Running Head: PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY

Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay Matthew D. Machnik University of Wisconsin-Green Bay

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay Over the course of my internship with the Green Bay Police Department [GBPD], I was

able to participate in a number of interesting and enlightening experiences. These included riding with officers, learning how the police department is run, and being able to witness the interaction between law enforcement and mental illness. A consistent theme that emerged across all of my experiences was how the citizens of Green Bay perceive crime rates as well as safety. This was especially true in regard to the data analysis work that I performed over the course of the semester. The analysis was done on data obtained from surveys, known collectively as the citizen confidence surveys, which were designed to assess citizens perceptions of both crime and safety. It was interesting to see how the work of the police department influences these perceptions, and, furthermore, how these perceptions are connected to scientific research and theory. On the first day of my internship, I had a meeting with Michelle Arneson, who is a crime analyst for the GBPD, and Bill Bongle, who is a newly promoted captain in the GBPD, and is one of the creators of the citizen confidence surveys. They had done a preliminary review of the results of the survey, and had noted several interesting trends that were present. Over the course of the meeting, they explained these trends to me, which laid the groundwork for much of the analysis work I would do throughout the semester. One of the trends involved perceptions of crime rates. Specifically, although incidences of crime have been showing a significant overall decline, respondents seemed to believe that the crime rate was actually increasing. In addition, Bill and Michelle explained to me that respondents reported feeling much safer in their homes than they did in their surrounding neighborhoods, and that they felt even less safe in other parts of Green Bay. Thus, one of the

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY main goals intended for analyzing the data was to look for reasons why people felt this way. Though I explained to them that finding a perfect source of causality is difficult, I asserted that I would try my best to give them the information they desired.

After the meeting, I immediately went home and began to peruse the literature pertaining to the trends that Bill and Michelle had described. One article, authored by Ackerman et al. (2001), made use of a number of polls and other social surveys regarding the concerns of the American public, and used them to make comparisons between the publics perceptions of crime and their actual prevalence rates. What the researchers found was that, despite a consistent nationwide drop in crime rates, the individuals who were surveyed felt that the rate of crime was steadily increasing (Ackerman et al., 2001). Equally intriguing was the finding that the majority of the survey respondents felt that this increase in crime was happening within a close proximity to them, such as in their neighborhoods (Ackerman et al., 2001). Thus, based upon the results obtained by Ackerman et al. (2001), it would seem that the city of Green Bay is not alone in this dilemma. After finding this out, I brought the article to the next meeting with Bill and Michelle. I hoped that it could serve as a means of trying to find a solution to the issue, such that efforts could be undertaken to reduce the degree of citizens misperceptions. After sharing the information, we sat and brainstormed about what could be contributing to this problem. While a number of good points were raised about possible contributors, such as racial stereotypes and forming overgeneralizations about crime following certain events, one idea in particular seemed to be the most plausible. Specifically, we discussed the influence of the media over peoples perceptions of crime and safety.

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY For us, this certainly made sense. As the speed with which people throughout the world can move information increases, it would seem that having the media providing a constant stream of information about crime happening throughout not only the country, but also the world, may be exposing people to more information than they would have had access to previously. It was proposed that this could cause people to make overgeneralizations about the prevalence of crime, which, in turn, could subsequently cause viewers to feel less safe. Upon reading over some of the research regarding this topic, it would seem that there is

evidence supporting a strong connection between the media and perceptions of crime and safety. For example, Ackerman et al. (2001) noted that the surveys, which led to the conclusion that there is a mismatch regarding actual versus perceived crime rates, were administered during a time when a number of high profile crime stories were commanding the television airwaves. These events were fairly prominent, and included the Oklahoma City bombings, Menendez brothers murder trial, as well as others (Ackerman et al., 2001). Thus, while the relationship was only hypothesized, it certainly seems possible. Further research, though not finding a strong causal link between the two, would suggest that portrayals of crime related incidents in the news can possibly influence viewers perceptions. This connection was explored further by Duffy, Wake, Burrows, and Bremner (2008), after it was noticed that citizens of London reported a similar discrepancy between actual and perceived crime rates. Specifically, British citizens also reported thinking that crime rates were increasing, despite a general decline in crime (Duffy et al., 2008). In addition, it was reported by Duffy et al. (2008) that this misperception had such a significant impact on respondents, that they reported decreased perceptions of personal safety. Thus, when comparing the current situation in Green

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Bay with the results of research studies (e.g., Ackerman et al., 2001; Duffy et al., 2008) it would seem that the problem of public misperception is occurring at a cross-cultural level. In an attempt to better understand this phenomenon, Duffy et al. (2008) made use of a wide variety of information, including public surveys, crime statistics, and media reports. One of the public surveys used in the research evaluated what British citizens believed was the most important issue facing their country (Duffy et al., 2008). It was reported that, between July of 2007, and August of 2007, crime went from being the third most important issue in Britain to the first (Duffy et al., 2008). It was noted by the researchers that, during that point in time, media outlets across the country were continually reporting on the shooting of an 11 year-old boy named Rhys Jones (Duffy et al., 2008). Therefore, it was proposed that the extensive coverage of the boys death led to an overall increase in concern about crime (Duffy et al., 2008). Given the tragedy involved with the boys story, it can certainly be understood how people would be moved to use the event as a means of suggesting that crime is a prominent issue. Yet, when looking at the overall crime statistics from the time, their overall rates were decreasing (Duffy et al., 2008). Not to belittle the unfortunate death of a child, but when it is considered that the event was a statistic among a regular decreasing trend of crime, it would certainly seem possible that, when the tragic circumstances surrounding his death were magnified by constant media exposure, the media can play an important role in how viewers perceive crime. This notion was further explored by Duffy et al. (2008), who, in a review of the pertinent literature, found that a consistent negative bias used by the media when reporting events can lead viewers to misperceive the issue. Furthermore, the researchers made note of how newspapers began to make generalizations about crime following the death of Rhys Jones (Duffy et al.,

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 2008). Specifically, they had begun to report the event as a signal that crime was rampant, and

that England was facing an inevitable decline in safety (Duffy et al., 2008). When combined with the negative bias and overgeneralizations made by the media regarding the boys death, the researchers propose that this type of media coverage can create a gap in the perceptions of individuals, such that they may believe that the rate of crime rates are increasing, when they are actually decreasing (Duffy et al., 2008). While Bill, Michelle, and I were discussing the possible influence of the media, Bill described a situation in which he had personally taken steps to reduce the negative impact of the media. He explained that, several years ago, a movement was undertaken to make the area surrounding Broadway Street near downtown Green Bay safer and more hospitable. During this process, a police operation led to a significant number of arrests regarding a prostitution ring being run in the area. The next day, Bill went down to the Press-Gazette to speak with the individual in charge of reporting the incident. While he did not ask that the story be changed, he did ask them to present the story in a more positive light. The reporter agreed, and the story about the prostitution ring was released as a positive story about police success, rather than a negative story depicting the area as being rife with crime that should be avoided. Research would suggest that the method used by Bill to present events in a more positive light can lead to increased feelings of safety. Specifically, by relating media reports to ratings of safety, Duffy et al. (2008) found that individuals reported increased feelings of safety following stories of police success in fighting crime. The method undertaken by Bill to provide viewers with more positive portrayals of police-related events may be especially effective, since, in the survey administered by the GBPD, television was consistently rated as being the top method for communicating information regarding police activities (Machnik, 2011). Therefore, it would

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seem that if the GBPD were to continue to be presented in a positive light, these portrayals could reach a large number of people, and could result in increased feelings of safety. For the remaining duration of my internship, much of my work involved the analysis of the results of the citizen confidence survey. In order to better understand citizens perceptions, I used the data to find which of the different items included in the survey had a significant influence on safety. This involved comparing things such as perceptions of crimes, prior victimization, and police priorities with safety. Over the course of the analysis, I made thorough notes regarding my findings, and I eagerly brought them to the police station to present them. During the meeting, I proceeded to go over the results of the data analysis. One of the categories of comparison involved a number of items regarding what people believed the police department should spend more, or less, time doing. This particular list included activities such as enforcement of drunken driving laws, providing educational programs, and reducing minor crimes. I hypothesized that determining which of them were associated with lower levels of safety could be an indicator of how focusing on certain priorities could increase feelings of safety. Though not provided in the executive summary, this analysis resulted in a number of significant relationships. For example, spending more time investigating crimes, as well as protecting personal property, was associated with higher levels of perceived safety. When I presented this list to Bill, one of the results caused a momentary pause in the discussion. Specifically, the data indicated that increased time spent patrolling on foot or bicycle was associated with a greater level of perceived safety. This was surprising to him, as not much of the patrol activity is devoted to patrolling on foot or bicycle. While, at the very least, bicycle patrol was encouraged, it was not used very often. Though this was not explicitly stated, I assumed that this was the case because patrolling on foot or bicycle seems relatively inefficient.

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY This is because it would seemingly take an officer a greater amount of time to get to a call if he or she was needed. In addition, I suspected that it would likely take an officer longer to patrol a certain area if on foot or bicycle, which could hypothetically increase the likelihood of missing something important. However, according to Bills explanation, this type of patrol is not without its benefits. Specifically, it can allow for increased interaction with members of the public. This, in turn, can lead to greater rapport with members of the community, and can possibly be a means of

gathering information regarding any problems that are present. Thus, while it might be relatively inefficient when compared with car-patrols, foot-patrol may be one way in which the police can work toward more positive public perceptions, and build better relationships with the community. Research conducted by Salmi, Voeten, and Keskinen (2000) would suggest that Bills interpretation of foot-patrol activities is fairly accurate. The researchers conducted a study aimed at comparing individuals perceptions of the police following either a foot-patrol or car-patrol encounter (Salmi et al., 2000). They accomplished this by gathering participants histories of encounters with the police, and then assessed their perceptions of those encounters using a lengthy measure (Salmi et al., 2008). Specifically, they assessed the perceived public image and visibility of the police, as well as any prior victimization (Salmi et al., 2008). Upon analyzing the collected data, a number of significant findings were obtained. Most importantly, it was found that, among participants who had encountered foot-patrol officers, perceptions of the police tended to be more positive (Salmi et al., 2008). Specifically, participants viewed the police as being friendlier, especially when the officer made an attempt to stop and talk to them (Salmi et al., 2008). Conversely, participants who reported contact with

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY car-patrols reported having a less positive perception of the police, in that they viewed them as

being less friendly (Salmi et al., 2008). From these results, the researchers conclude that, in order to form a greater rapport with the public, police officers should engage in more foot-patrol related activities (Salmi et al., 2008). The researchers suggest that this does not necessarily mean that officers should engage in full-time foot-patrol, but should rather spend more time out of their vehicles and engaging the public (Salmi et al., 2008). What makes the results of the study conducted by Salmi et al. (2008) even more interesting is how they can be connected to the results of the data analysis. Within the citizen confidence survey, respondents were asked to rate their most recent contact with the police across a number of different characteristics. This included items such as professionalism, being respectful, and providing impartial treatment. Respondents ratings on each of these items were compared to their ratings of safety to determine if any significant relationships were present. The results showed that the majority of the contact characteristics were significantly related to perceptions of safety (Machnik, 2011). Specifically, as contacts were rated more highly on each the characteristics, respondents perceptions of safety increased (Machnik, 2011). While this information is certainly useful per se, when connected to the insights offered by Salmi et al. (2008), a greater understanding of how perceptions of safety can be increased among the public emerges. Specifically, the results of Salmi et al. (2008) indicate that citizens develop more positive perceptions of the police when encountered through foot-patrol activities. In addition, the results of the data analysis suggest that positive contact ratings can result in increased perceptions of safety (Machnik, 2011). Therefore, when combining both of these results, one could logically conclude that increased perceptions of safety may result from foot-patrol related encounters with

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the police. However, one must keep in mind that this contact does not necessarily need to be the result of foot-patrol activities, but can be something as simple as officers taking time to step out of their vehicles and engage the public (Salmi et al., 2008). With all of this considered, it would seem that the results of Salmi et al. (2008) and Machnik (2011) provide a method that can be used by police to increase public perceptions of safety. Specifically, if time is taken to step out of the vehicle and engage members of the public, while conducting oneself in a professional and respectful manner, this small act on the part of officers can lead to greater perceptions of safety among the public. It is also worth mentioning that the GBPD both encourages, and rewards, positive encounters with citizens. The specific program that is used is referred to as the WOW awards. When a citizen encounters a member of the police department, whether it is through the front desk, records, or a uniformed officer, he or she can nominate the individual for an award. In addition, the citizen is given the opportunity to give a description of his or her positive experience. While this process serves as means of recognizing GBPD personnel who work to ensure positive interactions with individuals with whom they come into contact, it can also serve as a source of motivation for them to conduct themselves in a positive manner. When considering the aforementioned benefits of positive encounters between the police and the public, the motivation provided by the WOW awards can also serve as a means of increasing feelings of safety. Nevertheless, recognizing and encouraging positive encounters may not be a completely sufficient means of changing citizens perceptions. Since one cannot typically predict when and where crime will happen, it would seem necessary to ensure that the police are able to handle day-to-day events efficiently. Doing so could be advantageous, since knowing that the police can

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respond quickly in the event of an emergency may encourage feelings of safety and confidence among the public. While simply hiring more officers may be effective means of accomplishing this, it may not represent the most economical approach. Instead, Bill explained to me that the GBPD addressed this problem by creating a Community Police [CP] division. Within this division, a number of specialized officers are employed to address chronic problems that are present across a number of areas. Having a dedicated individual deal with these problems on a full time basis allows other patrol officers to be more available to take calls when necessary. It was explained to me that this idea came about when it was noticed that patrol officers were having to spend a significant amount of time dealing with persistent problems that happened on a regular basis. In order to counteract this, the city of Green Bay was divided up into a number of different areas, each of which was assigned one or two CP officers who could address these issues. This, in turn, gave patrol officers more time to devote to the sporadic and potentially more significant issues that arose, and they could do so in a more quick and efficient manner. In addition to making an efficient use of time and resources, this method of policing seems to carry with it a number of other advantages. First, since each CP officer is assigned to a specific, fixed area, he or she can gain a better understanding of the problems present. Second, those who experience these persistent problems, such as landlords or businesses, can have a familiar person to contact when issues arise. Both of these advantages can, in turn, ensure that problems are dealt with effectively, and can increase rapport with the police department. While there does seem to be a plethora of advantages to using this approach, Bill explained to me that the GBPD will be taking it one step further. During one of our meetings, we had to wait for another person to become available before we could start. Bill took this time to

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY explain the new policing strategy that will be used by the department starting in 2012. While many of the familiar elements of policing will be retained, the GBPD will begin making increasing use of information about crime, such as prevalence rates and locations of chronic

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problems. By making use of this information, patrol officers will be able to make more efficient use of their time by focusing their efforts on any issues that are identified. It was explained to me on one of my ride-alongs that this can include things such as monitoring active drug houses, or patrolling known problematic neighborhoods. This particular method is known as information-led policing, and was explained to me in greater detail by Michelle. Her role in this method is crucial, as it is largely her crime analysis results that will contribute to directing the actions of officers. I sat in with her one day as she worked, and she showed me the different methods used to obtain this information. These include determining prevalence rates, keeping track of calls to a certain address, or determining locations of chronic problems. By relaying this information to patrol officers, it will be providing a more efficient and targeted approach to policing, which can result in a greater reduction in criminal activity. This method was developed as an alternative approach to their current method of policing, in which, aside from taking reported calls, patrol activities involve little direction. It was noted that this targeted method of patrol should be advantageous, for, as Michelle stated, random patrols equal random results. Thus, by using information to take the randomness out of police activities, the GBPD hopes to see better results regarding reductions in crime. Work done by Innes, Abbot, Lowe, and Roberts (2009) gives further insight into this method by detailing a case study done in England, and providing information regarding the methodology they undertook. One of the advantages they propose to the information-led approach is that it allows law enforcement to see the area from a citizens point of view (Innes et

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al., 2009). They explain that this is an improvement over prior methods of policing, as it can lead to a greater understanding of how certain issues can serve as a signal of problems to come (Innes et al., 2009). Therefore, one of the underlying assumptions to this approach is that, by analyzing crime, and seeking input from citizens, law enforcement agencies will gain access to information that can provide insight into the situations happening at the neighborhood level (Innes et al., 2009). The researchers elaborate on this further by giving a detailed assessment of how this method can benefit both law enforcement, as well as citizens. They propose that using this method can help determine which of the events occurring at a neighborhood level have a significant impact on citizens perceptions of safety (Innes et al., 2009). Therefore, collecting information regarding citizens perceptions of events can provide a means of determining issues that have the biggest impact on citizens experiences, and law enforcement can work to resolve these issues before they become more problematic (Innes et al., 2009). In doing so, law enforcement agencies will also be able make the most efficient use of their resources by ensuring that their primary areas of prevention are having the greatest impact on neighborhood perceptions (Innes et al., 2009). Thus, by identifying prominent issues in certain areas, and subsequently working to resolve these issues in an efficient and organized manner, Innes et al. (2009) propose that law enforcement can play an integral part in increasing perceptions of safety at the neighborhood level (Innes et al., 2009). A trial conducted by Innes et al. (2009) demonstrated how this approach can identify problematic crimes that impact a communitys perceptions. Specifically, they detailed the tensions that existed between two different neighborhoods, each of which had distinct ethnic demographics (Innes et al., 2009). Upon interviewing members of each neighborhood, it was

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY determined that both groups were fearful of venturing into the other area (Innes et al., 2009). Applying the information-led approach, the researchers identified certain crimes, such as racist graffiti, that were related to feelings of anxiety and threat, and led to decreased perceptions of safety (Innes et al., 2009).

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While the efficacy of this approach in reducing crime was not examined, the researchers do provide an example of how this information can increase the effectiveness of community policing. For example, they propose that information regarding the racial tensions that are present could be provided to community police officers to gain greater insight into how issues are affecting the neighborhoods residents (Innes, et al., 2009). In addition, community officers could gain knowledge pertaining to which crimes, such as the graffiti, have the greatest impact over perceptions of safety, and can subsequently put greater emphasis on preventing these crimes, thus ensuring that levels of perceived safety are increased or maintained (Innes et al., 2009). Given the description of information-led policing by Innes et al. (2009), it would seem that there are two distinct types of information that are required for it to be effective. The first involves analysis detailing items such as prevalence rates and crime location. In regards to the GBPD, this work would be completed by Michelle, as it seems a significant amount of her job is devoted to these issues. The second part of this method involves gathering information regarding citizens perceptions of problems throughout the community. As Bill explained to me when detailing this approach, the need for this type of information was why they chose to administer the citizen confidence survey. As per the request of the GBPD, I spent a significant amount of time working to find out which of the survey items were closely related to ratings of safety, which included making

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY comparisons between perceptions of safety and crime. Upon doing a number of the analyses, I

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brought my results to a meeting with Bill and Lieutenant Jeremy Muraski. The items that had a significant impact on ratings of safety included a number of serious issues, such as armed holdups, sexual assaults, and thefts of cars, but also included a number of minor offenses, such as littering, graffiti, and poorly maintained properties (Machnik, 2011). While all of these issues represent areas of concern, Jeremy explained to me how the minor issues could play an important role in perceptions of safety. He explained that minor crimes, such as graffiti and littering, can send a message of disorder to neighborhood residents, and can also act as an invitation to more serious crimes. This is because, if left unattended, minor issues can send a signal that neighborhood residents do not care about the upkeep of their area, which can be perceived as a lack of willingness to address more serious ones. From this, he suggested that it might be necessary to begin enforcing minor offenses more strictly in order to prevent further disorder. While this scenario was only hypothesized by Jeremy, research would suggest that the events described may be possible. Basing their work on theories similar to the one Jeremy proposed, OBrien and Wilson (2011) used a number of different studies to determine how individuals form judgments of different neighborhoods, and provided implications based on their results. The first study involved determining participants perceptions of residents lifestyles and social dynamics by looking at pictures of high- and low-maintained neighborhoods, while the second involved examining perceptions of trust ascribed to the individuals from those same areas (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). Finally, the third study took a closer look at specific elements depicted in the photographs of the neighborhoods, such as the appearances of the windows, lawn,

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY and litter that was present, and assessed how these influenced participants perceptions of the neighborhood (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). The results of the first study indicated that lower levels of neighborhood upkeep were

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rated by participants as being linked to decreased social interaction between residents (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). In addition, the results of the second study indicated that participants ascribed lower levels of trust to individuals from lesser maintained neighborhoods (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). Finally, the results of the third study suggest that individuals form their perceptions of neighborhood environments based on an overall assessment of its features, with their maintenance quality being associated with the perceived level of social quality (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). Thus when taken together, the results suggest that individuals living in communities where the physical structures are not well maintained are subject to outside assessments of lower levels of trust, as well as lower perceived social quality (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). The researchers provide an explanation for how these assessments are linked to perceptions of safety and crime rates. Specifically, they reason that quality of the relationships between neighborhoods is associated with crime rates, such that lower levels of social quality can lead to less interaction when dealing with neighborhood issues (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). In addition, they propose that the findings provide evidence for how individuals can accurately make judgments about the social quality of a neighborhood based on the maintenance of its physical structures (OBrien & Wilson, 2011). These two findings add credence to the theory provided by Jeremy. Specifically, when minor issues, such as poorly maintained properties or litter, are not enforced, the cooperation between neighbors will likely decrease. In addition, neighborhood visitors may become cognizant of the lower level of social quality based upon low

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY levels of maintenance, which can serve as a means to invite more serious problems. Thus, it

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would seem that Jeremy may be correct in suggesting that the GBPD may be required to enforce minor infractions more strictly in the future, for doing so could have a significant positive effect on neighborhoods where these issues are present. In conclusion, my internship experience with the GBPD was overwhelmingly positive. Not only did I have the opportunity to gain skills related to data analysis, but the information and insights provided by the people I interacted with has given me a greater understanding of the work necessary to reduce crime and maintain safety. These insights were even further expanded upon when looking at the relevant literature, which added to the perceived complexity of law enforcement activity. However, comparisons between my experiences and research seem to indicate that the GBPD is taking the right steps to ensure that activities are carried out efficiently, and an overall increase in perceived safety is achieved. I feel a great sense of gratitude for being able to be a part of this learning experience, and I look forward to seeing the results of the new developments at the GBPD.

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY References

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Ackerman, G. G., Anderson, B. B., Jensen, S. S., Ludwig, R. R., Montero, D. D., Plante, N. N., & Yanez, V. V. (2001). Crime rates and confidence in the police: America's changing attitudes toward crime and police, 1972-1999. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 28, 43-54. Retrieved from http://www.wmich.edu/hhs/newsletters_journals/jssw/ Duffy, B., Wake, R., Burrows, T., & Bremner, P. (2008). Closing the gaps - crime and public perceptions. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 22, 17-44. doi:10.1080/13600860801924899 Innes, M., Abbott, L., Lowe, T., & Roberts, C. (2009). Seeing like a citizen: Field experiments in 'community intelligence-led policing. Police Practice & Research: An International Journal, 10, 99-114. doi:10.1080/15614260802264545 Machnik, M. D. (2011). Green Bay Police Department Citizen Confidence Survey: Executive Summary. Green Bay, WI: Author Salmi, S., Voeten, M. M., & Keskinen, E. (2000). Relation between police image and police visibility. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 10, 433-447. doi:10.1002/1099-1298(200011/12)10:6<433::AID-CASP576>3.0.CO;2-Z O'Brien, D., & Wilson, D. (2011). Community perception: The ability to assess the safety of unfamiliar neighborhoods and respond adaptively. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 606-620. doi:10.1037/a0022803