Solutions: a homogeneous mixture

Ms. Kuznicki Chemistry

Matter Review

Quick Mixture Review

Lets review homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Heterogeneous mixtures: Unequal dispersion of particles mixed in another substance Examples? Blood, salad, can you think of more?

Suspension- a heterogeneous mixture

When large particles clump together an do not stay dissolved, then a suspension is formed. Particles are NOT bound to solvent molecules and DO settle out upon standing. Ex. mucky water

Colloidal Suspension
appears to be homogeneous but are not true solutions. Particles are suspended because they are small and are being bombarded by solvent molecules. A beam of light can be used to distinguish a colloidal suspension from a true solution. (Tyndall Effect) Ex. Dusty air, jello, fog, foam, smoke

Homogeneous Mixtures
A.k.a. Solution Particles (solute) are evenly dispersed and DO NOT settle out upon standing Examples: koolaide, metal alloys, clean air, soda, rubbing alcohol

Solutions = Solute + Solvent

Solution: a stable, homogeneous mixture in which the solute is attracted to the solvent. When 2 substances are combined to form a solution, one is dissolved (SOLUTE) and the other must do the dissolving (SOLVENT)

Can you dissolve anything you want in ANY solvent? No Does oil, mix or dissolve, in water?

Solubility: The ability of a particular substance to be dissolved in a particular substance

Solubility
Have you ever thought about why different materials dissolve in water, but maybe not in other solvents? There is a general rule in determining whether a substance is soluble in a given solvent:

LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE

LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE

Substances alike in their chemical makeup (structure) are apt to form solutions. Polar substances dissolve many ionic and polar solutes by attracting them to the solvent (remember electrostatic attractions) Nonpolar substances do NOT dissolve in water Nonpolar substances dissolve other nonpolar substances

New vocabulary
Some new vocabulary: -Miscible = Two liquids that are mutually soluble in each other. -Immiscible = Two liquids not soluble in each other -Soluble = a solute MIXABLE in a solvent - Insoluble = a substance not MIXABLE in another substance

Making a solution
In the solution process both the solute and the solvent particles must be separated so that they can intermix to form the solution. Now remember, both the solute and the solvent have forces holding them together. So, these forces must be broken in the formation of a solution. Does this take energy?______ The ease with which the particles can be separated depends on the strength of the attractive forces holding them together.

Like DISSOLVES Like

Now, in order to complete the solution making process, forces of attraction must be formed between the solute particles and the solvent particles. If these forces of attraction are going to be similar to the forces of attraction holding them together in their original structures, a solution will result. If not, then you will not get a homogeneous solution. (Examples: salt and water vs. oil and water) Hence: LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE

The solution process revisited

First, interparticle bonds must be broken = ENDOthermic step Next, new forces of attraction must now form which is an EXOthermic step So, everytime a solution is made there is an ENDO step AND an EXO step The one step that is LARGER in value determines if the OVERALL solution process will be ENDO or EXOthermic

Review of Forces
Substance Type 1. Ionic 2. Polar molecules (With H and F, O, or N) 3. Other Polar Molecules 4. Non-polar Molecules Type of force between Particles Ionic H bonds Relative Strength Very Strong Fairly Strong

Dipole-Dipole Van Der Waals

Varies Weak

Tying it all together

This is why solutions, with gases as their solute, dissolve exothermically And, why solutions with ionic solutes, tend to dissolve endothermically

Solubility vs. Temperature curves of some salts

What salt dissolves exothermically like gases do? What salt is least affected by temperature?

What about..
Those organic molecules that have both a POLAR and a NONPOLAR side to them?

Organic Functional Groups

Alkyl group any hydrocarbon group

Alcohols and Ethers

Aldehydes and Ketones

Some basic naming for singlebonded hydrocarbons - alkanes

Naming carbon chains up to ten methane (1 carbon) ethane (2 carbons) propane (3 carbons) butane (4 carbons) pentane (5 carbons) hexane (6 carbons) heptane (7 carbons) octane (8 carbons) nonane (9 carbons) decane (10 carbons)

Pentane
When writing out alkane structures, you can use different levels of shorthand depending on the needs at hand. For example, pentane can be written out:

or CH3(CH2)3CH3 or minimized more to

Ethene
In nature, ethene can be produced in cells from the amino acid methionine. It has an important role as a plant growth hormone. It is produced by ripening fruit and it also brings fruit to ripeness. Nowadays fruit like bananas are picked unripe, stored until they are needed for the market, then exposed to ethene to bring them to ripeness. Similarly, if green tomatoes are placed in a plastic bag with a ripening banana, then they go red. This is why a ripe fruit (which produces ethene) should not be stacked with unripe fruit, as "one rotten apple spoils the barrel".

Carbon can form isomers. Isomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula but different shapes.
Example: glucose and fructose both have chemical formulas of C6 H12 O6 BUT their shapes are different!

-Silly analogy of understandingisomers are like Eggs! Eggs can be scrambled, fried, or hard boiled so even though they are made up of the same substance (the egg = C, H, and O) they will have a different physical appearance (texture, appearance, etc. in other words, properties).

Glucose vs. Fructose (C6H12O6)

Straight chain and ring structure s comparing glucose and fructose. These two both have the same chemical formula yet have different chemical structures = isomers.

Another example of an isomer

Isomers are two molecules with the same molecular formula but different physical arrangements. Ex: butane
vs. isobutane (2-methyl propane)

You try a few

Name the following:
C4H10 C8H18 C9H20 Draw the following:
Pentane and ethane

Polar or Non-polar or BOTH???

The more red / blue differences, the more polar the molecule. If the surface is largely white or lighter color shades, the molecule is mostly non-polar.
Methane versus water

Alcohol Example
What happens to the polarity of a molecule with a constant functional group such as an alcohol, but the number of carbons and hydrogens increases i.e. chain length increases? Methanol is a polar molecule
Propanol is a about equal polar and non-polar molecule. Hexanol is mostly non-polar with some polar properties.

General Rule of Thumb

General rule of thumb: If it is polarnonpolar it can dissolve in both POLAR and NONPOLAR solvents. Of course, as the NP-end gets larger (and consequently the molecular mass gets larger), it may not dissolve in polar solvents very well at all.

Vitamins

Implications of solubility on our diet: Will all vitamins dissolve in water? Some vitamins dissolve in water, for example: C, B1, B6, and B12 Others (A, D, and E) dissolve in fat

Factors that increase solubility

What can you do to make a solute dissolve more easily/quickly? Stir Increase surface area by powdering a solid Heat (except when dissolving some gases in liquids) Gases only: Increase the pressure

Hydrated ion : Hydrated sugar

Solvated: when a solute is surrounded by solvent Hydrated: solvation when that solvent is water

ENOUGH IS ENOUGH!
What do you call a solution that cant hold any more solute at room temperature? Saturated This literally means full Rate of solvation (Rs) = Rate of Crystallization (Rc) (Solution equilibrium exists) What do you call a solution that can still hold more solute? Unsaturated So, (Rs) is greater than (Rc)

Think on this: What if I have a hot cup of coffee and I put loads of sugar in there (enough that it all dissolves, but it cant hold anymore) Then, I let the coffee cool down and the sugar stays dissolved in the solution It now holds MORE sugar than I could have dissolved in it at room temperature This solution is SUPERsaturated

Supersaturated Solution Made and Destroyed

General solubility curve showing supersaturated, saturated, unsaturated areas The line
represents a saturated solution. Region A represents a super-saturated solution. Region B represents an unsaturated solution.

A B
Increasing Temperature

This substance dissolves endothermically.

Writing: Heats of Solution a PHYSICAL PROCESS

Case 1 Endothermic Reactions
(Example: Most ionic solutes in water)

written as:
Solute (+ Solvent)+ Heat Energy Solution

or
Solute (+ Solvent) Solution, Hsoln = + Value

Heat of Solution
The difference between the heat content of the resultant solution and the heat content of the components when separate.

Endothermic Overall

Less energy within bonds

More E within bonds

Energy Absorbed = Hsoln + value

Endothermic Process
So, in an endothermic reaction the total heat content of the solution (energy within the bonds) is greater than that of its components. The solution feels cold as dissolving proceeds and the heat of solution is said to be positive. The solute solubility increases with rising temperature hence the upward curve on the Solubility versus Temperature graph.

CASE 2: EXOTHERMIC RX
Exothermic reaction
(example: most gases in water)

Written as:
Solute (+ Solvent) Solution + Heat Energy Solution, Hsoln = - value

or
Solute (+ Solvent)

Exothermic Overall

More energy within bonds Less energy within bonds

Energy released Hsoln - value

Exothermic Process
So, when the dissolving process is exothermic, the total heat content of the solution is less than that of its separate components. The solution releases energy as dissolving proceeds. The heat of the solution is said to be negative. The solutes solubility decreases with rising solution temperature hence the downward curve on a Solubility versus Temperature graph.

Another Solubility vs. Temperature Graph Which substances dissolve endothermically? What kind of substances are they? If you were at 40 C, what is the solubility of sulfur dioxide? What if at 40 C, you had 10 g of sulfur dioxide dissolved what type of soln is it?

LeChateliers Principle and Heat E

Given: Kl(s) (+H20) KI(aq), Hsoln = + 5.11 Kcal/mol Questions: Kl would be more soluble at a HIGHER temperature. What would the energy curve look like? What would the Solubility vs. Temperature curve look like? Given: Hl (g) (+ H2O) Hl (aq), Hsoln = -7.02 Kcal/mol Questions: Hl would be more soluble at a LOWER temperature. Adding heat would DECREASE the solubility of Hl. What would the Solubility vs. Temperature curve look like?

LeChateliers Principle and P

Influence of Pressure on Solubility -Ordinary changes in pressure affect the solubility of solids and liquids so slightly, we may ignore them. Gas in gas solutions no effect because all mixtures of gases are homogenous.

Henrys Law
Gas in liquids will be affected Henrys Law=The solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure of that gas above the liquid.

Real Life Application of Henrys Law

Soda is bottled under pressure to get that fizz. Carbon dioxide is forced into solution under pressure of 5 to 10 atm and then sealed. When the cap is removed, the P above decreases to 1 atm and you have. Effervescence: rapid escape of a gas from a liquid in which the gas is dissolved.

It happens..
Deep sea divers may experience a condition called the "bends" if they do not readjust slowly to the lower pressure at the surface. If the diver returns to the surface too rapidly, the nitrogen forms bubbles in the blood as it becomes less soluble due to a decrease in pressure. The nitrogen bubbles can cause great pain and possibly death.

Gases that are more soluble because..

Some gases react with their liquid solvents and so are generally more soluble than those that do not form compounds. Ex: carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and ammonia -More than one type of equilibrium is involved.

Example of why CO2 is so soluble in soda even though it is NP

Ex: CO2 (g) H2O CO2 (aq) PHYSICAL EQUILIBRIUM CO2 (aq) + H2O(l) H2CO3 (aq) CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Dilute vs. Concentrated

It is qualitative. In chemistry we need to be a bit more specific.

Concentration
% by Mass is calculated by the following formula: g solute / total g soln then x 100% (It is always expressed as a %) Ex. problem:
Determine the mass % of a solution if you dissolve 5.00g of glucose in 200. g of water. Answer = 2.44%

ppm = parts per million

A unit of concentration often used when measuring levels of pollutants in air, water, body fluids, etc. One ppm is 1 part in 1,000,000. The common unit mg/liter is equal to ppm. Four drops of ink in a 55-gallon barrel of water would produce an "ink concentration" of 1 ppm.

ppb = parts per billion

One part per billion is 1 part in 1,000,000,000. One drop of ink in one of the largest tanker trucks used to haul gasoline would represent 1 ppb. The difference between 1 ppm and 1 ppb is important. A prestigious scientific journal recently reported the concentration of a substance as 0.51.5 ppm. The real value was 0.5-1.5 ppb. The difference between $1 and $1000!

Concentration
Another way to express concentration is by using moles One way is called Molarity and is calculated by the following formula: Moles solute / L total soln (Units are mol/L) abbreviated M

Molarity (M)
Problem Type 1: Given the mass of Solute and the Volume of Solution find M. a. You make a solution by pouring 2.60 g of NaCl into water to make 200. mL of Solution. Find M.
2.60g/58.5g/mol= 0.0444moles/0.200L = 0.222M

Problem Type 2: Given the amount of solution needed to prepare a certain molarity, find the number of g of solute needed. You need to prepare 500. mL of a 2.0 M NaCl solution. How many grams of NaCl would you need?

0.500L x 2.0 mol/L x 58.5 g/mol = 59 g

Problem Type 3: Given a solution of a certain molarity, prepare x mL of solution of another molarity (dilution). a.You need to prepare 4.00 L of a 0.80 M solution of NaCl from a 3.00 M solution. Use: M1V1 = M2V2
3.00M x V1 = 0.80M x 4.00L

1.1 L = V1
Physically, you will have to measure out 1.1 L of the 3.00 Molar solution and then dilute it with water until you reach 4.00 L.

Molality (m) another way to quantitatively describe a concentration

Molality is similar to Molarity because it looks at the number of moles but it is per kg of solvent. Formula is : moles of solute/kg of solvent 1.0 0.50 mole solute in 0.50 Kg of Solvent =________m 1.0 0.25 mole solute in 0.25 Kg of solvent = _________m 2.0 2.0 mole solute in 1.0 Kg of solvent = _________m

Molality sample problems:

1. Determine the molal concentration of a solution containing 32.0 grams of Napthalene, C10H8 (s) dissolved into 350.0 grams of Benzene, C6H6 (l).
32.0 g/128g/mol= 0.250 mole/.350Kg = 0.714m

2. Determine the number of grams of H2C4H4O6 (s) required to make up a 0.0116m solution using 1560 grams of the solvent ethanol.
0.0116mol/Kg x 1.560 Kg x 150.g/mol = 2.71g

Colligative Properties of Solutions

A. The physical properties of a solution are different from those of a pure solvent. B. Depends on the concentration of solute particles, not on their identity. C. Include: Boiling Point and Freezing Point

Phase diagram solvent isnt water

Is it that easy?

If you reduce the number of solvent molecules on the surface, you are going to reduce the number which can escape in any given time.

Problem Solving with Raoults Law

It was found experimentally that 1 mole of nonvolatile solute particles will raise the boiling point of 1000 g of water 0.515 C. The same concentration of solute will lower the FP of 1000 g of water 1.86 C.
*0.515 C/m = molal bp elevation constant for water = Kb *1.86 C/m = molal fp elevation constant for water = Kf

Equations:

1st pair:

Tf = m x Kf and

Tb = m x Kb

2nd pair:

FP soln = FP pure solvent - Tf BP soln = BP pure solvent + Tb

Example 1. A solution is made dissolving 6.48 g of sucrose in 350. g of water. Find the FP and the NBP of the solution. First, find the molal concentration:

6.48g sucrose/342 g/mol = 0.0189mol/0.350kg = 0.0541m

Second, determine ^Tf and ^Tb: ^Tf = 0.0541m x 1.86 C/m = 0.101 C ^Tb = 0.0541m x 0.515 C/m = 0.0279 C Third, find the actual FP and BP of the resulting solution: FP = 0.0 C - 0.101 C = - 0.101 C BP = 100. C + 0.0279 C = 100.0279C

Example 2: The freezing point of a solution containing 18.0 g of a nonelectrolyte solute dissolved in 200.0 g of water is 0.930 C. Calculate the molecular weight of the solute (g/mol). First, determine the molality (# moles/1.00 Kg of solvent) of the solution: Tf = m x Kf 0.930 C = m x 1.86 C/m m= 0.500m Second, determine the grams of solute/1.00 Kg of solvent: 18.0g/0.2000kg = 90.0g/kg Third, determine the molecular weight by dividing your answer in the second step by the answer in the first step: 90.0g/kg / 0.500 mol/kg = 180.g/mol

Example 3: Pheromones are chemical substances that govern social interactions between members of a species. A female gypsy moth releases a pheromone yielding the following: 80.8% C, 13.6% H, and 5.60% O. 1.00 gram of the pheromone dissolved in 8.50 g of benzene freezes at 3.36 C. NFP benzene = 5.50 C Kf benzene = 5.12 C/m Determine the molecular mass and the molecular formula for the compound: hint work it out like problem 2 then, use the %comp info to det. Emp form then, det. Molecular formula!

What if it is IONIC and it breaks up into more than one particle?

Remember ionic compounds that are soluble will break apart into their ion counterparts

Pure water microscopic view. Normal boiling point = 100.0oC.

1.0 M NaCl solution microscopic view. Normal boiling point = 101.0oC. Note that the ionic solid, NaCl, produces Na+ ions (blue) and Cl- ions (green) when dissolved in water.

What matters isn't actually the number of moles of substance that you put into the solution, but the number of moles of particles formed. For each mole of sodium chloride dissolved, you get 1 mole of sodium ions and 1 mole of chloride ions - in other words, you get twice the number of moles of particles as of original salt.

work:
Draw a picture of an CaCl2 substance dissolving in water. Clue: an ionic substance breaks apart into its ions and then the polar ends of the water molecules pull it apart This is called dissociation of the ions in solution