Activity 3 : Osmosis and egg : To remove shell of an egg keep egg in dilute HCl solution.

Shell of an egg is made up of CaCO3. A thin outer skin is seen around the egg. Now put the egg in clean water and observe after 5 minutes. Due to osmosis water enters into the egg and it swells. Now place similar deshelled egg in a concentrated salt solution and observe after 5 minute, the egg shrinks. Activity 4 : The same activity can be performed with dry grape and apricot. Keep dry grape or apricot in simple water for few minutes. In the same way keep swelled grape or apricot in concentrated salt solution or sugar solution for few minutes. Now you will come to following conclusion. (A) Water enters into dry grapes and it swells up. (B) While keeping in higher concentrated salt solution grapes loses the water and shrinks. Unicellular fresh water organisms and most of plant cells get water through osmosis. Absorption of water through plant root is an example of osmosis. Activity 1 : Take one slice of an onion with the help of a forcep. Peel off the layer of the thin epidermis of onion. Put the layer immediately in the watchglass containing water so it will not get dried. Now take a glass slide and put a drop of water on it. Now take out small pieces of epidermis from the watch glass and put it on the slide with water droplet. Now put a drop of safranine solution on this piece and put the coverslip on it in such a way that the bubbles air do not enter it. Now, this transitory, establishment is getting prepared, and observe it in microscope under low power and then under high power. This small structure we see is the fundamental unit of onion root. This structure is called a cell. This type of structure is found not only in onion but in all the living beings Activity 5 : By peeling off the leaf skin of tradescantia and putting on the slide there seen small pigment of green substance through highpower microscope. This green substance is known as chlorophyll. Now put concentrated sugar solution or salt solution. Wait for sometime. The water moves out of the leaf cells after osmosis process. Now observe this leaf under microscope. You will find that components of the cell separate from the cell wall. This seeming change is so explained that

the outer medium being hypertonic, the water comes out because of plasmolysis from the cell of the leaf. Put some tradescantia leaves into boiling water for some time. In this way the cells of the leaves will die. Now remove the leaves from the water on and out the slide and watch through the microscope. Put simple sugar or salt solution on the leaves. Wait for sometime and observe. In this experiment, you will see that plasmolysis doesn't take place. This means that in boiled water osmosis doesn't take place or say in other words, it is proved form this experiment that the property of selective permeability is found only in living cell membrane Activity 6 : To observe the animal cell in microscope. Take a glass slide and put a drop of water on it. Take an ice-cream eating spoon and scrap the internal part of your cheek slowly. Now look at the spoon whether any matter is collected in it. Now put this matter slide with the help of a needle. Put a drop of methaline blue on the substance. After that dont forget to put a coverslip on the substance. Watch the slide under microscope and observe the shape of the cell. In every cell, dark stain round or oval shaped structure is nucleus.

Chapter-5, The Fundamental Unit of Life Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Cells are the smallest structures capable of basic life p r o c e s s e s , s u c h a s t a k i n g i n n u t r i e n t s , e x p e l l i n g wa s t e , a n d r e p r o d u c i n g . A c e l l p e r f o r ms f u n c t i o n s l i k e respiration, obtaining nutrition, clearing of waste material, forming new proteins etc. All living things are composed of cells.The term CELL was coined by Robert Hooke in 1665.He examined a thin slice of cork ( a substance from the bark of a tree) under the microscope. Since cork is madeup of dead cells, so what Robert Hooke saw was empty compartments lined by cell wall. He described it as astructure similar to honey-comb consisting of many inner compartments. He called these empty compartmentsas cells. ( in latin language: cellula means a little room.Living Organisms are made up of cells.Hu ma n s h a v e a n e s t i ma t e d 1 0 0 t r i l l i o n o r 1 0 14

c e l l s ; a t y p i c a l c e l l s i z e i s 1 0 m; a t y p i c a l c e l l m a s s i s 1nanogram. The largest known cell is an unfertilizedostrich egg cell.Longest cells are nerve cells that may be several meters long. Observing cells in onion bulb: Organisms are divided into two categories based on the number of cells present in their body. When a single cell constitutes the whole organism, such organisms are known as unicellular organisms.( Uni=Single) Eg. Amoeba , Chlamydomonas , Paramoecium and bacteria.When many cells group together to form one organism, such an organism is known as a multicellular organism.(Multi=Many) Eg. animals , plants and most fungi. Where do cells come from : All cells come from pre-existing cells by the process of cell division. Relation between structure and function of a cell: Shape and size of cells are related to the specific function performed by them. For eg. A nerve cell has a longaxon because it helps in transmission of nerve impulses. Division of Labour: Division of labour is seen in organisms at different levels.In man, heart pumps blood, stomach digests food and so on. Similarly, division of labour is seen in cells also.Similarly, in cells, there are structures called cell organelles that perform specific functions so that the cell canexist as a living unit. For eg, lysosomes help in digestion of food within the cell and mitochondria helps in production of energy. Structural organization of a cell monikamehan@gmail.com 1 A n o n i o n b u l b i s a mo d i f i e d p a r t o f o n i o n p l a n t . I t h a s d r y a n d f l e s h ys c a l e l e a v e s , a r e d u c e d d i s c l i k e s t e m a n d a d v e n t i t i o u s r o o t s . O n o b s e r v i ng a s ma l l p i e c e o f s k i n ( p e e l a l s o c a l l e d e p i d e r mi s ) f r o m t h e concave side of fleshy scale leaf by preparing a slide and observing under the microscope, a number of elongated thin walled cells are seen. Eachcell has a distinct nucleus and may also have a vacuole. These cells arethe building blocks of onion bulb.Th e t h r e e ma i n

s t r u c t u r a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l r e g i o n s inside a cell are:1. Plasma membrane (Cell Membrane)2. Nucleus and3. Cytoplasm. Functional Regions of a CellPLASMAMEMBRANE Outer most covering of cells. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. it permits the entry and exit of some substances in and out of the cell. Due to its flexible pore size substances can move in and out of the celldepending on the requirement of the cell. Gases (CO 2 and O 2 ) mo v e a c r o s s t h e c e l l me mb r a n e b y t h e p r o c e s s o f d i f f u s i o n . Diffusion meanss p o n t a n e o u s mo v e me n t o f a s u b s t a n c e f r o m a r e g i o n o f h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o a r e g i o n o f i t s l o w e r concentration. Water also moves in and out of the cell membrane. Movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane is known as Osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a regionof high water concentration to a region of low water concentration through a semi permeable membrane. Hypertonic, isotonic and Hypotonic solutions When a cell is placed in a solution, three things can happen:a ) I f t h e o u t e r solution has a higher water concentration than the inside of the c e l l t h e n w a t e r wi l l mo v e inside the cell, i.e. the cell will gain water by osmosis. Such a solution is HYPOTONIC. b)If the outer solution has a lower water concentration than the inside of the cell then water will move outof the cell, i.e. the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is HYPERTONIC. c)If the outer solution has exactly the same water concentration than the inside of the cell then there is nonet movement of water across the cell membrane. Such a solution is ISOTONIC.Functions of cell membrane: Diffusion and Osmosis are special processes that help in : Absorption of water by plant roots, movement of molecules like ATP, movement of food molecules etc.I n s o me o r g a n i s ms l i k e

Amoeba , cell membrane also helps the organism to engulf food f r o m t h e o u t e r environment.Movement of food particles inside the cell by infolding of the cell membrane and subsequent formation of the food vacuole is known as ENDOCYTOSIS .Therefore , transport of substances takes place across a cell membrane in the following ways: By diffusion (eg. Gases) By movement of water (osmosis). Substances that are water soluble also move when there is a differencein concentration. Some substances have to be moved against the concentration gradient ( low to high) and this requiresenergy. Movement of food particles in a cell eg. in amoeba by endocytosis. Composition of Plasma Membrane: it is chiefly composed of lipids + ProteinsHow can the structure of Plasma Membrane be observed: Through Electron microscope. monikamehan@gmail.com2 CELLWALL Plant cells have an additional covering on the outside in addition to the cell membrane. This is the cell wall. It is rigid, non living and gives additional strength to the cell. It is mainly composed of cellulose.Cellulose provides structural strength to the cell. (Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate.)Other substances that constitute the cell wall are pectin and lignin. Lignin is one of the strongest substancesknown to man.When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis, there is shrinkage of the cell cytoplasm and cell contentsaway from the cell wall. This is known as Plasmolysis . Advantage of cell wall : cell wall permits the plant cells, fungi and bacteria to withstand pressures created whenthese cells are placed in very dilute (hypotonic) media without bursting. Plant cells, cells of fungi and bacteria are able to withstand greater changes in the surrounding medium than the animal cells.

NUCLEUS Functions of Nucleus: 1 .P l a ys a c e n t r a l r o l e i n c e l l r e p r o d u c t i o n 2.Has chromosomes that contain information for inheritance of features from parents to offsprings.3 .C o n t r o l s a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e c e l l . Chromosomes: Are visible as rod shaped structures during cell division. Contain information for inheritance Are made up of DNA and Proteins. DNA = Deoxy ribo nucleic acid Contain information necessary for constructing and organizing cells DNA has functional segments known as genes . PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS The term prokaryote comes from Greek words that mean before nucleus or prenucleus, while eukaryotemeans true nucleus.The cell structure of prokaryotes differs greatly from that of eukaryotes. The defining characteristic is theabsence of anucleus. Thegeneticmaterial of prokaryotes is present as irregular DNA/ proteincomplex in thecytoplasmcalled the nucleoid, which lacks anuclear envelope. Prokaryotes generally lack membrane-bound cellc o mp a r t me n t s: s u c h a s mitochondriaandchloroplasts. B o t h e u k a r y o t e s a n d p r o k a r y o t e s c o n t a i n l a r g e RNA/ proteinstructures calledribosomes, which produceprotein. Prokaryotes are usually much smaller thane u k a r yo t i c c e l l s . P r o k a r yo t e s a l s o d i f f e r f r o m e u k a r yo t e s i n t h a t t h e y c o n t a i n o nl y a s i n g l e l o o p o f s t a b l e monikamehan@gmail.com3 Nuclear Membrane : is a double layered covering that protects the nuclear contents .

Nuclear ore : allows the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to outside Chromatin Material : is an entangled mass of thread like structures.It getsorganized into chromosomes during cell division. NucleolusN u c l e o l a s m Fluid in the nucleus chromosomal DNA stored in an area named thenucleoid, while eukaryote DNA is found on tightly bound andorganizedchromosomes. In photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria, the chlorophyll pigment is present in bag-likemembrane bound structures. P R O K A R Y O T I C C E L L E U K A R Y O T I C C E L L 1. Generally smaller in size than eukaryotic cells1. Generally larger in size than prokaryotic cells2. Have a poorly defined nuclear region due toabsence of nuclear membrane.2. have a well defined nuclear region surrounded by anuclear membrane3 . S i n g l e c h r o m o s o m e (Nucleoid) is present.3. More than one c h r o m o s o m e s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e nucleus.4 . M e m b r a n e bound cell organelles are absent4. Membrane bound cell o r g a n e l l e s l i k e m i t o c h o n d r i a , ER, Golgi bodies etc are present. A Prokaryotic CellA Eukaryotic CellCYTOPLASM: The cytoplasm i s t h e p a r t o f a cellt h a t i s e n c l os e d wi t h i n t h e plasma membrane. Ineukaryoticcells thecytoplasm containsorganelles, such asmitochondria, that are filled with liquid kept separate from the rest of thecytoplasm by biological membranes. S u c h me mb r a n e b o u n d s t r u c t u r e s a r e a b s e n t i n p r o k a r yo t i c c e l l s. Th e cytoplasm is the site where most cellular activities occur.monikamehan@gmail.com4

Organelles a r e me mb r a n e - b o u n d c o mp a r t me n t s wi t h i n t h e c e l l t h a t h a v e s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o ns . S o me ma jo r o r g a n e l l e s t h a t a r e s u s p e n d e d i n t h e c yt o p l a s m a r e t h e mitochondria, t h e endoplasmic reticulum, t h e Golgi apparatus,lysosomes, vacuoles and in plant cells Plastids likechloroplasts.The Endoplasmic Reticulum (

ER ) i s a eukaryotic organellethat forms an interconnected network of tubules,vesicles, andcisternaewithincells. It has a similar structure as the plasma membrane.On the basis of presence or absence of ribosomes, ER may be classified into two groups: Rough ER : The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is s t u d d e d w i t h p r o t e i n - manufacturingribosomesgiving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name) Smooth ER : The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) has functions in several metabolic processes,including synthesis of lipids and drug detoxification. Functions of ER : 1. To serve as channels for the transport of materials within the cell. 2. H e l p i n t h e ma n u f a c t u r e o f l i p i d s a n d p r o t e i n s t h a t a r e u s e d f o r b u i l d i n g t h e c e l l me mb r a n e i . e . membrane biogenesis . 3. SER manufactures lipids important for cell functions. 4. RER manufactures proteins required for various cellular activities. 5. ER provides a cytoplasmic framework by providing an area for come biochemical activities of the cell. 6. SER plays an important role in detoxification of many poisons and drugs. Golgi Apparatus : It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physicianCamillo Golgiand was named after him.T h e Go l gi i s c o mp o s e d o f me mb r a n e - b o u n d s t a c k s k n o wn a s cisternae. Th e p r i ma r y f u n c t i o n o f t h e Go l g i apparatus is to process and package themacromoleculessuch as proteinsandlipidsthat are synthesized by thecell.After leaving the production site of the ER, most products are transported to the Golgi apparatus. The GolgiApparatus consists of several flattened saclike membranes. These sacs sit one on top of the other like a stack of

pancakes, and all of the sacs are interconnected. The smooth ER manufactures the Golgi apparatus by pinchingoff parts of itself. These bits of membrane add themselves to the Golgi apparatus. Function of Golgi apparatus : It is like a cellular post office- it packages and labels items and then sends them to different parts of thecell. It primarily modifies proteins delivered from therough endoplasmic reticulumbut is also involved in thetransport of lipidsaround the cell, and the creation of lysosomes. It also helps in formation of complex sugars from simple sugars. Lysosomes : Lysosomes are Membrane bound sacs filled with powerful digestive enzymes. These enzymes aremanufactured by RER.Role and function of lysosomes: As Waste disposal system of the cell : Lysosomes are the cells' garbage disposal system. Any foreignmaterial such as bacteria that enters a cell and worn out cell organelles are engulfed by lysosomes and broken down. Digestive bags of the cell : Since lysosomes are little digestion machines, they go to work when the cellabsorbs or eats some food. Once the material is inside the cell, the lysosomes attach and release their enzymes. The enzymes break down complex molecules that can include complex sugars and proteins. If monikamehan@gmail.com5 food is scarce and the cell is starving, the lysosomes go to work even if there is no food for the cell. Whenthe signal is sent out, lysosomes will actually digest the cell organelles for nutrients. Suicide bags of the cell : Sometimes, when the cell gets damaged, the lysosomes burst and the enzymesdigest their own cell, so they are also called suicide bags of the cell. Mitochondria

: (singular: mitochondrion) are known as Power Houses of the cell.The word mitochondrion comes from theGreek mitos , thread + khondrion , granule. Mitochondria are membrane- bound organelles, and like the nucleus have a double membrane. The outer membrane is fairly smooth and porous. But the inner membrane forms folds called cristae. The cristae greatly increase the inner membrane'ssurface area. This is useful as more space is available for reactions since it is on these cristae that food (sugar) iscombined with oxygen to produce ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) - the primary energy source for the cell. The process of creating cell energy is known as cellular respiration . ATP is also known as Energy Currency of theCell .Mitochondria are strange organelles as they have their own DNA and ribososmes.Due to this, they are able tomake some of their own proteins. So they are also known as semi-autonomous bodies. Plastids: It is a double membrane boundorganelleinvolved in the synthesis and storage of food, and is commonly foundwithin thecellsof photosyntheticorganisms, likeplants.In addition to the inner and outer membranes of the envelope, chloroplasts have a third internal membranesystem, called the thylakoid membrane. The thylakoid membrane forms a network of flattened discs calledthylakoids, which are frequently arranged in stacks called grana.Grana are embedded in a material called stroma.Types of Plastids: A plastid containing green pigment (chlorophyll) is called chloroplast . They also contain yellow andorange pigments in addition to chlorophyll.Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in plant cells. A plastid containing pigmentsapart from green is called chromoplast . A plastid that lacks pigmentsis called leucoplast

, and is involved mainly in food storage. A leucoplast may storesstarch fats or proteins.Likemitochondria, plastids have their ownDNAandribosomes. So plastids too, can manufacture some proteinsfor themselves and are called semiautonomous bodies. Vacuoles They are found in both animal and plant cells but are much larger in plant cells. Vacuoles might store food or anyvariety of nutrients a cell might need to survive. They can even store waste products so the rest of the cell is protected from
contamination.When a plant cell has stopped growing, there is usually one very large vacuole. Sometimes that vacuole can takeup 50 90% of the cell's volume.The structure of vacuoles is fairly simple. There is a membrane that surrounds a mass of fluid. In that fluid arenutrients or waste products.These include amino acids, sugars, certain organic acids and some proteins.Vacuoles tend to be large in plant cells and play a role in turgor pressure. When a plant is well-watered, water collects in cell vacuoles producing rigidity in the plant. Without sufficient water, pressure in the vacuole isreduced and the plant wilts.In unicellular organism like amoeba, the food vacuole contains the items consumed by amoeba throughendocytosis.Most unicellular organism also have specialised

vacuoles that control the water content and also help inremoving wastes from the cell