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Nextreme Thermal Solutions, Inc.








Nextreme Thermal Solutions, Inc.
Whitepaper



Design Considerations for TEG
System Optimization



E. Siivola, R. Mahadevan, P. Crocco, K. von Gunten and D. Koester.
Nextreme Thermal Solutions, Inc.


Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 2


Introduction

Advances in distributed sensors and sensor networks have led to an increased interest
in the use of continuous power sources to replace or augment existing power storage
systems. The use of waste heat is an attractive source of energy for many applications
where W-mW power is required. The implementation of a thermoelectric power
conversion and energy storage system requires several basic elements in addition to an
assumed heat source and electrical load. These elements shown in schematic form in
Figure 1 are: 1) a thermoelectric device, 2) a heat sink, 3) a power conditioning circuit, 4)
an energy storage device and 5) a power management circuit. The design and
optimization of the system and elements is highly dependent on the thermal boundary
conditions. This whitepaper describes the design issues that must be addressed when
designing an optimized system for harvesting electricity from waste heat and storing and
using that energy.

Heat
Source
Heat
Source
Charge
Mgmt.
(3)
Charge
Mgmt.
(3)
Boost
Conv. &
V. Reg.(3)
Boost
Conv. &
V. Reg.(3)
Load
Mgmt.
(5)
Load
Mgmt.
(5)
TEG
(1)
TEG
(1)
Heat
Reject
(2)
Heat
Reject
(2)
Battery +
Fault
Protection
(4)
Battery +
Fault
Protection
(4)
Cap
(4)
Cap
(4)
Load
Load
Heat
Source
Heat
Source
Charge
Mgmt.
(3)
Charge
Mgmt.
(3)
Boost
Conv. &
V. Reg.(3)
Boost
Conv. &
V. Reg.(3)
Load
Mgmt.
(5)
Load
Mgmt.
(5)
TEG
(1)
TEG
(1)
Heat
Reject
(2)
Heat
Reject
(2)
Battery +
Fault
Protection
(4)
Battery +
Fault
Protection
(4)
Cap
(4)
Cap
(4)
Load
Load


Figure 1: Generic schematic of thermoelectric energy harvesting system.



Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 3

Thermoelectric Generator (TEG)

The direct conversion of heat energy into electrical
energy can be accomplished through the Seebeck effect
in which an induced heat flow through an appropriately
designed thermoelectric device produces a voltage and
current. Figure 2 shows a single PN couple--the basic
building block of a TEG device. The PN couple consists
of a single pellet of P-type and N-type thermoelectric
material each that are connected electrically in series.
Heat carries the majority carriers from one junction to the
other producing a current and voltage. By placing many
PN couples in series electrically and in parallel thermally,
a typical TE module can be constructed that generates a
voltage proportional to the temperature differential
across the elements (Eq. 1). The maximum power
generated by the TEG (when it is matched to the
electrical load) is proportional to the open-circuit voltage
squared (Eq. 2) and also the square of the temperature
differential across the elements (T). Since the T
across the TEG module is related to the heat flow Q through the module and the thermal
conductance of the module, Eq. 2 can be written in terms of these parameters as shown
in Eq. 3. Figure 3 shows a typical IV curve for a TEG along with the power output. It is
evident from this plot that the maximum power output occurs at one half of the open-
circuit voltage (V
oc
)and one half of the short-circuit current (I
sc
) of the TEG.


kA
QL
T N V
couple
couple oc
2
o
o = A =

Eq. 1
module
2 2 2
module
2
4 4 R
T N
R
V
P
couple
oc
out
A
= =
o

Eq. 2

o
2
2 2
32NAk
L Q
P
couple
out
=

Where:
N=number of PN couples
o
couple
=Seebeck potential of the PN couple (V/K)
T=temperature difference across PN couple
Q=heat flux through couple
L=length of P and N elements
A=cross sectional area of TE element
k=thermal conductivity of TE element
=electrical resistivity of TE element
R
module
=electrical resistance of module

Eq. 3


Heat Pump
Heating or Cooli ng
Heat rejected
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
Heat absorbed
Hot
Junction
Cold
Junction
n-type p-type
Electrical Power Input

Figure 2: PN couple operating in
Seebeck (power generation)
mode.

Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 4
0.00
100.00
200.00
300.00
400.00
500.00
600.00
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
Current(A)
Power(W)
Voltage(V)
I
sc
/2 I
sc
V
oc
V
oc
/2
P
max


Figure 3: Generic IV and power curve for a TEG. Note that maximum power occurs at
1/2Voc and 1/2Isc.

Two attributes of TEGs at a T (delta temperature)_of 30 K are plotted in Figure 4 for a
three different types of TEG devices1) thin-film, 2) bulk and 3) micro-bulk. The
attributes plotted are sensitivity (Voc/Q) which measures how much voltage is produced
by the TEG per watt flowing through it, and power density (P/A) which is the amount of
power generated per unit area (footprint) of the TEG. It can be seen here that thin-film
devices offer the potential for higher sensitivities and higher power densities than
standard or micro-bulk devices.

Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 5


Figure 4: Power Density and Sensitivity plotted for a variety of TEGs at a T=30K.

The conversion efficiency of a TE device is closely related to the Carnot efficiency of the
system (Eq. 4), but is adjusted for the intrinsic performance of the TE device itself.
Equation 5 describes the efficiency of the TEG as a function of the Carnot efficiency and
the figure-of-merit, ZT, of the TEG. The figure-of-merit of the device is described in
Equation 6. The Carnot efficiency represents the upper bound in conversion efficiency.

h
T
T A
=
Carnot
q

Eq. 4
h
c
TEG
T
T
ZT
ZT
+ +
+
=
1 1
1 1
Carnot
q q

Eq. 5
RK
T S
ZT
2
=

Where:
T=mean temperature (absolute)
R=module resistance
K=module thermal conductance

Eq. 6


P
o
w
e
r

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
/
c
m
2
)
Sensitivity (V/W)
Performance Comparison of
Various TEG Technologies
Thin-film
Standard Bulk
Micro Bulk
P
o
w
e
r

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
/
c
m
2
)
Sensitivity (V/W)
Performance Comparison of
Various TEG Technologies
Thin-film
Standard Bulk
Micro Bulk

Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 6

Heat Sinking

In order to sustain a T across a TEG, there must be a constant heat flow through the
TEG. This requires a continuous heat source as well as a heat sink of some type
capable of rejecting the heat passing through the TEG. Heat rejection can be
accomplished in numerous ways--through direct conduction to a large thermal mass, by
liquid cooling, spray cooling, phase change or simply through convection to the air using
a traditional heat sink which is the most common and often the lowest cost of these
approaches. Heat sinks come in a vast array of sizes, dimensions and materials and
choosing the proper one requires a thorough understanding of several key parameters
(Fig. 5) [1,2]. Each of these is described in more detail below.

Figure 5: Various heat sink sizes and configurations.

This ability of a heat sink to dissipate heat is often reduced to a single parameter called
thermal resistance, . Thermal resistance, with units of degrees of temperature/heat
flow (e.g. C/watt), is the thermal analog to an electrical resistor. A low thermal
resistance means the sink will do a good job of rejecting heat to the environment while a
high thermal resistance will do a poor job.

Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 7

Airflow speed
The speed of the airflow across the fins or pins of a heat sink play a profound role in the
ability of the sink to dissipate heat to the environment. Increasing air speed has a non-
linear affect on thermal resistance as shown in Figure 6. Consequently, air speed (and
the use of a fan) has a diminishing effect on heat sink performance and simply using a
larger fan to improve thermal rejection can be a losing proposition. Conversely, even a
small amount of air flow across a sink can substantially improve its performance relative
to a case with no forced airflow (known as natural convection). Forced convective
cooling is usually achieved by using a fan. In the case of a stand- alone TEG system, the
TEG and thermal system would need to be capable of starting and driving the fan under
worst case, natural convection conditions. In addition, the use of a fan will impact the
overall conversion efficiency of the TEG system.


T
h
e
r
m
a
l
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
Air Flow
Heat-sink Performance
Dependence on Air Flow
No airflow =natural convection


Figure 6: Thermal resistance of a heat sink shows a non-linear response as a function
of air speed. The special case of no air flow is referred to as natural convection.






Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 8

Size
Size and geometry (such as aspect ratio), like airflow, have a large impact on the
performance of a heat sink [3]. As shown in Figure 7, the performance of a heat sink
improves with size.





Figure 7: Heat sink performance versus volume under natural and forced convection at
a fixed condition. Forced convection case shows lines for different air flow rates.



Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 9

Fin type, dimension and spacing
The optimal fin dimension and spacing depends on the fin material, mode of operation of
the heat sink (natural or forced convection) and desired operating condition. The fin
width is generally a tradeoff between fin length, fin efficiency, and volumetric efficiency of
the heat sink. For natural convection between vertical parallel plates, the optimal spacing
between plate fins is determined by fin length, H, and operating fin temperature rise
above ambient [4]. For a forced convection heat sink, the optimal fin geometry is usually
determined by the flow velocity and pressure drop constraints imposed by the fan
specifications (see [2,5]) and are often improved by the use of pin fins or elliptical fins.




Figure 8: Typical heat transfer coefficient, h
0
, as a function of fin spacing, S for a fixed
fin height, H.



Thermal spreading resistance in the sink
A large mismatch in footprint area between the heat source/TEG and base of the heat
sink can lead to additional spreading resistance in the base of the heat sink as the heat
as to spread from the smaller source area, through the heat sink base, to the farthest
fins on the heat sink [6]. Performance is often improved by usual a more thermally
conductive material (such as copper) &/or varying base plate thickness. High
performance heat sinks often use heat pipes in the base plate to distribute the heat
effectively to the fins.

Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 10

Orientation of the heat sink (relative to gravity)
The performance of a heat sink in natural convection mode (i.e., no forced air
movement) depends on the orientation of the fins relative to gravitational direction [7,8]
as shown in Figure 9. Many heat sinks are most effective in natural convection with their
fins and base plate vertical; i.e., aligned with gravity (referred to as vertical/vertical
orientation). However, heat sinks are also often used on horizontally oriented PCBs with
the base plate horizontal and the fins oriented vertically--referred to as horizontal/vertical
configuration. In most cases, the heat sink works almost as well in this horizontal/vertical
orientation. However, the heat sink performance is considerably poorer in the vertical
base plate, horizontal fins orientation (referred to as vertical/horizontal). The
dependence of performance on orientation can be reduced somewhat by the use of pin
fins rather than plate fins in the heat sink. Different pin fin geometry ratios also impact
the orientation dependence as shown below.



Figure 9: Heat sink and fin orientations. Included from left to right are the
vertical/vertical, horizontal/vertical and vertical/horizontal configurations which represent
good to poor performance in natural convection. (Source: thermalsoft.com)


Voltage Regulation and Power Management

Most electronics require more than a volt to operate and many require >3V. Since the
voltage output of a TEG is proportional to the temperature differential T across the
TEG, large values of T are desired for most applications. Unfortunately, the T
available to many applications is fairly small meaning that the output voltage of the
device may not exceed the minimum requirement. In such a case, it is necessary to
boost the voltage to the minimum usable value. While this may seem like a
straightforward and benign task, it should be noted voltage conversion comes at a cost
since the converter is not 100% efficient. It is common for designers to focus only on the

Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 11
power output of the TEG and miss the issue of voltage or vice versa. There are many
ways to view power management but we will discuss three basic categories as they
relate to TEG power management.

Direct to Load
In some applications, where the heat flow in the system is consistent and adequate to
sustain an adequate T, the output voltage and current of the TEG is adequate to drive
the load directly. This can substantially reduce the complexity of the electronics design
my essentially eliminating any power management. However, as with most heat
sources, temperatures and heat flow can vary as can the ambient temperature leading to
fluctuations in output. These fluctuations must be tolerated by the load and often some
kind of conditioning and/or energy storage is necessary to ensure uninterrupted
operation.

Boost Converters (>400 mV)
Many of todays electronics require a minimum of 1.8V to 3V to operate but often times
the heat source and TEGs combination is unable to generate such a voltage.
Fortunately, there are numerous commercially available boost converters that can
convert voltage from as low as 400 mV to >3V. Figure 10 shows an example of
conversion efficiency as a function of input voltage for a 3.3 V output for a TI TPS61201
converter. With an input voltage of 1V or better, the efficiency of this device easily
exceeds 60% and is greater than 90% under some conditions. As with most converters,
efficiency is highly dependent on the voltage and input current. One notable advantage
to using a boost converter is that it provides a constant output voltage unlike the direct
to load approach.



Figure 10: Conversion efficiency for a 3.3 V output as a function of input voltage at three
different output currents (Source: Datasheet for Texas Instruments TPS61201).

Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 12

Micro-Power Up Converters (>30 mV)
Recent advancements in up-conversion now make it possible to up-convert voltages as
low as 30 mV. This is particularly important in cases where the T available from the
heat sources is very low. One example of this is generating power from the human body
were reasonable and achievable Ts are in the range of only 5-10 K. For such
applications, the power being generated is usually quite low and this must be weighed
with the relatively low conversion efficiencies associated with this type of converter.
Figure 11 shows the conversion efficiency of a Linear Technologies LTC-3108 converter.
In this case the efficiency ranges from 5-40%.




Figure 11: Conversion efficiency and output current as a function of input voltage. This
convertor provides high output voltages for relatively low input voltages. The tradeoff for
converting such low input voltage is conversion efficiency (source: Linear Technologies
datasheet LTC-3108).


Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 13

Optimization Example

Many potential applications in waste heat management and energy harvesting have heat
sources that are not constant or that vary over time.

To employ thermoelectric energy harvesting in this scenario, several key aspects need
to be considered:

- Time-varying heat source. How to design the system to work with a heat source
that is not constant and sometimes simply not available.
- Providing power when heat source is inadequate or unavailable.
- Energy storage. Be able to store energy in order to support the application when
no heat is available.

To illustrate how to manage these design considerations as well as the concepts found
earlier in this whitepaper, we built a example wireless sensor application that includes
thermal energy (from sunlight) as the heat source, a thermistor to measure the
temperature of the window frame, an eTEG HV56 Thin-film Thermoelectric Generator as
the power source, a heat sink for heat rejection, a voltage up-converter and a wireless
transmitter as the load. An energy storage device (capacitor or battery) was not
included in this demonstration.

The TEG and heat sink assembly was mounted to a window frame that was subjected to
sunlight during normal office hours. During daylight hours, the TEG supplied > 40 mV to
the up-converter, which in turn produced 3.3V and approximately 37W for use by the
wireless sensor transmitter. The sensor was programmed to transmit the temperature
and supply voltage to the receiver installed in a laptop computer equipped with a data
logger software application.

Figure 12 shows the temperature and output voltage data obtained over half a day. The
plot illustrates the need to incorporate an energy storage device in the overall solution to
accommodate the variability of the heat source due to weather conditions and nighttime
use.


Design Considerations for TEG System Optimization Whitepaper NWP003.1 14


Figure 12: Temperature and output voltage during a single day

Energy storage will often be needed during periods where continued operation of the
load is required while thermal energy is unavailable.

References

[1] Seri Lee, "How to Select a Heat Sink," Electronics Cooling, June 1995.
http://www.electronics-cooling.com/1995/06/how-to-select-a-heat-sink/
[2] Seri Lee, "Optimum Design and Selection of Heat Sinks," Proc. Eleventh IEEE SEMI-
THERM Symposium, 1995.
[3] "An Introduction to Heatsinks and Cooling," Wakefield Engineering Inc.,
http://robots.freehostia.com/Heatsinks/Heatsinks.html
[4] ke Mlhammar, "A Volumetric Approach to Natural Convection," Thermal Design for
Electronics, 2003, http://www.frigprim.com/articels2/parallel_pl.html
[5] "Optimum Fin Spacing for Fan Cooled Heat Sinks," Thermal Solutions Inc.
http://www.thermalsoftware.com/optimum_sink_fan.pdf
[6] Seri Lee, et al., "Constriction / Spreading Resistance Model for Electronics
Packaging," Proc. ASME/JSME Thermal Engineering Conference, Vol 4, ASME 1995.
[6] "Comparing Naturally Cooled Horizontal Baseplate Heat Sinks with Vertical
Baseplate Heat Sinks," Thermal Solutions Inc.
http://www.thermalsoftware.com/vert_vs_horz_sink.pdf
[7] Ren-Tsung Huang etal., "Orientation Effect on Natural Convective Performance of
Square Pin Fin Heat Sinks," Intl. Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008), pp. 2368-
2376.