November 18, 2012

Power Line Communications

Lecture 2: Transmission Line Theory

Dr. Osama M. H. Amin
Electrical Engineering Department Assiut University

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What is this Lecture about?

1. Introduction 2. Examples of Multiconductor Transmission Line (MTL) 3. 4. 5. 6.

Structures Maxwells Equations Properties of the TEM mode of propagation Transmission-Line Equations for MTL Per Unit Length parameters for MTL

Reference: Analysis of Multiconductor Transmission Lines, Second Edition, by

Clayton R. Paul, 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapters: 1 to 5.

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1- Introduction
Transmission Line Theory objectives for Multiconductor

Transmission Lines (MTL):

u Per-unit-length parameters u Frequency domain analysis u Time-domain analysis u Incident field excitation u Transmission line networks

The analysis of MTL is somewhat more difficult than the analysis of

two conductor lines. (For example the matching impedance requirement). In the case of an MTL consisting of n + 1 conductors parallel to the z axis, we have 2n first-order matrix partial differential equations relating the n line voltages Vi(z, t) and n line currents Ii(z, t).

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The analysis of an MTL for the resulting n line voltages Vi(z, t) and n

line currents Ii(z, t) is in general, a three-step process (direct method not numerical): 1. Step 1: Determine the per-unit-length parameters of inductance, capacitance, conductance, and resistance for the given line. 2. Step 2: Determine the general solution of the resulting MTL equations. For an MTL consisting of n + 1 conductors, the general solution consists of the sum of n forward- and n backward-traveling waves. In the case where the sources driving the line are general excitation waveforms, these waves are represented by 2n unknown functions that are functions of position along the line z and time t. In the case of sinusoidal steady-state excitation of the line, there are 2n complex-valued undetermined constants.

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Step 3: Incorporate the terminal conditions to determine the

unknown functions or unknown coefficients in the general form of the solution. A transmission line will have terminations at the left and right ends consisting of independent voltage and/or current sources and lumped elements such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, and so on. These terminal constraints provide the additional 2n equations (n for the left termination and n for the right termination), which can be used to explicitly determine the 2n undetermined functions or the 2n coefficients in the general form of the MTL equation solution that was obtained in step 2.

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The excitation sources for the MTL will have several forms: 1. Independent lumped sources 2. Crosstalk (unintentional): the electromagnetic fields associated

with the current and voltage on that line interact with neighboring lines inducing signals at those endpoints. 3. Interference (unintentional): with an incident electromagnetic field such as radio, radar, or TV signals, or a lightning pulse
In order to obtain the complete solution for the line voltages and

currents via the direct solution method, each of the above three steps must be performed and in the above order.

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Question?
When should we use the lumped-circuit theory or follow the

direct solution method of the transmission line equations? If a structures largest dimension is electrically small, that is, much less than a wavelength, we can use the lumped-circuit theory, otherwise we need to find direct solution of the transmission-line equations. The electrical small size means also that the cross-sectional dimensions, (such as conductor separations), must be electrically small in order for the analysis to yield valid results. The fundamental assumption for MTL is that the electromagnetic field surrounding the conductors has a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) structure.

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Examples of MTL Structures

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coupled stripline

coupled microstrip

common on PCBs

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Notes
The surrounding medium is said to be homogeneous when the

permittivity and permeability of the surrounding dielectric medium are constants and are independent of the position. The free space with parameters of permittivity 0 and permeability 0. For the homogeneous dielectric, the parameters are defined as = r0 and = 0. The permeability of all dielectrics is that of free space, whereas the permittivity is characterized by a relative permittivity (relative to that of free space) of r . Thus dielectrics affect electric fields and do not affect magnetic fields. Nonuniform lines in which the conductors either are not of uniform cross section along their length or are not parallel arise from either nonintentional or intentional reasons.

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For example, the conductors of a high-voltage power

distribution line, because of their weight, sag and are not parallel to the ground. Tapered lines are intentionally designed to give certain desirable characteristics in microwave filters. The velocity of propagation of the waves on those lines is equal to that of the medium in which they are immersed or = 1 where is the permeability of the surrounding medium and is the permittivity of the surrounding medium. For free space, these become 0 = 4 107 H/m and 0 1/36 109 F/m. The velocity of propagation in free space is = 1 0 0 = 2.99792458 108 m/s.

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Maxwells Equations
Describe exactly how electric (E-fields) and magnetic (H-fields) behave. Divergence operator
. = a x + a y + az x y z

Divergence at a point (x , y, z) is the measure of the vector flow out of a

surface surrounding that point. Curl operator The curl is a measure of the rotation of a vector field
1 2 3 4
.D = v

Gauss Law Gauss Magnetism Law Faradays Law Amperes Law

.B = 0
E= t D H= +J t

D = E electric flux density C/m 2 B = H magnetic flux density T J= E density of free current

v volume density of free charge H magnetic field density A/m E electric field density V/m

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Gauss Law

.D = v

The electric flux density flow out of a surface surrounding a certain

D.d s = Qenc

point (x ,y, z) equal to the volume density of the enclosed charge. Total outward flux of the electric displacement (or simply, total outward electric flux) over any closed surface is equal to the total free charge enclosed in the surface. Gauss Law for magnetism .B = 0 S B.d s = 0 The divergence of the B or H fields (magnetic flux density flowing out of a certain surface is always zero through any volume. Magnetic monopoles do not exist, magnetic fields flow in a closed loop. This is true even for plane waves, which just so happen to have an infinite radius loop.

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Faradays Law

E= t

E.d l = .d s C t S

A changing E-field in space gives rise to a changing B-field in

time. A circulating E-field in time gives rise to a Magnetic Field Changing in time. A Magnetic Field Changing in Time gives rise to an E-field circulating around it. Electric Current gives rise to magnetic fields. Magnetic Fields around a circuit gives rise to electric current.

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Amperes Law

D H= +J t

D C H.d l = J + t .d s S

A flowing electric current (J) gives rise to a Magnetic Field that

circles the current. A time-changing Electric Flux Density (D) gives rise to a Magnetic Field that circles the D field. Ampere's Law with the contribution of Maxwell nailed down the basis for Electromagnetics as we currently understand it. And so we know that a time varying D gives rise to an H field, but from Farday's Law we know that a varying H field gives rise to an E field.... and so on and so forth and the electromagnetic waves propagate

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Properties of the TEM mode of propagation

The electric field intensity vector E(x, y, z, t) and the magnetic

field intensity vector H (x, y, z, t) satisfy the TEM field structure, that is, they lie in a plane (the xy plane) transverse or perpendicular to the line axis (the z axis). Maxwell equations:
H t Et = t E H t = Et + t t = ax + ay + az = t + z x y z

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E t = Ex ( x, y, z,t ) a x + Ey ( x, y, z,t ) a y

+ + Ex ( x, y, z,t ) = Emx e z cos ( t z + x ) + Emx e z cos ( t + z + x )

H t = H x ( x, y, z,t ) a x + H y ( x, y, z,t ) a y 1 + z + H y ( x, y, z,t ) = Emx e cos t z + x 1 z Emx e cos t + z + x j j Intrinsic Impedance = = e + j

j ( + j ) = + j

Propagation constant Attenuation constant

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Definition of Voltage and Current for the TEM Mode of Propagation

P1 V ( z,t ) = E t .d l = E t .d l

I(z,t) = H t .d l
c

P0

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Defining the Per-Unit-Length Parameters

A transverse conduction current Jt = Et, is induced by this transverse electric field to flow in the lossy medium due to its conductivity from the top conductor to the bottom conductor in this transverse plane. A per-unit-length

conductance g

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The transverse current flowing from the top conductor to the bottom

conductor is related to the voltage between the two conductors by

The per-unit-length capacitance The (displacement) current flowing in the transverse plane from the top

conductor to the bottom conductor is

The electric flux density vector on the surface of the perfect conductor

is Dt = Et and, according to the boundary conditions on the surface of this perfect conductor, is normal to the surface. In order to determine the charge on the conductor surface, we surround it with a closed surface s that is just off the surface of the conductor and determine the total electric flux through that surface. The total capacitance is the ratio of this total charge to the voltage between the two conductors: E t .dsa n
cz = V ( z,t )
s

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The current flowing along the top conductor and returning along the

bottom conductor will generate a magnetic field intensity in the transverse plane, Ht. The transverse magnetic flux density is Bt = Ht This produces a magnetic flux through the surface that lies between the two conductors. = B t .d s = 0 s Hence if a section of line of length z has a total inductance L, then a per-unit-length inductance l whose units are H/m, is given by

The total inductance is the ratio of the magnetic flux through this

surface to the current that caused it: = H.dsa n s lz = I ( z,t ) This will produce a longitudinal voltage drop around the loop contained by the two conductors of:

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The per-unit-length parameters satisfy the following relations:

lc = gl =
Taking the ratio of above relations:

g = c
Hence for a homogeneous medium surrounding the conductors that

is characterized by the parameters , , and , we only need to determine one of the three parameters. For example, if we determine the per-unit-length capacitance c, then the other two parameters are obtained in terms of c as l = (/c) and g = (/)c.

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Transmission-Line Equations for Two Conductors

P1 V ( z,t ) = E t .d l = E t .d l

I(z,t) = H t .d l
c

P0

First, they will be derived from the integral form of Maxwells equations Second they will be derived from the per-unit length distributed parameter equivalent circuit

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Using Maxwells Equations

To allow for imperfect conductors, we define the per-unit-length conductor resistance of each conductor as r1 /m and r0 /m. Thus,

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Taking the limit as z0 and substituting, yields the first transmission line equation

The total per-unit-length resistance of a z section of the line is the sum of the per unit length resistances of each conductor, r1 and r0, and we denote this total resistance as r = r1 + r0.

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the continuity equation or equation of conservation of charge

A portion of the left hand side of (2.10) contains the transverse conduction current flowing between the conductors

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This can again be considered by defining a per-unit-length conductance, g S/m, between the two conductors as the ratio of conduction current flowing between the two conductors in the transverse plane to the voltage between the two conductors (see Figure 2.4(b)). Therefore,

Similarly, the charge enclosed by the surface (residing on the conductor surface) is, by Gauss law,

The charge per unit of line length can be defined in terms of the perunit-length capacitance c between the conductors as

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Taking the limit as z0 and substituting, yields the second transmission line equation

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From the per unit length Equivalent Circuit

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Incorporating Frequency Dependent Losses

The per-unit-length parameters will, in general, be frequency dependent and will depend to varying degrees on the frequency of excitation of the line, = 2f , which are denoted as l (), c (), g (), and r(). For perfect conductors, the line currents will reside on the surfaces of those conductors and therefore r = 0. For imperfect conductors, the currents will be uniformly distributed over the conductor cross sections at low frequencies, but at higher frequencies will, because of skin effect, migrate toward the surfaces of the conductors lying in a thickness on the order of a skin depth, = 1/ fc. Similarly, some of the magnetic flux will lie internal to the conductors giving a per-unit-length internal inductance that is also frequency dependent, li (). As the frequency of excitation increases and the currents migrate to the conductor surfaces, this internal inductance due to magnetic flux internal to the conductors will decrease at a rate of f eventually going to zero as the frequency increases without bound. Hence, the total per-unit-length inductance will be the sum of this frequency dependent internal inductance and the external inductance due to the magnetic flux external to the conductors, le, as l = le + li ().

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Incorporating Frequency Dependent Losses

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The Transmission Line Equations for MTL

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In the case of a reference conductor being a large ground plane,

each current returning in the ground plane will be concentrated beneath the going down conductor giving the following resistance matrix:

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The second equation is:

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Prosperities of the Per Unit Length Parameters Matrices L, C, G

For the case of an MTL consisting of n + 1 conductors immersed

in a homogeneous medium characterized by permeability , conductivity , and permittivity , the per-unit-length parameter matrices are similarly related by

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We will assume that any medium surrounding the line conductors

(homogeneous or inhomogeneous) is not ferromagnetic and therefore has a permeability of free space, = 0. Designate the capacitance matrix with the surrounding medium (homogeneous or inhomogeneous) removed and replaced by free space having permeability 0 and permeability 0 as C0. Since inductance depends on the permeability of the surrounding medium and does not depend on the permittivity of the medium, and the permeability of dielectrics is that of free space, 0, the inductance matrix L can be obtained from C0 using the relations for a homogeneous medium

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Per Unit Length parameters Definitions

The per-unit-length inductance l is the ratio of the magnetic flux

penetrating the cross-sectional surface between the two conductors per unit of line length, , and the current along the conductors that produced it:

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The per-unit length capacitance c is the ratio of the charge per unit

of line length, q, and the voltage between the two conductors

The per-unit-length conductance g is the ratio of the per-unit-length

conduction current It flowing in the transverse, x y, plane from the positive conductor to the reference conductor through a lossy dielectric surrounding the conductors and the voltage between the two conductors

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Circular conductors with large separation

Consider the case of two perfectly conducting wires of radii rw1

and rw2 that are separated by a distance s in a homogeneous medium,

H/m

( s rw1 ) ( s rw2 ) s 2 l= ln 2 ln r r 2 rw1rw2 w1 w2

C= 2 2 ( s rw1 ) ( s rw2 ) s2 ln ln r r rw1rw2 w1 w2

F/m

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Circular conductors with small separation

Dont forget, the inductance is calculated based on free space parameters.

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one wire parallel to an infinite, perfectly conducting plane

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Coaxial Cable

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Per-Unit-Length Conductance and Resistance for Wire-Type Lines

In the preceding section, we have represented the losses in a

homogeneous medium by conductivity . The conductivity represents losses in the medium that are due to free charge in the dielectric. There is another loss mechanism that usually dominates the resistive losses in a dielectric. This is due to the polarization of the dielectric that is due to bound charge in the dielectric. Within the dielectric are dipoles of charge consisting of equal but opposite-sign charges that are tightly bound together. Some materials such as water consist of permanent dipoles that are randomly oriented so that the material has no net polarization. Dipoles are created in other materials when an external electric field slightly deforms the atoms.

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Polarization loss is represented by a complex permittivity of the

dielectric as The effective conductivity, representing conductive and polarization losses, is An alternative way of representing both these losses is with the loss tangent

The polarization losses will dominate the resistive losses in

typical dielectrics of practical interest. Handbooks tabulate this loss tangent for various dielectric materials at various frequencies Therefore, the effective conductivity of a dielectric is related to the loss tangent as

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Hence, in a homogeneous medium, the per-unit-length conductance

is related to the per-unit-length capacitance as

The loss tangent, tan, is not frequency independent, and

hence the per-unit-length conductance does not increase linearly with frequency as it seems to imply. For typical dielectric materials used to construct transmission lines, the variation of the loss tangent with frequency is relatively constant over certain frequency ranges. For sinusoidal excitation, the total per-unit-length admittance between the two conductors is the sum of the per-unit-length conductance and the per-unit-length capacitive reactance as

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Inhomogeneous Surrounding Medium

Determining the capacitance by using a complex permittivity: This gives a complex capacitance as

See the reference for coaxial example.

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Per Unit Length Resistance of Wires

The exact per-unit-length high-frequency resistance for a two-wire

line in a homogeneous medium consisting of two identical wires of radii rw separated by s as

The surface resistance The skin depth is defined as: The DC resistance

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Exact results

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Per Unit Length parameters for MTL

Main assumption: u The wires must be widely separated u The dielectric medium surrounding the wires must be homogeneous; that is, circular dielectric insulations are ignored. Computing the capacitance matrix amounts to several two-

conductor capacitance calculations

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In order to numerically determine the entries in L,C, and G, we

need only a capacitance solver. First, we solve for the scalar capacitance matrix with the dielectric(s) surrounding the conductors removed and replaced with free space that is denoted as C0. The per-unit-length inductance matrix can be obtained from
Use the capacitance solver with each dielectric replaced by its

complex permittivity:

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The Generalized Capacitance Matrix C

We describe a technique for computing a certain per-unit-length parameter matrix, the generalized capacitance matrix C, without regard to the choice of the reference conductor. The dimensions of this generalized capacitance matrix are (n + 1) X(n + 1).

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The n MTL voltages Vi are defined to be between each

conductor and the chosen reference conductor. We may also define the potentials i of each of the n + 1 conductors with respect to some reference point or line that is parallel to the z axis. The total charge per unit of line length, qi , of each of the n + 1 conductors can be related to their potentials i for i = 0, 1, 2, , n with the (n + 1) X(n + 1) generalized capacitance matrix C as

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Numerical Methods for the General Case

If the wires are closely spaced, proximity effect will cause the

charge distributions to be nonuniform around the wire peripheries. In the case of wires that are closely spaced, the charge distributions will tend to concentrate on the adjacent surfaces (proximity effect) In order to model this effect, we will assume a form of the charge distribution around the ith wire periphery in the form of a Fourier series as a function of the peripheral angle i as

Number of unknowns

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Then voltage between two points

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Applications to Inhomogeneous Dielectric Media

At the interface between two dielectric surfaces, the boundary

condition is that the components of the electric flux density vector D that are normal to the interface must be continuous, that is, D1n = 1E1n = 2E2n = D2n. A simple way of handling inhomogeneous dielectric media is to replace the dielectrics with free space having bound charge at the interface. At places where the dielectric is adjacent to a perfect conductor, we have both free charge and bound charge, and the free charge density on the surface of the conductor is equal to the component of the electric flux density vector that is normal to the conductor surface, Dn (C/m2). Of course, the component of the electric field intensity vector that is tangent to a boundary is continuous across the boundary for an interface between two dielectrics, Et1 = Et2, and is zero at the surface of a perfect conductor.

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Thank you!
First Report Duplicate the results of sec. 5.2.3 Computed Results: Ribbon Cables in page 187