Psychology- Development

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3 Developmental Themes a. Physical Development b. Cognitive Development c. Social and emotional Development Epigenetics also influence development. They are chemical tags that turn on/off the DNA in our genes. Ex Our diet, nurture and stress. Epigenetic influences accumulate over a life time- a group of 8 year olds will have more in common than a group of 80 year olds. Continuity/Discontinuity: Questions whether development takes place gradually (continually) or abruptly (discontinuous) Universal/ ecological development: Universal: Psychologists look at age related development Ecological: Looks at impact of culture and environment.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Zygote/Germinal-During the first 2 weeks following conception Embryo- During weeks 3-8 Fetus- Remainder of pregnancy Periods of development Prenatal period - the time from conception to birth Infancy - the period from birth to 18 to 24 months Early childhood - the period from the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years old Middle and late childhood - the period extending from about 6 to 11 years of age Adolescence - the transitional period from childhood to early adulthood Early adulthood - the period that begins in late teens or early twenties and lasts through the thirties Middle adulthood - the developmental period that begins between 35 and 45 years of age and continues into the sixties Late adulthood - the developmental period that begins in the sixties and lasts until death

TERATOGENS Stuff that can harm the fetus/embryo or zygote. Thalidomide- used to prevent morning sickness, related to abnormalities in arms and legs. 1. Alcohol 2. Caffeine 3. Tobacco PACTS 4. Stress 5. Poverty Alcohol- causes Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Noticeable Features: 1. Small Head 2. Low Nasal Bridge 3. Short nose 4. Thin upper lip 5. Underdeveloped jaw 6. Folds near eyes 7. Small eye openings 8. Flat mid face Not noticed- Low IQ, cognitive and behavioral problems, poor impulse control, attention problems Alcohol acts as a gateway drug as it causes smoking or use of psychoactive drugs Note- Find out dissimilarities b/w tobacco use and FAS.

Childrens physical development Brain Motor skills Sit at 5 months Crawl at 10 months Walk at 12 months

This can be affected by culture- babies carried around all the time will sit up a little later Time of birth- babies approaching their 10 month birthdays during the winter/spring find it cumbersome to crawl with layers and will do it later than babies with 10 month birthdays in the summer PIAGETS THEORY ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Children use schemas and manipulate these schemas to fit information Assimilation is used when new information is encountered that perfectly fits the schema, so the schema does not need to be revised Accommodation is required when the new information does not exactly fit the schema, so the schema requires revision Ex- schema of a bird- has wings and an fly. Assimilation- On encountering a Hawk, it would fit the schema of a bird Accommodation- On encountering a Kiwi bird, which is flightless, the bird schema would have to be revised to fit in information about flightless birds. PIAGETS DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES Sensorimotor Stage Birth till 2 years Object permanence- items that are not seen cease to exist. Ex hiding face behind hands during peek-a-boo. OP ceases to exist after 8 months Separation Anxiety Preoperational Stage 2-6 years advances in language and cognitive abilities Egocentrism- not understanding the views of others May think that fictional characters are real Conservation- Children in preoperational stage do not understand this. (when liquids are transferred from a beaker to a cylinder, the child does not understand that the amount of water in both is the same irrespective of the height of the container) Concrete operational stage Problems of conservation are understood

 More logical thinking Cannot handle abstract concepts Formal operational stage Begins at 12 Able to handle abstracts (what if questions) CRITICISM OF PIAGET Development comes in stages-some people learn abstract thinking later than others He underestimated when skills emerge in childhood He overestimated when skills emerge in adolescence BUT he got the pattern right Gaze duration disproved object permanence Children who are 3 years old talk in manner that a younger kid can understand when interacting with children who are younger than them. This disproved egocentrism.

LEV VYGOTSKY Zones of proximal development

Child=Learner ScaffoldingScaffolding is a process through which a teacher or more competent peer helps the student in his or her ZPD as necessary, and tapers off this aid as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. Infant Temperament Easy/surgency/extroversion- Happy and social Difficult/negative affect/mood- negative, always cries Slow to Warm Up-hesitant at first but becomes more social at the end

ATTACHMENT
HARRY HARLOW Came from the theory that mothers should not show affection towards children as it hampers their ability to survive and they grow to be weak. Said that mother was only required to provide nourishment. Harlow wanted to disprove this by showing the importance of nourishment as well as physical comfort and security given to a child by the mother

Harlow presented 2 baby monkeys each raised by a wire mother- with a bottle to provide nourishment and a cloth mother who was a little heated to resemble a female monkey and was equipped to only give comfort to the baby. The babies spent 18 hours a day attached to the cloth mother and only 1 hour to the wire mother, When placed in a new room with novel toys, the baby even though raised by the wire mother sought the cloth mother to calm his fears and only then began playing with the toys. Similar instance when frightened by a toy.

Schanberg & Field Took premature babies Gave one group a 45 minute massage everyday along with their daily feeding and the other group got no massage The premature babies in the massage group grew 50% faster and developed faster with healthier bodies and were discharged 5 days earlier than the no massage group. This proved that human interaction was important for physical development Mary Ainsworth Did studies in strange situation Mothers took children into a room. After a few minutes the mother left abruptly A stranger then came in an observed the child for a few minutes Mother came back in Mary also did house visits to observe interaction between mother and child Mary noticed 3 kinds of attachment formed in the kids a. Secure attachment- The children cried without their mother but happily returned to playing when the mother came back. Children were obedient, more responsive and cried less Mary also observed that the house interaction, that the mother responded to the child all the time.

b. Ambivalently attached-divided into reserved and disorganized. House behavior- mothers were inconsistent in responding. In reserved the children cry even when the mother comes back and do not stop crying. In disorganized the children reach up to the mother but look away. Refuse to be cuddled. c. Avoidantly attached- No connection. Start playing with stranger Mother was unresponsive. On seeing a Punch and Judy puppet show the securely attached kids saw all the positives of the show (hugging) and the avoidant kids saw all the negatives of the show (punching) Fathers and children If the father is involved then there is an increase in social and cognitive competence. Style of play is different. Dads tend to be intrusive as compared to mothers. They also do not get down to the level of the child (as mothers do) when talking o them. Children tend to play with the dad more as he is more free spirited and less incline to bide by rules than the mother is. Day care controversy Pros- Parents are not driven insane Social Skills develop Immunity increases Learn to be self sufficient Cons- Expensive

Quality day care comprises of: Caregivers who are sensitive and responsive Vocabulary and cognitive development-ample verbal and cognitive stimulation Focus on child development Small teacher to child ratio, ergo undivided attention

 Stability- compromised as the standard wage per hour is $8, lesser than what a Bell hop or a car attendant makes Parenting Styles: Authoritarian: Has high standards that cannot be met by child Sets rules and expects them to be followed, no questions asked Children grow up to be weak minded, requiring therapy Authoritative: Has realistic expectations that can be met by child Will explain the reason behind the rules they are enforcing Children are most well adjusted, obedient and sociable Indulgent Makes few rules or demands Caves into childs demands Children are disobedient and have bad manners Neglectful Do not care about the child, ignore them Children are least adjusted in a social sense.

Motivation

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The process that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior to satisfy physiological or psychological needs Henriques took the example of what motivates people to climb Mt Everest THEORIES 1. Instinct Theory- Something that is hardwired into us, we act in a certain way. Does not explain motivation very well in humans 2. Drive reduction Theory- Drives influence our behavior. Drive is defined as a state of arousal when we are out of equilibrium. Ex when we feel hungry, we eat to do away with a growling stomach. 3. Arousal Theory argues that our desire for an optimum level of arousal motivates us. It looks at drive as a positive aspect unlike that in drive reduction theory. Yerkes Dodson Law-Gives a relation b/w arousal and performance More complex the task, lower the required arousal state. (ex. Brain surgery requires a lower, calm state than raking leaves.)

4.Expectancy Theory Behavior is driven by incentives 5.Hierarchy of needs ABRAHAM MASLOW Different needs that an individual has. If the lower needs are not met, the person does not think about the upper needs.

Pyramid was revised by KENRICK

Cited reproduction as the ultimate goal Primary drives - Hunger (PERIPHERAL/PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS) 1.Cannon and Washburn Measured feeling of hunger using a balloon and button

Balloon was put in Washburns stomach to measure stomach contractions when hungry. Simultaneously pressed button when feeling hungry. Positive correlation b/w button and balloon observed 2.Dogs Took 2 sets of dogs, one who were hungry and had not been fed and the other were full as they had just finished eating. Blood taken from hungry dog and injected into full one Full dog continued to eat Proof that low levels of blood sugar influence hunger and need to eat. 3.Glucose- must look into this- similar outline to blood sugar (negative correlation) 4.Insulin- breaks down sugar (positive correlation) Higher the amount of Insulin, increased feeling of hunger. Step 1.Fat stores decline Step 2. Leptin not secreted Step 3. Eating initiated Step 4.Parasympathetic nervous system activated, body stores nutrients Step 5. Decrease in metabolic activity Step 6. Lateral hypothalamus activated, stimulates eating behavior Result: Fat stores increase, feeding stops Lateral Hypothalamus is the feeding center Ventromedial Hypothalamus-satiety center Destruction leads to obesity due to no stoppage of eating. 5. LEPTIN

Para ventricular nucleus-satiety center- on stimulus, rat stopped eating but destruction led to severe obesity. Cholecystokinin- Secreted by the digestive system Signals hypothalamus to stop eating. Obese people probably have less of this secretion. External and cognitive factors Externality hypothesis: obese people are likely to be motivated b external hunger cues than internal ones Watson Popcorn experiment: Suggested that Effect of taste: The tastier the food, the more the consumption Presence of others: In the presence of others we tend to pay less attention to what we are eating and propensity to overeat increases. Disinhibiting in restrained v/s unrestrained eaters All or none thinking: If I have broken my diet I might as well not follow it. People who live closer to fast food places than supermarkets tend to be obese Obese people have obese friends(environmental factor) Eating disorders Anorexia Nervosa: Loss of weight, extreme disturbance in body image Less common than bulimia. Is categorized into Binge/purging eating and restricting type CausesBiological: Hypothalamus imbalance, Cholecystokinin imbalance, genetics Psychological Evolutionary explanation: People who survived the famine carried on the anorexia gene. Bulimia Nervosa More common than anorexia

Personality

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Questions to ponder How do we define the dimensions of personality? How can we measure personality?-just like intelligence The origins of psychoanalysisSIGMUND FREUD Studied with Charcot, hypnosis to cure conversion disorder-when the problem is not related to any physical deformity but is mental ( ex patient experiences blindness but eyes are perfectly fine) Breuers talking cure- just sit and talk to the patient until they came across the root of the problem which led to emotional realization of the problem and eventual cure Freuds theory 1.Early childhood conflicts have lasting effects 2.Personality is largely shaped by unconscious forces 3.Eros and Thanatos- Life and death instincts. Eros signifies to return to a state of pre existence, i.e. the womb. Thanatos is the desire to cause conflict and is the death instinct. 4.Id Most primitive Operates on pleasure principal Wants gratification- needs immediate satisfaction; like a small child Source of the libido (psychic energy) 5.Super Ego- The internal parent Rigid and moralistic- opposite of id, we should behave in a certain way and act rationally Composed of a. Ego-ideal what we should be Conscience rules for how we should behave 6.Ego Reality principal- deals with the real world, rational piece of personality

Satisfies id without compromising rationality. One does not kill people (id) when having road rage. Rather, we shout at people (ego) 7.Psychosexual development - Erogenous Zones Failure to resolve conflicts at each stage would result in fixation Oral stage - 0 to 12/18 months-Child is fixated with putting things in the mouth as it is comforting. Also symbolizes giving up the breast. If breast feeding is stopped too quickly=child is angry (oral aggressive), sarcastic; done to substitute mothers breast. If breast feeding is stopped too late= child becomes a dependent (oral dependent), gullible and nave. Anal stage - 12/18 months to 3 years-Child is fixated with holding in or expelling feces when parents try to potty train. Anal retentive-controlled, needy Anal expulsive- sloppy, shit throw everywhere, disorganized Phallic stage - 3 to 5/6 years Childs obsession with penis, touching and playing with it. Oedipus Complex- For boys- boy looks at mother in a sexual sense and plays with penis Realization of castration by competition (father) if he realizes that the child is sexually objectifying the mother. Child stops and looks to father as a social influence Electra Complex For Girls-girls get penis envy and look to posses father due to his having a penis- soon turn toward mother as a social influence. Latency stage - 5/6 years to puberty-Stagnation in sexual thinking, child is more involved in making friends, attending school etc. Genital stage - puberty forward- Self Explinatory 8.Defense mechanisms Repression-To not acknowledge the problem, ignore it. If you dont think about it, it doesnt exist. Denial- Repression to extreme. Complete eradication from awareness. Ex when the wife comes home at 2am, disheveled and make up smeared all

over her face and tells her husband she was at the office, the husband is in denial that she is having an affair. Projection To put our anxiety provoking thoughts onto others. If you are attracted to your neighbor you would say that she is always hitting on you and flirting with you. Reaction Formation- To convert anxiety provoking thoughts into opposite reactions. Ex You cant kill your kid if he is irritating you, instead you shower more affection on him. Regression- To return to an infantile state of reaction. Ex temper tantrums by adults Displacement- Direct frustration onto a safer target. Ex if Jimmy is shouted at by his boss, he goes home and takes out his anger for his boss by kicking his dog (safer target) Identification- Take on characteristics of someone who seems more powerful. Ex bullies. Sublimation- most creative and useful form of defense mechanisms- take urges and channel them into something creative. Psychopath becoming a doctor and cutting up people to heal them. Freuds Legacy Too much emphasis on sex and penis but He identified that dreams were important to unravel the unconscious Role of early experience- childhood had lasting consequences Development had stages First person to talk about the unconscious. Neo Freudians (Anti Freud) Carl JungCollective unconscious- people dreamed about a lot of common things. Explained why symbols were repeated across cultures Archetypes- Important aspects of human life explained through collective unconscious. The theme of Star Wars is universal- battle of good and evil will be understood by all cultures around the world. Dimensions of personality- Introversion and Extroversion

Alfred Adler Hypothesized inferiority complex in humans- how we strive for superiority Karen Horney Proof that women have power envy and not penis envy The interpretation of dreams of women across the world. Phallic imagery was not connected to whether or not the women had seen a penis but how much of power they had. Powerful women dreamt less phallic and oppressed dreamt more phallic. Thus they craved power.