your hypothesis? (e.g. honest responses from participants, typical population, heuristic value of a certain theory, normal distribution, etc.).

VI.

Significance of the Study This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how your study relates to the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes the purpose worth pursuing. The significance of the study answers the questions:

Why is your study important? To whom is it important? What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?

VII.

Objectives of the Study

The purpose/ objective is a single statement or paragraph that explains what the study intends to accomplish. A few typical statements are: The Objectives/goal of this study is to... ... overcome the difficulty with ... ... discover what ... ... understand the causes or effects of ...

13 ... refine our current understanding of ... ... provide a new interpretation of ... Suggestions for Defining Clear Objectives

Start with the end in mind. Ask yourself, "At the end of the research, what do I want to have learned?" Take time before the research to solicit questions / objectives from other team members prior to meeting with the moderator. Ask your or to include the research objectives at the top of the discussion guide. This will ensure that the moderator understood and internalized your objectives. In addition, when observers come to the research and review the discussion guide, the first thing they will read will be the objectives of the research. Once your objectives have been set, take time to review them once more before the research. Make adjustments if necessary.

Definition of the terms:Chapter I should also contain a definition of terms section when appropriate. Include it if your paper uses special terms that are unique to your field of inquiry or that might not be understood by the general reader. "Operational definitions" (definitions that you have formulated for the study) should also be included. An example of an operational definition is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as posttest score minus pretest score". Scope and Limitations What are the guidelines in writing scope and delimitation? It is important to narrow down your thesis topic and limit the scope of your study. The researcher should inform the reader about limits or coverage of the study. The scope identifies the boundaries of the study in term of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is focused. Sample phrases that help express the scope of the study: The coverage of this study. The study consists of .. The study covers the . This study is focus on.. The delimitation of the study is delimiting a study by: geographic location, age, sex, population traits, population size, or other similar considerations. Delimitation is used to make study better and more feasible and not just for the interest of the researcher.

14 It also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of your study which are not within the control of the researcher. Sample phrases that expressed the delimitations of the study: The study does not cover the The researcher limited this research to This study is limited to Additional hints and tips in writing the Scope and Delimitation: Indicate the principal variables, locale, timeframe and justification. To whom you research is directed to? What is the subject matter of the study? Where the study will take place? Indicate the timeframe. State the time coverage of the study. Dont forget the limitation. What is the limitation of your study? What is the incapability of your research? Is it beneficial to all? Or to a certain person/institution only?

Inclusion Criteria Inclusion and exclusion criteria are a means of establishing precision in your research study. For example, you might suspect that a new brand of insulin tablet is more effective than an existing brand, but for some reason this seems to be true only for diabetic patients that are not overweight by more than 10%. Your professional knowledge has produced a "hunch" that has you well on your way to establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria are the criteria for including a patient in the study, and it is important that these criteria be clearly defined in an objective manner, so that anyone involved in the study (or anyone attempting to replicate the study) can reproduce patient inclusion decisions precisely. In other words, can you write down the inclusion criteria so that anyone else with professional knowledge similar to your own would include the same patients you included? The example above, of the new insulin tablet versus an existing one, could be translated into inclusion criteria by specifying the two drugs (e.g. brand name, generic and manufacturer name, possibly even lot number). Exclusion Criteria

Exclusion criteria are the criteria for excluding patients from the study. From the example above, the 10% overweight criterion could serve as the basis for a specific exclusion criteria statement. As in the case of inclusion criteria, is your specification precise enough that someone with knowledge similar to your own would exclude the same patients you choose to exclude?

Some Example of Exlusion Criteria: Operationalization and Analysis of Exclusion Criteria Using the data gathered, eight of the nine commonly used exclusion criteria were operationalized: psychiatric/emotional problems, noncompliance/lack of motivation, medical problems, drug dependence, lack of success in prior alcohol treatment, residence distant from the treatment facility, social instability, and

15 residential instability (t1). The effect of an exclusion criterion for neurological impairment on the characteristics of samples could not be evaluated here because neurological impairment was an exclusion criterion in the present study. Operationalizations were chosen to be the same or similar to widely employed operationalizations in the literature, within the constraints of the data of the present study.
Ethical Focal of Assessment: Eligibility - Explain inclusion and exclusion criteria; To be stated clearly in the summary; (specific explanation if participants will include Minor, Pregnant woman, Neonate, Person incompetent to give informed consent, Normal/Healthy volunteer, Student, Staff of the institute).

16 Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES Chapter II is a review of the literature. It is important because it shows what previous researchers have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how much research has previously been done in the area you are planning to investigate. If you are planning to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar areas of study or studies that lead up to the current research. Never say that your area is so new that no research exists. It is one of the key elements that proposal readers look at when deciding whether or not to approve a proposal. Do not introduce the topic again. Introduce the general methodology most authors have taken on this topic and the one you will be using and why (tie to the literature review). The purpose is a statement of what you intend to study not what you intend to find. There are typically three or four major subsections in the Methods section, although there can be more, which are separated by headings: What is the literature? The literature broadly refers to information relevant to your topic of interest. Such works may deal specifically or more generally with your topic of interest. While such information may be obtained from a variety of sources, including books, journal articles, reports, etc., the focus is on scholarly published materials. Types of literature review: 1. Theoretical literature: A theoretical framework is a theoretical perspective. It can be simply a theory, but it can also be more general -- a basic approach to understanding something. Typically, a theoretical framework defines the kinds of variables that you will want to look at. 2. Thematic literature: these are contemporary literatures which are conducted by many researchers related to your study area. 3. Conceptual framework: It is the gist of your Review of the literature what have you understood by reading literatures and how you relate various literatures with your research. What is a literature review? A literature review may be presented as a paper on its own, or it can be contained as an integral part of an article, research proposal, research report or dissertation. It describes, compares, contrasts and evaluates the major theories, arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies in the scholarly literature on a subject. It also connects, compares and contrasts these arguments, themes and methodologies etc., with the concerns of a proposed piece of research (that is, the aims of the essay, research project or thesis, the research questions, and the central hypothesis). The literature review is: not an annotated bibliography not a summary of each of your sources listed one by one not just a descriptive summary of the historical background to your topic

17 Others Important Reminders on how to conduct Literature Review: In a literature review, your central focus is examining and evaluating what has been said before on a topic, and establishing the relevance of this information to your own research. You may also identify what has not been said in the literature on a subject (this is called a gap in the literature, and filling such gaps with new knowledge is a particular interest of postgraduate scholarship). You may also need to discuss the methodologies that have been used in the literature and how these relate to your chosen method.

The generic conventions of literature reviews Keep your primary focus on the literature. When writing be sure that you: evaluate the literature rather than just summarizing it; compare/contrast sources to each other rather than writing discrete sections; and connect the literature to your research. If you are completing a literature review for a research project you may also need to: include some theoretical discussion about your chosen methodology; and argue why your research is necessary. The 5 Cs of writing a literature review: Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that the work is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments with ease. 1. Cite (source): keep the primary focus on the literature. 2. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, approaches and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who employs similar approaches? 3. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, debate? 4. Critique the literature: which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what it is an author says/does: e.g. asserts, demonstrates, etc. 5. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw on/depart from/synthesise what has been said in the literature? How to organize a literature review There are a number of ways of organizing a literature review. Here is one suggestion: 1. Introduction: define the topic, together with your reason for selecting the topic. You could also point out overall trends, gaps, particular themes that emerge, etc., 2. Body: this is where you discuss your sources. Here are some ways in which you could organize your discussion:

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o

Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time. There is little point in doing the review by order of publication unless this shows a clear trend; thematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the literature review of poverty and disability cited in the next section, the author takes the themes of the prevalence and structure of disability, education, employment, income and poverty, causes of disability, the path from poverty to disability and vice versa, and finally, policies for disabled people; Methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for example, qualitative versus quantitative approaches.

3. Conclusion: summarize the major contributions, evaluating the current position, and pointing out flaws in methodology, gaps in the research, contradictions, and areas for further study.

19 Chapter III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methodology section describes your basic research plan. It usually begins with a few short introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and research questions. The phraseology should be identical to that used in Chapter I. Keep the wording of your research questions consistent throughout the document.
Ethical Consideration in Research Design: How many subjects will be screened? How many subjects are likely to be enrolled? Describe benefits to the subject/participant in this study. Also describe the benefits, if any, to the society. Power estimates: Describe power calculations, if the study involves statistical comparisons between two or more groups. Mention evidence to support that adequate number of subjects can be enrolled during the study period by the investigators or researchers. Variables to be estimated: (e.g. response, survival, toxicity, age, etc) Enumerate the variables, outcomes and end points that will be measured. Try to separate variables as response and explanatory variables. Describe the type and frequency of tests, admissions, outpatient visits, etc used to obtain these variables or variables. Analysis of the variables: Describe how the variables obtained during the study will be statistically analyzed. e.g. Univariate comparison or Cox- proportional hazards model, etc Describe all possible risks and discomfort for subjects due to use of intervention and / or data collection methods proposed. Describe expected degree and frequency of such risks, discomfort, side effects of drug or question from questionnaire etc. If the procedures in the data collection are invasive or If study will be conducted fully or partially outside the School campus, describe the need for permission from institution(s), health centre(s), local government/administrative bodies, etc. Describe how you define adverse events in your study, how and to whom you propose to report them, and what rules you will use for stopping the study due to adverse events. In what way will you ensure the confidentiality and privacy of the subjects? If some procedures in this study are emotionally upsetting; describe what arrangements have been made for psychological counseling? potentially harmful, describe what arrangements have been made for treatment of the complications arising during the collection of data? Who will bear the cost of treating the problems arising from this study? Describe (i) How, where, when and by whom the Informed Consent will be obtained. (ii) how much time the subject/ participant will be given to consider participation and decide, (iii) describe additional plans/needs for informed consent in case the study involves special population such as minors, pregnant mothers, neonates, etc. (iv) Describe how you will assess that information is correctly understood by the participant. Describe briefly, if any, the financial and other interests of any of the investigators and /or close relative/s, with the sponsor/s and outcome of the study. Have you made provision for insuring yourself, and BHCI against any legal action that may arise out of this research project?

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How is it intended the results of the study - Peer reviewed scientific journals will be reported and disseminated? - Other publication - Conference presentation or Seminar Workshop?

Research Design

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the research project. It justifies the decision for choosing the research design by using a citation. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure and/or solve research problems the research is either qualitative or quantitative design. You should decide which design you would follow. Identify and generally describe your research method (e.g., ethnographic field study, single case study), and your research procedures (e.g., long interviews, observation). Cite the major authors who have described your research method.

Guides to make your Research Design by answering the following questions: i. Are you doing qualitative or quantitative research; is it exploratory, descriptive or explanatory? Explain why you are using this type of study and what you plan to explore, describe, or explain (again tie it to the literature review). Do you plan to use interventions, interviews, behavior observation, questionnaires, etc.? What subtype of each do you plan to employ (e.g., structured vs. unstructured interviews or closed vs. open-ended questions)? State your rationale for your approach (lit. review). List all of your variables, which ones are independent or dependent? What level of measurement do you plan to use for each variable? This is not an exhaustive list, nor is these chronological questions to be answered.

ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

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Research Locale The research sites are identified before the actual conduct of the study. Formal permission and cooperation are sought from the head of the institution or agency such as the Barangay captain for a community study, the chief hospital/medical doctor; and if the home from head of the family (Venzon and Venzon, 2010). A draw of the map of the research site must be made. Research Population This brief section describes the people who participated in your study (they should be called participants, not subjects). Give as much information about the population that has been gathered from your review of the literature: age range, gender mix, education, etc. This will be used to compare to your samples demographics in the Results section. A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one wish to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time or money to

22 gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population. The basic research paradigm is: 1) Define the population The whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. When you've finished your research and you make statements based on the results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the population. Examples are: "The population for this study is defined as all adult customers who make a purchase in our stores during the sampling time frame", or "...all home owners in the city of Minneapolis", or "...all potential consumers of our product".

2) Draw a representative sample from the population 3) Do the research on the sample 4) Infer your results from the sample back to the population While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population.

Sampling Procedures Sampling - Sampling occurs when a subset of the population (or other unit) under study is selected from the larger group (the entire population under study). Sampling - the process of selecting a representative portion of the population to represent the entire population. Sampling is a practical and efficient means of ensuring the quality of data that will be gathered.
a.

1.

Sampling Unit a specific area or place which can be used during the sampling process. Examples: Medical Surgical Ward, Skills laboratory

b.

Sampling Frame a complete list of sampling units from which the sample is drawn. Examples: If there are a total of 10 clinical areas in a hospital only 2 are sampled.

or 3 areas
a.

Sampling design the scheme that specifies that number of samples drawn from the population, the criteria for their choice and the sampling technique used, such as purposive, random sampling, stratified sampling and convenience sampling among others. Portion of population from which data will be collected for purposes of the research.

4. Sample

23 The recipient of the experimental treatment in experimental design or the individuals to be observed in a non-experimental design

Steps in Sampling: 1. Identify the target population or the universe the group to which you want to apply your findings. Examples: All graduating students All staff nurses of X Hospital. All juvenile diabetics of metro manila 2. Identify your respondent population the portion of the target population accessible to you from which needed data and information will be drawn. Examples: BSN graduating students; Staff nurses in the ICU; Juvenile diabetics with insulin deficiency 3. Specify the criteria for respondent selection criteria must be specific with respect to the characteristics of the respondents. Examples: BSN graduating students with no RLE deficiencies Length of service of Staff Nurses; Physical disability of juvenile diabetics 4. Specify the sampling design once the respondent population is identified, decide how the samples will be chosen and how large this will be by considering the representativeness of the subjects. Examples: Probability sampling using random or the use of nonprobability sampling using purposive sampling. 5. Recruit the subjects when sampling design has been determined, the next step is to recruit the subjects and seek their cooperation and support. A screening instrument may be used to determine if the subjects meet the criteria set in the study. Types/Categorization of Sampling 1. Non-probability Sampling elements or subjects are selected in a non- random way. The researcher desires to use available subjects at her convenience anytime during the study period you are not choosing by chance. Types of Non-probability Sampling: Accidental/ convenience sampling Base on the accessibility/availability of your sample. Kung sino pinakamalapit syo, yun ang kukunin mo. o Purposive/judgmental sampling base on the common knowledge or popular knowledge. o Snow-ball sampling get sampling base on last referral o Quota Sampling Setting criteria and getting samples fitting the criteria Advantages: o

24 Convenient Economical Disadvantages:

Likely to produce biased samples or errors in judgment because the researcher cannot estimate the precise elements of the population that will be included in the samples. Certain elements may have no chance to be included in the sample. 2. Probability Sampling

Involves the random selection of the subjects or elements to have equal presentation/ chances in the population. The goal is to examine representative elements of the population.

Types of Probability Sampling: Simple random technique Used a single/identical group. Fish bowl technique o Stratified random sampling You will first going to create a sub population from the whole population before doing randomization. One population, you divide it. o Cluster random sampling You will first create a sub area in a population before doing the randomization. In one population, you make it smaller o Systematic random sampling Choosing a sample every nth name in the population. Multiple of 100 names Advantages: o

There is less bias as every element in the population is given an equal (independent) chance to be selected.

Disadvantages:

It is time consuming, expensive, inconvenient, and impossible to obtain.

When it is not possible to study an entire population (such as the population of the United States), a smaller sample is taken using a random sampling technique. Slovin's formula allows a researcher to sample the population with a desired degree of accuracy. It gives the researcher an idea of how large his sample size needs to be to ensure a reasonable accuracy of results. When to Use Slovin's Formula If a sample is taken from a population, a formula must be used to take into account confidence levels and margins of error. When taking statistical samples, sometimes a lot is known about a population, sometimes a little and sometimes nothing at all. For example, we may know that a population is normally distributed (e.g., for heights, weights or IQs), we may know that there is a bimodal distribution (as often happens with class grades in mathematics classes) or we may have no idea about how a population is going to behave (such as polling college students to get their opinions about quality of student life). Slovin's formula is used when nothing about the behavior of a population is known at all.

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How to Use Slovin's Formula Slovin's formula is written as: n = N / (1 + Ne^2) n = Number of samples N = Total population e = Error tolerance To use the formula, first figure out what you want your error of tolerance to be. For example, you may be happy with a confidence level of 95 percent (giving a margin error of 0.05), or you may require a tighter accuracy of a 98 percent confidence level (a margin of error of 0.02). Plug your population size and required margin of error into the formula. The result will be the number of samples you need to take. For example, suppose that you have a group of 1,000 city government employees and you want to survey them to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs. You decide that you are happy with a margin of error of 0.05. Using Slovin's formula, you would be required to survey n = N / (1 + Ne^2) people: 1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 * 0.05) = 286 Determining sample size is a very important issue because samples that are too large may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may lead to inaccurate results. In many cases, we can easily determine the minimum sample size needed to estimate a process parameter, such as the population mean . Research Instrument This section describes the tests or instruments used to collect data. Do you plan to use a standardized instrument or design your own? If you are using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the source of the survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting to measure. Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix and state that a copy of the survey is in the appendix. How does this instrument affect issues of reliability and validity (discuss)? Discuss instrument biases. Identify independent & dependent variables. Discuss how this instrument will be scored.

Validity and Reliability of the Tools Validity Refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Are we measuring what we think we are? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. All assessments of validity are subjective opinions based on the judgment of the researcher. Nevertheless, there are at least three types of validity that should be addressed and you should state what steps you took to assess validity. If the survey you're using was designed by someone else, then describe the previous validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, you'll want to perform the same reliability measurement as the author of the

26 instrument. If you've developed your own survey, then you must describe the steps you took to assess its validity Validity The inference should be reflection of the true nature of the relationship. Validity is achieved by insuring the sample selection is unbiased.

Reliability Is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability. There are three basic methods to test reliability: test-retest, equivalent form, and internal consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency. When there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the same construct, then we would expect a large degree of coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical tests can measure the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question with slightly different wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation between the items is a measure of their reliability. Reliability If the observations are repeated under similar conditions the inference should to be similar. Reliability of the sample is achieved by selecting a large sample. Reliability is measured by using random error RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION Guidelines for Developing research Instruments: 1. The instrument must suit the purpose of the study. 2. It must help solve the problems raised in the study. 3. It must be able to gather needed data for testing hypotheses and answering questions raised in the study. 4. Indicators in the instrument should relate to the problems raised in the study. 5. Indicators should be so stated that respondents perceptions or reactions will not be raised. Questions should not be stated with built-in clues, such as: Dont you think that the physicians orders are often unimportant? Or Do you follow the physicians orders all the time? 6. The instrument should be reliable and can produce comparable data when used on different subjects under different circumstances. 7. The instrument should be constructed in such a way that cheating is minimized, if not discouraged. Subjects must not be influenced by the responses of others. 8. Directions should be specific and simply stated. 9. The Instrument should be easy to administer. 10.The instrument should consist of indicators that relate to the hypotheses study.

27 Types of Research Instruments: 1. The Questionnaire

The most frequent used research instruments to gather needed data from respondents pertinent to the purpose of the study. A paper and pencil approach where participants are asked to answer a set of printed questions. Data and information are based on demographic profile (age, sex, civil status, educational level, and income) and perceptual assessment of the respondents regarding the variables of the study.

2. The Interview Guide

The next most used research instrument. The researcher is in a one-on-one dialogue with the subject, asks or reads the questions to illicit answer from the latter. The researcher may use devices to ensure that data are accurately recorded such as a video camera, tape recorder or a research assistant to record the questions and answer during interviews. An Interview guide consisting of pertinent questions is used on informal interviews.

Types of Questions Asked in the Interview Guide/Interview Schedule 1. Structured

for formal interviews, the interview schedule is used. Questions in the schedule are structured and well sequenced, consistent with problems raised in the study. Data gathered from formal interviews are much easier to organize and analyze (Nieswiadomy, 1993). The interview guide is used fro informal interviews. Questions are so framed as to allow the researcher flexibility in questioning the subject. Data from informal interviews need longer time to organize and analyze.

2. Unstructured

Types of Questions Asked 1. Open-ended Question respondents are given flexibility enough to answer questions or specify indicators other than those listed in the questionnaire. 2. Closed ended Question respondents answer a number of alternative responses called dichotomous items. Types of Closed ended Questions:
a. Dichotomous items these allow respondents to choose between two

response alternatives such as yes or no, married or unmarried, pregnant or non-pregnant. Dichotomous questions are useful in gathering factual data. Examples: alternatives. Have you ever been pregnant? ( ) Yes

( ) No

b. Multiple Choice Items respondents are allowed multiple response

28 Examples: time? ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ) Very Favorable Favorable Not Sure Unfavorable Very Unfavorable How Favorable is it to you to become pregnant at this

c. Cafeteria questions respondents are asked to respond according to

their own viewpoint.

Example: People have different views on family planning. Which of the following best represent your views? 1. FP is necessary to quality life 2. FP is immoral and should be totally banned. 3. FP has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution. 4. FP has beneficial effects that merit its practice. 5. FP is moral and should be practiced. d. Rank- Order questions respondents are asked to rank answer from most to least important, reasonable, frequent or beneficial. Example: Why must family planning is practiced? Rank your answer from 1 most to 5 least reasonable. ___Limits maternal disabilities ____Gives parents more time to meet family needs ____Helps maintain financial viability of the family ____Affords more working hours fro couples ____Ensures family capability to educate all the children in the future. e. Checklist also called matrix questions, items in this instrument are presented in two dimensional patterns. Questions are written horizontally while respondents answers are written vertically. Characteristics of Good Questions 1. Specifically answer the research problems and focus only on the variables or phenomenon under study. 2. Clearly and tersely stated; 3. Objectively and detached from the researchers own judgment; 4. Results are easy to interpret and tabulate; 5. use of language appropriately to respondents level of understanding; 6. Neatly printed or typed on clean, quality paper; and 7. Bear the researchers signature. How to State Research Questions: 1. State questions in the affirmative rather than in a negative manner. Example: Words such as never can be overlooked by the subjects who might respond contrary to the intended answer. 2. Questions should be neutrally worded to avoid biased responses. Example: Do you believe that smoking is a disgusting habit? 3. Ambiguous questions must be avoided. Use of words with multiple meanings may result in confused interpretations. Examples: many, usually, always, several, large 4. Avoid double negative questions which are difficult for respondents to answer.

29 Example: Dont you disagree with the idea that birth control is not

unusual? 5. Avoid double barreled questions or two questions stated as one. Example: Do you plan to get married and work as a staff nurse upon graduation? Advantages of the Use of Questionnaire: 1. Facilitates data gathering 2. Easy to test data for reliability and validity; 3. less time consuming than interview and observation 4. Preserves the anonymity and confidentiality of the respondents reactions and answers. Disadvantages of the use of Questionnaire: 1. Printing and mailing is costly; 2. Response rate may be low; 3. Respondents may provide only socially acceptable answers; 4. There is less chance to clarify ambiguous answer; 5. Respondents must be literate and with no physical handicaps; and 6. Rate of retrieval can be low because retrieval itself is difficult. Advantages of Interviews: 1. Responses are broad and varied; 2. Respondents can give complete answers if questions are well structured; 3. Verbal and non-verbal behavior can be observed; and 4. There is flexibility in questions asked and respondents reaction to these. Disadvantages of Interviews: 1. Time consuming and expensive 2. Schedule for interview may be difficult to make 3. Respondents answer may be influenced by the interviewers behavior. 4. Interviewers need training for the interviewees. Criteria for Evaluating the Instrument: 1. Reliability refers to the degree of consistency or accuracy with which an instrument measures the variables of the study. 2. Validity the degree to which an instrument measures what it intends to measures. An instrument may be reliable but not valid; may be valid but not reliable. 3. Efficiency refers to the capability of the instrument to measure items within a given time frame. 4. Sensitivity ability to distinguish characteristics or properties or differing attributes of persons or phenomena under study. 5. Objectivity the degree to which 2 independent users of the instrument will obtain identical or similar scores on the phenomenon under study. The instrument can gather factual and impartial data. 6. Speed quick, fast, and complete results are ensured within the time frame allowed to obtain data. 7. Reactivity the instrument should not influence the attributes being measured. 8. Simplicity clear and simple in order to avoid the risks of errors. 9. Meaningfulness the extent to which the data collected will be of value and practical use by sectors concerned. Research Procedures Steps in data collection or gathering: 1. Explain how tests and other measures will be administered; 2. clarify how the tasks will be performed; 3. explain how the instruments will be administered; and 4. describe how observations and interview will be carried out.

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This section describes in great detail the data-collection procedures. Describe how participants were recruited, whether they participated alone or in groups, how informed consent or assent was obtained, what they were asked to do, how they were compensated for their participation, etc. You should describe the procedure in a way that another researcher could conduct the same study (i.e., replicate it) just by reading about the procedure. Procedure and time frame State exactly when the research will begin and when it will end. Describe any special procedures that will be followed (e.g., instructions that will be read to participants, presentation of an informed consent form, etc.). Data Analysis Plan What statistics do you plan to collect: descriptive/univariate statistics (frequency, central tendency, etc.) Inferential statistics (Pearsons r, ANOVA, etc.) Bivariate, multivariate statistics, and how do you plan to do your analysis? Ethical Consideration (Human Participants Protections) When and how will you submit for Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval? What safeguards are in place in your study to protect human participants? Consider both emotional and / or physical harm. Consider who the participants are and if children or some other vulnerable population. What is your basic ethical approach? What are the power differentials between you and your participants, and how will you protect them from any possible abuses? What steps are you taking to insure informed consent? Provide a copy of any introductory letter and consent forms in the appendix. Bias We all have biases; the most insidious are those of which we are unaware or unacknowledged. What makes you different from your participants? Is it race, ethnicity, social class, education, work experience, physical or mental ability, gender identity, sexual orientation, etc? How might these differences impede your investigation (invisibility, insensitivity, overgeneralization, double standards, dichotomization)? Data Analysis Techniques The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will usually require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be addressed one at a time followed by a description of the type of statistical tests that will be performed to answer that research question. Be specific. State what variables will be included in the analyses and identify the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists. Decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as well as the computer software that will be used.

31 Chapter IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION PLANS FOR DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

A. Data processing and analysis All dummy tables should be placed in appendix 3. All respective research questions must be written above the graph or tables and before each sub- title. Discussions on such dummy tables should be made below and reference them to the specific table in the said appendix. B. Work plan schedule Work plan schedule should be presented in a Gantt chart detailing all the activities to be conducted by the research team. It should detail, what activity, duration of the activity and a discussion to justify the said activities. Do not use arrows to express the duration of the activity. Shade the boxes with gray as shown below:
ACTIVITIES Quarter Data gathering Data analysis Research writing Reporting of results
Researcher In-charge
JANUARY FEBRUARY

MARCH

APRIL

MAY

JUNE

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

C. Research utilization _____________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ____________.