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PROOF

OF

ANDRICAS

CONJECTURE

AND

MINIMUM

GAP

BETWEEN

TWO

CONSECUTIVE

PRIMES


Ing. Pier Francesco Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, P.A. Francesco Di Noto
Abstract
In this paper, we have described the proof of Andricas Conjecture and Minimum Gap between two
consecutive primes, plus other famous conjectures.


















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Index:

1. PROOF OF ANDRICAS CONJECTURE ................................................................................................. 3
2. MINIMUM GAP BETWEEN TWO SUCCESSIVE PRIME NUMBERS SO THAT THERE IS ALWAYS AT
LEAST ONE PRIME NUMBER.................................................................................................................. 8
3. PROOF OF THE LEGENDRES, OPPERMANNS, CRAMERS AND BROCARDS CONJECTURES...... 12
4. CONCLUSION AND SOME MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS WITH STRING THEORY.18



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1. PROOF OF ANDRICAS CONJECTURE

Andrica's conjecture is a conjecture regarding the gaps between two consecutive prime numbers.
The conjecture states that the inequality
( )
n n
p p
+1
< 1
holds for all , where p
n
is the n
th
prime number. If (p
n+1
- p
n
) denotes the n
th
prime gap, then
Andrica's conjecture can also be rewritten as

(1) p
n+1
- p
n
< 2
n
p + 1

But we can also write

p
n+1
- p
n
= ( )( )
n n n n
p p p p +
+ + 1 1



Now, because Andrica states that

( )
n n
p p
+1
< 1

we must have at fortiori:

p
n+1
- p
n
< ( )
n n
p p +
+1


This can be seen very simply, if we consider for example the two consecutive primes 127 and 113:

127 113 < ( ) 113 127 +

14 < 21,89.

then necessarily we must have:

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4
( )
n n
p p
+1
< 1


( ) 113 127 < 1

0,639 < 1

and then

14 = 21,89*0,639

So, if the Andricas conjecture is true, we must always have:

p
n+1
- p
n
< ( )
n n
p p +
+1


[We note that 0,639 is very near to the aurea section, i.e. 0,61803398 and we note that:

21 * 0,61803398 = 12,9787 13; 21,89 * 0,61803398 = 13,528.

Its interesting to observe that 13 and 21 are Fibonaccis numbers and that, also here, there is a number
very near to the aurea section, number that is very important in various arguments of the string theory]

We see then to prove this inequality, so that it automatically shows also the other of Andrica.

If we assume that the maximum distance between two consecutive prime numbers with Bertrand's
postulate, which is a most extreme case, is then

p
n+1
= 2 p
n


replacing

p
n
< ( )
n n
p p + 2

p
n
<
n
p ( ) 1 2 +


n
p < ( ) 1 2 +


n
p < ( )
2
1 2 +

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5
0
n
p <2 2 + 3 = 5,828

[We note that the value 5,828 is very near to the value 5,854 that is given by (1,61803398..)
3
+
1,61803398 = 5,8541, thence to a multiple of the aurea ratio]

It is clear that if we take an extreme case as p
n+1
= 2 p
n
the solution of
n
p will be very limited.
Already with
n
p = 6 does not work and the Andricas conjecture would not be valid.

Then we try to reduce the value of p
n+1

For example:


p
n+1
=
10
11
p
n


replacing


10
1
p
n
<
|
|

\
|
+
n n
p p
10
11



10
1
p
n
<
n
p
|
|

\
|
+1
10
11



n
p < 10
|
|

\
|
+1
10
11



n
p < 10
2
2
1
10
11
|
|

\
|
+

0
n
p < 20 110 + 210 = 419,76

which gives better results, as was to be expected.

[Also here, we note that the mean between [(1,61803398)
13
+ (1,61803398)
12
] / 2 421,5. This value
is very near to the result 419,76. Its interesting to observe the relationship to some power of the aurea
ratio (5 + 1) / 2 = 1,61803398...]
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In general we assume:

p
n+1
= k p
n
with 1 < k 2

replacing

(k-1) p
n
< ( )
n n
p kp +

(k-1) p
n
<
n
p ( ) 1 + k


n
p <
( )
) 1 (
1

+
k
k





n
p <
( )
2
) 1 (
1
|
|

\
|

+
k
k


(2) 0
n
p <
( )
2
) 1 (
1
|
|

\
|

+
k
k



Now consider that, for example:

p
n+1
= p
n
+
n
p


then since

p
n+1
= k p
n


k =
n
n n
p
p + p
=
n
n
p
p
1+

replacing in (2)

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the numerator becomes

( ) 1 + k
2
4

And the denominator becomes

(k-1)
2
= (
n
n
p
p
1+ -1)
2
=
n
p
1


So

0
n
p <
( )
2
) 1 (
1
|
|

\
|

+
k
k
4 p
n


which is always verified.

But for (1) of Andricas conjecture

(1) p
n+1
- p
n
< 2
n
p + 1


p
n+1
= p
n
+ 2
n
p + 1

and since we have assumed

p
n+1
= p
n
+
n
p

that is a smaller amount and this shows that the Andricas conjecture is valid.


But until then we can narrow it down to the minimum gap between two successive prime numbers that
there is always at least one prime number?




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2. MINIMUM GAP BETWEEN TWO SUCCESSIVE PRIME
NUMBERS SO THAT THERE IS ALWAYS AT LEAST ONE PRIME
NUMBER

From the considerations made before we see how much is the minimum for PREDICTING at least
one prime number.

p
n+1
= p
n
+ a
n
p

But what is the value of a?


Let's take the worst case:
We study the case for the interval between the two consecutive primes 7:11

11 = 7 + a 7

a =
7
4


then we have

p
n+1
= p
n
+
7
4
n
p

so the minimum gap x becomes

p
n
< x p
n
+
7
4
n
p

or also for every n

n

< x n +
7
4
n

and there exists always at least one prime number p with

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n

< p n +
7
4
n

or

n

< p n + 1,5118578920369089088580661449367.. n


WITH THIS MINIMUM GAP WE CAN PREDICT WITH CERTAINTY WHEN
THERE IS AT LEAST ONE PRIME NUMBER FOR EVERY VALUE OF N

In addition we can also write

p
n+1
- p
n
= ( )( )
n n n n
p p p p +
+ + 1 1


p
n+1
- p
n
=
7
4
n
p

( )( )
n n n n
p p p p +
+ + 1 1
=
7
4
n
p


n n
p p
+1
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+
) (
p
7
4

1
n
n n
p p
<< 1

the same inequation of Andrica but even better

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For further examples see the following table

TAB. 1

Prime
number x
x + 4radq(x/7)
Primes included in the
gap
2 4,138089935 3
3 5,618614683 5
5 8,380617019 7
7 11,000000000 11
11 16,014265364 13
13 18,451081151 17
17 23,233549780 19, 23
19 25,590035768 23
23 30,250615737 29
29 37,141603914 31, 37
31 39,417668493 37
37 46,196272537 41, 43
41 50,680613912 43, 47
43 52,913915185 47
47 57,364775513 53
53 64,006491591 59, 61
59 70,612800819 61, 67
61 72,807987611 67, 71
67 79,375090187 71, 73, 79
71 83,739141034 73, 79, 83
73 85,917319492 79, 83
79 92,437686876 83, 89
83 96,773680907 89
89 103,262838828 97, 101, 103
97 111,890073395 101, 103, 107, 109
101 116,193983772 103, 107, 109, 113
103 118,343681808 107, 109, 113
107 122,638779638 109. 113
109 124,784259791 113
113 129,071269840 127
127 144,037773161 131, 137, 139
131 148,304004491 137, 139
137 154,695842934 139, 149, 151
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139 156,824541669 149, 151
149 167,454577442 151, 157, 163, 167
151 169,578020808 157, 163, 167
157 175,943525091 163, 167, 173
163 182,302109433 167, 173, 179
167 186,537509711 173, 179, 181
173 192,885385876 179, 181, 191
179 199,227280023 181, 191, 193, 197, 199
181 201,339967692 191, 193, 197, 199
191 211,894291770 193, 197, 199, 211
193 214,003401085 197, 199, 211
197 218,219936717 199, 211
199 220,327380122 211
211 232,961004401 223, 227, 229
223 245,576852874 227, 229, 233, 239, 241



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3. PROOF OF THE LEGENDRES, OPPERMANNS, CRAMERS
AND BROCARDS CONJECTURES


The first two conjectures are valid because the interval found before is the absolute minimum

n

< p n +
7
4
n

In fact:
Legendre's conjecture, states that there is a prime number between n
2
and (n+1)
2
for every n.

n
2

< p (n+1)
2



This conjecture is shown also very easily with Andricas conjecture now that is true.
In fact

( )
n n
p p
+1
< 1

replacing

( )
2 2
) 1 ( n n + < 1

n + 1 n < 1

it gives

1 < 1 but we can take it valid if we assume also the sign of equality

1 1

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Oppermann's conjecture states that, for any integer x>1, there is at least one prime between
x(x1) < p x
2

and at least another prime between
x
2
< p x(x+1)


This conjecture is shown also very easily with Andricas conjecture now that is true.
In fact

( )
n n
p p
+1
< 1

replacing

( )
2
) 1 ( x x x + < 1

( ) ) 1 ( + x x < (x + 1)
2


x > 1

which is always verified!

The other inequality is also easily proved.

( ) ) 1 (
2
x x x < 1

x -1 < ) 1 ( x x

x > 1

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Cramr's conjecture, is an estimate for the size of gaps between consecutive prime numbers:
intuitively, that gaps between consecutive primes are always small, and the conjecture quantifies
asymptotically just how small they can be. It states that



In this case we have:

p
n+1
= p
n
+ ( )
2
n
) ln(p


or equivalently

n < p n + ( )
2
ln(n)



Lets see the following table makes a comparison between

n

< p n +
7
4
n

n < p n + ( )
2
ln(n)


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TAB. 2:

Prime number
x
x + 4radq(x/7) x+(ln(x))^2
2 4,138089935 2,480453014
3 5,618614683 4,206948961
5 8,380617019 7,590290394
7 11,000000000 10,78656631
11 16,014265364 16,74990174
13 18,451081151 19,57896521
17 23,233549780 25,02709785
19 25,590035768 27,6697209
23 30,250615737 32,83132398
29 37,141603914 40,33868121
31 39,417668493 42,79226812
37 46,196272537 50,03872817
41 50,680613912 54,79061749
43 52,913915185 57,14662631
47 57,364775513 61,82363655
53 64,006491591 68,76321788
59 70,612800819 75,62631161
61 72,807987611 77,89928393
67 79,375090187 84,67944002
71 83,739141034 89,17043973
73 85,917319492 91,40804222
79 92,437686876 98,09207454
83 96,773680907 102,5261523
89 103,262838828 109,1478565
97 111,890073395 117,9279805
101 116,193983772 122,2993374
103 118,343681808 124,4807128
107 122,638779638 128,8353293
109 124,784259791 131,008745
113 129,071269840 135,3481956
127 144,037773161 150,4661485
131 148,304004491 154,7675489
137 154,695842934 161,2062123
139 156,824541669 163,349033
149 167,454577442 174,0394786
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151 169,578020808 176,173097
157 175,943525091 182,5656216
163 182,302109433 188,9462911
167 186,537509711 193,1938607
173 192,885385876 199,5564143
179 199,227280023 205,9089715
181 201,339967692 208,0243714
191 211,894291770 218,5863762
193 214,003401085 220,695908
197 218,219936717 224,9122416
199 220,327380122 227,019076
211 232,961004401 239,6423855
223 245,576852874 252,2375066
990 1037,569498 1037,578333
991 1038,593517 1038,592262
1000 1047,809144 1047,717083
10000 10151,18579 10084,83037
100000 100478,0914 100132,5475
1000000 1001511,858 1000190,868
10000000 10004780,91 10000259,79
100000000 100015118,6 100000339,3
1000000000 1000047809 1000000429
10000000000 10000151186 10000000530



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Now let s see when the two functions are equal:

n +
7
4
n = n + ( )
2
ln(n)


n = 7,811. and
n = 990,87.


for

2 < n 7,811.

and for

n 990,87 prevails the function n +
7
4
n


for
7,811. < n < 990,87 prevails the function n + ( )
2
ln(n)


Then it follows that the interval of Cramer is not guaranteed, in fact this Cramr's conjecture is
probably false.

Also for values of n 7 it does not work!,

[However, its interesting to observe that 7,811 and 990,87 are values that are very near to the
following values: (1,618...)
14
+ (1,618...)
10
+ (1,618...)
6
+ (1,618)
4
= 990,7886; (1,618...)
4
+ 1,618...
0,618... = 7,8541. Thence, also here mathematical connections with some powers of the aurea ratio!]

Only if we consider that Cramer has used the big O-notation



with this trick might be valid but we dont put my hand on fire!

CVD

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Brocard's conjecture states that there are at least four prime numbers between (p
n
)
2
and (p
n+1
)
2
, for n
> 1, where p
n
is the n
th
prime number.

Since Legendres conjecture is true, there is a prime between consecutive integer squares directly
implies that there are at least two primes between prime squares for p
n
3 since p
n+1
- p
n
2.
But also there is a prime between integer squares n and n-1, that implies that there are other at least
two primes.

(n-1)
2

< p n
2
at least two primes
and
n
2

< p (n+1)
2
at least two primes

and so we have at least 4 prime numbers-

Brocard's conjecture is true.


4. CONCLUSION AND SOME MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS
WITH STRING THEORY

We have a wonderful formula for the minimal gap between 2 consecutive prime numbers that is the
following:
n

< p n +
7
4
n

or

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n

< p n + 1,5118578920369089088580661449367..


This is the result of the proof of the Andricas Conjecture! Now, we can predict with certainty, for
every value of n, what is the minimum gap when there is at least one prime number.
Thence, we obtain also the proofs of Legendres, Oppermanns and Cramers Conjectures and the
Cramers conjecture is more probabilistic.

The number
7
4
or 1,5118578920369089088580661449367.. is also in the apparent magnitude,
where the 5nth root of 100 is (100)
1/5
= 2,5118864315095801110850320677993..

And thence (100)
1/5
-1 is about equal to 1,5118578920369089088580661449367

Furthermore, it is possible to write also:
n

< p n +(phi) n

where (phi) = 1,6180339887498948482045868343656 is the famous number of the aurea ratio. In this
case, there is an harmony also between the prime numbers. However, the interval is very narrow.


For example, we take as numbers: 8, 24, 496, that are very important and fundamental in string theory.
With gap 1,618 we have:

8 < p <= 12,57 prime 11
24 < p <= 31,92 primes 29, 31
496 < p <= 532,03 primes 499, 503, 509, 521, 523

While with the formula with gap 4/7 we have:

8 < p <= 12,27
24 < p <= 31,4
496 < p <= 529,67


Its clear that for small value of n, the two formulas coincide, so as also the primes that there are!
However, the aurea ratio is only an approximation for excess of the gap.
We put it for his beauty and because the gap is always good, also that superabundant, but, perhaps, the
nature takes a certain security margin.
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More interesting is the fact of the apparent magnitude, where (100)
1/5
-1 is about equal to
1,5118578920369089088580661449367, the first number slightly larger.
This number means that a star of first magnitude is found to be 2.512 times brighter than a star of
second magnitude. The fifth root of 100 (2.512) is known as Pogson ratio.

Pogson formula:

m = -2,512 LOG Fx + C


where Fx is the observed flux in the x-band, and C is a constant that depends from the units used. We
note that more an object is weaker, its magnitude is high, contrary to common sense. Furthermore, we
note that the scale is logarithmic. The logarithmic nature of the scale is due to the fact that the human
eye itself has a logarithmic response.

With regard the numbers 2,512 and 1,51185789 we note that these values are very near to
2,51026251 and 1,51083506 that are values concerning the new universal music system based on
fractional powers of Phi and Pigreco.


With regard the number 8 and 24, utilized in the examples above mentioned, we note that the number 8
is connected with the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring by the
following Ramanujan function:



( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1)

Furthermore, with regard the number 24, it is related to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings
by the following Ramanujan function:

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( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (2)


Palumbo (2001) ha proposed a simple model of the birth and of the evolution of the Universe.
Palumbo and Nardelli (2005) have compared this model with the theory of the strings, and translated it
in terms of the latter obtaining:

( ) ( )

=
(



g f G G Tr g g
G
R
g x d
2
1
8
1
16
26

( ) ( )

+ =
0
2
2 2
10
2
10
2
3
2 2 / 1 10
2
10
~
2
1
4
2
1
F Tr
g
H R e G x d

, (3)

A general relationship that links bosonic and fermionic strings acting in all natural systems.
It is well-known that the series of Fibonaccis numbers exhibits a fractal character, where the forms
repeat their similarity starting from the reduction factor / 1 = 0,618033 =
2
1 5
(Peitgen et al.
1986). Such a factor appears also in the famous fractal Ramanujan identity (Hardy 1927):


|
|

\
|

+
+
+ =

= =

q
t
dt
t f
t f
q R
0
5 / 4 5 / 1
5
) (
) (
5
1
exp
2
5 3
1
5
) (
2
1 5
/ 1 618033 , 0 , (4)

and
(
(
(
(
(

|
|

\
|

+
+
+ =

q
t
dt
t f
t f
q R
0
5 / 4 5 / 1
5
) (
) (
5
1
exp
2
5 3
1
5
) (
20
3
2 , (5)

where
2
1 5 +
= .

Furthermore, we remember that arises also from the following identities (Ramanujans paper:
Modular equations and approximations to Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 45 (1914), 350-372.):
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( )( )
(

+ +
=
2
13 3 5 2
log
130
12
, (5a) and
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
=
4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
142
24
. (5b)

From (5b), we have that


(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
=
4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
142
24

, (5c)

that is similar to the eq. (2)

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