A Manual for the Planning, Design and Construction of Forest Roads in Steep Terrain

Table of Contents

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1998 This publication aims to give guidance on the design, layout and construction of forest roads in hilly terrain. It is intended to show best practice, including detailed descriptions of the surveying and construction techniques encouraged by the FAO. The manual is based primarily on work done by Dr Rudolph Heinrich and Dr Otto Sedlack in preparing guidance for road work in Bhutan. Information was also obtained from the FAO/ILO/ECE Seminar on Environmentally Forest Roads held in Sinaia, Romania in 1996. The chapter on excavator built roads is based on the study carried out in Austria in 1997 by Joachim and it is hoped that this manual will help forest managers and practitioners with practical advice to meet the problems they will face in their operations. Without road access most of the production of a forest would not be available. The construction of a forest road has the most potential of any forest harvesting operation to cause damage to the amenity and environment of the forest and, yet, is a most essential part of the strategic and tactical harvesting and other forest operations. It is the need to fit these two contrary requirements that are the core of any forest road manual. It as necessary to ensure that all of the elements which go into the successful combination of

a road which is right for the harvesting operation; a road which is capable of safely carrying the haulage traffic; a road which does not interfere with the natural drainage patterns a road which does not damage the landscape a road which takes account of the flora and fauna; a road which can be satisfactorily and economically maintained are included. To do this requires an input from those involved with the preparation and implementation of the strategic and tactical plans for the forest area. They will include specialists in forest planning, landscape, conservation, harvesting, and engineering and may have additional input from fishing, game and soil specialists where required. All of these people are experts in their own field, but unless they understand the reasons for the views of others, the various inputs could be counterproductive and result in a less than optimum solution. It is the purpose of this manual for those who specialise in road building, to make sure that the principles of good road design and construction are paramount, but to take on board the need to have good landscape design road drainage design that deals adequately with demands of erosion prevention and fishing requirements, but does not compromise the absolute need to drain the road effectively road embankments and cuts which allow harvesting to take place without hindrance but which remain structurally stable cleared road widths which are minimal consistent with good road design and the ability if the sun and wind to reach the road to assist in drying the possibility of using the construction of the road to enhance the conservation environment. The change in soil structure arising from road building allows the growth of species which require that soil and the light arising from the tree felling on the roadline. Wildlife can also be encouraged with the changes in vegetation at the road edge. Good quality roads can add to the recreation and access potential of the area by allowing easier access to parts of the forest previously closed. They can open up areas for other purposes. There are increased concerns expressed by conservation bodies and the general public to changes in their environment, (and building of forest roads is certainly that). This manual attempts to meet these concerns. The Manual deals with specific aspects to be considered when planning, surveying and constructing forest roads in mountainous terrain. Particular attention is drawn to the principles of general planning of opening up mountain forest resources with reference to integrated planning of road networks. The benefit of the use of Excavators as prime construction machines is explained and detailed. Reference is also made to parameters which influence road costs and present a simple formula as well as some figures to help with costing based on a wide experience in road construction. A large proportion of the manual is dedicated to describing, in detail, an

efficient road surveying method by means of simple surveying instruments. The method presented in this report is the so-called gradeline or "zero-line" method which is commonly used, especially in mountainous terrain in many countries of the world. The Manual also deals specifically with the description of surveying instruments, road reconnaissance and routing techniques. TABLE OF CONVERSIONS 1 metre (m) 1 kilometre (km) 1 cubic metre (m3) 1 hectare (ha) 1 litre (1) 1 kilogram (kg) 1 kilowatt (kw) 1 inch 1 foot 1 yard 1 mile 1 square yard 1 square mile 1 cubic foot 1 cubic yard 1 gallon (Imp.) 1 pound - 3.280 feet or 1.093 yards - 0.621 mile - 35.314 cubic feet - 2.471 acres - 0.219 gallon (Imp.) or 1.759 pints - 2.204 pounds - 1.341 fly wheel horse power (fw hp) - 2.540 cm - 0.3048 m - 0.9144 m - 1.609 km - 0.83613 m2 - 2.59 km2 - 0.02832 m3 - 0.765 m3 - 4.546 litres - 0.4536 kg

Note: Values have been rounded This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software and careful manual recorrection. Even if the quality of digitalisation is high, the FAO declines all responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present document and its original printed version.

Table of Contents
2. GENERAL PLANNING OF OPENING UP MOUNTAIN FOREST RESOURCES 2.1 ROAD-NET PLANNING 2.2 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS 2.3 ROAD TYPES 2.4 ROAD STANDARDS 2.4.1 Access Roads 2.4.2 Main Forest Roads

2.4.3 Secondary Forest Roads (Feeder Roads) 2.4.4 Skid Roads (Skid Trails) 2.5 ROAD-NET DENSITY AND SPACING 2.6 INTEGRATED PLANNING OF ROAD NETS AND CABLE SYSTEMS 2.7 ROAD LOCATIONS IN HILL AND MOUNTAIN SIDE AREAS 3. PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE ECONOMIC OF ROADS (BY HEINRICH) 3.1 CLIMATE 3.2 TERRAIN AND SOIL 3.3 STAND AND TREES 4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS - FITTING NEW ROADS INTO THE LANDSCAPE 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES 4.3 LANDSCAPE DESIGN 4.4 ROAD LOCATION 4.5 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 4.6 THE ROADLINE SCAR 4.7 ROAD MATERIALS 4.8 CULVERTS 4.9 BRIDGES 4.10 CONCLUSIONS 5. ROAD COSTS ESTIMATES 5.1 GENERAL 5.2 STAKING, FELLING, FORMING, CLEARING AND MISCELLANEOUS WORK3 5.3 GRAVELLING 6. SURVEYING 6.1 GENERAL 6.2 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS 6.2.1 Clinometers 6.2.2 Compasses 6.2.3 Tapes 6.2.4 Barometric Altimeters 6.2.5 Additional Equipment 6.3 ROAD RECONNAISSANCE 6.3.1 Planning Area 6.3.2 Maps And Aerial Photographs 6.3.3 Fieldwork And Cooperation

6.3.4 Work Procedure 6.3.5 Field Control 6.4 ROUTING TECHNIQUES 6.4.1 Introduction 6.4.2 Personnel (size of location crew) 6.4.3 Instruments and Equipment 6.4.4 General Rules for Road Location 6.4.5 Method of Location 6.4.6 Special Problems 6.4.7 Right of Way 6.5 FIELD NOTEBOOKS 7. MAPPING, CALCULATIONS AND DRAWINGS (BY SEDLAK) 7.1 GENERAL REMARKS 7.2 DIVIDER SETTING 7.3 PLOTTING THE ROAD LINE 7.4 CROSS SECTIONS AND DETERMINATION OF CUT VOLUMES 7.4.1 Cross Sections 7.4.2 Determination of Cut Volumes 8. PERFORMANCE 8.1 MECHANIZATION IN FOREST ROAD CONSTRUCTION 8.2 MAIN MACHINERY USED IN FOREST ROAD CONSTRUCTION 8.2.1 Tracked Tractors 8.2.2 TRAXCAVATORS 8.2.3 EXCAVATORS 8.2.4 Rock Drills 8.2.5 Graders 8.2.6 Loaders 8.2.7 Dump Trucks 8.2.8 Rollers/Compactors 8.3 CALCULATION OF MACHINE COSTS 8.3.1 Basic Data Used in the Calculations 8.3.2. Cost Calculation15 Cost per hour in US$ 9. EXCAVATOR METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION 10 DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE IN STEEP TERRAIN

10.1 CLEARING OF THE CONSTRUCTION AREA 10.2 ROAD CONSTRUCTION BY EXCAVATOR 10.3 ROCK DISINTEGRATION 10.3.1 Hydraulic hammers 10.3.2 Rock blasting 10.3.3 Mass transport 10.3.4 Road drainage 10.3.5 Surfacing and shaping 10.3.6 Slope protection and stabilisation 10.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE ROAD CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT 10.5 ESTIMATING PRODUCTION AND PERFORMANCE RATES 10.5.1 Excavator 10.5.2 Rock blasting 10.6 ESTIMATING COSTS 10.7 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 11. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PROTECTION WORKS FOR FOREST ROADS 11.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 11.1.1 Open Top Culverts 11.1.2 Sub-base Culverts 11.2 CULVERT LOCATION 11.3 CORRUGATED STEEL CULVERTS: 11.4 INSTALLATION 11.5 MAINTENANCE 12 PROTECTION WORKS FOR FOREST ROADS 12.1 SLOPE PROTECTION AND STABILIZATION 12.2 SLOPE DRAINAGE 12.3 REVEGETATION OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS AND SLOPES 12.4 STABILIZATION OF DRAINAGE-WAYS 12.5 SLOPE PROTECTION WITH ENGINEERING STRUCTURES 12.6 PROTECTION OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS AGAINST TORRENTIAL WATERFLOWS 13 MAINTENANCE OF FOREST ROADS 14 CONTRACTS 14.1 CONTRACT CHECKLIST 14.2 SPECIMEN CONTRACT REFERENCES

2. GENERAL PLANNING OF OPENING UP MOUNTAIN FOREST RESOURCES

2.1 ROAD-NET PLANNING 2.2 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS 2.3 ROAD TYPES 2.4 ROAD STANDARDS 2.5 ROAD-NET DENSITY AND SPACING 2.6 INTEGRATED PLANNING OF ROAD NETS AND CABLE SYSTEMS 2.7 ROAD LOCATIONS IN HILL AND MOUNTAIN SIDE AREAS

The integrated planning of the opening up of mountain forest resources is essential in order to ensure a steady industrial roundwood supply on the one hand and to pursue forestry work in such a manner as to guarantee the preservation of the forests and the environment on the other. This is especially important with the introduction of modern machinery for both road construction and forest harvesting, and the ever increasing demand for wood. Very often, in addition to these basic objectives, land tenure and local people's rights and requirements must be taken into consideration in such matters as the procurement of fuelwood and fodder or interests of a village, district, county or the country in such matters as water supply, scenery, wildlife, etc. For all needs, be they of a productive or protective nature, a well planned forest road-net is the basic ingredient needed to carry out the required work and to maintain the forests as a renewable resource.

2.1 ROAD-NET PLANNING

Generally, the layout of a road-net depends on the timber resources, terrain conditions, type of forest operations (afforestation, silvicultural treatment, fire protection, cutting system, logging and transport methods), technical equipment and machinery, labour techniques and costs, as well as other resource benefits to be considered. Careful attention has to be paid, when planning and locating roads in steep terrain, to avoiding and minimising the erosional impact of roads on the environment. Forest roads should, as much as possible, be planned with the view of conducting wood harvesting operations (present and future). A road-net where manual extraction is to be used, has to be laid out differently from one where cable cranes and/or tractors are operated. Figure to determine the efficiency of a road net for a certain area are derived when relating the road length to total roundwood removals per year (m/m3/year) or length of road net per hectare of forest area (m/ha).

2.2 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS

When planning and surveying a forest road, the use of aerial photographs facilitates the location of forest roads as one may get some ideas about possible routes in the office by viewing the pictures through a stereoscope and unacceptable variants can be disregarded. In addition Global Information Systems are now more widely available. Therefore, the amount of labour and time consuming road survey work on the ground can be reduced considerably. However, field reconnaissance and field checks are required in any case to ensure that something has not been missed, and to arrive at an optimum road location.

For forest road planning, good topographical maps are essential, preferably with scale not larger than 1:10 000. If good contour maps are not available, then extensive field work is required to measure all main control points barometrically and to record detailed terrain features. Figure 1 shows four different types of terrain, from easy to difficult, which can be recognised from the spacing and curvature of contour lines. FIGURE 1 Easy to medium terrain

Medium terrain

Difficult terrain

Very difficult terrain

Example of different types of topography in Bhutan (Southern and Western, Central Region) Scale 1: 50 000 Contour Interval = 40 m

2.3 ROAD TYPES

Within a forest road-net one can classify roads: (a) According to their position:
main valley roads secondary valley roads slope roads feeder roads mountain ridge roads

(b) According to the construction:

earth roads gravelled roads (mechanically stabilized roads) chemically stabilized roads roads with bituminous or oiled surface

(c) According to the intended use:

truck roads tractor roads purely opening-up forest roads access roads multiple use forest roads

(d) According to importance:

- main roads (permanent roads and all-weather roads) - secondary roads, feeder roads (seasonal roads)

2.4 ROAD STANDARDS

2.4.1 Access Roads 2.4.2 Main Forest Roads 2.4.3 Secondary Forest Roads (Feeder Roads) 2.4.4 Skid Roads (Skid Trails)

The standard of a road depends largely on its proposed end use, on the amount of harvestable and marketable wood per unit area as well as on terrain conditions. The following road classification is suggested for steep terrain:
Access roads Main forest roads Secondary forest roads, feeder roads Skid roads Skid trails

2.4.1 Access Roads

The main purpose of access roads, as their name suggests, is to provide access to the forests for the transport of people from villages to the forests and for the transport of roundwood from the forests to the wood processing sites or terminals. Very often these roads are the links between the public roads and the main forest roads.
2.4.2 Main Forest Roads

The basic road-net consists of main forest roads, usually where wood transport is possible during the whole year. The location of such roads must therefore be decided upon from the point of view of their use. Very often they are needed for long term intensive management, where they are the key to all forestry operations. Therefore, adequate engineering structures and drainage facilities are required. If the in situ road base material does not have enough bearing capacity to support heavy traffic throughout the year, it would need to be reinforced or entirely gravelled with adequately graded road material.
2.4.3 Secondary Forest Roads (Feeder Roads)

Secondary forest roads are the connective lines from the landings to the main roads. They are normally only used temporarily and therefore gravelling is generally not done. If the soil material is soft, a single truck can completely destroy the road surface by making ruts in the road which will become a source of heavy erosion, often leading to the total destruction of the road. Therefore, it is better to close down these parts of the road net during adverse

weather conditions. Through careful planning, logging could be scheduled in bad weather for those roads which are surfaced and will not be damaged. PHOTO NO. 1 Secondary Forest Road - truck loaded at log landing

2.4.4 Skid Roads (Skid Trails)

These are used entirely by wheeled skidders and/or crawler tractors for wood extraction only. The width of the road (trail) generally does not exceed 3.5 m. On skid roads with steep gradients water-bars1 should be built into the road to prevent gully erosion caused by concentrated surface water flow before the rainy season or at least after logging operations have ceased.
1

Ridges of packed earth formed diagonally across the surface of the skidding road.

Table 1 gives suggestions for a possible road classification in mountainous terrain TABLE 1 Road Classification Maximum Gradient in Road Carriage Formation Transport Adverse Way Width Width Direction Direction (m) (m) (%) (%) 5.0 4.5 9 6 4.5 3.5 10(12)* 8

Road Type Main Forest Road Secondary Forest Road

Road Use Truck, Pickup permanent Truck, Pickup temporary

Skidding Road

Wheeled skidder, Wheeled tractor, Crawler Tractor

3.5

12(20)*

10

() * maximum gradient for short distances only

2.5 ROAD-NET DENSITY AND SPACING

In hilly and steep terrain the road spacing and location is predominantly determined by the terrain and the wood harvesting system feasible under the prevailing conditions. Road construction and maintenance costs are generally higher in difficult and steep terrain than in flat and hilly areas. Formulae are often used for the estimation of optimal road spacing. The basic formula visualizes a road net with parallel, equally spaced and infinite roads which of course deviates very much from the actual road patterns, especially in mountains. Various authors have introduced modifications of the basic model in order to adapt it to reality. The need for roads, the standard of roads and the quantity of roading will vary for each site. What will not vary is the need to ensure that only the minimum financial investment is made to fulfil all of the criteria the manager has identified in formulating his roading policy. Roads are not cheap and due consideration must be given to the requirements for the user as well as the geometric and structural design to minimize the overall cost. Roads are installed to improve the efficiency of the running of the site and to give access to undeveloped areas. Everything can be done without roads if there is sufficient labour and horses or cross-country vehicles and machinery. But labour can be expensive and long uncomfortable travelling, either on foot or on a tractor is non-productive and a poor use of skilled workers' or managers' time. There are also cases where other factors, such as opening up new land or providing avalanche protection where transport to and from the areas affected is a requirement. It is therefore necessary to make a judgement on the benefits which can be obtained from the expense of constructing roads, which can be high in comparison to other activities, against the expense of the alternative methods of fulfilling the objectives of the site. In some cases this will be fairly straightforward, in others some guesswork may be involved, but the exercise should always be carried out to help in reaching final conclusions. Planning for Roads The object of a planning system is to minimize total transport costs. These include:a. cost of road, both capital and maintenance;

b. cost of carrying goods and materials from the point of growth or collection to the nearest roads; c. cost of vehicle on the road; d. cost of people's time.

The quantity of roading, generally, does not affect the number of times of handling the produce or transferring produce to the vehicle. Handling or transferring need not be taken into account in any appraisal, other than to provide the manager with an indication of the total cost of the operation. The influence of terrain, landscape, material sources and social requirements may provide a number of alternative routes for new roads. It is necessary to examine these routes and to cost the variables listed above for each road network and the most economic will, in normal circumstances be the selected solution. The Quantity of Roading with Forestry as the Prototype Timber harvesting has been used for the example given of the need to give consideration to the total cost of the operation, but the formulae and type of exercise work equally well for other products. Assuming parallel access roads across the site, the following can be derived:
h Cost of movement from stump to roadside ($/m3/100 m travelled).

S Distance between roads (metres). R Capitalised road cost, including allowance for maintenance in future years, ($/km). V Total volume of product to be extracted during the life of the road, discounted to year of road construction (m3/ha).

Average straight line extraction distance =

The area served by a road 1 000 m long is S x 1,000, when extraction takes place on both sides of the road. (If only one side of the road is usable the area is reduced to Road costs per hectare is: x 1,000.)

If the discounted volume per hectare to be carried by the road is V m3 per hectare:-

Road costs per m3 = The best solution occurs when the total cost per m3 is at a minimum ie when

is at a minimum

This occurs when extraction costs and road costs are approximately equal. Thus:-

Example:Let the road cost be $30,000 per km and h be $1.60 per m3 per 100 m.

A crop of Yield Class 12 Sitka spruce discounted to 3 years after optimum timing of first thinning yields a volume of 202 m3 per hectare.

Optimum road spacing = Therefore optimum road spacing for parallel access roads would be just over 600 m. An alternative method of calculating roading requirements is to consider the optimum density of roading. Where a block of land, because of geography and land form, does not lend itself to parallel roads, the use of a total economic length of road for the block, distributed in a manner which takes account of the land form, may be a better solution. If the same figures are used as before. The optimum density (m/ha)

= 16.41 m per ha By multiplying the number of hectares in the block of land by this density, the quantity of economic roading can be decided for the block. It can then be distributed to suit the crop and land form in the block. From experience gained in mountain logging operations some guideline figure for road-net densities (truck roads) have been developed which may serve for planning purposes. However, these would have to be checked and modified according to local conditions before being used for purposes other than planning. TABLE 2

Examples of road-net densities versus terrain features Description of Terrain, Forest and Road-net Density (Truck Roads) in Infrastructure Conditions Metres per Hectare Hilly Terrain Slopes of up to 40% with 60-80 m skid roads per 7-10 ha Steep Terrain Use of cables cranes 15-25 Steep Terrain With intensive forest management 25-35

2.6 INTEGRATED PLANNING OF ROAD NETS AND CABLE SYSTEMS

In steep terrain2 the recommended road-net density is in the order of 20 m/ha, for economic reasons, productivity, erosion problems, forest protection areas, etc. In order to arrive at the most economical mix of road and off-road transport, the utilization of short-distance cable cranes, especially mobile and radio-controlled cable cranes, is a good supplement to forest roads for opening up of mountainous areas. The maximum possible skidding distance of a short-distance cable crane is about 500m; the lateral skidding distance on both sides of the cable is about 20m to 25m. By using tractor attached winches, wood can be skidded up to 150m uphill onto the road or landing.
2

Slopes over 50%

In general, slopes over 70 percent have a tendency to landslides, especially after heavy rains and where soil and rock strata dip towards the valley; therefore, it is advisable to open up those forest areas by means of long-distance cable crane systems. Long-distance cable cranes (skyline length, generally more than 1500m) and medium range cable cranes (skyline, 700m 1500m) may substitute partly or entirely for roads so that they more or less completely take over the function of timber transport, especially in extreme situations. PHOTO NO. 2 A forest area opened up by a combination of forest roads and cable cranes

2.7 ROAD LOCATIONS IN HILL AND MOUNTAIN SIDE AREAS

Generally, nature and the harvesting system dictate the road-net pattern and there are endless variations of different road-nets as much as different terrain configurations. However, over the past years, some standard route patterns have been developed. Some of these are shown in Figures 2 to 7. Valley Roads These are usually main roads which are designed to open up the bottom of the valley. The road should be routed along one bank, as bridges are expensive. FIGURE 2 Routing of Valley Roads Valley road in steep terrain A

Valley road in steep terrain B

Valley Bottoms These should be opened up by means of a circular road system, provided that the terrain is not too difficult. This system is used at the headwaters of a river. The road should be at least 50 metres from the water edge to prevent road debris affecting the water quality. FIGURE 3 Circular Routing for Valley Bottoms

Slope Roads These start from valley roads and subdivide slopes. A distinction can be made between serpentine and diagonal systems. FIGURE 4 Routing of Slope Roads Serpentine system (on steep, long slopes)

Diagonal system (on gentle slopes)

Ridge Roads Ridge roads are often the best solution in hilly terrain insofar as logging with light cable systems is concerned; however, they often only open up the forest area to a very limited extent. In many developing countries they are frequently used in combination with skid trails and/or cable systems. Ridge roads should probably be constructed when hillside slopes are prone to erosion or valleys are inaccessible because of extremely wet and swampy terrain. Care should be taken with the drainage patterns to ensure that land slips are not encouraged. FIGURE 5 Ridge Road

Logging Areas on Ridges These should be opened up by crossing the ridge, then descending the other side.

FIGURE 6 Logging Areas on Ridges

Mountain and Hill Tops Circular routing, starting from a saddle, should be used to open up mountain and hill tops. FIGURE 7 Circular routing for Tops

(Figures 2 to 7 by O. Sedlak)

3. PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE ECONOMIC OF ROADS (BY HEINRICH)

3.1 CLIMATE 3.2 TERRAIN AND SOIL 3.3 STAND AND TREES

3.1 CLIMATE
Road surveying, construction and maintenance should be limited to the dry period whenever possible because during the rainy period not only are erosion risks and dangers higher, but costs also increase considerably. In general, we can count on about 150-180 actual working days per year. What affects the work most is the intensity of precipitation within a certain period of time rather than the yearly amount of rain, so for instance it may very well be that within a short time some 150 - 300 mm of rain may fall. Therefore, when planning roads in high rainfall areas, attention should be paid to the exposure of the road in order that the road can be dried by sunshine as quickly as possible. In high altitudes it should be realized that due to thinner air, labour productivity is less than in the low lands and more frequent pauses are required to combat fatigue.

3.2 TERRAIN AND SOIL

Road costs are heavily influenced by terrain, especially when the latter is broken and frequent gullies, creeks or small rivers occur. Careful attention should be paid to the stability of the terrain when planning and laying out the road (avoid soft and wet areas as much as possible). Very often there is a scarcity of road building material which has enough bearing capacity. Therefore, when surveying the road line, possible locations of natural gravel pits suitable for ballast material should be assessed. Very often the only suitable gravel material is found in river beds or in the vicinity of rivers. Care should be taken when extracting such material that the effect on fish stocks is minimised. Equally hard rock requires expensive blasting and crushing to be used successfully as road building material.

3.3 STAND AND TREES

The volume of logs to be harvested per unit area (m3/ha) is a decisive economic factor for the road layout, design and road-net density. In general, the roundwood volumes per hectare are higher in coniferous forests that in tropical broad-leaved forests. From the financial aspect, however, one would have to make comparisons from case to case. If one assumes for instance a roundwood removal of 300 m3/ha and a road-net density of 15 m3/ha, road costs per m3 would only amount to the equivalent cost of 0.05 m of road length of the forest road-net, whereas a removal of only 150 m3 would result in an equivalent cost of 0.10 m.

4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS FITTING NEW ROADS INTO THE LANDSCAPE

4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES 4.3 LANDSCAPE DESIGN 4.4 ROAD LOCATION 4.5 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 4.6 THE ROADLINE SCAR 4.7 ROAD MATERIALS 4.8 CULVERTS 4.9 BRIDGES 4.10 CONCLUSIONS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that the landscape is of vital concern to the majority of people. Rural landscapes are often perceived as unchanging, as 'natural' and as places to go to escape the stresses of city life. People care very much about the quality of the landscape and get very worried if changes occur which are to its detriment. A wide range of professions work in the countryside and many of their actions alter the appearance of the landscape. It is therefore important for the well-being of the landscape, for the satisfaction of those who love it and for its continual management that all activities - afforestation, buildings, utilities and roads - are well designed to fit into the landscape. Successful design needs skill. It requires that those responsible for a development such as a new road understand how to evaluate the effect of their proposals on the landscape as well as they can evaluate their cost and functional efficiency. To do this an ability to 'read' the landscape is necessary. There is now a well recognised way of doing this, using a set of defined visual design principles. These principles allow us to analyse and describe the landscape and subsequently to design solutions which fit into it better. There are several major principles which are worth explaining before looking in detail at the methods of fitting roads into the landscape.

4.2 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

a. Shape This has a very powerful influence on what we see. We pick out shapes often on the slightest evidence. Some shapes can be categorised as geometric, regular, artificial and man made while others are organic, irregular or natural. There are plenty of examples of geometric shapes in the landscape - early forests planted on hillsides, the surveyed grids used in field layouts, straight roads cutting across topography. By comparison organic shapes such as

irregular natural woodland or sinuous curving roads seem to stand out less and be perceived as more compatible with the landscape around them. b. Visual Force When we look at a landscape our eyes are sub-consciously led around different parts of it in a pre-ordained way. It has been found that our eyes tend to be led up valleys, hollows and concavities and down ridges, spurs and convexities. Shapes which cut across or interrupt these flows or lines of visual force can produce unresolved, jarring effects which reduce the compatibility of that shape. A road cutting across a contour may fit less well than a more winding alignment. c. Scale The relative dimensions of the landscape and the amounts we can take in at one view determine its scale. Small elements can seem lost in large scale landscapes while large elements can dominate over small scale ones. Therefore it is important to work at the correct scale. This is complicated by the effect of different observer distances and between internal and external views, especially in forests. d. Diversity We respond positively to landscapes which contain certain amounts of variety. A landscape with very little diversity can be boring while one containing too much can be confusing. Additional elements can tip a landscape which is already very diverse into chaos. e. Unity Diversity has to be balanced against the need for unity in a landscape, where all the parts belong to the whole. An incompatible shape or an element creating a lot of contrast can fail to achieve unity with its surroundings and so look distinctly unhappy. f. Genius loci or the Spirit of the Place All landscapes are different although there might be general similarities. The sense of place is important to us in that it helps to identify a particular location and make it special. It is an intangible elusive quality easy to damage and difficult to repair. New elements introduced into a landscape should avoid damaging the genius loci and ideally should complement it.

4.3 LANDSCAPE DESIGN

Landscape design has been defined as "the organisation of a place in a way which reconciles the conflicting requirements of use while ensuring an attractive appearance". It is fundamental to recognise that a good design is one which fulfils the 3 criteria of BEAUTY, UTILITY and EFFICIENCY. Each of these can be measured or defined to some extent. In the rural situation BEAUTY usually means adhering to the main principles outlined above, achieving unity, diversity and responding to the genius loci. Landscape design is not merely a cosmetic application to prettify something, nor screening or otherwise mitigating the

worst effects of an ill-considered development. That is the province of 'landscaping' and is quite different. Other papers in this conference will deal with the factors concerning utility and efficiency so the rest of this paper will deal with the visual quality part of the equation. It must be stressed that the 3 aspects should not normally be considered separately but integrated: this is really what design is all about. It is a process, starting with the objective of the development and the landscape it is to be placed in, achieving a mutually compatible solution. At this stage we need to consider what the visual design objectives are likely to be when considering a new road development. In the countryside and particularly in wilder, mountainous areas, the qualities of naturalness are highly valued by our largely urban based population. Developments which contrast with this general character and more especially urbanise it are incompatible and should be avoided. The main aim should be to blend with the landscape and fit in with its character. That is not to say that certain engineering structures need be out of place or hidden. This partly depends on the scale, allowing the landscape to dominate, not the engineering structure. Sometimes the landscape quality can be enhanced by the contrast of a bridge spanning a ravine, for example some Swiss or Italian bridges in mountainous landscapes.

4.4 ROAD LOCATION

The first major decision which needs to be taken is the location of the road and the general route corridor. When choosing a roadline and surveying potential routes an appraisal of the landscape should be carried out. This may involve using sketches of photographs taken from significant public viewpoints and testing the impact of various general options. Computer analyses can also be used for this. The appraisal should include all factors to be taken into account, not only visual ones. Important parts of a road alignment include those points where the road crosses a skyline; the geometry of the road at bends, hairpins and junctions; large-scale cuts, fills, culverts and bridges, all of which can increase the artificial qualities of the landscape, especially in close views. Natural qualities of the landscape should be reflected in the alignment. The aim is not to disguise the road but to reflect the scale and forms of the landscape in their design. If these factors are taken into account at an early stage the additional costs can be minimal with little or no effect on functional efficiency, yet the environmental benefits can be substantial. The general location of forest roads should be planned to avoid important habitats and appear unobtrusive in the landscape. In agricultural landscapes access roads can be hidden behind hedgerows, dykes and walls or hollows amongst landform. Landscapes of particular quality or genius loci should be avoided, for example focal views, water edges and waterfalls. Watercourses of particular quality should be crossed at the least visible point. High standards of design and construction must be achieved in these sensitive locations. The visible parts of the road should be in scale with the landscape, for example by not running close to the skyline for long stretches and avoiding routes which will result in large amounts of cut and fill in small scale, narrow valleys. The general alignment should run diagonal to the slope and not horizontally as far as technical constraints permit. Steeper

slopes and summits should be avoided and skylines crossed at lowest practicable point, ideally in a hollow or saddle.

4.5 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

A road is a line in the landscape and its shape has a major effect on its appearance. The line should curve gently from side to side and up and down the slope. Straight lines in either direction tend to cut awkwardly across landform, especially where they conflict with lines of visual force. In order to blend with landform, roads should be deflected downwards on convex slopes and rise slightly in hollows and valleys. The degree of inflexion depends on the scale of the landform. Where this is large, generous curves are needed which will appear as simple engineering on the ground. In small scale landscapes over simple construction will obliterate landform detail if not carefully done. In flat landscapes, especially in forests, roads have tended to be straight in the past. These can look artificial away from the built environment and can be daunting to walkers or cyclists. Curving alignments look more natural, taking advantage of any landform present. The standard of the road determines the flexibility of the alignment. If the terrain is difficult yet the landscape is sensitive a lower standard may be the solution, for example reducing to a road capable of taking a 4-wheel drive vehicle instead of a car, or a tractor instead of a lorry. This is where a balance between all the objectives, environmental as well as functional, is necessary at the design stage. Landings and turning points which require additional space should be located as far as possible where natural gradients provide more scope. Avoid prominent ridges. Hairpin bends and zigzag alignments on prominent slopes can look especially intrusive, made worse by large areas of cut and fill.

4.6 THE ROADLINE SCAR

Cuttings and areas of spoil produced by road construction on steep slopes add further to the potential landscape impact unless dealt with sensitively. Geometric shapes, light, raw colours and their scale are the main factors to consider. Alignments should firstly be planned to avoid them if possible. In soft rocks areas of cut should be excavated into more rounded banks to reduce the engineered profile, blend into the contours and allow vegetation cover to develop faster. In hard rock it is better to imitate natural crags with ledges and shelves capable of holding vegetation produced at construction. Occasionally an irregular combination of these 2 treatments can be used to break the artificial line of a long cut. Vegetation cover is not always practical, but in open and prominent landscapes may be important to the extent of employing hydraseeding or turfing to accelerate its establishment. The right choice of seed and turf is important, in case a bright green line replaces a grey one in a landscape of subdued colour. In landscapes of more varied vegetation, extending the existing pattern on to the cut and fill will help. Material such as turf and bracken rhizomes can be saved at construction and re-laid afterwards if thought is given to the method of construction and there is room for storage.

In severely limited topography the impact of cut and fill together is so great that it may be better to remove all fill from the site. The cut is left but is probably more stable and easier to deal with than the loose, erodable fill in such circumstances. Obviously costs will rise in these cases.

4.7 ROAD MATERIALS

Wherever possible road materials should be of local origin, ideally from the same location. This ensures that the colour and texture blend into the surrounding landscape. Brightly coloured or white stone can look very intrusive in many landscapes. Where the local stone is not suitable for the road then imported stone should be chosen for similarity of colour as well as for its cost and strength.

4.8 CULVERTS
Where the road crosses a stream and a culvert is an appropriate method then the design will depend on its scale. A small concrete pipe can be set into the fill and collect the water while the slopes above are vegetated. Larger culverts, perhaps those constructed from Armco or similar material, require retaining walls in many instances. Gabions are one solution which can work well if arranged so as to emulate natural rock formations and filled with local stone. If stepped back vegetation can grow on the ledges which further help to blend them into the surroundings.

4.9 BRIDGES
Where a stream has to be crossed by a bridge then further factors need to be taken into account. a. Location Siting a bridge should be very carefully thought out so that visual intrusion is avoided and genius loci protected. Because a bridge can be a substantial engineering structure in a fairly wild and remote location it should be sited away from rapids or waterfalls while providing a vantage point from which visitors may view them. A bridge can be a positive element in the sequence of experiences walkers may enjoy. The alignment of the bridge to the river and the road leading to and from it should be designed so that there is a flow to it, across it and away from it. Cut and fill on the approach should be minimised and natural ground contours used wherever possible. The cut or fill around the bridge abutments should blend into the adjacent contours so that the bridge seems to grow out of the surrounding landscape rather than being placed upon it. b. Bridge Design The structure of the bridge itself needs careful thought. Concrete and steel can have a strongly urban feel while natural stone and timber relate more to the countryside.

Concrete is often a choice for cost and strength but smooth cast, light coloured abutments and wing walls are not compatible in colour or texture with natural settings. Alternatives include exposing the aggregate where local material is used; using shuttering to give texture and coloured cement to darken the concrete. Coarse vertical textures are most appropriate. Stone can be used to clad the concrete. One method is to build a stone face inside the shuttering and to pour the concrete in behind it. Large stones at the bottom grading to smaller at the top complete the effect. Using gabions instead of concrete can be cheaper and more flexible, especially for the wing walls. The same considerations apply as for culverts. Timber abutments are widely used in other parts of the world and may have a place here. The decking, its detail, finish and the way it fits the abutments needs care. Steel and concrete need the same thought as described for abutments. Steel beams should be painted in recessive earth tones. Timber decking is a good material. It weathers to a natural colour and is coarse in texture. Handrails are to be avoided if possible. Where they are necessary for safety reasons their design should be simple and in scale with the bridge and the landscape. Chunky timber rails are likely to be the best. Tubular steel, especially with wire mesh infill looks urban, crude and fussy and should be avoided.

4.10 CONCLUSIONS
Many roads and their associated features have been put into the landscape in a careless and crude fashion. This has led to public concern. The advantage of low cost unsurfaced roads is that they are flexible in their alignment and choice of materials in a way in which most public highways are not. There is no reason why, with care and sensitivity it should not be possible to design roads to fit comfortably into any rural landscape where a road is appropriate and necessary. Any construction site has the potential to cause pollution of one sort or another. When constructing a road, the main concern is pollution of watercourses. Such pollution can constitute real damage and it is therefor essential that close attention is paid to the control of water throughout all the stages of construction. Construction near streams, particularly fish bearing streams and those used for water supply, should be carried out during periods of dry weather. Before carrying out any work in a stream it is important to establish whether there are fishings, fisheries or water supply intakes downstream and, if so, to consult with the appropriate parties to agree any special measures to be taken such as timing the works to avoid spawning or agreeing emergency procedures in the event of accidental contamination of the waterway. One of the potentially most serious causes of pollution on a construction site is the spillage of fuel and hydraulic oils. Proper care must be taken to keep fuel storage away from drains and to have robust systems in place for coping with spills. This should include the provision on site of oil absorbent materials and floating booms to contain oil in the event of a spillage. It is also important that plant be properly maintained and leaks of fuel or hydraulic oil be dealt with promptly.

5. ROAD COSTS ESTIMATES

5.1 GENERAL 5.2 STAKING, FELLING, FORMING, CLEARING AND MISCELLANEOUS WORK3 5.3 GRAVELLING

5.1 GENERAL
Machine costs in mechanized forest road construction may easily amount to 80 to 90 percent of the total road costs, thus construction activities must be carefully planned so that the equipment is used as efficiently as possible and thus idle time of the machines is minimized. The skill of the forest engineer who does the road location and design is critical to the overall construction costs. Road construction costs may vary considerably depending mainly on the terrain and soil conditions, road standards, machine and labour costs, etc., as well as on the skill of operators and labourers involved. However, since road construction techniques are similar throughout the world, one can easily derive reasonable cost estimates once the main conditioning factors have been identified, by applying figures from similar road construction projects. For the purpose of facilitating your task in estimating forest road costs and for reasons of comparing costs, it is advisable to break down labour and machine costs into their different elements. The following breakdown is suggested: (i) Surveying, staking the alignment and clearing right of way (ii) Formation of the road (iii) Rock blasting (iv) Drainage facilities (ditching, culverts) (v) Crushing gravel (vi) Gravelling, grading and compacting (vii) Construction and environment protection works (bridges, retaining structures and soil stabilization works). The cost of construction of these is not dealt with in this paper. (viii) Miscellaneous work (such as transport, delivery and minor earth works) (ix) Project servicing costs Once the costs have been calculated for the different elements, unit costs (costs per m, per m3, per piece of construction work) should be developed to facilitate in estimating costs in future road projects and for comparative purposes.

5.2 STAKING, FELLING, FORMING, CLEARING AND MISCELLANEOUS WORK3

3

Miscellaneous work such as construction of sub-base culverts and road-side drains.

In the case of a complete absence of costs data for forest road construction in tropical countries, FAO has developed a cost formula applicable to four different road standards and slopes, comprising the following work elements: felling; forming; clearing; grading and miscellaneous work. These work elements represent a major share of the total road costs. The equation reads as follows: C1= 370+(27xSL)+(1050xSTi)+(48xSLxSTi) Where C1 is the direct cost in US$ per km for road standard i (supervision and overheads excluded), and where i is one of the four standards given in Table 3. SL -the inclination in percent of the major slopes (slopes longer than 50 m) of the hillside Sti -the values of the four road standards as taken from Table 3, i.e. O -for trails for wheel skidders and jeeps 1 -for secondary feeder roads 2 -for primary feeder roads 3 -for main and access roads The cost formula gives costs in US$ as at 1977 and would need to be adjusted taking into consideration inflationary cost rises in recent years. The formula applies for the following road widths including shoulders as shown in Table 3. TABLE 3 Values used for Different Road Standards Standard Description Road Width Value (Sti) 1 Access roads and main primary roads 10 to 12 m 3 2 Primary feeder roads 8 to 10 m 2 3 Secondary feeder roads 5 to 7 m 1 4 Skid trails 3.5 to 4.5 m 0 It should once again be mentioned that this formula can only serve as an approximation in a road construction estimate for the elements mentioned and it is not applicable at all for costing of ridge roads.

Example: direct construction costs should be calculated with the above mentioned equation, making the following assumptions. Required is a secondary feeder road on a 30% slope. The equation then reads: C3 = 370 +(27 x 30 +1050) x 1 + (48 x 30 x 1) = 3 670 US$ Thus, direct construction costs for the above road standard would amount to about US$3 670. (the actual costs in the area under review should be used).

5.3 GRAVELLING
On soils with low bearing capacity, gravelling is required to increase the load bearing capacity of the road and make it useable by heavy duty vehicles on a year-round basis. Depending on the carrying capacity of the ground (underlying soils), the road width and the availability of appropriate gravel material, including its transport costs, gravel costs can rise up to 60 percent of the total costs and so become the most expensive item. Sometimes the non-availability or availability from far-distant sources of gravel in certain forest areas can be large factors in determining the viability or non-viability of forest projects. For easy reference an example of gravel costs from a developing country is given when considering the following work inputs: taking the road material from a natural gravel pit, transporting, spreading and compacting it. When considering a 4 m wide road with 25 cm of gravel thickness, costs would also apply per m forest road. TABLE 4 Estimated Costs of Gravelling a Forest Road from a Natural Gravel Pit Item_Cost in US$/m3 4 Natural gravel at the pit Loading of small quantities Loading of large quantities Transportation

0.15-0.60 1.10-2.10 0.25-0.45 1.70 per m3 plus 0.10 per m3/km Grading 0.20-0.30 Rolling 0.30 -0.40 4 Estimated costs expressed in US $/m3 as at 1980. When transporting gravel over a distance of 10 km the total gravel costs per km may amount to US$4.70 to US$6.55 per m3 placed on the forest road, thus the cost of a 25 cm thickly gravelled 4 m wide forest road would be US$4 700 to US$6 550.

6. SURVEYING
6.1 GENERAL 6.2 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS 6.3 ROAD RECONNAISSANCE

6.4 ROUTING TECHNIQUES 6.5 FIELD NOTEBOOKS

6.1 GENERAL
Hand held instruments are now used for surveying forest roads in steep terrain. These optical instruments combine accuracy with low weight and volume, thus allowing high output even in difficult terrain and dense forests. Except for bridge construction, tunnelling and other special projects, theodolite, and levelling instruments are not used, since their use is too slow for the accuracy required, in addition to which they are expensive and fragile.

6.2 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

6.2.1 Clinometers 6.2.2 Compasses 6.2.3 Tapes 6.2.4 Barometric Altimeters 6.2.5 Additional Equipment

When planning forest roads in steep terrain, the following instruments are used Instruments
Clinometer Magnetic compass Tape Barometric altimeter

Items to be Surveyed
Gradients or grades Bearings or azimuth (direction) Distances Altitudes or elevations

This equipment, along with proper survey methods, has proved to be suitable... practical for surveying roads in forests in mountainous terrain.
6.2.1 Clinometers

The clinometer is the basic instrument for routing a forest road in steep terrain. The vertical axis of a pendulum instrument corresponds to the direction of gravity an angle of 90 the horizontal level (collimation line) of the instrument is optically fixed, from which vertical

angles (in percent or degrees) can be measured. There are several types of clinometers which can be used to determine gradients but basically are all the same, based on the principle of gravity. The percent scale of the clinometer is used to determine the gradients of the road and to measure side slopes since it is much simpler for future calculations than use of angles measured in degrees. FIGURE 8 Side view of Meridian Clinometer "Percent" means "part of a hundred". For example, 1 percent is one part of a hundred (equal to 1/100 or 0.01); 45 percent is 45 parts of a hundred (equal to 45/100 or 0.45). The gradient of a straight line in percent can be drafted by the height of a right angled triangle with a base of 100 units: FIGURE 9 Example of a gradient, in percent Gradients can be measured directly, independent of the distance between clinometer and target. Thus lines (routes) with required gradients can easily be found. The so-called "zero line" or "grade line", which is one of the basic criteria for locating a forest road in steep terrain, is determined by use of the clinometer. A word of caution with regard to the use of clinometers is, never mix up readings of percent and degrees, since both functions are normally given on the instrument scales. The percent readings correspond to the tangent functions of the degrees and are quite different, and if the two are mixed while reading the scale, it will lead to errors in calculations and grade lines. FIGURE 10 Triangular Functions

TABLE 5

Conversion of Degrees into Percent Grade in Degrees Grade in Percent Grade in Degrees Grade in Percent 1 1.8 11 19.4 2 3.5 12 21.3 3 5.2 13 23.1 4 7.0 14 24.9 5 8.8 15 26.8 6 10.5 16 28.7 7 12.3 17 30.6 8 14.0 18 32.5 9 15.8 19 34.4 10 17.6 20 36.4 Example of an error by triangular form, i.e. 8 or 14% if 8% was your maximum grade:
An erroneous reading of 8 degrees instead of 8 percent leads to a grade of 14 percent: (see conversion table)

FIGURE 11 Drawing Explaining Grade Difference Between Degrees and Percent FIGURE 12 Triangle showing 100% (45)

Remark: 100% grade corresponds to an angle of 45 Note: The intervals of the percent scale of the clinometer are smaller than the intervals of the degree graduation. Two types of clinometers are recommended for forest engineering and surveying work. These are: a) Meridian clinometer (made in Switzerland)

A pendulum device with a fixed optical system, the most suitable model (MC1002) has two optical lenses for separating uphill (+) and downhill (-) readings to 100 percent both ways.

PHOTO NO. 3 Meridian clinometer

FIGURE 13 Elevation Scale of the Meridian Clinometer (according to Meridian)

How to use the Meridian Clinometer First, hang the instrument from your thumb, as shown in Photo No. 4. Then place the instrument close to your eye and keep it plumbed. You cannot see through the instrument, but you see the bright, translucent scale. The percent scales are seen on both edges of the ocular lenses of Model MC 1002. The left lens is for uphill (+) (see scale as shown in Figure 13); the right lens is for downhill (-) reading. By simultaneously looking through the lens and alongside the clinometer you can align the objective (target) (see Figure 14) with the reading by an optical illusion. You must keep both eyes open. Be sure to read the correct number on the scale and remember + (elevation) or - (depression). FIGURE 14 Target and Scale of Meridian Clinometer

PHOTO NO. 4 Meridian clinometer in working position

b) Suunto Clinometer (made in Finland) The Suunto instrument has an aluminium housing with a moving scale card. This moving part is immersed in a damping liquid inside a sealed plastic container. The liquid does not freeze or evaporate. It is recommended that Type PM-5/360 PC with scales of percent and 360 degrees be used. The percent scale has a graduation from + 150 percent to -150 percent. FIGURE 15 Scales of the Suunto Clinometer

PHOTO NO. 5 Suunto Clinometer PM-5/400 with Case

PHOTO NO. 6 Use of the Suunto clinometer during Training Course in Bhutan

How to Use the Suunto Clinometer Place the instrument close to the eye and move it in a vertical arc until the horizontal index line is aligned with the objective (target). By an optical illusion the index line seems to protrude from the side of the instrument. Align this line with the centre of the target and simultaneously read the gradient on the scale. Both eyes must be kept open since one cannot see through the Suunto. Since the Suunto has scales in degrees as well as in percent, the surveyor must be sure to read the record the correct scale reading. It is necessary to have the height of the instrument and the target with identical distances above the ground.

FIGURE 16 Clinometer and Target on Poles (Rods)

Use two poles (or rods) with flat bases so that the poles do not penetrate the round and so that their height will be constant. The clinometer (zero point) and target (middle line) are adjusted to the same height with the two poles on level ground. The height of the instrument pole is adapted to the comfortable eye height of the instrument.... Adjusted Meridian clinometer and target Use two poles (or rods) with flat bases so that the poles do not penetrate the ground and so that their height will be constant. The clinometer (zero point) and target (middle line) are adjusted to the same height with the two poles on level ground. The height of the instrument pole is adapted to the comfortable eye height of the instrument man. PHOTO NO. 7 Adjusted Meridian clinometer and target

PHOTO NO. 8 Suunto clinometer and adjusted target

The target can be made of aluminium sheet or plywood to a size of about 30 x 20 cm. It is best painted with white - red or yellow - red, water-resistant colours to obtain the best visibility possible. Special flourescent colours are very helpful. FIGURE 17 Home-Made Target

Checking The clinometer and target must be checked, before use to ensure that the vertical heights of the clinometer and the target are equal. Two points are fixed on the ground at an average distance of 20 - 25 m and the gradient is measured in both uphill and downhill. If both readings are equal, then the instrument and the target adjustment are correct. Checking The clinometer and target must be checked before use to ensure that the vertical heights of the clinometer and the target are equal. Two points are fixed on the ground at an average distance of 20-25 m and the gradient is measured in both uphill and downhill. If both readings are equal, then the instrument and the target adjustment are correct.

6.2.2 Compasses

After setting out the zero line by means of clinometer and stakes, the line must be surveyed in order to make a plan of the route. There are numerous hand-held compasses of modem design which can be used. These are of two main types, those with protractor base and surveying needle and those with a swinging needle card without a protractor base. Compasses with a Protractor base These instruments have a swinging needle and a circular scale and can be used for direct mapping. There are universal types for reconnaissance and use of maps but they are not as accurate as surveying compasses of the second type. Examples of this type are the Bezard (made in Germany) and the Silva (made in Sweden). PHOTO NO. 9 Bezard Compass

FIGURE 18 Silva Compass (Type 16)

Surveying Compasses without Protractor Base These instruments have swinging needle card with scale and optical reading. They are suitable and accurate for surveying and can be recommended for forest road surveys. The Suunto compass is one of the best instruments the author has used for road surveying. A solid housing encases the needle card in a damping liquid (similar to the Suunto clinometer). The readings are accurate to 0.5 degrees (scale in half degrees) and the readings can be estimated to 10 minutes. By an optical illusion the vertical index line appears to project above the compass case. Align the index line with your target (vertical rod) and simultaneously read the bearing both eyes must be kept open because one cannot see through the instrument. Hold the compass horizontally in a comfortable working position. PHOTO NO. 10 Suunto Compass KB-14-RT-360

FIGURE 19 Scale of a Suunto Compass

The use of the Suunto type KB-14-RT-360, illustrated above, is recommended. It has a clockwise degree graduation 0-360 in black, and a reverse scale in red (code R). The instrument-man must be sure to read the correct scale.

The reverse scale is useful for controlling the measurement on the line (see 2.4.5 "Routing Process). The instrument also has an illuminated scale by Bray (code T) for easier reading in dense forests or during twilight. PHOTO NO. 11 Rod with flagging as compass target

PHOTO NO. 12 Suunto compass being used in the field

General Remarks on Compass Survey

The needle of a compass shows the magnetic north direction (magnetic meridian) due to the influence of the magnetic forces of the globe. The Azimuth angle between magnetic north (0) and the surveyed direction is called the BEARING. The compass scale is read in a clockwise direction in four quadrants which are shown in Figure 20 to give the student the relationships between the compass degree readings and his more familiar nomenclature for direction. FIGURE 20 System of Compass Scale

The magnetic North Pole is not the same thing as the Geographic Pole of the globe The deviation (difference) between the magnetic meridian and the direction "True North" of the map is called the DECLINATION. Declination is different in different places of the northern hemisphere, depending on the geographic longitude and latitude, so that the compass must be adjusted for the region where it will be used in order that everyone in an area surveys to the same base. When ordering a Suunto compass, the geographic data for country of use must be given with the order, since the instrument can only be adjusted during its production at the factory. Some needle compasses can be adjusted easily with a set screw in the field; however, one must be careful with waterproofing. When using a compass it is important that the surveyor keeps the instrument free from attractions caused by magnetic influences, such as steel parts of spectacles, wrist-watches or iron tools and equipment. The surveyor must avoid surveying close to electric wires and iron ore deposits. There are methods for testing the magnetic influences caused by ore bodies but this will not be gone into here.

6.2.3 Tapes

A measuring tape for rough use in the forest must be strong, reliable and must not stretch when tightened. The use of fibreglass or steel tapes with metric graduations and a length of 50 m (fibreglass) or 30 m (steel) is recommended. Steel tapes are more expensive and heavy, and they should be stainless to avoid rusting. Recently the preference has been for fibreglass tapes which are cheaper and lighter than steel and are not magnetic. Tapes must be handled as carefully as other instruments, do not drag them on rough surfaces, unless they are steel, clean and dry the tape after use and it will last for many years. PHOTO NO. 13 Fibreglass tape

PHOTO NO. 14 Steel tape in a reel

6.2.4 Barometric Altimeters

These instruments are used to determine relative altitudes of control points during the field reconnaissance. The principle of barometric instruments is based on the decreasing of air pressure with increasing altitude.

In forest engineering, relative differences in heights (in other words the difference between two or more points but not necessarily correct in relation to external points) are used in order to determine the correct or best gradient between control points the instrument is adjusted to an average altitude at the starting point, according to the topographic map, and all following measurements will be relative but accurate to this first adjustment. Modem barometric altimeters have an evacuated aneroid diaphragm which is highly sensitive. The displacement of this diaphragm caused by changing air pressure is transmitted without friction to the indicator and the scale from which readings are obtained. These sensitive instruments must be handled carefully. Information on two of the types used in forestry is given below. Pocket Altimeters The Thommen altimeter (made in Switzerland) is an excellent pocket instrument with an accuracy of 10 to 20 m. Several types with altitude ranges up to 5 000 m are available. FIGURE 21 Scales of Thommen Altimeters

PHOTO NO. 15 Thommen pocket altimeter

The Thommen pocket altimeter can be adjusted easily by turning the scale, the altimeter scale is divided in units of 10 m from 0 to 1000m. The intervals of 1 000 m are accounted in the central display. Precision Altimeters The Paulin precision altimeter (made in Sweden) is a very accurate but lightweight instrument. The accuracy of this fully compensated altimeter is in the order of 5 m. In order to avoid damages to the instrument the measuring system of the instrument must be locked during transport by turning the central button anticlockwise. In the measuring position the central button is turned clockwise until the needle point balance indicator indicates the reading position. Then the main needle shows the altitude on the circular scale (minimum scales are 5 or 10 m depending on type). The instrument can be adjusted to actual heights. PHOTO NO. 16 Paulin Palab altimeter with case

FIGURE 22 Available Types of Paulin Altimeters (according to Paulin) TYPE PALUK PALER PALAB PALON PALIB PALAN PALYD ALTITUDE SCALE BAROMETER SCALE Range Graduations Range Graduations External diameter mm (4 5/8") - 350 to + 725 m 1 m - 220 to + 1400 m 2 m 650 to 790 mm Hg 0.2 mm Hg - 220 to + 3420 m 5 m 510 to 790 mm Hg 0.5 mm Hg - 150 to + 6750 m 10 m 350 to 790 mm Hg 1 mm Hg - 800 to + 5000 ft 5. ft 25" to 31" Hg 0.01" Hg - 900 to + 12300 ft 10 ft 19" to 31" Hg 0.02" Hg - 500 to + 23700 ft 20 and 50 ft 13" to 31" Hg 0.05" Hg

6.2.5 Additional Equipment

Range Poles (or Ranging Rods) Range poles are used for setting out the Centre Line of a forest road on level ground and in other special cases where the Zero Line system cannot be used. They are actually used for sighting on by the compass man. Range poles are also required for setting out the foundations of bridges, culverts and retaining walls the poles, made of wood or aluminium in detachable sections, are painted red and white or red and yellow. These sections can be carried in a bag and can be put together to form the full length of the rod. PHOTO NO. 17 A set of ranging poles with bag

Nylon Rope A nylon rope, to 8 mm in diameter and about 50 m in length, is a useful dragline to determine rough distances between control points during reconnaissance. This rope can also be used as a securing aid in very steep and rocking terrain. Pocket Steel Tape Normally, a pocket steel tape has a length of 2 to 3 m and is graduated in cm and mm. It is used for measurements of short distances during field work and especially for construction works.

6.3 ROAD RECONNAISSANCE

6.3.1 Planning Area 6.3.2 Maps And Aerial Photographs 6.3.3 Fieldwork And Cooperation 6.3.4 Work Procedure 6.3.5 Field Control

Reconnaissance is the basic tool of forest road location and design. This preliminary work provides the knowledge of terrain and the forests which enables the engineer to determine the most feasible and economic road alignment.
6.3.1 Planning Area

In the mountains the planning area for a road network can be easily determined because the area is naturally bounded by ridges and creeks. A planning unit is usually defined by the boundaries of a watershed, or it can be only a part of a watershed, and similarly several watersheds can be put together to form one large planning area. 6.3.2 Maps And Aerial Photographs

A topographic map is almost a necessity for road planning. Topographic maps show planimetric details such as rivers, roads, fences, etc., as well as elevations presented in the form of contour lines. The usual scales of maps produced by governments are at a scale of 1:50 000 or 1:25 000 and these scales are good for general planning purposes. For detailed logging and road planning, however, maps at scales of 1: 5 000 or less are usually required, or will give better results. These latter maps are seldom readily available unless made specifically for the operation and usually by the operation. Topographic maps derived from the evaluation of aerial photographs are reasonably accurate. Aerial photographs complement but cannot substitute for a good topographic map, Normally, aerial photographs are at a scale of about 1:15 000 and show details of terrain and forest stands. Using a pocket stereoscope in the field, pairs of aerial photographs provide a stereoscopic view of the terrain. GIS and aerial photography are major recent innovations for the improvement of survey and planning information. This guide would only wish to indicate the value of these methods of gathering information on the characteristics of the site. The subjects are to wide ranging to include details. Aerial Photography continues to provide a satisfactory source of spatial information. Digitising the aerial photograph and entering its information into a computerised processing system will produce significantly more consistent results than direct interpretation This use of aerial photographs can become one of the important GIS data layers. These photographs are subject to detailed photo-interpretation. The importance of this stage cannot be over-emphasised. To produce an accurate map requires the use of a specialised instrument known as a stereoplotter, along with stereo aerial photography. The benefit in using a stereoplotter is that it allows all distortions to be removed in the photography. It should be emphasised that aerial photographs are not maps, and they contain large distortions. The stereoplotter is specially designed to rectify the photography so that every detail which is then recorded is precisely located.

Additionally, the photography is viewed stereoscopically which allows a comprehensive range of features to be mapped which cannot be achieved using a single photograph (even when it is enlarged). A crude interpretation can be produced using a pocket stereoscope but not only is this exercise more time consuming - requiring the observations to be manually transposed onto a map, it also makes no allowance for the inherent distortions which exist in aerial photography. As has been the case in all aspects of life, the use of computers has become far more widespread in recent years. There are probably two main reasons for this: the first is that the cost of hardware and software has fallen, and the second is that the various software packages have become much easier to use and more accessible to the non-expert. The collation of data concerning the spatial distribution of significant properties of the earth's surface has long been an important part of the activities of organised societies. From the earliest civilisations to modern times spatial data have been collated by navigators, geographers and surveyors and rendered into pictorial form by the map makers or cartographers. The history of using computers for mapping and spatial analysis shows that there have been parallel developments in automated data capture, data analysis and presentation in several broadly related fields. These fields are cadastral and topographical mapping, thematic cartography, civil engineering, geography, mathematical studies of spatial variation, soil science, surveying and photogrammetry, rural and urban planning, and remote sensing and image analysis. Essentially all these disciplines are attempting the same sort of operation -namely to develop a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes. This set of tools constitutes a 'Geographical Information System'. Some replicate (and ease) things that have traditionally been carried out manually using paper maps, tables of data and cartographic techniques. PHOTO NO. 18 Pocket stereoscope for field work

6.3.3 Fieldwork And Cooperation

Maps and photographs are a prerequisite for any preliminary study and the planning process for an area, but in addition it is necessary to study the terrain and the forest area on foot. Only by intense walking can a sufficient knowledge of the planning area be obtained. This part of the work, called "reconnaissance", requires a lot of time but is the most important and is the best investment. In planning a forest road it is necessary to cooperate with the local staff and residents of the planning area who know the terrain and local conditions best. Cooperation and sharing of information form the basis for good results.
6.3.4 Work Procedure

When a planning exercise is to start, the engineer should look for all maps, aerial photographs, management plans and other information available on the planning area. In order to save original planning material, copies should be used. At the same time the forest staff responsible for the planning area should be contacted in order to gather more detailed information and the timing of field work from them. Using the contour maps one or several variants of a road system which seems to be feasible should be plotted. Account must be taken of existing public roads, their junction and terminal points, the logging system and the transport situation, ownership and boundaries of property, and so on. Fieldwork should be carefully planned corresponding to the general road system as drafted. Divide large planning areas into several planning units. Consider problems of travelling, housing, food and drinking water, etc. The timing of the fieldwork is important. In the subtropical zone of the country the dry season should be used. In order to carry out a field reconnaissance the following will be required:
Engineer's jacket with pencils, eraser, ruler and scale, divider, etc. Field notebook with cross-section paper Maps and aerial photographs 5 Altimeter, clinometer, compass (with protractor base) 50 m drag rope, pocket stereoscope for aerial photography 6 If they are to be used in the field.

5,6

During the first field reconnaissance the engineering crew must walk the main and side valleys and then check the slopes and ridges relative to the preliminary map plan (s) as drafted. Important characteristics are grades, soils, rock, control points and logging units. Positive control points are important as well as advantageous places for road construction and logging, such as bridging points, gentle parts in slopes which are suitable for curves, switchbacks and better alignment, log landings and easier construction, similarly gravel deposits are extremely important, as are saddles for crossing from one watershed to another.

Negative control points are very steep slopes (>80%), rock, swamps, landslides, deep canyons and excessive ridging: Very steep slopes are mostly rocky and should not be crossed for distances of longer than about 200 m. The considerable excavated material can cause damage to the forest below and when not rock, erosion and siltation with all their negative impact on the environment can ensue. During the first reconnaissance the actual situation in the field is carefully checked against the map and photographs. Details of terrain and control points, field data and sketches are noted in the field notebook. By means of the barometric altimeter the relative altitudes of all important control points can be determined. The instrument is adjusted to the actual altitude of the starting point which can be identified on the map. After the first field reconnaissance the preliminary paper locations can be improved and unsuitable variants of the plan can be discarded. In mountainous terrain the engineer tries to develop a road system which will allow for the downhill transport of products, in order to use the natural forces of gravity, it is also important to find suitable junction points with the public road system. Beginning from roads in the main valley bottom, the road system is developed up into the slopes. Road spacing depends on the type of logging and transport systems (see General Planning) which will be used. After general cost considerations and comparisons and perhaps more field reconnaissance have taken place, the most feasible and economic variant of the road system is selected. This selection should be discussed with the local staff and the authorities before final detailed work commences. A common problem of design is to determine whether or not a road line can be obtained which fits within the elevations of the terminal points, bearing in mind the maximum allowable gradient. On a fairly exact contour map, a draft of a general zero line (grade line) can be drawn by divider setting (see 6.2). Usually the gradients between control (terminal) points are checked by calculation, the distance being taken from the map and the relative altitudes being obtained from the barometric survey. An example is given below. FIGURE 23 Sketch of a Lengthwise Section (Example)

6.3.5 Field Control

In spite of intense reconnaissance it is necessary to check the selected main roads out in the field to be sure that they can in fact be realized. Therefore, the second part of reconnaissance is more detailed work along the generally designed route by means of clinometer and drag rope. One target man and 1 to 3 brush cutters are required for this work, during which the line is marked on trees by means of plastic flagging. In this phase unexpected obstacles may be found and by careful re-routing the general layout can be improved and actually become feasible. This is often called a preliminary grade line. Reconnaissance for general planning of a forest road network demands personal interest, years of experience and careful work. A high degree of responsibility is connected with this task.

6.4 ROUTING TECHNIQUES

6.4.1 Introduction 6.4.2 Personnel (size of location crew) 6.4.3 Instruments and Equipment 6.4.4 General Rules for Road Location 6.4.5 Method of Location 6.4.6 Special Problems 6.4.7 Right of Way
6.4.1 Introduction

It is recommended that the "zero line" (or "grade line") method be used in locating a forest road in steep terrain. The term "zero line" is derived from the German language and means

that on this line there is neither cut nor fill. It is the intersection line between the planes of the original slope and the eventual formation. The difference between a zero line and a centre line is shown in Figure 24. FIGURE 24 Zero Line and Centre Line

The zero line can be applied as an element of location only on slopes. It is determined by the use of a clinometer and is marked on the ground with stakes. The zero line is like an unclosed polygon with the required gradients which is adapted to the shape of the terrain and to the desired alignment. This polygon is the guideline for the bulldozer operator during road construction. The formation is cut with free bends close to the shape of the terrain. This type of work is known as "sidecasting". The zero line marks the gradient of the road and also the alignment in the slope provided the distance to the centre line is relatively short. This distance decreases with increasing slope grade. This does not mean that the alignment of the road can be ignored and special consideration must be given at points for tight curves, embankments, long cuts and in areas with gentle slopes. In such cases it is recommended that the centre line also be located. Lastly, it must be emphasized that intensive training, personal capacity and years of practical experience are needed to be successful in road location which is one of the most important tasks in any forest operation.
6.4.2 Personnel (size of location crew) -1 engineer, responsible for the work -1 target man - 2 helpers for driving stakes and measuring distances - 2 to 3 brush cutters (number depends on type of forest) 6.4.3 Instruments and Equipment

A checklist of instruments (see 5.2) and equipment which are also required for road engineering are given below.

- 1 clinometer (Meridian or Suunto) 1 compass (Suunto)

-1 tape (30 m stainless steel or 50 m fibreglass) -1 target with screws or nails to fix it to the target rod -1 pair of poles to adjust clinometer and target -1 set of ranging poles in a carrying bag -1 field notebook -topographic map; if available, aerial photographs and a pocket stereoscope -layout of planned road, if available -1 engineer's pocket (leather or canvas) with pencils, eraser, scale and other small utensils like graphite markers for stakes, plastic flagging, pocket measuring tape, pocket knife. - set of tools, bush knives, 1 axe or hammer to drive stakes into the ground, gloves to protect hands. - 1 first-aid kit - snake bit serum and syringe (can be purchased from Haffkine Institute, Bombay, India - suitable personal equipment. Heavy leather boots are best since steep slopes must be traversed. "Mountain boots" protect and support the feet best. A raincoat. Daily food ration (in a plastic box or bag), and a hot drink (in a thermos) carried in a rucksack. PHOTO NO. 19 Engineer's Pocket with clinometer, compass, altimeter, steel tape. pocket tape. ruler and scale, pencils

6.4.4 General Rules for Road Location

A work programme should be planned carefully, in advance of field work, and in accordance with, and taking into account, the layout of the road system. Such a system may be divided into several types of roads, and lengthy roads may be divided into several sections for practical purposes. The sequence of location starts with the main roads of the planned system, and the feeder roads (lowest standard) are located last. A long road is best divided into sections corresponding to the control points within the line (for instance, switchbacks, bridges, saddles, etc.), provided they are not too close together. In locating sections, start from the positive control points which should be connected accurately to the control points which are not so crucial and where there is space. In this manner work can proceed uphill or downhill within the different sections of a long road, depending on the control points. The engineer usually walks ahead and looks back at the target. In this way he can check the line and the terrain since he is most experienced, and find the most suitable points for the location of the stakes. The gradient between two control points should be kept fairly constant. The maximum gradient for downhill transport in steep terrain should not exceed 9 to 10 percent (main roads) or 12 percent (feeder roads), a 12 percent gradient should be absolute maximum, having due regard to erosion and maintenance. Where uphill transport is required the maximum gradient should not exceed 6 to 8 percent. A minimum gradient of 2 to 3 percent is required for proper drainage. Never use a level grade (0 percent) over long distances.

6.4.5 Method of Location

Information about the terrain where the road will be located is known from the reconnaissance, so that the road engineer has some ideas about the general conditions, the control points and the ruling grades of the various sections. Nevertheless, time will be wasted by driving in stakes during the preliminary location since corrections are usually necessary. It is therefore recommended that the location work and the survey work be divided into four parts: First part: Flagging of a zero line with the estimated ruling grade and with sighting distances as long as possible. Do not use target and poles. Sight from man to man at the eye level of the clinometer man. Use the drag rope to roughly determine the distance between terminal points. Remember that these lengths of rope must be recorded. The line is marked by flagging on trees and saplings. During careful general planning this "first part" has been done for the main routes. The first trial will not reach the desired control point exactly, since the estimated gradient used in the trial may have been too great or too little. FIGURE 25 First Trial "Forward

Correction of the Gradient (a) Estimate or measure the height difference of the terminal points. Bigger differences can be measured using the clinometer with a pole of known length as a simple levelling device. FIGURE 26 Measurement of Height Difference in the Terminal Point 2

(b) The correction of the gradient is attained by means of the determined height difference and the distance (drag rope totals).

Correction of grade g (%) = h/d x 100

It should be mentioned that the difference between slope and horizontal distances of the location line is so small that it can be neglected. Therefore, regard the actual distances of the zero line as horizontal distances. Second Part: In case of major differences, locate a second route using the improved gradient by working backwards. A different colour flagging must be used to avoid confusion. Over long distances a minor difference may again be found and thus a final correction of gradient must be made. FIGURE 27 Second Trial "Forward"

Third part: The two preceding trials (parts 1 and 2) are carried out to determine the correct zero line and can be regarded as a "detailed reconnaissance". Theoretically at this point all details are known and the final location can be started. The clinometer and the target are used in order to obtain exact gradients. The distance between stakes should not exceed 20 to 25 m and should be approximately equal. The stakes are numbered continuously. The engineer notes the following data in his field book during this part:
Numbers of stakes, gradients between stakes, representative slope (percent) of terrain between the stakes, estimated rock component, additional mass of earth and rock which is not given by the Norm Profiles, description of peculiarities of terrain, culverts and structures required.

FIGURE 28 Location "Forward"

Fourth part: The located zero line is surveyed by means of compass and tape. Again, the engineer walks ahead and looks back at the target. Thus the correct bearings corresponding to

the form in the field notebook are obtained. By using a second target ahead, the bearings can be checked by means of the reverse scale of the compass. In the case of a careful survey both bearings7 are noted and differences should not exceed 1 degree.
7

backsight and foresight

The engineer can also read the distances on the tape and should do the recording. It is recommended that a tape crew of three men be trained for this task. The readings of distances are rounded to full decimeters (1/10 of a metre). During the fourth part the engineer only has to determine the bearings and distances.
6.4.6 Special Problems

Location of Embankments and Cuttings As mentioned before, the zero line follows the shape of terrain in consideration of the desired alignment and the gradient. In each case of major distances between zero line and the centre line the differences between the planned and the actual gradient will be obtained. In the case the zero line crosses valleys or ridges the centre line should be marked. It is recommended that the centre line also be located if the terrain conditions are irregular and difficult. When locating the zero line, the gradient should be lowered in the curves. FIGURE 29 Zero Line and Centre Line in a Slope

A common mistake made by inexperienced personnel is to set stakes too far up valleys or on the outside of ridges, as shown in Figure 29. the minimum radius should be checked using a 20 m tape or rope. Feasible crossing points along creeks and torrents must be selected. Bridge embankments require a lot of fill material which the bulldozer cuts close to the site, out of the flanks of the valley. The bulldozing distance should, if possible, not exceed 20 m. Alteration of Gradient If it is necessary to reduce or to increase the gradient, the maximum difference between the two gradients should not exceed 3 percent. In this way a smooth road profile will be obtained. This rule must be especially observed for the layout of switchbacks and the transition from elevation to depression ("crest") or vice versa ("valley"). FIGURE 30 "Crest" in the Lengthwise Profile, average distance between the stakes 2025 m

Torrents which will endanger the road during heavy rainfall should be located in a "valley" of the profile, with a 0% grade at the crossing. Thus, overflow water is limited to this crossing section. FIGURE 31 Lengthwise Profile - Road Crossing a Torrent "Crests" and "valleys" of the profile of a forest road should be located within curves because they are not as visible here as along straight parts of the road. According to practical experience, it is recommended that a crest within a curve be located on a ridge, and a valley within a curve be located in a valley. Routing Switchbacks A switchback is generally a narrow bend in a slope where the general direction of the road is altered by a vertex angle of the bend smaller than 90 degrees. The minimum radius for truckable forest roads should be at least 11 m. FIGURE 32 Functions of Road Curves

Switchbacks are often required in order to get to the top of a planned road. These curves are disadvantageous for transport in that the truck must slow to round the curve and thus transport costs are affected. Therefore, an important part of planning is to minimize the number of switchbacks on a road. Several switchbacks in a so-called "zig-zag system" should be avoided if possible because of the danger of land slides. Switchbacks should be located only if they cannot be avoided, and their distance from each other in steep terrain should be as long as possible. FIGURE 33 Examples of Correct and Wrong Serpentine Systems Cooperatively planned roads CORRECT

Individually planned roads WRONG!

Suitable places for switchbacks are positive control points. The hillside slope in these places must not exceed 40 percent.

A switchback is located as shown in Figure 33. It is recommended that in addition the centre line be marked, using the tape to mark the radius of the curve. FIGURE 34 Zero Line and Centre Line of a Switchback -Average distance of the stakes 20-25 m

Invisible Target During the location of a forest road the target may frequently be invisible because of big trees or ridges. Three empirical methods are suggested in order to overcome these obstacles:
a) Use intermediate points for the clinometer and the target without driving in stakes. This simple method is mainly used for crossing small ridges. During the compass survey the target is elevated above the invisible point until it is visible.

b) If the target is visible from a slightly higher clinometer point, the pole is put at this point and the clinometer is moved down along the pole until the correct reading is found. Then the clinometer is fixed by hand at this height on the pole, and the target is adjusted downward (to 0 percent). The foot point of the target pole is the correct point. This method is used to pass by big trees or other obstacles. c) For long cuts across ridges which obstruct the sight, the clinometer is used as a levelling instrument to transfer the elevation of the last point around the ridge using 0 percent sights. The distance between the terminal points of the cut is determined by means of the tape and the centre line is marked. By means of the gradient and the distance the difference in elevations can be calculated easily using the formula:
h(m) - g(%) x d(m)/100

The final terminal point is located from the transferred 0 percent point using the calculated difference in elevations.

6.4.7 Right of Way

The right of way has to be marked before the trees are felled and the construction area is cleared. This work can be done roughly without an exact survey, except if there are other land owners. The engineer walks along the zero line and two helpers mark the upper and lower borders according to his instructions, he having estimated the required distances from the following table: TABLE 6 Right of Way for Forest Roads Slope Gradient (cross-section) 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Actual Distances from Zero line Uphill Downhill Earth Rock 4m 4m 4m 5m 4m 6m 6m 5m 6m 7m 5m 8m 8m 6m 10 m 9m 6m 12 m 10 m 7m 12 m 12 m 7m 12 m

6.5 FIELD NOTEBOOKS

For reconnaissance a field notebook with cross-section paper should be used. This type of paper is suitable for general notes and sketches. For location a special notebook should be used. The following form is recommended and has stood the test of time for the zero line method. FIGURE 35 Example of a page of a Field Notebook Stake Gradient Distance Bearing from to g (%) 1 2 -5 3 -8 4 -9 5 -9 6 -10 7 -10 8 -10 9 -10 10 -10 d (m) 37.7 19.5 35.1 32.0 25.5 24.4 38.0 24.5 25.8 B (c) 240 40 227 40 208 50 199 60 205 60 207 80 202 80 205 80 200 100 Rock Component Notes and Sketches R (%) 1. Connection with Slope Road, 50 Switchback, Subbase culvert 50 cm, 8 m 50 long. Additional fill material, 300 m3 75 earth required. 75 75 75

7. MAPPING, CALCULATIONS AND DRAWINGS (BY SEDLAK)

7.1 GENERAL REMARKS 7.2 DIVIDER SETTING 7.3 PLOTTING THE ROAD LINE 7.4 CROSS SECTIONS AND DETERMINATION OF CUT VOLUMES

7.1 GENERAL REMARKS

Formerly a considerable amount of time was spent on drawings of road projects since the roads were manually constructed. For mechanical road construction in steep terrain simpler drawings are sufficient. At present, tracing paper is used for all drawings, this being mainly in pre-cut sheets of a standard size. Drawings can be copied in pencil as well as in ink. Careful lettering is important and is done in ink using lettering sets so that detail will not be lost. The following drawings should be prepared for a forest road:
- Section of a topographic map at a scale of 1:25 000 or 1:50 000. The planned road is generally outlined in this section. On the copies the road is drawn in red, the forest area in green.

- Detailed plan at a scale of 1:2 000 up to 1:5000. The plotted road line is adjusted to the situation on the map. - Standard cross-sections at a scale of 1:50. - Profile of the zero (grade) line. This drawing can be substituted by a written profile. - Road construction details at a scale of 1:25 or 1:50. Most of these details (culverts, retaining walls, cattle grids, etc.) should be prepared in standard drawings.

7.2 DIVIDER SETTING

A divider setting method is used for plotting a zero line with the required gradient on a contour map. Even on a topographic map with a small scale this method can be applied to obtain a rough idea as to whether a route can be found, taking into account the steepness of the terrain and the allowable grades. The following simple proportions are used to calculate the divider opening based upon the contour interval, the allowed grade and the map scale.

FIGURE 36 Cross - section Between Two Contour Lines for Divider Setting

The contour lines on large scale maps are generalized, more like form lines, and do not reflect all breaks in the topography, therefore, it is necessary to add 10 percent of ds to the measured distance up from 7 percent grade to obtain proper zero lines. TABLE 7 Example Divider Opening for Maps with a scale of 1:50 000 and 40 m Contours g % ds ds+10%(m) Divider Setting 1: 50.000 (mm) 3 1330 26.5 5 800 16.0 7 570 630 12.6 9 445 490 9.9 10 400 440 8.8 12 330 360 7.2 Example: v = 40 m, scale 1:50000.... ds-4000/g To draw a zero line on a 1:50 000 map with a vertical contour interval of 40 m set the divider points 9.9 mm apart for a 9 percent grade and then, starting at a control point, successively mark off the distances ds as shown in Figure 34. If the trial zero line does not hit the terminal contour point reset the divider and mark off a second trial line. A zero line with a constant grade can be easily and quickly drawn by means of this simple method. FIGURE 37 Drawing a Zero Line on a Contour Map with a Divider

7.3 PLOTTING THE ROAD LINE

The zero line is the first drawing which is prepared for the detailed plan. First, the distances recorded in the field notebook are added to obtain the total length. It is recommended that intermediate sums for all control points and check points of the map be noted. A printing electronic calculator is useful for this purpose so that checks for errors may be made quite easily. The zero line is plotted with protractor and ruler at the scale of the map. Normal working scales are 1:2 000 or 1:5 000. If a ruler with these scales is not available the required scale is calculated and dawn on the tracing paper. Transparent tracing paper of the best quality should be used and a sheet of the required size should be fixed to the drawing board. A sheet of cross-section paper should also be used as a pad between the drawing board and the tracing paper so that the vertical lines indicate the magnetic North direction (0) and allow the plotter to adjust the protractor accurately at each point of the open-ended polygon. PHOTO NO. 20 Plotting a Zero Line with Protractor and Ruler

Equipment required: Field notebook with data, tracing paper and cross-section paper, protractor, ruler and scale, medium-hard and hard pencils and an eraser. Working Procedure (a) Mark the total length of the open-ended polygon on the paper and estimate the average bearing of the whole line. This way you can determine the size of the tracing sheet needed and how to fix the northern direction in order to save paper. FIGURE 38 Tracing Paper and Pad for Cross Section Paper

(b) Begin by drawing in the starting point (Point 1) of the zero line. check to see whether the direction of plotting is equal to the direction of surveying. The bearing from 1 to 2 must be equal to the plotted Azimuth from 1 to 2.

First, the bearing along the circumference of the protractor is marked on the tracing paper, then the protractor is removed and Point 1 is connected by a thin line with the mark of bearing. The distance between points 1 and 2 is marked on the line and Point 2 is marked. Plotting is continued in this way from 2 to 3 and so on, until the last point has been plotted. FIGURE 39 Plotting Bearing 45 and Distance 20 m from Point 1 to Point 2, Scale 1:2 000 First: Bearing

Second: Distance

(c) After plotting the line, the tracing paper is removed from the pad and drawing board. If a detailed map of the planning area is available at the same scale, the plotted line is checked against main points of the map by laying the tracing paper which contains the plotted line over the detailed map. The traverse is converted into the final road line by drawing in the centre line using free parabolic or circle curves. A plastic curved template with the minimum radius at the required scale is very useful. FIGURE 40 Zero Line and Centre Line

The final road line (centre line) is traced onto a transparent copy of the detailed forest map. Culverts, bridges and other structures are shown by use of simple symbols. The hundredmetre stations (hectometre) are marked using the measuring divider and checking the points of the intermediate sums. Gradients can be drawn with arrow symbols. FIGURE 41 Detail of the Final Drawing of the Road Line

Layout of the Detail Plan Because the original draft is prepared on transparent tracing paper, copies can be reproduced. When drawing the original use only black in and/or pencil. The base map and all details which should be black on the copy are drawn in black ink. All lines which should be coloured on the copy are drawn only with thin pencil lines. On dyeline copies the road line is drawn with red ink, the creeks and rivers with blue ink and the forest symbols in green. Signs for the planned logging system (landings, cable corridors, etc.) can be drawn on the map in addition to the road system. FIGURE 42 Section of a Detail Plan

7.4 CROSS SECTIONS AND DETERMINATION OF CUT VOLUMES

7.4.1 Cross Sections 7.4.2 Determination of Cut Volumes

7.4.1 Cross Sections

A cross-section of road is a profile which is at right angles to the centre line. For curves, the cross sections are drawn in the direction of the radius. FIGURE 43 Birds eve view of Cross-Section

Individual cross-sections for forest roads which will be mechanically constructed are normally not drawn. However, it is necessary to draw some standard cross-sections, based upon the road standard, steepness of terrain and local logging and transport conditions so that these can be used as references during construction. A normal truck road with one-way traffic and turnouts has a formation width of from 4 to 5 m (including ditch) and a width of carriageway (surface) of from 3 to 3.5 m. Landings and turnouts are constructed at all suitable places, especially on ridges and on gentle parts of the slope, unless otherwise dictated by length of haul and logging sequence. An example of a cross-section is given in Figure 44. FIGURE 44 Example of a Standard Cross-Section

7.4.2 Determination of Cut Volumes

Besides these cross-sections which are required as standards for the construction, norm sections are drawn for different slopes and different types of subsoil (earth or rock) and are used to determine the volume of cuts to be used for estimating costs. The following explanations and examples outline this calculation: Norms of Cross-Section Norms can be altered according to local conditions and requirements. First, the slope grade is drawn on cross-section paper and then the zero line point is marked. The horizontal line of formation is drawn, the width of formation consists of a part inside the cut and a part on the fill8. These dimensions depend mainly on the steepness of the terrain, since the portion of cut increases with increasing slope (see the examples). The slopes of cut and fill are drawn from the edges of the formation with the required grades. The grades of slopes are given in percent or in the proportion height: base (- tangent of the base angle) - h/b - say 2/3 or 1/1
8

Except in certain soil types in steep terrain when the formation should be full bench (not in fill).

FIGURE 45 Different Slopes

Calculation of the Cut Volume The volumes of cuts are accounted for by 1 m of road lengths expressed in cubic metres per metre (m3/m). The volume of the cut is calculated as the volume of a triangular prism with the base of the cut triangle of the profile and the height of 1 m (which is really 1 m of running length along the road). FIGURE 46 Example of Volume Calculation

The volumes of earth and rock profiles are different, corresponding to the different angles of the cut slopes which vary with the material to be cut. Total Volumes The average grades of slopes between the stakes and the zero line are measured in the field during the location and noted in the field notebook. See sample notes in Figure 35. From stake to stake the volume of the cuts is calculated as a triangular prism with the average volume per m (table) and the distance between stakes. General example: Volume of cut between stake 1 and 2 - V1 - v1 (cbm/m) x d1 (m)
-" - 2 and 3 - V2 - v2 (cbmm) x d2 (m)

to be continued to the terminal point Sum of volumes (point 1 - terminal point) - Total Volume It is recommended that standard form sheets be used for this calculation. Two examples of these sheets are shown along with norm sections in the following pages. Example for Calculation of Cut Volumes for Mechanical Road Construction The cut volume is calculated in the following manner: (a) Enter the distances from the field notebook on the form "Distribution of distances for calculation of mass" (see Figure 48), distributing them according to slope grades and percentage of rock. For a long road several form sheets will be required. After distribution is completed, the sections are added up. In the example this calculation is performed for the stakes 1 to 10 (see example of a page of the field notebook, Figure 35). (b) Calculate and write in the form of "Calculation of Mass", Figure 49, the volume per m (m3/m) corresponding to the Norms of Cross Sections (see Figure 47). Here the calculator must be careful since he must consider the percentage of earth and rock and distribute the volumes correctly. The total volume per m road is divided according to the percentage parts of earth and rock. The rock percentage has been estimated and noted in the field. The figures of the norm

section "Earth" are used for rock percentage, 0 percent, 25 percent and 50 percent (batters 1:1.5 to 1:2). For the sections with higher rock components of 75 percent and 100 percent use the figures of norm sections "Rock" (batter 5:1). Example: G = 50%, rock component 75% v = 2.5 cbm/m (norm profile "rock") Distribution: v (earth) = 2.5 x 25/100 - 0.6 m /m (cbm earth = h per m) v (rock) -=2.5 x 75/100 -1.9 m3/m (cbm rock per m) 2.5 m /m These figures can be calculated with the accuracy of a slide rule and figures can be rounded up or down. the figure 0.6 m3/m is written in the form "Calculation of Mass" to the section G (slope of ground) - 50 percent, 75 percent rock in the first column of "Earth", the figure 1.9 m3/m in the first column of "Rock", the form "Calculation of Mass" is completed by calculating these figures for all grades and rock percentages. If the used Norms of Cross Sections are adequate for several areas, the adjusted form can be used permanently. (c) The sums of distances in the "Distribution of Distances" are inserted in the columns "d" of both sections "Earth" and "Rock", the figures of m3/m are multiplied with the sums of distances, the products are inserted in the columns "sum m3". These columns are then summed up and the total sums of earth and rock are obtained. The third section of the form "Calculation of Mass" is determined for the established additional mass, the figures having been obtained from the field notebook. The grand total of the three columns represents the total volume, pro-rated between earth and rock. These figures are then used to estimate the costs of bulldozer work and blasting. FIGURE 47 Standard Cross-Sections for Mass Calculation of Forest Roads Scale 1:50 Width of Formation 5.0 m (Slope Grade 10 - 60%) 4.5m (- " - 70 - 80%) 4.0 m(- " - 90 - 100%) Slope Grade 30%
3 3

Slope Grade 40%

Slope Grade 50 %

Slope Grade 60 %

Slope Grade 70 %

Slope Grade 80 %

Slope Grade 90%

Slope Grade 100 %

FIGURE 49 EXAMPLE PROFILE OF THE ZERO (GRADE) LINE The lengthwise profile (profile) of the grade line can be written or drawn. A written profile can be calculated easily as shown in the following form. The distances... uniform grades are summed up. FIGURE 50 Written Profile of the Grade Line
Remark: Numbers of stakes and stations not typical. Stake No. 1 is the terminal point of the road.
1

C. 50/8 stands for culvert of 50 cm and 8 m length

A drawn profile takes more time. However, it gives a better overall view of the... grades and the quality of the planned zero line.

The scale of the horizontal distances should be the same as the detail plan (1:2 000 1:5 000), the vertical scale is drawn 10 times that of the horizontal scale (1:200 to 1:5000). The elevations of the points of the zero line are not calculated for a simple project..... grades are drawn in a graph and directly transferred to the profile by means of set... (see Figure 51). FIGURE 51 Profile of Grade Line DETAILED DRAWINGS OF ROAD STRUCTURES As far as possible standards of culverts, retaining walls, gates and drainage structures should be drawn on tracing paper at a scale of 1:50 or 1:25. Copies can be... in the project work papers as guides for uniform construction. Individual plans should be drawn for all special structures, such as bridges and unusually large culverts. These drawings should only be made in pencil. Lettering is in ink with a lettering set. Figure 52 shows a detail plan of a box culvert with masonry abutments. FIGURE 52

8. PERFORMANCE
8.1 MECHANIZATION IN FOREST ROAD CONSTRUCTION 8.2 MAIN MACHINERY USED IN FOREST ROAD CONSTRUCTION 8.3 CALCULATION OF MACHINE COSTS

8.1 MECHANIZATION IN FOREST ROAD CONSTRUCTION

The major mechanization for earth moving in forest road construction was characterized by the introduction of the crawler tractor. Over the years, in many countries of the world, due to environmental reasons and rising labour costs, more refined working and construction methods have been developed and a wide range of diversified road construction equipment is now available, allowing mechanization of all major activities in road construction. Depending on local circumstances, such as workers' salaries, availability of manpower and skilled machine operators, equipment, fuel costs, soil and terrain conditions as well as the size of operation, different levels of mechanization are used in forest road construction, ranging from labour-intensive methods with only basic machinery, up to fully mechanized techniques employing a whole fleet of specialized road construction machines. PHOTO NO. 21 Manual road construction, removing slope cut material

With the application of mechanized road construction techniques the planning and surveying techniques also had to be adapted to give adequate response to the high construction capacity of these machines. Generally, for forest road construction purposes, surveying by means of pocket compass, clinometer and measuring tape gives quick results which are accurate enough to act as a guide for the machine operator. The two principal methods in road surveying are the centre line and the grade line methods (the latter is also called the "zero line" method).

8.2 MAIN MACHINERY USED IN FOREST ROAD CONSTRUCTION

8.2.1 Tracked Tractors 8.2.2 TRAXCAVATORS 8.2.3 EXCAVATORS 8.2.4 Rock Drills 8.2.5 Graders 8.2.6 Loaders 8.2.7 Dump Trucks 8.2.8 Rollers/Compactors

8.2.1 Tracked Tractors

Generally, crawler tractors in the 140 to 270 fw hp (105 labour to 225 labour)9 range are used. These are equipped with either an angle or a straight blade, and usually a winch in the rear to move trees and logs and to pull itself out in case it gets stuck. The latter is especially important in wet, soft soils and difficult terrain. The angled blade allows for greater flexibility in the shaping of the road. Some blades also have the ability to tilt in a vertical plane which helps with camber and drainage cuts.
9

fw hp = fly-wheel horse power; labour = kilowatt

In mountainous terrain, because of its versatility and for environmental reasons, the smaller tractors such as 125 and 140 fw hp (95 to 105 labour) are preferable. One should also bear in mind that construction sites in forest areas in mountainous terrain are often difficult to reach and therefore for transport reasons and economy of operations, a smaller tractor is called for. Depending on the road standard (and width), soil and terrain conditions, the productivity of a crawler tractor for the above-mentioned activities varies considerably. Generally in tropical forests, roads are wider than in temperate forests, and in mountainous areas road width is limited to 4.5 - 5 m due to the amount of material to move and erosion hazards. The productivity of a 140 fw hp (105 labour) tractor used on secondary forest roads for clearing and formation work is given below. TABLE 8 Production Output in Machine hours/km of Road. for Clearing and Formation Work based on a Cat D6C tractor in Austria 10 Type of terrain Road class Secondary forest road (4.5 m) Work output in machine hours per km of road Easy 70 Average 100 Difficult (steep) 130

10

Based on an average elevation of 1 000 m. It should be noted that at higher elevations the work output will be lower, similarly, the experience of the operator has a bearing on work output.

The main difference in construction techniques between a public road and a forest road is determined by the earth movement technique employed. Generally, in public roads, lengthwise earth movement by tractor or transport of soil (cuts and fills) is applied; whereas in forest roads the material is moved sideways (sidecast) over short distances by tractor only, and dispersed on the downhill slope. This operation has to be done with care as steep slopes can cause widespread distribution of debris. In forest road construction it is not normally economic to move soil for more than 50 m and for an average distance of not more than 30 m. PHOTO NO. 22 Crawler tractor building a road

Based on time observations of a 180 fw hp (135 labour) crawler tractor used in forest road construction in developing countries, the time distribution for the different work elements was as shown in Table 9. The basic data are given above the table. TABLE 9 Average Time Consumption of a Crawler Tractor in Forest Road Construction Basic Data: Assumptions: 180 fw hp (135 labour) crawler tractor with angle blade; 7 machine hours per working day; one tractor operator; one helper; sand and clay soils; flat and undulating terrain. Work element Operator's time in percentage of the total time consumption Clearing 19 Earth moving 31 Formation 13 Miscellaneous work 21 Service and maintenance 9 Site preparation 7 Total 100
8.2.2 TRAXCAVATORS

Traxcavators11 are very useful in mountain forest road construction, especially in rocky areas where the main aim is to place the soil and/or blasted rock material with a minimum risk of erosion, and for loading rock and gravel.
11

Also called front-end loaders.

Traxcavators can also be used very effectively in shaping mountainside cut slopes of forest roads when using a multi-purpose bucket.
8.2.3 EXCAVATORS

Excavators 12 are machines with a mounted boom and a bucket which can be moved vertically. They are ideal in extremely steep terrain, and for construction of hairpin bends or turns, and shaping high-sided cut slopes, for the formation of the sub-grade, especially where blasted rock must be removed and loaded on to a truck or for digging side ditches and putting in culverts efficiently. These machines are replacing crawler tractors in some areas for the main excavation on road lines. Because the excavator can place the excavated material either on to lories for transportation away from the site or neatly and carefully in preselected positions, excavators are more environmentally acceptable. In very steep terrain the debris from road excavations can fall down hill and be both dangerous and damaging. The use of Excavators is emphasised in later Chapters.
12

Also called backhoes.

Since excavators are more costly than comparable-sized dozers and traxcavators, construction work for excavators must be more carefully planned and, in addition, requires very skilled and experienced operators. PHOTO NO. 23 Excavator clearing a road. loading blasted material onto a truck

8.2.4 Rock Drills

Depending on the scale of rock drilling and blasting operations, various types of machines are used in forest road construction. The smallest unit for rock drilling is a compressor mounted on a two-wheeled trailer, with hand operated hammer drills (nowadays mainly used for drilling and removal of single rock outcrops or big stones which cannot be removed by earth moving equipment). Hand held drills are only used for depths of drilling less than 3.5 metres.

For minor rock drilling a 15 to 20 labour compressor with a supply of 2 to 3 m3 of compressed air per minute is sufficient. For larger scale operations, however mounted rock drills are used. They can be mounted on wheeled or crawler tractors and on trailers or trucks. Depending on the type of road material, different rock drill systems are used. For hard rock the external hammer drill gives satisfactory results with a drill speed of 10 to 50 cm/minute requiring, however, a 150 person labour, producing compressed air of about 20 m3/minute. In soft rock the internal hammer drill is used, requiring much less air. When the latter technique is used a 50 to 60 person labour is required, producing compressed air of about 7 m3/minute. For blasting rock with small drill holes gelignite is widely used, but for those areas where mounted drills have been used prepackaged slurry explosives are available. These explosives are safer to handle and to use. Depending on the scale of operation, different detonators are employed. For small outcrops of rock or stumps, detonation is achieved by fuse; whereas for rock blasting over larger areas, electrical ignition with milli-second detonation is used. Use of explosives is a dangerous operation and should be restricted to experienced labour. It is necessary to ensure that all of those involved in explosive operations are aware of the safety procedures developed by the Supervisor and that these procedures are implemented. The quantity of explosives and the depth and pattern of the drilled holes are appropriate for the shotfirer Depending on the slope of the terrain, hardness and type of material to be drilled and blasted, machines used, and drilling method applied, rock blasting costs may be judged from information given in Chapter 10. PHOTO NO. 24 Pneumatic Hammer Drill in operation

8.2.5 Graders

For gravelling and surfacing as well as constructing V-section drains and maintaining forest roads, self-propelled graders are used. In modern forest road construction, graders with an engine power of about 100 labour are used. On roads where blasted rock is spread, small crawler tractors are preferred to spread the base material over the sub-grade; then the grader makes the final shaping with surfacing material. Main roads in tropical countries on clay and lateritic soils will have to be gravelled in order to be able to keep them permanently open for logging operations, otherwise they would be open only during the dry season or dry periods. In forest road construction, road material is generally taken from natural gravel pits nearby to reinforce low bearing material of the original ground surface and sub-grade. In the event that no suitable paving material can be found in gravel pits nearby the construction site, rock has to be crushed into coarse (5 to 6 cm) and fine material (1 to 2 cm) must be added as surfacing material to seal off the road and to allow for maintenance. The structural design of the pavement is a function of the quality of the subgrade, the materials used in the pavement, and of loading intensity. The subgrade or formation, when completed and compacted, can be assessed on the Californian Bearing Ratio scale (CBR). The CBR results are not reliable in wet cohesive soils, but the table below shows a correlation between CBR value and soil type with a wide variety of subgrades in their equilibrium moisture condition for high and low levels of water table. For most purposes this information will be sufficient to give the appropriate CBR values. Depth of Water Table Below Formation Level More than 600 mm Less than 600 mm Heavy Clay 2 to 3 1 to 2 Silty Clay 5 3 Sandy Clay 6 to 7 4 to 5 Silt 2 1 Sand (poorly graded) 20 10 Sand (well graded) 40 15 Well-graded sandy gravel 60 20 Type of Soil The following table indicates total pavement thicknesses (including surfacing) which have been found to be suitable for the type of loading we are considering:CBR (Per Cent) Pavement Thickness (mm) under 2% 750 mm 2% 600 mm 3% 500 mm 4% 450 mm 5% 400 mm

6% 7% 10% 20% and above

350 mm 325 mm 250 mm 150 mm

The pavement may be formed of a base course with a wearing course of 50 mm thickness of fine material or be constructed to its full depth in a single course. For a 4 m wide road, an amount of 1 m3 of ballast per metre of forest road would be necessary. The productivity of a motor grader spreading gravel on the road may range from 150 to 250 m per machine hour. For grading 1 km of forest road, around half to one machine operating day would be sufficient. PHOTO NO. 25 Grader employed in shaping the road surface

8.2.6 Loaders

For loading gravel from grave! pits onto dump trucks in large-scale forest road construction operations, high-powered wheeled front-end loaders are used; whereas for smaller works, agricultural tractors with a bucket are sufficient. IN quarries, tracked loaders of about 110 labour are preferably employed. Loading costs vary considerably, depending on machine and labour costs and the Size of the operation. Obviously larger quantities will be considerably less costly than smaller volumes.
8.2.7 Dump Trucks

For transporting gravel, either side or rear dump trucks are used, preferably heavy duty with three axles (25 t).

The gravel can be spread by dumping the load while driving over the sub-base. The final shaping can thus be done by crawler tractor, although it is preferable to use a grader.
8.2.8 Rollers/Compactors

Very often in forest road construction rollers are not used. When applying gravel on top of the natural ground surface to reinforce the low bearing capacity of the local material, compaction of the gravel should be carried out, one way or another. The cheapest way is for loaded logging and/or gravel trucks to drive over the newly shaped road surface, making a different path each trip. When for weather reasons immediate compaction is required, selfpropelled vibratory rollers (95 labour), 9 t, are used successfully in forest road construction. Productivity may be 80 to 100 m per machine hour. The degree of compaction that can be achieved by a given compactive effort acting on a given volume of soil is governed by the moisture content of the soil. If the soil is too dry the friction between the soil particles tends to resist closer packing of the particles. If the soil is too wet the spaces between soil particles are completely filled with water which prevents the particles fitting together. For a given compactive effort per unit volume there is thus an "optimum moisture content" between these 2 extremes at which maximum density is achieved. This figure is of the order of 8% for sandy gravels with fines, 10% for coarse gravels with fines, 13% for clean fine sand, 16% for sandy clay and 26% for heavy clays, which can be easily determined in the field by a simple test, the so-called "calcium-carbide" test13.
13

For further details see FAO Forestry Paper No. 14, "Mountain Forest Roads and Harvesting".

8.3 CALCULATION OF MACHINE COSTS

8.3.1 Basic Data Used in the Calculations 8.3.2. Cost Calculation15 Cost per hour in US$

An example of the methodology of calculating costs for operating a crawler tractor, based on recent information, is given below. Some assumptions have to be made which are derived from similar operations in forest road construction, and these are included.
8.3.1 Basic Data Used in the Calculations

Acquisition cost of 105 labour (140 fw hp) crawler tractor with Angle-Blade, winch and protective ROPS 14 delivered to the operation site, without customs duties:?
14

ROPS - Roll-Over Protective Structures

Assumed life of machine: 8 000 machine hours Operating hours per year: 1 500 machine hours Interest, insurance and taxes: 15 percent Average fuel consumption per machine hour: 23 litres

Cost of diesel fuel per litre: US$ Cost of lubricant per litre: US$ Assumed hourly consumption of lubricants: 0.45 litres Assumed hourly consumption of grease: 0.02 litres Average daily machine hours: 7 hours Operator's salary: US$ per month Helper's wages: US$ per day Working time per day: 7 hour shift, plus 1 hour for lunch
8.3.2. Cost Calculation15 Cost per hour in US$ 15 In calculating hourly machine costs the method presented in the FAO publication "Logging and Log Transport in Tropical High Forest" has basically been used.

Deprecation acquisition cost x 0.90 110 x 000x0.90 estimated life in operating hours Interest, acquisition cost x multiplier factor16 insurance and taxes 1 000 - 110 000 x 0.06 =
16

8000

For 15% and 1 500 effective working hours/year the multiplier factor for calculating hourly costs of interest, insurance and taxes equals 0.06.

1 000 Fuel: 23 x Fuel cost = Oil and Grease: 0.45 x Lubricant Cost= Repairs and maintenance = Total hourly machine costs = Operator's hourly costs 17 = Helper's hourly costs18 =
17,18

$ $ $ x 0.10= $ sum of the above $ $ Total costs: $

Operators and helpers hourly costs do not include fringe benefits such as insurance, housing, subsidies for basic food.

With an average machine operating time of 7 machine hours/day, machine operating costs would thus amount to the hourly costs multiplied by 7. When assuming 100 hours are required for 1 km formation work of 4.5 m wide secondary forest road, formation costs would thus amount to hourly cost by 100.

9. EXCAVATOR METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

This section of the manual arises from studies carried out in Austria and Bhutan into the use of the excavator as the main construction machine for forest roads and the environmental benefits that ensue. The objective of this study was to thoroughly document and establish data on "environmentally sound road construction applying advanced operating methods and tools as currently used in mountainous terrain in Austria" as an alternative to the "traditional road construction methods" in sensitive forest ecosystems. Since the opening up of forests by forest roads and a permanent forest road network is a prerequisite to introduce sustainable forest practices, another aim of the case study was to demonstrate that forest engineering can serve as a tool for Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) if proper road design, construction and maintenance techniques are used. The introduction of these advanced techniques will meet the overall objective of preventing environmental problems associated with forest harvesting operations in mountainous terrain and elsewhere. Photo. Well-planned alignment and proper design of forest roads provide acceptance of forest harvesting operations. - Perfect road alignment prevents scars inflicted on the landscape

Photo. Critics of forest roads often point to excessive road building, evident on many hillsides, due to lack of co-operation between landowners - failures in the past

Serpentine alignments are often unavoidable in mountainous terrain due to slope features, but the number of switchbacks in a the route for a road must be restricted to the absolute minimum. Poor road alignment which leads to zigzag roads with too short distances between switchbacks, are hopefully all in the past (see Photos 2 and 3). They not only inflict scars on the landscape and are difficult to travel but they are also potential sources for erosion and of landslides (Sedlak, 1996). Growing concerns on environmental issues and the fact that forest roads are unquestionably the most damaging feature of timber harvesting operations (Dykstra & Heinrich, 1996) have forced and encouraged the development of new road construction methods and blasting technologies which now are exclusively used in forest road construction in the province of Salzburg. Photo. Zigzag roads with too short distances between switchbacks due to lack of cooperation between landowners unnecessarily increase the area dedicated to roads

Drainage from the road surface will be provided by a crowned road, a hillside ditch and culverts (40 cm 0) spaced at 50 m distances. In road sections where streams, either

intermittent or perennial, are to be crossed the dimension and spacing of culverts should be adjusted to the actual need for adequate water drainage. Seeding of grass is considered obligatory. Fill slope protection will be provided by a debris cover wherever possible. Retaining structures will be built up with boulders by the excavator wherever needed for slope stabilisation alongside the road (for details see chapters 3.2 and 3.7). Photo. Fords with integrated culverts are sometime specified as they meet the requirements of normal run-off as well as of high floods (Winkler, 1992)

Figure 1. Regular cross-section for earth and rock The cross section both for earth and rock recommended is shown in figure 1. a subgrade width of 4.0 m and a running surface of 3.0 m has been specified.

10 DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE IN STEEP TERRAIN

10.1 CLEARING OF THE CONSTRUCTION AREA 10.2 ROAD CONSTRUCTION BY EXCAVATOR 10.3 ROCK DISINTEGRATION 10.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE ROAD CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT 10.5 ESTIMATING PRODUCTION AND PERFORMANCE RATES 10.6 ESTIMATING COSTS 10.7 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Environmentally sound forest road construction techniques as holistic, interdisciplinary approaches that take into account the need for landscape and wildlife considerations should replace purely technology-oriented solutions (Litzka & Haslehner, 1995) and are to be guided by the following principal considerations:
any disturbance to the landscape is to be kept to the absolute minimum;

environmentally sound correction of poorly located and designed roads at a later stage is virtually impossible; reckless and incompetent construction work may destroy the beneficial effects of even the most carefully selected road location (layout, alignment); undesired effects and scars inflicted on the landscape can seldom be remedied at a later stage and only at much higher costs. Equal attention is to be paid to the three phases in road construction projects (Litzka & Haslehner, 1995), namely, planning and design, construction operation, and integration which comprises bioengineering as well as landscaping measures. All operations undertaken are guided by the consideration that unless the forest is left in a condition that will permit the attainment of a desired future condition, sustainability cannot be assured (Dykstra & Heinrich, 1996). The detailed information given focus on construction activities. Some details also refer to integration measures as they are accomplished by means of excavator.

10.1 CLEARING OF THE CONSTRUCTION AREA

Prior to clearing of the construction area, the design information is to be moved from the plan to the ground by staking. There are a variety of staking methods which can be employed, however, where the gradient rather than the horizontal alignment is the controlling factor, simpler methods of location have been developed (Sedlak, 1985). The gradeline method should be employed, sometimes referred to as "zero-line method, which has proved to be the ideal tool for fitting the road to the natural terrain as closely as possible. It can be described as a step-by-step method for fixing the location line with a given longitudinal gradient directly in the terrain (Litzka & Haslehner, 1995) by means of a handheld clinometer. The gradeline itself represents the intersection between subgrade of the road and the slope, and serves as the guideline for mechanized road construction (Sedlak, 1985). In using this simple method there are no real limits to project accuracy (Litzka & Haslehner, 1995) as exact costing of earthworks is not necessary due to the high performance of the construction equipment employed. Such simple methods must not be confused with inadequate planning as skill and experience are required to find the most feasible road alignment, both from the environmental and economic point of view. (Sedlak, 1985). Figure 3. Road template Once the gradeline is staked, clearing of the construction area by felling the trees within the clearing limits (see figure 3) should be carried out. In difficult terrain the clearing limits are marked by tying coloured plastic tapes to trees or branches. The felling itself has to take account of the anticipated method of extraction by the excavator operator with regard to felling direction and harvesting method to be used. A modified fulllength method is normally applied as it facilitates log removal from the construction area by excavator most efficiently. This method requires that trees are delimbed and topped at the felling site, except where the trees are too large to be handled by the excavator, when some cross cutting will be necessary. Photo. Full-length method should preferably be used in felling at construction site

10.2 ROAD CONSTRUCTION BY EXCAVATOR

The introduction of hydraulic excavators in forest road construction has been the major step towards environmentally sound road construction practices. In hilly terrain the use of excavators can not only replace bulldozers in forest road construction but also improve the quality of roads while reducing environmental impacts of these complex engineering structures, whereas in steep terrain their use is the only option to make road construction feasible. Road construction technique by hydraulic excavator comprises the following five distinct phases stated below:
i) log removal from construction area ii) topsoil removal from construction area iii) excavating base for fill foundation iv) fill slope construction v) subgrade and cut shaping

This order is not necessarily be followed in the actual construction sequence on the construction site. Some operators will arrange single activities in sequence, whereas others will chop and change between tasks. The latter are at risk burying organic materials in the fill and failing to separate excavated local materials taking account of their anticipated use in building up the fill in layers. However, even if a well-trained and experienced professional operator follows his personal optimum sequence of construction activities, log removal from the construction area will always be the first phase in road construction and close supervision has to ensure best construction practices to be followed and compliance with the project plan approved by the authorities. The road gradient should frequently be checked to ensure that the gradeline is followed since stakes marking the gradeline can be obliterated during topsoil removal. Figure 4. Road construction technique by excavator

Close supervision is important when road construction works are carried out by contractors who are paid per running metre of road completed rather than on an hourly rate. Past experience has shown that contractors payed by the running metre tend to decrease their own costs by poor construction practices (see also chapter 5.1.1) where proper establishment of the fill foundation is often neglected. Road failures and even landslides triggered by construction flaws have been the consequence, in particular due to the inadequate fill foundation provided by the excavator in the third phase. On slopes where substantial rock blasting is specified the topsoil removal from the construction area will be followed by rock drilling and blasting to facilitate a solid foundation. i) Log removal from construction area Once the trees have been felled within the clearing limits, road construction activities will start by log removal from the construction area. As already mentioned, trees should preferably remain in full length in order to minimize the delays to the work of the excavator and ensure maximum performance. Photo 7. Log removal by means of chain attached to the bucket's hook

After several trees have been attached by means of chain to the excavator's bucket or sometimes just by balancing stems put on the bucket, the excavator pull or carry logs out of the construction area by moving backwards to road side storage. Logs should be stored at roadside in several places rather than transported over long distances to landings due to the low driving speed of excavators. Such frequent storage will reduce transport costs and facilitate any further processing. Photo. Log removal at the construction site by means of the excavator's bucket

ii) Topsoil removal from construction area The log removal phase will be followed by clearing the construction area from wood residues and organic topsoil. Bigger branches are piled up by pulling them with the bucket's shanks to be removed later and to be spread out on the fill slope. Deposition of branches on the fill slope helps to keep exposure of unprotected surfaces as short as possible, provides immediate erosion control from fill slope and facilitates an earlier natural or man-made revegetation. Stumps, tree tops and other vegetative debris are removed by the excavator's bucket from the construction area in front of the excavator and placed by the operator with accuracy and care along the base of the fill slope in order to form a filter windrow. The additional width between the construction limit and forest edge ensures that space is available to deposit debris outside the construction area and prevent organic material being mixed into the base of the fill. In contrast to stump removal by bulldozers, where it is recommended to leave stumps 0.8 to 1.2 m high to provide added leverage (FAO, 1989), there is no need to do so in using excavators as stumps are being dug out. This ensures the highest wood recovery rate and therefore contributes to the economic feasibility of a road project. The established filter windrow will reduce damage to forest stands alongside the road by excavated materials, namely stones, escaping downhill and also prevents sediment from entering into stream channels. After stump removal has taken place, the organic topsoil will be stripped and material unsuitable to be used in the fill will be removed from the construction area and placed in the verge between the construction limit and the forest edge above the already established filter windrow. If working in grassland or where grass covers the forest floor the operator should be advised to separate and to lift turves carefully as they can be used to establish vegetation on the fills rather quickly. Photo Wood residues and organic top soil will removed in front of the machine and spread on the rear fill slope

iii) Excavating base for fill foundation At the toe of the anticipated fill slope a base, about 1 m wide and 0.5-1.5 m high, is excavated to establish the foundation for the fill on solid ground. The steeper the slope the deeper under subgrade level the base will be established limited by the excavator's maximum digging depth. Excavated materials should be separated by the operator taking account of their anticipated use in building up the fill. Earth will then be deposited parallel to the toe of the fill slope, immediately above the established filter windrow to provide the downhill raised borderline of the foundation base and forming the lower part of the fill widening (see figure 3). Excavated mineral soil suitable for use in fill construction is temporarily heaped uphill on the construction area next to the excavator. Big boulders suitable for retaining structures are piled separately, either alongside the road or next to planned culverts. In steep terrain where slopes with rock formation near or above ground level are to be crossed, the base for the fill foundation should be provided by breaking out rock either by rock hammering or rock blasting. Upon this solid base, boulders are placed by the excavator with accuracy and care, as well as compacted by means of the excavator's bucket in order to build up a solid foundation for the fill. The establishment of a fill foundation reduces the length of fill slopes considerably and makes road construction in steep terrain feasable. This feature is of great importance when side slopes exceed 40 percent as balanced road sections can be achieved with considerably less excavation (FAO, 1989). In contrast, applying traditional side cast techniques by bulldozer the length of the fill slope would amount to about 3.5 m, 12 m and 22 m for slope gradients of 45 %, 60 % and 70 %, assuming an angle of repose for side cast material of about 37, and on slopes of over 75 % a fill cannot be established at all (Gorton, 1985). It is suggested that a balanced road design provided by excavator construction results in approximately 25 to 35 percent less excavated material compared to the traditional side cast technique by bulldozer where most of the road width is cut into the stable hill side (FAO, 1989). Photo 10. Excavating a solid base for the fill foundation

iv) Fill construction The main feature of road construction technique by hydraulic excavator is balanced road sections where cut excavation is incorporated into the layered fill. Suitable coarse material is placed against the fill foundation to establish the base fill layer. In general, the fill needs to be built up in well compacted layers to develop strength since it must support traffic. The excavated materials are spread by the excavator's bucket to form a 30 to 50 cm layer which is to be compacted by several excavator passes before being covered by the next layer of less coarse material. The obvious advantage of balanced road design where is that loose, unconsolidated wasted material is minimised compared to traditional road construction techniques by bulldozer. Creating the road foundation on fill material requires highly skilled and experienced operators, as poor quality work in building the foundation may destroy parts of the roads and trigger landslides in steep terrain making large areas unproductive and inflicting scars on the landscape. Photo. Fill construction is one of the most responsible duty in proper road construction one can see the separated materials piled hillside

Only mineral soil, free of organic debris such as stumps, tree tops and humus should be used in fill construction as organic material will decompose and result in uneven settlement and increase the potential for failure. Excess material will, depending on its size, either be incorporated in the road subgrade of already established road sections or temporarily laid aside for use in the next work cycle. If excess material cannot be used, excess material can be removed with a dump truck. v) Subgrade and cut shaping The last exercise to be accomplished using the hydraulic excavator will be finishing the subgrade, establishment of the hillside ditch and final shaping of the cut slope. Smaller holes in the uppermost fill layer will be filled up while the layer gets continuously compacted through excavator passing in order to achieve a firm subgrade. Finally smoothing and compacting of the subgrade surface by means of the excavator's bucket will provide the coarse subgrade. Photo Smoothing and compacting the coarse subgrade by means of the excavator's bucket

Depending on the parent material at the construction site and the availability of material suitable for gravelling, a sealing layer of gravel or similar material should be applied on the coarse subgrade, (Photo 13), compacted and finally shaped and smoothed in order to provide a crowned road (Photo 15) or sloped roads if specified by the supervising forest engineer. All of these activities can be carried out by the excavator. While the final finishing work is being done to the road surface, the hillside ditch can be formed. This allows for immediate draining of the road structure preventing damage to road structure and erosion from exposed surfaces during the construction phase as favourable weather conditions for road construction work often rapidly deteriorate in mountainous regions of Austria and heavy thunderstorms force to close road construction work. After the ditch is formed final shaping of the cut slope to provide the desired slope gradient. The edge at the top of the cut is to be rounded in order to avoid overhanging floor vegetation and the cut slope to be smoothed in by the excavator's bucket in order to prevent downhill drifting of loose cut slope material after completion of the road (Photo 14). Material eroded and escaped into the ditch not only increases maintenance costs as it has to be removed, but also obstructs water drainage Photo. Suitable local material wilt be spread on the coarse subgrade by the excavator to provide a sealing layer

After the road construction work by excavator has been finished, the forest road is left in a condition that will allow hauling trucks and off-road vehicles to pass (Photo 15). Although immediate access is provided, hauling should be restricted to trees harvested during road construction in order to avoid deterioration in timber quality. Otherwise, roads which have usually been constructed during the summer season, should be allowed to go through an entire winter and the subsequent melt-season before permitting their use by heavy machinery.

During the following construction season the road will finally surfaced. Settlement will be corrected and gravel will be applied to the running surface. The final smoothing and shaping of the road surface will either be accomplished by means of a grader or occasionally by excavator equipped with a slope finishing bucket. Following up the grader is a vibration roller providing a smoothed, compacted surface to ensure an effective drainage from the road surface. Where rock surfaces are to be crossed, final shaping of the cut slope and establishment of the ditch will be provided by means of hydraulic hammer attached to the excavator. In such road sections the longitudinal water drainage facility can best be described as a deepened road edge rather than as a real ditch. Work should be done so that road width and rock disintegration can be kept to the absolute minimum. Photo. Final shaping of the cutslope by means of the excavator's bucket

Photo. A sealing layer of gravel or similar material will be applied on the coarse subgrade and finally shaped to provide a crowned road

10.3 ROCK DISINTEGRATION

10.3.1 Hydraulic hammers 10.3.2 Rock blasting 10.3.3 Mass transport 10.3.4 Road drainage 10.3.5 Surfacing and shaping 10.3.6 Slope protection and stabilisation

The steeper the slopes the more rock disintegration will be involved in road construction activities since rock outcrops cannot be bypassed or rock surfaces avoided. The excavator production rate approaches the bulldozer production rate as side slope increases due to the fact that the excavator's bucket is much more effective at ripping than the dozer blade (FAO, 1989). The excavator production rate may even be higher on slopes steeper than 60 % as indicated by performance studies carried out under similar terrain conditions (Gorton, 1985). Photo. As long as rock can be ripped, the excavator solely equipped with a suitable type of bucket will be employed in rock disintegration

Whether or not a rock can be ripped, rock excavation can be accomplished by means of excavator solely equipped with the a suitable type of bucket or other excavator attachments like hydraulic hammers or hydraulic drilling units. Pneumatic equipment is now widely replaced by hydraulic equipment which is not only quieter than pneumatic hammers, but also

operates at lower cost as the excavator's hydraulic pumps do the work and an air compressor is not needed. However, as long as the rock can be ripped, the excavator equipped with a suitable type of bucket can be employed. Since ripability of rock depends on the type of rock and on the degree of fracturing and/or weathering, the experienced planning engineer will arrange equipment needed in rock disintegration to be available at times which minimise down time for the excavator. Photo. The use of hydraulic hammer close the gap in rock disintegration by rock buckets on the one hand and by blasting on the other hand

10.3.1 Hydraulic hammers

The use of hydraulic hammers attached to excavators is considered the ideal solution for rock disintegration in order to avoid rock blasting where the parent rock is no longer rippable by the excavator's bucket but still has enough planes of weakness for economical operation with hydraulic hammer. Although tremendous progress has been made in drilling and blasting techniques in the past, rock disintegration by hydraulic hammer does reduce environmental impacts. Since a hammer need not to be a full time attachment and coupler systems provided by manufacturers ensure that there is no loss of bucket breakout force by their use, the bucket can be taken off and replaced by a hammer within a few minutes. Hydraulic hammers therefore make an excavator even more versatile and cost effective as drilling equipment and

explosives are not needed to break out pockets of rocks and alterations in road location can be avoided. The main features of hydraulic hammers and advantages inherent to their use can be described as follows:
rock hammers are enlarging the application range of excavators;

less non-work time of the excavator operator as interference of blasting operation does not occur; desired cut slope gradient and shaping can easily be performed by the skilled operator; size of disintegrated rock material can be controlled by a skilled and experienced operator in order to facilitate incorporation of rock material; accurate construction of hillside ditch for water drainage; less excess material to be removed through accurate rock disintegration; the hydraulic hammer is the only equipment needed in addition to the excavator already employed at construction site; blasting danger can be avoided
10.3.2 Rock blasting

In difficult terrain the decision on road location is based on the principles of best road construction practice, limitations due to forest ownership, and on terrain constraints. Therefore rock surfaces cannot always be avoided and substantial rock blasting may be specified by the planning engineer. Although more sophisticated blasting techniques have been developed, rock blasting is best avoided as the use of rock drilling equipment and explosives increases road construction costs and there are substantial risks in using explosives However, if blasting is specified, sophisticated drilling equipment attached to the hydraulic excavator, which facilitate vertical as well as horizontal drilling, should be used. Since there is no real limit to the drilling position, the blasting technique can be adjusted to rock condition and the use of an excavator as carrier vehicle ensures that the road width can be kept to the absolute minimum as excavators do not require additional road width for manoeuvre. Photo. Sophisticated hydraulic drilling units for excavators enable vertical as well as horizontal rock drilling

The blasting technique used where the road has to be cut into stratified layers of compact limestone, can be described as follows:
use of several vertical drilling holes instead of one long horizontal drilling hole as used in dolomite rock for example;

vertical holes were placed in a rectangular pattern 1.5 m square; hole length ranged from 3 to 4 m depending on the distance between rock surface and planned subgrade; amount of explosives loaded per drilling hole varied according to the hole length and ranged from 1.5 to 1.75 kg; use of sophisticated primers which facilitate loads to be exploded with delay in millisecond range; loads separated by the holes connected so that the explosion is caused by the same ignition. This blasting technique using minor loads separated in several drilling holes with less disruptive effect on the bedrock can be described as "soft" blasting. On the one hand, it only loosens the rock to be removed by excavating but avoids disturbing the stratified bedrock as well as other blast-related damage. On the other hand, due to its less destructive effect, the size of rock material can be controlled which is important for subsequent use of disintegrated rock material in the road structure.

Photo. Proper blasting technique provides material suitable in size to be incorporated into the road structure while avoiding damage to the forest stands alongside road

The use of primers with delays allows the direction of movement of rock material caused by the explosion to be controlled. In general, the primers will be set in the holes following the staked road course so that the explosives loaded in the front holes will go off first and blasted rock material will be directed by the subsequent exploding loads towards the already established road section. In road sections where substantial rock blasting is needed, full bench construction of road with longitudinal transport of excess material is usually specified and rock blasting along the base of the fill will be required in order to establish the base for proper fill foundation. Damage to adjacent stands at construction site by material escaping downhill during blasting operations can be reduced due to the "soft" character of this blasting technique. Its use is also highly recommended in the vicinity of springs as they might be affected by the disruptive effect on stratified bedrock of less sophisticated blasting. If buildings or infrastructure are at risk even by applying soft blasting techniques, hydraulic hammers are the only solution but their use has to be restricted to short road sections for cost reasons.
10.3.3 Mass transport

One main advantage of road construction by hydraulic excavator, among others, is that balanced road construction with excavated material incorporated into the road structure can still be carried out on steep slopes whereas in road construction by bulldozers full bench construction technique with end hauling of excess material would have to be applied. However, where rock surfaces are to be crossed and the base for fill foundation cannot be provided by the excavator, full bench road construction is unavoidable. The longitudinal mass transport will then either be provided by means of the excavator or by dump trucks depending on the amount of excess material to be removed. In contrast to the statement that operating distance for materials movement by excavator is limited to its swing distance (FAO, 1989), longitudinal mass transport with distances of up to

70 metres was found at the study sites. Long distances for mass movement by excavator cannot be recommended in general, but are acceptable in road projects with only few short road sections where mass movement is needed and therefore the costly use of a dump truck can be avoided. Another advantage of longitudinal mass transport by excavator is that the moved material will be incorporated in the road structure of already established road sections rather than wasted. Consequently, there is no need to find stable disposal areas which have to be integrated into the landscape. Furthermore, the incorporated and compacted material is unavailable for erosion. The experienced supervising engineer will decide whether excavator or dump truck should be employed.
10.3.4 Road drainage

The most effective way to prevent watershed disturbance and increased soil erosion rates is to minimise the total length of roads. It has to be kept in mind that even the best developed drainage system established during the road construction process will only reduce rather than avoid impacts on natural watersheds. Nevertheless, forest roads are essential for industrial timber extraction, for providing convenient access to the forest for applying sustainable forest management practices and for monitoring purposes while often benefiting local communities at the same time (see also chapter 2). Some of the most common drainage-related problems are:
inadequately sized stream crossings, in particular culverts; inadequate road surface drainage; poor drainage of skid trails joining roads; lack of road maintenance after logging operations, hauling activities or erosion caused by thunderstorms so that ditches and culverts do not work.

Following environmentally sound construction practices, the measures stated below are considered obligatory to provide satisfactory water drainage and consequently to prevent erosion:
the road fitted as closely as possible to the terrain and to be restricted in width to the absolute minimum for safety and anticipated use;

soil disturbance and surfaces exposed to erosion are to be minimized by balance of cuts and fills; road gradients should be varied to reduce concentrated flow on road surfaces, in ditches, in culverts and on fill slopes; gravel should be applied on the running surface not only for more convenient use by vehicles but also to provide a more weather resistant sealing surface;

 surface water from joining skid trails should be prevented from flowing on to the road and becoming man-made streams with the potential for erosion as they flow downstream; ditch gradients should be adjusted to the specific soil condition at the construction site to keep collected waters moving to culverts and preventing sediment deposition and ditch erosion; road drainage features are to be designed and spaced so that peak drainage flow from surfaces will not exceed the capacity of the individual drainage facilities; culvert location are to be spaced not only at certain distances but are to be installed where actually needed when crossing streams either perennial or intermittent, and in ephemeral areas; prefabricated steel culverts pipes are to be installed in preference to articulated concrete pipes as the latter are at risk of collapse under the load of heavy hauling during periods of weakened road strength and consequently to obstruct or to block water drainage; culverts are to be protected from plugging by using sediment catch basins and debris racks where needed and water is to be prevented from eroding and undercutting the culvert by rock armoured inlets; outlets of culverts are to be armoured with rock boulders to prevent emerging water from eroding the fill slope where water will not be released onto a stable area; fords should be considered as alternative to culverts in crossing perennial streams carrying high loads of sediments or the combined use of culvert and ford, in particular where torrents are to be crossed, with a culvert for the normal run-off and a ford for high floods; individual drainage facilities are to be inspected periodically for need of maintenance and following after heavy thunderstorms and after logging and hauling activities in order to start immediately repair work if needed; forest debris to be cleared from ditches and culverts damage to road features should be avoided by effective road-use management which includes access control in general as well as road closure during wet seasons. Photo. Water drainage is to be ensured from the start - intermittent springs often appear after heavy thunderstorms and transfer water from planes in the bedrock onto the newly established cut slope and might trigger slides

Photo. Slope material escaped into the ditch requires immediate action to avoid obstruction of water drainage and to prevent costly repair work of slips

One significant feature in road construction by excavator is the fact that drainage facilities and erosion control features will either be provided in each single work cycle of the ongoing road construction process or can easily be established by means of excavators at any time required without need for additional machinery. In general, culverts will be installed when the road cross section is established either for the entire road or for those parts finished during the construction season. In general, minimum gradients of 2-3 % and maximum gradients of 9-12 %, in exceptional cases up to 16 % are considered appropriate for forest roads (Sedlak, 1996). Gradients for the road crown will range from 2 to 5 % and from 3 to 6 % for insloped roads (Winkler, 1992) to ensure an effective drainage from the road surface.

Ditch gradients should range from 2 to 8 % (Almas et al., 1993), just steep enough to keep collected waters moving without carrying excessive sediments. Gradients steeper than 8 percent might result in too much momentum of collected water and the carrying of sediment and debris for long distances, whereas gradients which are too shallow lead to silting up of ditches. Culverts should be maintained in order to avoid failure due to plugging by debris and sediment. As one can see from the specifications made by the authorities (Table 6) for the individual road projects, fords are often specified in crossing perennial streams. This reflects the environmentalists' general preference of fords against culverts (Sedlak, 1996) as the latter are considered to interfere with the stream ecosystem.
10.3.5 Surfacing and shaping

Once the road subgrade has been constructed and culverts have been established, the road is allowed to go through an entire winter and the subsequent melt season, before surfacing takes place during the construction season in the following year. Settlement in the road subgrade are filled with coarse gravel and well-graded gravel is applied on the running surface. Only the use of well-graded material, where smaller particles tend to fill the empty spaces between the larger particles during compacting performed by rollers, will ensure that a smooth sealing surface can be achieved. Once the gravel has been applied on the running surface the final shaping and smoothing will usually be provided by means of a grader. Depending on the material applied the final shaping will occasionally be done by an excavator equipped with a slope finishing bucket as at study site 3 where limestone material from local quarries was used for surfacing. Finally, following up the grader is a vibration roller for proper compaction. Compaction is the process of increasing the density and the strength of the soil. The effectiveness of the compacting process will be affected by gradation of gravel material applied, its moisture content and the compactive effort. Proper compaction of fill material is not only the key to a stable, balanced road design (FAO, 1989) but also results in a significant reduction of maintenance cost and helps prevents erosion. Photo. Shaping of the gravel material applied on the running surface will occasionally be carried out by an excavator solely equipped with a slope finishing bucket

The costs of using well graded material for the road pavement can be substantial (Almas et al., 1993) and could cost as much as 70% of the total cost of the road on weak clay subgrades (Sedlak, 1996). The use of substitute poorly graded material is not recommended. The initial financial savings are soon overtaken by the higher maintenance costs. Options for saving on the costs of gravel material are given below (Sedlak, 1996)
road construction during frost periods to prevent subgrade deformation and the need to fill up settlements with costly gravel;

recycling or processing local material wherever feasible; use of polypropylene fabric layers between subgrade and gravel layers to prevent clay intrusions; subgrade stabilization using lime or other suitable substances as recommended in the road engineering literature. At the study sites the costs of surfacing which cover the cost for gravel material itself and its transport, for grader as well as roller operations, ranged from about 4 to 47 percent of the overall road costs (see chapter 5.3) at the three construction sites and are less than the costs mentioned above due to the availability of suitable gravel material from local quarries. Photo. Topsoil removal will be spread on the rear fill slope in each work cycle

10.3.6 Slope protection and stabilisation

Some of the measures which are usually undertaken to stabilise slopes and to prevent erosion from exposed surfaces, will already be performed in each single work cycle as they are inherent features of proper road construction technique by excavator. In particular these measures are the following:
a fill slope cover which provides immediate erosion control will be continuously performed during the phase of topsoil removal from the construction area in each single work cycle of the road construction process;

finally shaped, smoothed and compacted cuts performed in each single work cycle ensure that loose material is removed from slope surfaces which would otherwise be exposed to erosion; inlet and outlet protection structures of culverts as well as retaining walls for slope stabilization will be built up by the excavator using the boulders which have been separated from other excavated materials during construction operations; the fill slope will be revegetated by turfs where a grass layer covered the soil at construction site. Beside the measures already performed by applying the excavator construction technique, vegetative treatment of slopes for early revegetation and prevention of erosion has become a standard procedure in Austria (Sedlak, 1996. There is a wide spectrum of bioengineering measures which range from simple seeding procedures, mulching etc. to combined use of retaining structures and living plants. Employing bioengineering methods not only prevent erosion but also ensure a better blending into the landscape and sometimes perform an additional benefit due to the draining effect of structures incorporating living plants. These bioengineering methods are generally preferable to purely technology-oriented methods such as concrete supporting walls (Litzka & Haslehner, 1995). Photo. Erosion control of fill slope by debris cover provided immediately after fill construction

Photo. Immediate erosion control of cut slope by stumps which had been removed during the phase of topsoil removal from the construction area

Photo. Retaining walls built up from boulders by means of excavator are quite costly but cannot always be avoided in crossing wet and unstable areas due to terrain constraints in road location in mountainous regions

10.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE ROAD CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Regardless of the type of construction equipment used in a particular project, road construction itself remains a difficult, often hazardous operation in mountainous terrain that can inflict scars on the landscape as well as substantial damage on the forest ecosystem. In order to carry out construction operations efficiently and safely, as well as in an environmentally sound way the following I should be considered:
appropriate size and power configuration of construction equipment, adjusted to the actual needs of the construction technique applied and with respect to terrain conditions;

appropriate equipment with respect to technical and safety standards, as well as ergonomic principles and requirements; only adequate trained, skilled and experienced machine operators should be employed for road construction in sensitive forest ecosystems and difficult terrain; well planned road design followed by fitting the road to the natural terrain as closely as possible to facilitate road construction without major problems for operators and machines; clear instruction to and close supervision of machine operators by the forest engineer responsible for road planning and construction. The appropriate type of hammer can be selected out of a hammer series with operating weights ranging from 150 to 3500 kg for all types of carrier units ranging from 1.5 to 80 tonnes (Wimmer, 1996). The type of hydraulic hammers used are distinguished by a newly designed impact technique which guarantees high impact energy with low back thrust. The design of the c hammer enables it to be exactly positioned by the operator as the housing does not have any protruding parts (see Photo 17). This new generation of hydraulic hammers

provides a better working environment for the operator because of the sound proofing and vibration damper systems, the latter also reduces the impact to the excavator's boom. The hydraulic drilling unit AB3000T used enables vertical as well as horizontal drilling by the operator as the drilling unit has 360 unlimited rotation and a swivel axis turnable by 95 (Wimmer, 1996). A no load stroke as well as an automatic antibloc system facilitates drilling in geological difficult terrain. Furthermore, the drilling unit is equipped with a radio remote control system to ensure the operator always has the optimal view to control the drilling unit. The drilling unit has its own generator so that no additional electrical installations at the excavator are necessary. It should be noted that although road construction is machine-intensive, labour remains the most critical element for achieving the goals of environmentally sound road construction practices. Only if workers are competent in their skills, and motivated to work properly and efficiently can they be expected to contribute effectively to these goals (Dykstra & Heinrich, 1996).

10.5 ESTIMATING PRODUCTION AND PERFORMANCE RATES

10.5.1 Excavator 10.5.2 Rock blasting

Since productivity is defined as the rate of product output per time unit for a given production system, the production rates of a studied system can easily be estimated if time studies combined with measurements of the output of production have been completed.
10.5.1 Excavator

The estimated production rates for excavator operations are based either on the total workplace time or total work time used to perform a certain length of road by the excavator operator at all study sites, regardless of whether a hydraulic hammer has been used or not. All other construction activities where an excavator will be employed (culvert, retaining structures), might be employed (shaping after surfacing) or might serve as carrier unit (rock drilling) are not included in the estimates of production rates, neither for workplace timebased nor for work time-based estimates. Table 13. Estimated production rates in road construction by excavator Study site side slope Production rate Production rate subgrade width Study site [%] [m/h WP] [m/h WT] [m] Study site 1 50-55 5.69 6.26 4.5 Study site 2 40-45 5.24 5.77 6.5 Study site 3 75-80 2.42 3.05 4.2

Note: WP... workplace time WT... work time Based on the hourly productivity found in the studies and on an assumed workplace time of 8 hours per day, the productivity rates range from 16 metres to 48 metres of road per day, where the first figure can be considered indicative for extreme difficult terrain and the latter for favourable conditions in mountainous terrain. It is noteworthy that the actual workplace time observed during the studies often exceeded the regular workplace time for employees of 8 hours per day as the operators tended to make use of favourable weather conditions for construction work.
10.5.2 Rock blasting

The estimated performance rate for blasting operations is based on the workplace time used for rock disintegration of a certain volume of rock by means of explosives. Since the vertical drilling holes were placed in a rectangular pattern 1.5 m square in each single blasting operation at the study site, the volume of disintegrated rock has been estimated separately for each blasting operation by multiplying the squared distance between holes by the length of holes and the number of holes. Time calculations to estimate performance rates of blasting operations based on the total workplace time are considered to be not indicative as the non-work time of the blasting operator can dramatically be decreased by flexible and proper timing of construction and blasting operations as done at the study site. Therefore, the performance rate stated below is based on the work time only. The efficiency level found at the study site, as the rate of time input per a certain volume of rock to be disintegrated, was about 2.13 min/m3 reflecting an average volume of load of about 76 m3 per blasting operation. The performance rate based on all blasting operations observed amounts to 28.18 m3/h of work time.

10.6 ESTIMATING COSTS

The estimation of production costs is based on the production and performance rates stated in previous chapters for construction and blasting operations and the hourly costs for construction workforce and equipment involved in both road construction and blasting operations. The hourly costs for workforce and equipment are based upon information obtained from the supervising forest engineer of the Federal Forest Service of Salzburg. Refinement work stated in table 14 refers to final shaping and compaction work of the fill slope at study site 1 for part of the road section under review. At study site 3 it refers to incorporating excess material into the road structure after transport by a dump truck. In this particular case incorporation work was carried out by means of a small excavator hired for a few days of anticipated need and which was operated by the blasting operator. The use of the small excavator provided an effective means of arranging the work in a way that dramatically reduced the non-work time of the blasting operator. It should be noted that in hiring additional equipment, proper timing becomes very important in order to achieve the desired objective of overall cost reduction in road construction.

Table 14 shows typical examples of costs for equipment and standby workforce as well as costs for each activity carried out and observed by the work and time studies at the study sites in road construction. As conditions for construction work may considerably vary along the road course, the construction costs stated in table 14 refer to the particular road section under review of each road project only. For details compare corresponding figures on cost of construction work by excavator stated in table 14 and table 15. Table 14. Estimated costs of road construction work by excavator Production costs factor Study site 1 Study site 2 Study site 3 cost/unit cost cost/unit cost cost/unit cost [US$] [US$/m] [US$] [US$/m] [US$] [US$/m] 9.96 0.16 10.12 91.67 39.17 17.49 0.15 17.64 57.50 39.17 45.00 23.76 1.80 3.51

unit

construction work hydraulic excavator [h] 56.67 hydraulic hammer [h] refinement work hydraulic excavator [h] 56.67 rock blasting hydraulic drilling unit [h] explosives primer [kg] piece operator (standby) [h] mass transport dump truck [h] total construction cost

95.83 24.33 5.42 2.50 10.51 3.14 37.50 5.48 48.33 5.66 95.83

The cost estimates stated in Table 14 refer to the road in the stage of finished subgrade and subsequent establishment of hillside ditch as described in chapter 3.2 and do not include any further construction activity which will be or might be performed by excavator at a later stage such as to install culverts, to build up retaining structures or to final shape the road after surfacing. Table 15. Estimated overall construction costs of road projects Study site 1 Production costs factor excavator operations* culvert (incl. in-/outlet protection) culvert pipe hydraulic excavator surfacing material gravel transport grading/shaping motor grader hydraulic excavator rolling seeding Study site 2 Study site 3

unit cost/unit cost cost/unit cost cost/unit cost [US$] [US$/m] [US$] [US$/m] [US$] [US$/m] n.a. 11.97 n.a. 17.52 n.a. 70.27 piece 32.92 0.66 32.92 0.66 32.92 0.66

[h] [rm] [rm] [h] [h] [h] [m2]

56.67 1.04 5.83 77.08 59.58 0.15

1.13 1.73 9.72 0.44 0.96 1.01

91.67 1.04 5.83 77.08 59.58 0.15

1.83 1.04 5.83 0.44 0.48 1.13

57.50 1.67 5.83 57.50 59.58 0.15

0.86 0.25 0.88 1.05 0.48 1.17

overall road cost

27.62

28.93

75.62

*) corresponding with the total construction cost estimate n.a. not table 14 applicable

The estimated overall construction costs of the three road projects under review stated in table 15 are based on the actual costs spent on excavator operations including rock disintegration during the construction season of 1997 in the road projects under review and the assumed costs of construction activities required to finalize the road. The cost assumptions made for installing culverts including retaining structures, for surfacing, grading and rolling of the road as well as for seeding of slope surfaces are based on the personal experience of the supervising forest engineer. Since these activities had not been observed by work and time studies estimated costs have been used.

10.7 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

In mountainous terrain where forest stands not only sustain site productivity by preventing soil developed over centuries to be eroded but often protect human settlements, infrastructure and other land uses from torrents and avalanches, avoidance of site disturbance is imperative. On the other hand, active management of overmature stands on steep slopes which are at risk of loosing their protective function, requires a minimum of forest access provided by forest roads. Enhancing forest road construction practices, the use of hydraulic excavators and employment of advanced drilling and blasting technology have been proven to be the best solution both environmentally sound and economically feasible, for road construction in difficult terrain. In general, the features and advantages of the hydraulic excavator itself and it's use in road construction can be described as follows:
the excavator basically operates by digging, swinging and either dumping or controlled placement of excavation depending on the task to be provided;

all tasks to be accomplished in road construction by excavator can be provided by operating from a fixed position or movement parallel to the road centreline so that no additional road width for manoeuvring is required; different types of buckets available and several attachments easily to be changed by quick coupling systems even increase the excavators' versatility to do a wider variety of work e.g. ripping, trenching, loading, compacting, hydraulic hammering or rock drilling; less need for blasting due to high ripping and breakout force of the excavator and, alternatively, the use of hydraulic hammer for rock disintegration. The features and advantages of advanced drilling and blasting technique are:

 the type of hydraulic drilling units used, attached to the excavator, facilitates vertical as well as horizontal drilling and therefore to optimise and adjust blasting technique with regard to rock condition;

"soft" blasting with less (fracturing) disruptive effect on the bedrock avoids loosening of stratified rock (and/or fractured) as well as other blast-related damage; "soft" blasting techniques with less destructive effect enable to control the size of rock material provided; "soft" blasting techniques only loosen the rock for being excavated rather than brealing out; In making use of the advantages of construction equipment and techniques mentioned above, the skilled and experienced operator is provided with an effective tool to minimize environmental impacts of road construction activities. This environmentally sound practice of road construction is characterized by: 1) reduced area dedicated to forest roads as:
additional road width for manoeuvre of construction machinery is not needed; the subgrade width is kept to the absolute minimum determined by safety and anticipated use;

the length of fill slope can be reduced due to a solid fill foundation established by means of the excavator and the overall construction width is reduced; 2) reduced disturbance of the landscape as:
clearing width is reduced as a result of minimized overall construction width and disturbance of canopy and related impacts are reduced;

cut heights are reduced because of minimized overall construction width; roads are designed to balance cuts and fills wherever possible, less rock disintegration is needed and less material is to be excavated; the use of hydraulic hammers facilitates accurate rock excavation; over excavation of rock can be avoided; rock disintegration by hydraulic hammer and "soft" blasting provides material suitable in size to be incorporated in the road structure, the need for borrow pits (quarries alongside road) is reduced; measures are undertaken to stabilize and revegetate cut and fill slopes immediately after completion of road construction work, scars inflicted on the landscape are quickly remedied; 3) satisfactory water drainage and effective erosion control as:

 drainage facilities can already be installed by the excavator during the ongoing road construction process at any time if required;

most of the excavated material is incorporated in the road structure and properly compacted, it is very likely unavailable for erosion; cut and fill slopes are final shaped and compacted by means of the excavator's bucket to prevent erosion; branches removed from the construction area are spread on the fill slopes the exposure to erosion of unprotected soil is minimized; retaining walls for slope stabilization can be established during road construction at any time if required; 4) negligible damages to stands alongside road by rock materials escaping downhill as:
the excavation is incorporated into the road structure instead of being side cast and excess material from full bench road sections is end-hauled to stable disposal areas;

the placement of excavated materials can excellently be controlled by the skilled excavator operator and loose material which might escape during construction activities will be trapped by a slash filter windrow established at the base of the fill; the use of rock buckets and hydraulic hammers widely replaces the need for blasting where hurled stones or escaping rocks might cause some damage even if advanced blasting techniques are applied; "soft" blasting techniques with less destructive and bursting effect are employed if substantial rock blasting is specified;

11. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PROTECTION WORKS FOR FOREST ROADS

11.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 11.2 CULVERT LOCATION 11.3 CORRUGATED STEEL CULVERTS: 11.4 INSTALLATION 11.5 MAINTENANCE

11.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

11.1.1 Open Top Culverts 11.1.2 Sub-base Culverts
11.1.1 Open Top Culverts

An effective way to control road surface erosion is to put in open top culverts or simply earth cross-drains, which will lead the surface water from the road. Open top culverts can be made of steel, concrete, timber, round wood, or only earth debris. Open top culverts need to be placed into the road with a certain cross gradient in order that they will be self-clearing, and normally a cross-gradient of 6 - 7% is sufficient. The effectiveness of open top culverts depends very much on the correct spacing and maintenance work (clearing of soil particles, leaves and twigs, etc.) in order to keep them functioning effectively all the time.19 The spacing of open top culverts depends mainly on the gradient of the road, amount of precipitation, steepness of terrain and soil conditions. In a watershed forest in steep terrain with high rainfall, Sessions (1974) proposed an open top culvert spacing in metres derived by 800 divided by the gradient in percent. However, in areas with heavy rainfall and large catchment areas, a shorter spacing (20 - 40 m), especially on roads with 9% or a higher gradient, may be required. The correct spacing of open top culverts may be worked out through experience in the respective areas; the table below should serve as a guideline. TABLE 10 Open Top Culvert Spacing (in metres) Road gradient in percent 5 800 per gradient in percent 160 Suggested spacing in steep terrain with heavy rainfall

6 7 8 9 10 11 12
19

139 114 100 88 80 72 66

80 65 55 45 40 35 30 20-30

It is advisable to employ a road maintenance man who cleans ditches, culverts and other water courses and detects major future problems on the road.

FIGURE 56 Wooden Open Top Culverts Roundwood used with 8-15 cm. Wooden nails keep roundwood in correct position; placement of culvert with 6-7% cross gradient. Gravel Layer

Three roundwood logs with wood nailed on underneath. Spacing of roundwood 10 cm apart. Gravel Layer

Split logs fixed with crossboards

Roundwood fixed together with clamps at 10 cm distance

Clamps fix the side boards of the culvert. The bottom board is fixed with nails and side boards. Dimensions on side boards 23x8 cm; bottom board 10 x 8 cm.

Spacing of side boards at the top 6 cm; at bottom 12 cm. Dimensions of side boards 23x8 cm; bottom board 12x8 cm.

11.1.2 Sub-base Culverts

For seasonal stream flows and smaller water flows, sub-base culverts may be constructed to allow the natural passage of water. Very often on forest roads of minor importance only wooden culverts are used, but for access or permanent roads, it is best to install precast concrete pipes. Because there is a tendency for small culverts and pipes to block with debris, it is preferable to provide either an open ditch or pipes with a minimum diameter of 300 mm but in areas of low rainfall and high permeability or exceptionally where the topography requires the provision of culverts at short intervals 225 mm culverts may be installed. In no circumstances should pipes of less than 225 mm diameter to be used. A very simple type of wooden culvert can be constructed with three logs with mid-diameters of 50 -100 cm each. Two logs are used for the basic layer and the third log is put on top of them. Instead of putting a third log on top, one could use boards or split logs which are then nailed onto the two bottom logs. Sometimes wooden box sub-base culverts are installed. As these need more labour to install, they are more expensive. Generally, one may say that a culvert made of durable untreated hardwood species may serve very well for 5 - 6 years; whereas with chemical preservation it could last for 10 years. The costs of wooden sub-base culverts, depending on the type of construction, are normally only 10-40 percent of the cost of precast concrete pipes. To put a culvert in a road, 3-8 man-days are required, depending on whether the sub-base culvert is built into a newly constructed road or in an already existing road. The diameter of culvert required at a particular site is governed chiefly by the catchment area and the characteristics of the catchment: ie shape, slope, topography, climate, soil type and vegetal cover, together with the frequency of failure and flooding which can be tolerated. In mountainous areas where streams carry large quantities of gravel and other debris in time of flood special considerations apply. The aim must be not only to discharge the flood flow but to do so without ponding upstream of the culvert. If this is not achieved deposition at the culvert inlet may cause blockage, and subsequent wash out. Larger culverts are therefore required. Twin or multiple culverts are more expensive and more easily blocked than single culverts of the same capacity and should not be used except in exceptional cases where headroom is unavoidably restricted, where the greater portion of the waterway area is to be kept near the invert elevation so as to prevent flooding or ponding on the upstream side of the culvert. Open cross ditches can be used where it is difficult to find the depth necessary to provide a culvert. Care should be taken to provide a profile which allows reasonable traversing by traffic. Support to the sides can be given by sawn or round timber, but concrete channels are available. In cases where there is difficulty in obtaining the required discharge from the culvert size available, consideration should be given to improving the hydraulic characteristics by designing a flumed entry to the culvert using wing walls. Care should be taken to ensure that

the increased velocity of discharge is catered for by providing paving to invert downstream of the culvert where necessary.

11.2 CULVERT LOCATION

In flat ground it is normally cheaper to collect drainage by ditches to a single culvert rather than provide separate culverts at a number of adjacent low points on the road. Conversely on a steep gradient it is usually necessary to site culverts at closer intervals than the natural drainage channels down the hillside; any attempts to economise by installing a small number of large diameter culverts is likely to cause erosion of the roadside drain. Where there is a tendency for the roadside drain to erode, the best and cheapest answer is usually the provision of more culverts rather than such expedients as check-weirs. A culvert taking the flow of a stream which crosses the road at an angle should follow the line of the stream if the latter is subject to high velocity and there is the possibility of erosion. But if these conditions do not apply the culvert should be placed at right angles to the road with its inlet in line with the stream thus reducing the length of culvert required. No culvert on a stream crossing (or other important culvert taking the flow of a forest drain) should be placed on fill. Where the culvert departs from the line of the stream it should be laid in a trench and where it follows the line of a stream it should be laid at bed level; the bed being regulated as necessary by excavation or by filling of local hollows with hard materials well tamped into place. All culverts should be laid in the natural ground if possible rather than in fill. Laying culverts in recently placed fill leads to differential settlement and even to a vertical displacement between adjacent pipes in some cases and requires the provision of some means of preventing scour at the outlet as described in para 32. Where access is reasonably good culverts can be laid in the solid before the earthworks are carried out and this must be done where drains are to be cut in advance. Where culverts are installed after completion of earthworks on moderate cross slopes the excavation for them should be taken down through the fill to the solid as the additional stability of the culvert and prevention of scour at the outfall more than compensate for the additional length and extra excavation. Where the laying of culverts in fill cannot be avoided it is an advantage if installation can be delayed for a time since the rate of settlement decreases very rapidly after the fill is placed. The culverts at stream crossings normally have in any case to be laid before the earthworks are carried out; on some sites it is possible to delay construction of intermediate culverts by carrying the water on in the roadside drain to the stream and draining low areas temporarily by grips across the sub-grade. In considering the advisability of adopting this expedient the possibility should be borne in mind of extensive damage which may result from storms occurring before the construction of the culverts particularly in friable soil; furthermore the grips must be kept open if they are to be effective and this is sometimes impracticable.

11.3 CORRUGATED STEEL CULVERTS:

Corrugated steel culverting may provide an economic alternative to concrete pipes, especially where access is particularly difficult. It is not possible to say that these are cheaper above any

particular size but the economics are worth examining for culverts upwards of 600 mm diameter and certainly in locations requiring diameters of 1 150 mm and upwards. The thickness of the metal to be used in these culverts should be taken from the manufacturers design manuals. The life of steel culverting is controlled by the protection afforded by the galvanised coating. This is attacked by acid water and abrasion by the bed load. The site condition as well as comparative cost of concrete pipes will influence the decision as to the use of these. Where the conditions are less severe the life of corrugated steel pipes can be extended by additional protection. Where the water is acid such as in peaty or moorland areas bitumencoated material should be used, if the water course carries a heavy bed-load rivetted pipes can be obtained with an asphalt paved invert; the latter adds 10% to 20% to the total cost of the culvert and the bitumen coating alone about half this figure but the protection aforded may double the life of the structure. For the larger steel structures built in situ the invert can be protected with an in situ concrete lining; this should usually cover 20% of the pipes periphery.

11.4 INSTALLATION
Headwalls are not normally required at culvert outlets except on very steep gradients where there is a risk of the end pipe becoming displaced. Apart from this function and to prevent scour upstream it is generally more economical to lengthen the culvert than to construct headwalls. The desire to reduce the length of culverts must not lead to attempts being made to place fill at unstable angles, nor should dry stone or timber retaining walls be built in an attempt to support such slopes, although drystone revetment may be used to prevent scour where masonry head walls and wingwalls are not justified. Where the culvert unavoidably discharges on to fill some protection is necessary. To allow for settlement it is advisable to provide a temporary installation such as a simple timber flume in the first instance which can be replaced later by a masonry or precast concrete flume. Where culverts are required beneath roads constructed over soft ground it may be necessary to excavate to a sufficient depth to enable a 1 m depth of suitable granular material to be placed and compacted below the pipe invert level. The width of this granular base should be twice the diameter of the pipe with a minimum of 1.200 m. The length of the culvert should be such that the ends of it are clear of the road fill. Installation of corrugated steel structures should be in accordance with the makers installation manual.

11.5 MAINTENANCE
In order that the installed culverts can function as designed it is necessary to ensure that the entrance and exits to the culvert are clear of debris, and that the passage through the culvert has not silted up. PHOTO NO. 26 Placing of prefabricated concrete sub-base culvert, by excavator

12 PROTECTION WORKS FOR FOREST ROADS

12.1 SLOPE PROTECTION AND STABILIZATION 12.2 SLOPE DRAINAGE 12.3 REVEGETATION OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS AND SLOPES

12.4 STABILIZATION OF DRAINAGE-WAYS 12.5 SLOPE PROTECTION WITH ENGINEERING STRUCTURES 12.6 PROTECTION OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS AGAINST TORRENTIAL WATERFLOWS The basic requirements for modern forest management, especially wood harvesting, are well planned and designed forest road networks. Careful attention must be paid when planning and locating roads, especially in steep terrain, to avoid or minimize the erosional impact of roads on the environment. Areas particularly susceptible to erosion problems such as very steep slopes with easily erodible soils and rock strata dipping towards the slope should be avoided as much as possible. Erosion caused by road construction and soil disturbance can be avoided by using biological means and/or engineering structures. Slope and gully erosion adjacent to the road is very often a result of over-grazing and denudation of hills which expose the soil to wind and rain and endanger the road structure. Erosion often occurs on the cuts and embankments, as well as on the outlets of cross drains, water flows and on the surface of the road itself.

12.1 SLOPE PROTECTION AND STABILIZATION

First of all, it is most important to determine the source of factors influencing slope instability in order to be able to design appropriate control and rehabilitation measures. Very often a single measure may achieve the desired results but sometimes it may be necessary to combine measures to restore the stability of the slopes. For instance, on a seepage slope, it may only be necessary to drain off the water with open ditches or stone filled drains. On other occasions, it may also be necessary to revegetate the slope in order to fix the slope surface because vegetation would not come back at all or it would take too long a time, and a retaining wall would be required. In a mountain road project in the USA (Idaho) it was noted that 60 percent of the surface erosion occurred within one year of the disturbance of the slope; thus it is important to stabilize slopes at once, or shortly after the construction of a road.

12.2 SLOPE DRAINAGE

The simplest method to safely drain off springs and surface water is by means of an open ditch or a system of open ditches. The main ditch is located in the direction of the slope gradient (downhill); secondary or lateral ditches are located in a fishbone pattern. Water should be collected as closely as possible from its origin and be channelled safely to the road ditch, culvert or any other nearby water course. In areas with steep gradients and a large amount of water run-off, pitched ditches 20 may be required. The excavation of the ditches should start at their lowest point in order that the accumulating water may drain off immediately. A very effective method to drain off the sub-surface water is by means of socalled "covered drains". On cut slopes the drains may at the same time act as a kind of retaining structure if made in a "Y" or arch shape, thus further increasing slope stability. The most common types are stone or gravel-filled drains with or without pipes.

20

A ditch in which stones have been placed in the bottom and sometimes sides, depending on the volume of water and gradient. To ensure the efficiency of the drains and for maintenance purposes, it is advisable to have a standing pipe at the junction of the main drain and secondary drain. Pipes may be made of concrete, brick or PVC material. The excavation of the drains should start at the lowest point, the lining of pipes, however, should be started at the top. The pipes should be placed as tightly as possible, one to each other, and they should be located in water-tight soils in order that maximum water drainage can be achieved. Piped drains are the most efficient and their effectiveness is long-lasting; however, they are more expensive, or often not available. Normal stone drains may silt up after some time; therefore it is advisable to form a drainage channel of stones at the bottom of the drain, or to put on a bundle of brush wood at the bottom of the drain. The tope of the drain may be covered with a layer of grass in order to prevent the siltation of the drain more effectively. Besides being effective in stabilizing fill and cut slopes, drains are very useful behind retaining walls. FIGURE 57 Drainage Systems to Drain Off Surface and Sub-surface Water on Slopes

FIGURE 58 Cross-Sections of Different Types of Drains

12.3 REVEGETATION OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS AND SLOPES

Revegetation measures for the stabilization of cut and fill slopes of roads may be grouped as follows: (i) Seeding, grass turfing and mulching to obtain a grass cover; (ii) contour wattling, wicker work fencing, contour planting and fascines21 to allow the start of shrub vegetation;
21

Long bundles of sticks bound together.

(iii) reforestation with pioneer species. Seeding Very often before sewing grass seeds on barren slopes, soil and site preparation such as shaping the slope, spreading humus and application of fertilizer may be required. The seeds may be either sown on the entire area, in rows or in certain places only. About 3 kg of grass seeds are needed to seed an area of 100 m2 It is an advantage to have legume seeds mixed with grass seeds as they are nitrogen fixers. It will take 0.5 to 1.0 working hour to seed 100 m2. A mixture of deep rooted and flat rooted strong, quick growing pioneer grasses will give the best results in fixing the soil. Grass Turfing

To regenerate successful vegetation through placement of grass sods, it should be borne in mind that grass sods need to be placed horizontally on the slope when the surface is wet and during the vegetative period- Depending on the availability of grass sods, slopes may be entirely covered by them or only in strips. the latter application would require additional seeding. On very steep slopes fixation of the grass sods may be necessary to get a firm hold on the slope surface. This could be done by means of sticks prepared from tree branches, twigs, or bamboo, when available. Mulching This is a very quick method of regaining grass cover on sterile, bare soils. This method of revegetation requires a layer of straw, wood fibre or other organic material which is spread onto the soil. seeds and fertilizers are added and finally the layer of mulching is fixed by spraying cold asphalt suspension. The advantage of mulching is that the grass cover comes up after a relatively short time because through this method a favourable micro-climate and growing conditions are created; it reduces water losses, surface temperature and solid crust formation. It prevents seeds from rolling down the hill, and it also preserves the fertilizer. In the USA and Japan, machines (hydro-seeders) have been developed which can spray the mixture of mulching material mixed with water and an adhesive as well as seeds and fertilizer onto the slope in one operation. In the Alpine Region of Middle Europe revegetation by mulching techniques has been successful using the following method of application: the slope is covered by a layer of straw (2-4 tons/ha), which is spread by hand, utilizing a ladder which is placed on the slope. Seeding and fertilizing is carried out by spreading seeds and fertilizer by hand, again utilizing ladders. Seeds and fertilizer fall through the straw layer onto the ground. For the fixation of the straw layer onto the slope surface, an asphalt suspension of 50 percent asphalt in water is watered at a 25 percent solution which is applied onto the straw by means of a portable rucksack type sprayer. About 0.5 litre of asphalt suspension per m2 is applied. Spraying cannot be carried out during heavy rain and wind. Normally it takes 2 to 3 hours after spraying for the suspension to fix the mulching material, in general, by the time the asphalt suspension covering the straw layer has disintegrated, the grass vegetation is well established. FIGURE 59 Mulching

Contour Wattling

Contour wattling, also called "wattling and staking", is one method of achieving a brush vegetation on steep slopes to be applied where a grass cover would not be strong enough to stabilize the soil of the slope. The idea is to sub-divide the slope with dense brush rows and, if necessary, in between the rows, grass seeding could be applied for additional soil fixation. Before starting with the wattling and staking, slope preparatory work should be carried out such as levelling of small gullies or removing such obstacles as big loose boulders and branches. Then stakes should be driven in along the contours at certain distances from each other within the contour line as well as from row to row. It is desirable to have every fourth stake as a sproutable stake. Staking should be started from the lowest part of the slope, moving uphill. Trenches should be dug just above the stakes and wattling consisting of sproutable twigs and branches are then put in the trench, overlapping each other. Part of the twigs and branches should be above the surface to prevent soil from moving down the slope. The soil dug out is used to cover the lower contour wattling. Some technical data are given below, as well as production data of an example of contour wattling carried out in Jamaica under the supervision of Mr. Sheng, FAO Watershed Management Officer. Stakes sharpened at the bottom ends 1 -1.2 m long and with a diameter of about 5 cm with a row interval of 1.2 m and 0.50 m from each other were driven into the soil, leaving about 15 cm of the stake above the solid surface. Thus a hectare would require about 17 000 stakes. Contour trenches 20 cm wide and 25 cm deep were dug and bundles of wattling 13 cm in diameter and 3 m long were laid in the trench. A ten-man crew may be able to carry out contour wattling work on an area at a rate of up to 250 m2 per day. Within the working crew, six labourers staked, two labourers trenched and covered wattles, and two labourers transported and carried out other duties. FIGURE 60 Contour Waffling

Another example of where several species to be used as cuttings have been tested (by Mr. Tautscher, FAO) was in Nepal. Those found to be most suitable for regeneration by cuttings were Salix tetrasperma. Salix vallichiana and Viburnum. Wicker Work Fencing The system is similar to the one mentioned above and is widely used in the Alpine Region of Middle Europe. The difference is that the sproutable material is not put in bundles into the soil, but is put around the stakes like a fence and the ends of the sproutable twigs are put into the soil. The rows must not necessarily follow the contour lines; very good results have been achieved with rows placed at an angle of 45 forming rhomb22 shapes with sides 1.5 - 4 m long. The stakes are driven into the soil with a spacing of 40-50 cm, having a length of 1-2 m and diameters of 5-10 cm. The stakes should be driven into the soil three-quarters to two-thirds of their length. The spacing of the wattle rows very much depends on the gradient of the slope and soil. Normally they are 1-4 m apart, laid out in parallel rows. In Europe good results have been achieved using Salix spp. and Alnus spp. as sproutable fencing material.
22

An equilateral parallelogram usually having oblique angles. FIGURE 61 Wicker Work Fencing

Contour Planting (Cordons) Sproutable plant material of 0.9 to 1.5 m in length is placed in horizontal cross layers into the contour terraces. Terrace digging starts from the bottom of the slope proceeding to the top. The lower cross layers of sprouting material are covered with soil gained from the excavation of the upper terrace. The spacing of the terraces depends on the gradient and the soil; it may be up to 3 m. The width of the terrace should be 0.5 - 0.6 m. Cordon layers may either continuously follow the contour line or be of a certain length, say 5 m, and overlap each other. With the indicated spacing of contour planted rows, 3 500 to 5 000 of cordons per hectare would be required for the rehabilitation of the eroded slopes. FIGURE 62 Contour Planting (Cordons)

Fascines The technique is similar to the one used in contour planting. It differs in that instead of putting cross layers in the contour terraces, brushwood is laid in. This can be mixed with cuttings to achieve a green brush row. In between the brush rows, shoots are put or seedlings are planted. Terraces should have a gradient of 20 to 25 percent towards the slope having a width of 0.6 -1.2 m. The brushwood and cuttings should be about 20 cm longer than the width of the terrace. FIGURE 63 Fascines

Reforestation Revegetation work should be carried out with pioneer23 species to stabilize slopes subject to landslides, or as a preventative erosion control measure on severely degraded slopes. In Alpine Regions pioneer plants such as alnus. Betula, Fraxinus and Prunus have proved to be most successful as far as their survival rate on eroded slopes is concerned. When considering plants for use as slope stabilizers it should be borne in mind that they have strong, deep roots to bind as much soil as possible. Wherever possible it would be desirable to select species for

afforestation on bare slopes which could be used as fodder or fuelwood trees, since there is a desperate need for such trees in many developing countries.
23

In order to ensure the fastest possible start of growth.

12.4 STABILIZATION OF DRAINAGE-WAYS

Unprotected drainage-ways crossing the roads are very often the source of major erosion problems. Erosion mainly occurs on unprotected outlets of the drainage-way where runoff water frequently develops gullies through its erosive force, which in some cases even cases landslides and damage to the road structure. Protection of water drainage outlets and channels can best be done by fixing the soil surface with dry stones or cement-bonded stones. In channels with steep gradients, it is advisable to have some stones cemented along the channels which are above the bed of the cement stone channel, thus reducing water velocity and its destructive erosion forces. A cheaper way of stabilizing channels and outlets of water crossings is to provide rook riprap which in most cases gives satisfactory results. For the protection of bridges, culverts and fords, structures such as rock riprap, dry stone or cement stone retaining walls, or where applicable, wooden protection structures may suffice. Very often revegetation treatment on the slopes of cross-water drainage-ways already gives satisfactory protection.

12.5 SLOPE PROTECTION WITH ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Simple engineering works for forest road construction such as drystone structures, gabions, log crib revetments and timber retaining walls, have proved very useful in many countries. They are inexpensive and easy to construct at the required sites with local material. Cement is often difficult to get or is not available in remote areas of developing countries, transport costs are usually high and skilled masonry labourers are often scarce. Therefore, in this paper heavy emphasis has been placed on drystone structures and timber construction works. Stone Arches Stones are placed in the form of arches into the soil of cut slopes. The width of such arches may be 0.60 to 1.20 m and they may be up to 1 m in depth. In between the arches and above them, cuttings of Salix spp. may be planted to achieve additional stabilization. Drystone Retaining Walls Stones from 20 to 30 cm in size are placed next to each other into the surface of the slope. For the setting of stones into the soil surface a productivity of 2.5 - 4 m2 per man per day may be achieved. However, provisions for obtaining and transporting the stones must also be made. PHOTO NO. 27 Drystone Retaining Wall

Gabions Gabions are structures made of stones which are normally set up by hand labour and covered with wire mesh to keep them together. The advantages of gabions are: (i) their construction is simple; with proper supervision, unskilled labours can set up these structures; (ii) they are cheap; (iii) stone material which is available in many places at the construction site can be used; (iv) only wire mesh or wire needs to be purchased and transported to the construction site; (v) their construction time is short; (vi) they are very durable; in comparison to cement masonry walls, they are more resistant against mass movement without breaking, because they are flexible; (vii) water drains off easily, thus increasing the shear strength of the soil and reducing the erosion hazard of the slope to be protected, thus preventing the mass movements mentioned in (vi) above; (viii) sooner or later, grass grows between the stones, thus making the gabions even more stable and integrating them well into the environment. Basic data used in the cost estimate are as follows: Average construction output per m3 of gabion = 1.9 man-days which comprises preparation of wire mesh, collecting stones near the construction site, transport and setting up the stones, forming the construction, as well as rock fill.

PHOTO NO. 28 Road base and surface destroyed by landslip, road repaired by gabion

Log Crib Revetments These structures may be of use where wood is easily available and where there is no adequate stone material or where the construction costs of stone structures are excessively high because of long transport distances for the stones. Log crib revetments are made of roundwood, consisting of logs laid parallel to the slope and cross-layers, which fix the structures with the sub-soil of the slope. The cross-layers should be placed at a spacing of 1 to 2 m. In between the log layers, which lie parallel to the road, stone filling and additional sproutable material may be placed protecting the road from stone and earth material. Log layers and the ends of the cross logs must be fixed either by nails or cut (notched) to fit each other. In severely sliding areas, it is advisable to construct log crib revetments consisting of front, back and cross-layers of logs, which would form a cage and would be thus more resistant to the gravity force of the slope material. The advantage of log crib revetments are that they can be set up in a short time, they are cheap, local tree species can be used and they are more resistant to slope movements than inflexible masonry constructions. Their disadvantage is that they have a limited lifetime, generally 10-15 years. However, by that time it is expected that the treated slopes will be stable. PHOTO NO. 29 Log crib revetment under construction

Timber Retaining Walls This simple type of structure may be built to protect slopes from erosion. It is composed of stakes driven into the sub-surface of the slope and of timber nailed onto them from the mountainside. They are placed near the road and, if necessary, higher up on the slope along the contour lines of the cut slope. Pre-cast Concrete Crib Revetment These structures have been developed for areas where neither stone nor timber is economically available. Concrete beams of 250 cm x 12.5 weighing about 90 kg each and cross-beams of 125 cm x 12.5 cm weighing about 45 kg are used for this type of structure. This example is only mentioned to give a more complete picture of the development in this sector of construction. At present their application may not be economically feasible in many countries, except for locations close to a source of cement.

12.6 PROTECTION OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS AGAINST TORRENTIAL WATERFLOWS

The damage to roads caused by torrential waterflows may occur when the roads are located along or across the torrents. Erosion caused by the running force of water may endanger or destroy the bank or embankments of roads or the road itself by its scouring effect and erosion of the toe of torrent banks. When crossing torrents or gullies, the road may be blocked by sedimentary material or destroyed by downhill mass movements. Necessary rehabilitation measures in controlling erosion caused by torrents are to reduce the velocity of water by engineering structures and rehabilitating slopes of the gully or torrent banks. Thus, a combination of biological and structural bank stabilization, as well as putting in check dams or sills and check dams, may be required to fully protect the road from erosion and sedimentation caused by torrential waterflows. Embankments

Embankments may be constructed with different materials. The most common type is made of rocks. Stones protecting the toe and bottom of the channel should have a diameter of at least 0.5 m and those protecting the banks should be 0.3 m and even greater. If only smaller stones are available, paving with stones covered by a wire mesh is very effective. A very quick method of stabilizing embankments is by putting boulders on the banks of the torrents - these structures are called "rip rap". In torrential flows with big hazards of bed erosion and scouring, the paved toe may be protected additionally by placing boulders on it. A combination of layers of boulders and layers of fascines with sproutable material may give very good results, as the water velocity is reduced by the facines on one side and the embankments are made more stable because of the vegetative cover. The cuttings should be put about two-thirds of their length into the sub-soil. Boulders in combination with grass turfing, or grass turfing and planting of brushes and trees on the embankments, may provide good results in stabilizing embankments. In areas where wood is available, log crib revetments with stone fillings in between the logs may be constructed. At the bottom of the timber crib revetment a layer of logs should be placed to prevent the filling material from being washed out from the structure. Bank revetments and retaining walls made of concrete are very effective -however they are more costly than the structures mentioned above. PHOTO NO. 30 A series of check dams to protect the forest road from erosion

13 MAINTENANCE OF FOREST ROADS

Purpose Maintenance is necessary for the preservation of the capital asset, the continued safety of the users and to reduce vehicle operating costs. This is usually attained by retaining the standards of the road as built. Drainage It is important that the subgrade strength is retained by having a clear drainage ditch to ensure a water table that is as low as is possible. Otherwise the designed pavement thickness may be compromised and expensive failure and loss of asset ensue. The main purpose of the ditch is not to transport water, but to intercept springs and depress the water table. Thus in high rainfall areas culverts should be frequent to pass water to discharge on the downhill side with minimum erosion. Silt traps where provided should be cleared regularly. A well profiled ditch with established grass cover should require very little maintenance. It may be necessary to cut woody growths before they become too substantial. An alternative where environmental constraints allow is the use of herbicides or a combination of both. When necessary and where the subgrade strength can allow the machine to travel on the subgrade soil, it is usually least expensive to reshape ditches by the use of the motor grader. On weaker soils the work must be done by using excavators which can also re-profile the banks of older roads to encourage the establishment of vegetation. The reshaping or cleaning of ditches must be done during dry weather to minimise erosion and sedimentation during the soil disturbance. It must be remembered that downstream may be domestic water supply points or fishery interests and local advice should be sought. Thus good practice aims to achieve appropriate visual and environmental standards, avoid erosion, sediment pollution and to minimise costs by reducing maintenance operations. There is the possibility however that the roadside vegetation can become very interesting botanically and pressure may arise to award almost a nature reserve status. Pavement thickness The designed and constructed pavement thickness must be preserved or excessive subgrade rutting will occur. This in turn may lead to deep seated failure requiring a total and expensive reconstruction. Pavement thickness is lost by the attrition of surface stone. The causes are believed to be:

a. Heavy rain washing away small sized particles and the subsequent release and rolling away of coarser material. b. Wind blowing away small particles in dry conditions and the subsequent release and rolling away of coarser material. c. Dislodgement and dispersal by vehicle tyres. This effect can be from all vehicle types. It is worsened by extra traffic, increased speed and by the aggressive tyres of off-road vehicles. d. Re-grading. The operation of re-grading can itself lead to some loss of material from the surface. A skilled operator can reduce the loss during the actual re-grading operation, but there seems also to be some consequential loss arising from the previous effects in re-establishing the surface crust. Re-grading should therefore only be done when necessary. In order to preserve an adequate pavement throughout the life of the road, either additional sacrificial material should be provided initially, or the road periodically re-metalled. Avoid the use of metalliferous or sulphide rich surfacing materials which may produce a toxic run-off. Re-metalling costs vary widely with local availability of stone, but usually a crushed stone is required in order to be laid in a thin layer. Typically a 75 mm layer requires some 650 tonnes/km. The rate of attrition is therefore important. Surface After grading and roiling, the road surface, even one of good materials, will actually improve under traffic. The surface tightens under the rolling effect of vehicle tyres to form a smooth waterproof crust. Further traffic then begins to cause attrition and increased roughness. The roughness is quantified in units of millimetre of roughness per kilometre. The millimetre being an integrated amount of vertical movement relative to an inertial datum whilst travelling the kilometre. The method was established by the Overseas Unit of the Transport Research Laboratory of UK. Typical UK values are: bitmac road 3 000 mm/km unsurfaced road 6 000 mm/km (Just regraded) Onset of pot-holes 10 000 mm/km Tests carried out by the Forestry Commission in Great Britain have shown that typically after 10,000 axles the road surface returns to the same roughness value as a just re-graded and rolled surface. Further traffic increases the roughness in a generally linear relationship, typically at a rate of 1 000 mm/km per 7,000 axles.

The work of the TRL Overseas Unit has shown that an increased surface roughness increases the operating costs of vehicles using the road. On economic grounds, savings in vehicle operating costs might justify efforts to provide an improved surface. Pot-holes in surfacing materials often seem to be watertight and cause no weakening of the pavement material, thus, the presence of pot-holes is not a particularly damaging condition in terms of the preservation of the asset other than the actual loss of metal. Heavy pot-holing does however lead to a substantial increase in user complaints, more so if the length of journey extends beyond a few kilometres. Eventually the presence of extensive and severe pot-holing becomes, not just an annoyance, but an increased and unacceptable risk to the safety of the user and gives rise to claims for increased vehicle operating costs. Re-grading should therefore be scheduled according to the condition of the surface and for guidance it is suggested that 80-100 pot-holes per kilometre represents a reasonable level at which to re-grade. In very exceptional circumstances, where high volumes of traffic are carried, it may be necessary to re-grade more than once per year, but this is usually associated with recreational usage where "user satisfaction" is very important. Without any traffic, an unsurfaced road is likely to become overgrown and the surfacing material becomes contaminated with organic debris from grass, moss and roots. If after some years it is brought back into use, the contaminated surface layer is often lost because it is either deliberately removed to improve traction and for the safety of users, or it simply erodes quickly because it is loose and of low strength. It is possible to avoid the road from becoming overgrown by re-grading on a return period of three to five years depending upon latitude, altitude and climate. The costs of this fall-back re-grading must be balanced by the value of the lost asset from the surface contamination. Only when a long period of non-use is expected and high financial interest rates apply is it considered to be appropriate to temporarily abandon the road. When in use local factors such as the surfacing material, climate, traffic mix, gradient, traffic speed etc will influence the rate of deterioration of surface condition and although it should be based on actual condition, re-grading after 20,000 vehicles is suggested as a typical interval. Thus the following re-grading intervals are suggested: Vehicles per year Re-grading interval > 20,000 less than one year 12,000: 20,000 1 year 8,000: 12,000 2 years 6,000: 8,000 3 years 5,000: 6,000 4 years) If vegetation growth < 5,000 5 years) permits. Some surfacing materials are sensitive to disturbance when either too wet or too dry and hence are best worked only at those times of the year when their moisture content is appropriate. Also a grader team will have the capacity to maintain a large quantity of road network necessitating operation over a large territory. It is therefore appropriate for economy to plan ahead to allow the work to be properly scheduled and to minimise movements.

During the re-grading operation it is often advantageous to supply additional metal to replenish sections of heavy attrition loss, such as at comers and on bends. The running surface will be restored to a camber to shed water to the sides. It is important that the re-grading operation does not leave a raised edge to the road which impedes the escape of surface water. Winter Conditions During periods of frost, the moisture content within the body of the pavement increases from water drawn by capillary attraction and as vapour, in extreme cases ice lenses may form. Whilst frozen this causes no problems, indeed even weak roads, hard frozen, can often be used to advantage. Severe problems however arise when the thaw begins, for then pavements are both unconsolidated and saturated. The change of moisture content taking place mainly within the smaller sized binder material which then loses strength rapidly from even small overall moisture content changes. Use in that condition by heavy vehicles is likely to cause heavy damage. Drying would be dependent upon the prevailing weather conditions but it may well take a period of several weeks to regain adequate strength. Light rolling in the latter part of the period would help to restore compaction. Fresh snow often packs down under traffic to ice which binds to the surface layers and its removal is also likely to remove the surface layer of good metal and tight surface finish. It is difficult and expensive to establish a safe running condition on top of surface ice, but it can be done by the generous spreading of coarse grit. It is better to avoid the formation of the surface ice and users should be asked to avoid making journeys if at all possible. Under no circumstances should salt be applied to an unsurfaced road to remove ice. The rapid thawing it induces renders the surface loose, weak and saturated. If trafficked it will disintegrate, lower levels become affected and major damage can ensue. It follows from the above that unsurfaced roads are suitable for winter use, but the limitation of non-use in the thaw period must be accepted. Operations and Mechanical Plant The grader should be fitted with scarifier tines and perhaps a towing beam to tow the roller if necessary. The use of a loading shovel instead of a tractor adds versatility, to remove abandoned timber produce from ditches or to re-handle metalling material from stockpiles. It also extends the range of duties for a team, allowing car parks and light construction work to be tackled. With an appreciation of the processes at work related to particular sites and circumstances, the maintenance managers of unsurfaced roads can determine appropriate strategies to provide serviceable roads that continue, in the long term, to be genuinely low cost.

14 CONTRACTS
14.1 CONTRACT CHECKLIST 14.2 SPECIMEN CONTRACT Most work is now done by contractors skilled in the operations required. Use of contractors needs a contract to define the work to be done or the payment to be made. Legal definitions and requirements vary from country to country and contracts should always be drawn up either using internationally accepted contracts or local ones. Some things are standard. A contract is an agreement between parties to do something for a consideration. You cannot have a contract if there is no 'payment'. If the nice lady in the cake shop says 'have this cake as a present' there is no contract. If she says 'have this nice cake if you give me 20c.' and you say 'yes', there is a contract in place. If, however, you were to reply' the cake is only worth 15c.' you have made a counter offer and there is no contract until the lady replies 'done!'. The purpose of a contract is to get goods or services or, in the area of our forestry contracting concern, work done in return for payment. In negotiating the contract the important thing to remember is the purpose of the contract. If it is to get work done the contract should be made in such a way as to expedite that end. It may be verbal, but increasingly in writing, and as long as there is an offer and an acceptance there is a contract in force. In either case the contract should be made in such manner as will maximise the likelihood of performance, and minimise the possibility of failure. The form of contract most likely to be seen in the industry is where an owner or agent tenders or is willing to negotiate a contract for performance of some work. In doing so he probably stipulates the conditions of contract that he would wish. The offer comes from the contractor in stating that he is willing to carry out the work in accordance with the conditions laid down (or in accordance with some new conditions that the contractor wishes to place within the contract) and the contractor states the payment he would require. If the owner accepts the 'offer', the contract exists. Any further negotiations are either adjusting terms of the contract, to which both parties agree, or are a new offer and acceptance, i.e. a new contract. The offer must be intended to create legal relations and the acceptance must be of the offer in its terms. In most contracts there will be a section which deals with the common conditions of contract such as Insurance, Health and Safety and Definitions of the parties to the contract. These common clauses in the contract are usually standard and are used in all of the contracts from the organisation which is placing the contract. The other section will deal with specific matters to do with the site, specification and payment for the particular contract. These clauses are more likely to be prepared by a local manager and could therefore have more need for clarity and agreement of both of the parties.

14.1 CONTRACT CHECKLIST

This checklist provides an indication of the clauses that should be in a full contract. Many of them are related to standard conditions (1-9) and the others are concerned with the specific

tasks and arrangements for the particular job to be done. It is sensible to examine any contract and to compare it with this checklist. Variations can then be judged in terms of importance to the parties to the contract. Contracts should not be signed if there is any doubt. 1. Details of parties Names Addresses Definitions (Employer; Contractor; Merchant; Owner) 2. Date of Agreement 3. Duration of Agreement Comment This should indicate the length of the contract to enable the contractor to judge the resources required. 4. Health and Safety 5. Liability and Insurance Types of Insurance Amount of Insurance Liabilities (Damage; Pollution; etc) Reinstatement of Damage 6. Suspension/Termination/Change of Contract Variation in quantities\species\site Force Majeure Breaches of Contract 7. Disputes procedure 8. Use of Sub Contractors 9. Terms of Payment Price (per Unit\Fixed\Day Rates) Unit of Payment (Cubic Metre\Piece\Hectare\etc) Measurement of Units Instigation of Payments (Invoice\Weighbridge Ticket\Time) Period of Payment (30 days\60 days) Reconciliation Payments and work quantities Interim and Final payments Deferred payments Work ineligible for payment Payment for additional work

10. Description of Work Location Boundaries\demarcation Details of Crop\Materials to be used General Description of operations Specification of works or products Method and order of working Targets Special Constraints (Shooting Period\Times of work) Standards of Work 11. Site Details Access Hazards Environmental Constraints Stacking sites Fuel\Storage Sites 12. Equipment Permissions for use Siting Removal

14.2 SPECIMEN CONTRACT

Contract Law will vary from country to country, but a small contract may look something like this, This is a contract between___________of___________ (Hereinafter called the Employer) and ___________ of ___________ (Hereinafter called the Contractor). The work involved and the form and rates of payment are written overleaf. The site of the works is ___________ and a site plan is attached. 2. The Contract is for the Contractor to [cut and prepare timber](or such other function) in accordance with the instructions of the Employer and the schedule overleaf. The Employer will have indemnified the Contractor regarding the ownership and licensing of the operations involved. The Employer reserves the right to reject any of the products of the operations where these do not meet the instructed specification. 3. Payment for work will be in accordance with the rates recorded below, and made within ___________ days of receipt of the invoice. 4. The Period of the Contract is ___________ days/weeks/months from__/__/9__. Extensions to this contract period must be agreed in writing.

5. The Employer will advise the Contractor, before the commencement of the work, of the Hazards and constraints associated with the site. The Contractor will ensure that all persons working on the site or engaged by him shall comply with the Statutory Health and Safety Regulations and any other appropriate law. 6. The Contractor will satisfy the Employer that the employees and operatives on site are properly trained for the tasks encompassed by the contract and have such certificates of Competence as are required. He will ensure that all equipment, trailers and the like used on site are safe, legal and insured. 7. The Contractor will maintain Insurance cover as required by the Employer against any liability appropriate for the site and operations. 8. The contract can be cancelled by either party if a breach to the contract occurs, and with __ weeks notice for any other reason. Failure as a result of an Act of God, flood fire or war shall not be regarded as a breach to the contract. If a disagreement occurs the parties will seek the services of a mediator. Signed ___________ (Agent/Merchant/Owner) Date Signed ___________ (Contractor/Subcontractor) Date DESCRIPTION OF WORKS Rate for Payment

REFERENCES

AFI. 1997. sterreichische Forstinventur 1992/96. FBVA, 1997: Wien, 262 pp. Almas, D.; Colla. J.; David., K. & Schnepf, C. 1993. Forestry in Idaho - Best Management Practices. Forest Stewardship Guidelines for Water Quality. Ag Publications, University of Idaho, Moscow, 33 pp. Bell, S New Roads in the Landscape, Birmingham, 1994 Bell, S Elements of Visual Design in the Landscape, E&F Spon, 1993 Dykstra, D.P. & Heinrich, R. 1996. FAO Model Code of Forest Harvesting Practice. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, 85 pp. FAO Logging and Log Transport in Tropical High Forest, FAO, Rome 1974 FAO FAO/Austria Training Course on Forest Roads and Harvesting in Mountainous Forests. Technical 1976 Report. Ed. by R. Heinrich, FAO, Rome. FAO Pulpwood Logging Trials in Tropical High Forest, East Kalimantan, Indonesia, by R. Heinrich, FAO, 1976 Rome. FAO Conservation Guide 1. Guidelines for Watershed Management, FAO, Rome. 1977 FAO Mountain Roads, Nepal, 1977, by R. Heinrich, FAO, Rome. 1977 FAO Planning Forest Roads and Harvesting Systems, FAO, Rome. 1977 FAO Pulpwood Logging Trials in Tropical High Forest, East Kalimantan, Indonesia; by R. Heinrich, FAO, 1977 Rome. FAO Mountain Forest Roads and Harvesting, Ed. by R. Heinrich, FAO, Rome. 1979 FAO. 1989. Watershed management field manual. Road design and construction in sensitive watersheds. FAO Conservation guide 13/5, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, 196 pp. Forestry Contracting Association (UK); Employment and Contracts 1997 Gorton, F. 1985. Praxis und Kosten einer landschaftsschonenden Bauausfhrung von Forststrassen. Allgemeine Forstzeitung, Wien, 96 (9), 241-244. Hafner, F. Forstlicher Strassen- u. Wegebau, sterreichischer Agrarverlag, Wien. 1971 Hay, R M, Planning of Roads; Low Cost Unsurfaced Roads, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh 1993 Hay, R M, The Role of the Civil Engineer in Forestry, Proceeding Vol 80, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1986. Heinrich, R. Mechanised Forest Road Construction Techniques (lecture paper). 1980

IUFRO. 1995. Forest work study. Nomenclature. Test Edition valid 1995-2000. International Union of Forestry Research Organisations WP 3.04.02. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Operational Efficiency, Garpenberg, 16 pp. O'Hara, J. GIS Development within Forest Enterprise; Computers in Forest Production, FEG UK, Penrith 1996 Litzka, J. & Haslehner, W. 1995. Appropriate environmental design and construction of low-volume rural roads in Austria. Proceedings of the sixth international conference on lowvolume roads held in Minneapolis, Minnesota 1995. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., Vol. 1: 67-73. Ruedi, J.P. Low Cost Road Construction. Working Paper No. 7 (THA/72/008) UNDP/FAO Mae Sa Integrated Watershed and Forest Land Use Project, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Sedlak, O. 1985. Forest road planning, location and construction techniques on steep terrain. In Logging and transport in steep terrain. FAO Forestry paper 14/1, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, 333 pp. Sedlak, O. 1996. Forest harvesting and environment in Austria. In Forest codes of practice. Contributing to environmentally sound forest operations. FAO Forestry paper 133, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, 134 pp. Sessions, J. & Western, H. Log Extraction Studies and Technical Assistance in Forest Road Design and 1974 Construction in Mountainous Regions, Forestry Development and Watershed Management in the Upland Regions of Jamaica; FAO, Kingston. Tautscher, O. FAO Report to the Government of Nepal on Torrent and Erosion Control, FAO Report No. 1 TA 1974 3286, Rome. Unesco Low Cost Roads, Design, Construction and Maintenance. 1971 WIMMER. 1996. Wimmer News. Wimmer Hartstahl GesmbH & CoKG, Thalgau/Salzburg, 16 pp. Winkler, N. 1992. Spezielle hydrologische Probleme im Forststrassenbau. Boku, Wien, 220 pp. Winkler, N. 1998. Spezielle hydrologische Probleme im Forststrassenbau. Der Frderungsdienst, Wien, 75 (4), 15 pp. D/W8297E/200