SIGHT DISTANCE

Presented by Nazir Lalani P.E. Traffex Engineers Inc. N_lalani@hotmail.com

WHY IS SIGHT DISTANCE SO IMPORTANT?

Drivers must be able to:
Stop for objects in the roadway Stop for stationary vehicles ahead See cross traffic at intersections before entering See on coming vehicles when passing See traffic control devices and react to them See trains at Railroad Xings not controlled by gates See pedestrians waiting to cross the street

AASHTO GEOMETRIC DESIGN BOOK

What is Stopping Sight Distance?

Stopping Sight Distance: The available sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:

The distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied (brake reaction distance). distance).

Brake Reaction Time

The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins (braking distance). distance).

Brake Reaction Time Braking Distance

Braking Distance
The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling :

US Customary

V d = 1.075 a
Where: d = braking distance; V = design speed, mph; a = deceleration rate, ft/s ft/s

Studies documented in the literature show that most drivers decelerate at a rate greater than 14.8 ft/s when confronted with the need to stop for an unexpected object in the roadway

US Customary
Approximately 90 percent of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than 11.2 ft/s

V d = 1.075 a
Where: d = braking distance; V = design speed, mph; a = deceleration rate, ft/s ft/s

Therefore, 11.2 ft/s (a comfortable deceleration for most drivers) is recommended as the deceleration threshold for determining stopping sight distance

Brake Reaction Time Brake Reaction Distance

Brake Reaction Time

Brake reaction time is the interval from the instant that the driver recognizes the existence of an obstacle on the roadway ahead that necessitates braking to the instant that the driver actually applies the brakes

In addition, the driver must not only see the object but must also recognize it as a stationary or slowly moving object

Brake Reaction Time

Comprises of PIEV which includes speed and conditions.

Perception Identification (understanding) Emotion (decision making) Volition (execution of decision)

Both recent research and the studies documented in the literature show that a 2.5-s brake reaction time for stopping sight 2.5situations encompasses the capabilities of most drivers, including those of older drivers

The recommended design criterion of 2.5-s for brake reaction 2.5time exceeds the 90th percentile of reaction time for all drivers

Stopping Sight Distance

The sum of the distance traversed during the brake reaction time and the braking distance is the stopping sight distance

US Customary

V d = 1.47Vt + 1.075 a
Where: V = design speed, mph; a = deceleration rate, ft/s ft/s t = Brake reaction time in seconds

Drivers eye is estimated to be 3.5 ft and the height of the object to be seen by the driver is 2 ft, equivalent to the tail light height of a passenger car.

US Customary
Stopping sight distance
Design speed (mph) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 Brake reaction distance (ft) 55.1 73.5 91.9 110.3 128.6 147 165.4 183.8 202.1 220.5 238.9 257.3 275.6 294 Braking distance on level (ft) 21.6 38.4 60 86.4 117.6 153.6 194.4 240 290.3 345.5 405.5 470.3 539.9 614.3 Calculated (ft) 76.7 111.9 151.9 196.7 246.2 300.6 359.8 423.8 492.4 566 644.4 727.6 815.5 908.3 Design (ft) 80 115 155 200 250 305 360 425 495 570 645 730 820 910

Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Why is it important on horizontal and vertical curves?

Vertical Curve Crest Condition

Design Speed (mph)

Algebraic Difference in Grades (%)

Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Exhibit 3-71: Length of Crest Vertical Curve (feet)

Exhibit 3-72 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance

Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

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Exhibit 3-73 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance

Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Not designed for either stopping or passing sight distance!

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Vertical Curve Sag Condition

Stopping Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves

The minimum length of vertical curve which provides headlight sight sight distance in grade sags for a given design speed can be obtained.

Source: Caltrans Highway Design Manual

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Design Speed (mph)

Algebraic Difference in Grades (%)

Exhibit 3-74 Length of Sag Vertical Curve (feet) Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Exhibit 3-75 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance

Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

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Formula for length of sag vertical curve using comfort factor ( length is 50% less than based on headlight distance)

Exhibit 3-76 Sight Distance at Under Crossings

Note: AASHTO provide different formulas for calculating curves for under Crossings
Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

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Bridge structure limits sight distance

General Controls for Vertical Alignments

Provide smooth grade line with gradual changes Avoid roller coaster or sudden dip type profiles Avoid broken back curves ( two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short tangent On long grades, the steepest at the bottom with flattening of the grades near the top Sag vertical curves must have adequate drainage

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Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

Where an object off the pavement such as a bridge pier, building, building, cut slope, or natural growth restricts sight distance, the minimum minimum radius of curvature is determined by the stopping sight distance. distance. HSO: Horizontal Sightline Offset Available stopping sight distance on horizontal curves is obtained from Exhibit 3-53 It is assumed that the drivers driver eye is 3.5 feet above the center of the inside lane (inside with respect to curve) and the object is 2 feet high

Insert Exhibit 3-54

Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

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Source: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

General Controls for Horizontal Alignments

Provide passing distance on 2-lane roads Provide greater radius of curvature than the minimum where possible Avoid sharp horizontal curves at the ends of long tangent sections and back to back reverse curves Curves should be at least 500 feet for a central angle of 5 degrees 100 feet per degree Minimum length of horizontal curves should be 15 times the design speed in mph

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Stopping Sight Distance for Bicyclists

Source: Caltrans Highway Design Manual Chapter 1000

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Source: Caltrans Highway Design Manual Chapter 1000

Minimum Length of Crest Vertical Curve

Source: Caltrans Highway Design Manual Chapter 1000

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Horizontal Lateral Clearance Formula

Source: Caltrans Highway Design Manual Chapter 1000

Stopping Sight Distance

Source: Caltrans Highway Design Manual Chapter 1000

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Intersection Sight Distance

Uncontrolled Intersections

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Sight Triangles

Specified areas along intersection approach legs and across their included corners should be clear of obstructions that might block a drivers view of potentially conflicting vehicles These specified areas are known as clear sight triangles

The dimensions of the legs of the sight triangles depend on the design speeds of the intersecting roadways and the type of traffic traffic control used at the intersection.

Two types of clear sight triangles are considered in intersection design:

Approach Sight Triangles

A N D

Departure Sight Triangles

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Approach Sight Triangles for Uncontrolled Locations

Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a triangular area area free of obstructions that might block an approaching drivers view driver of potentially conflicting vehicles - drivers eye height and object height are 3.5 feet (AASTO) The length of the legs of this triangular area, along both intersecting roadways, should be such that the drivers can see any any potentially conflicting vehicles in sufficient time to slow or stop stop before colliding within the intersection

Exhibit 9-50: Intersection Sight Triangles

This decision point is the location at which the minor-road driver should begin minorto brake to a stop if another vehicle is present on an intersecting approach. The distance from the major road, along the minor road, is illustrated by the dimension a in Exhibit 9-50 A. 9Dimension b illustrates the length of this leg of the sight triangle along the major road A.

Minor Road

b
Major Road

Clear Sight Triangle Decision Point

A- Approach Sight Triangles (uncontrolled)

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

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Corner sight triangle for uncontrolled locations

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

Stop Sign Controlled Intersections

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Exhibit 9-50: Intersection Sight Triangles

Although desirable at higher volume intersections, approach sight triangles like those shown in exhibit 9-50A are not needed for intersection approaches controlled by stop signs or traffic signals.
Major Road

Minor Road

Clear Sight Triangle Decision Point

In that case, the need for approaching vehicles to stop at the intersection is determined by the traffic control devices and not by the presence or absence of vehicles on the intersecting approaches.

A- Approach Sight Triangles (uncontrolled or yieldcontrolled)

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

Case B-Intersections with Stop Control on the Minor Road

Departure sight triangles for intersections with stop control on the minor road should be considered for three situations: Case B1---Left turns from the minor road; Case B2---Right turn from the minor road; and Case B3---Crossing the major road from a minor-road approach Intersection sight distance criteria for stop-controlled intersections are longer than stopping sight distance to ensure that the intersection operates smoothly Minor-road vehicle operators have to wait for a gap in cross traffic until they can proceed safely without forcing a major-road vehicle to stop

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Exhibit 9-50. Intersection 9Sight Triangles

Minor Road

b
Major Road

A second type of clear sight triangle provides sight distance sufficient for a stopped driver on a minor-road approach to depart from the intersection and enter or cross the major road.

a Decision Point Clear Sight Triangle

Departure sight triangles should be provided in each quadrant of each intersection approach controlled by stop or yield signs.

B- Departure Sight Triangles (Stop control)

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

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Exhibit 9-50. Intersection Sight 9Triangles

Departure sight triangles should also be provided for some signalized intersection approaches where right turns on red are permitted.

Minor Road

b
Major Road

a Decision Point Clear Sight Triangle

The recommended dimensions of the clear sight triangle for desirable traffic operations where stopped vehicles enter or cross a major road are based on assumptions derived from field observations of driver gap acceptance behavior.

B- Departure Sight Triangles (Stop control)

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

Case B1---Left Turn from the Minor Road

The vertex (decision point) of the departure sight triangle on the minor road should be 4.4 m [14.5 ft] from the edge of the major-road traveled way This represents the typical position of the minor-road drivers eye when a vehicle is stopped relatively close to the major road
Minor Road

Major Road

a Decision Point Clear Sight Triangle

Exhibit 9-50B: Intersection Sight Triangles

Departure Sight Triangles (Stop control)

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

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The intersection sight distance along the major road (dimension b in Exhibit 9-50B) is determined by:
US Customary ISD = 1.47 V major t where: ISD = intersectionsightdistance
(lengthofthelegofsight trianglealongthemajor road)(ft)
g

(9-1)

V major tg

= designspeedofmajor
road(mph)

= timegapforminorroad
vehicletoenterthemajor road (s)

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

Exhibit 9-54. Time Gap for Case B1---Left Turn from Stop
Timegap(tg)(seconds)atdesignspeed
Designvehicle
Passengercar Singleunittruck Single Combinationtruck

ofmajorroad
7.5 9.5 11.5

Note: Time gaps are for a stopped vehicle to turn left onto a two-lane highway with no median and two grades 3 percent or less. The table values require adjustment as follows:

For multilane highways:

For left turns onto two-way highways with more than two lanes, add 0.5 seconds for twopassenger cars or 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane, from the left, in excess of lane, one, to be crossed by the turning vehicle For minor road approach grades: If the approach grade is an upgrade that exceeds 3 percent; add 0.2 seconds for each percent grade for left turns

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

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NOTE:
Where substantial volumes of heavy vehicles enter the major road, such as from a ramp terminal, the use of tabulated values for single-unit or combination trucks should be considered. singleAdjustment for the grade of the minor-road approach is needed minoronly if the rear wheels of the design vehicle would be on an upgrade that exceeds 3 percent when the vehicle is at the stop line of the minor-road approach. minorUse the tabulated values shown in Exhibit 9-55 from AASTHO if 9no adjustments are needed.

Exhibit955.DesignIntersectionSightDistanceCaseB1Left Exhibit9 55.DesignIntersectionSightDistance CaseB1 TurnStop

US Customary Intersection sight distance for Stopping passenger cars sight distance Calculated Design (ft) (ft) (ft) 80 165.4 170 115 220.5 225 155 275.6 280 200 330.8 335 250 385.9 390 305 441.0 445 360 496.1 500 425 551.3 555 495 606.4 610 570 661.5 665 645 716.6 720 730 771.8 775 820 826.9 830 910 882.0 885

Design Speed (mph) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Note:Intersectionsightdistanceshownisforastoppedpassenger Note:Intersectionsightdistanceshownisforastoppedpassenger cartoturnleftontoatwolanehighwaywithnomedianandgrades cartoturnleftontoatwo 3percentorless..

Source:GeometricDesignofHighwaysandStreets2004

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Motorcyclist
Motorcyclist- Left-turning Vehicle crash

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Case B2Right turn from the Minor Road

The intersection sight distance for right turns is determined in the same manner as for Case B1, except that the time gaps (tg) in Exhibit 9-54 should be adjusted Field observations indicate that, in making right turns, drivers generally accept gaps that are slightly shorter than those accepted in making left turns The time gaps in Exhibit 9-54 can be decreased by 1.0 s for rightturn maneuvers without undue interference with major-road traffic

Theintersectionsightdistancealong themajorroad(dimensionb inExhibit 950B)isdeterminedby:

US Customary ISD = 1.47 V major t where: ISD = intersectionsightdistance
(lengthofthelegofsight trianglealongthemajor road)(ft)
g

(9-1)

V major tg

= designspeedofmajor
road(mph)

= timegapforminorroad
vehicletoenterthemajor road (s)

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

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Exhibit 9-57. Time Gap for Case B2---Right Turn from Stop and Case B3---Crossing Maneuver
Timegap(tg)(seconds)atdesignspeed
Designvehicle
Passengercar Singleunittruck Single Combinationtruck

ofmajorroad
6.5 8.5 10.5

Note: Time gaps are for a stopped vehicle to turn right onto or cross a two-lane highway with no twomedian and grades 3 percent or less. The table values require adjustment as follows: adjustment

For multilane highways:

For crossing a major road with more than two lanes, add 0.5 seconds for passenger cars and seconds 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed and for narrow medians that and cannot store the design vehicle For minor road approach grades: If the approach grade is an upgrade that exceeds 3 percent; add 0.1 seconds for each percent grade

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

Exhibit 9-58. Design Intersection Sight DistanceCase B2Right Turn from Stop and 9Distance B2 Case B3Crossing Maneuver B3
US Customary Intersection sight distance for Stopping passenger cars sight distance Calculated Design (ft) (ft) (ft) 80 143.3 145 115 191.1 195 155 238.9 240 200 286.7 290 250 334.4 335 305 382.2 385 360 430.0 430 425 477.8 480 495 525.5 530 570 573.3 575 645 621.1 625 730 668.9 670 820 716.6 720 910 764.4 765

Design Speed (mph) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Note: Intersection sight distance shown is for a stopped passenger car to turn right onto or cross a two-lane highway with no median and grades 3 percent or less. For other conditions, the time gap must be adjusted and required sight distance recalculated.

Source:GeometricDesignofHighwaysandStreets2004

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Case B3Crossing the Major Road from a Minor-road approach

In most cases, the departure sight triangles for left and right turns onto the major road, as described for cases B1 and B2, will also provide more than adequate sight distance for minor-road vehicles to cross the major road However, in the following situations, it is advisable to check the availability of sight distance for crossing maneuvers:
Where left and/or right turns are not permitted from a particular approach and the crossing maneuver is the only legal maneuver; Where the crossing vehicle would cross the equivalent width of more than six lanes; or Where substantial volumes of heavy vehicles cross the highway and steep grades that might slow the vehicle while its back portion is still in the intersection are present on the departure roadway on the far side of the intersection

Yield Controlled Intersections

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Yield Controlled Intersections

Exhibits 9-60 to 9-64 in AASHTO address Yield controlled intersections Assumes vehicle will slow but not stop Experience shows that drivers tend to treat them as uncontrolled intersections and do not slow for through movements AASHTO assumes drivers turning left or right will slow to 10 mph

Exhibit 9-61: Case C1 Length of Sight Triangle for Crossing Maneuvers at Yield Controlled Intersections

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Exhibit 9-64: Case C2 Design Intersection Sight Distance for Left/Right Turns Yield Controlled Intersections

Decision Sight Distance

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Exhibit 3-3: Decision Sight Distance

Design Values
The sum of the distance traversed during the brake reaction time and the distance to brake the vehicle to a stop is the stopping sight distance sight

US Customary

V d = 1.47Vt + 1.075 a
Where: V = design speed, mph; a = deceleration rate, ft/s ft/s t = Brake reaction time in seconds

Drivers eye is estimated to be 3.5 ft Driver and the height of the object to be seen by the driver is 2 ft, equivalent to the tail light height of a passenger car.

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What Causes Corner Sight Distance Obstructions?

Corner Sight Distance Obstructions

Parked Vehicles Vegetation Horizontal and vertical curves Signs Offset curbs

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Vegetation Obstruction Before

Vegetation Obstruction After Trimming

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Vegetation Obstruction Before

Vegetation Obstruction After

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Vertical Curve Restriction

Corner sight distance blocked by sign

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Corner sight distance blocked by parking

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Sight distance obstruction caused by newspaper racks

Now trees have been added to the mix

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Source: MUTCD

Sign and limit line placement at intersections

Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)

National MUTCD National standard for all traffic control devices installed on any street, highway or bicycle trail open to public travel. Web site:mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov
Compliance dates:http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/kno-compliance.htm

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Source: Public Works Magazine, July 1981

Intersection looking left from a well position stop limit line

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Left-turn Sight Distance for Left-turn Traffic Turning from Major Street

Reproduced with permission of the Transportation Research Board (TRB) from the Access Management Manual, TRB, Washington DC, 2003

Sight distance triangles at driveways

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Transportation Research Board (TRB) Access Management Manual, TRB, Washington DC, 2003

Left-turn sight distance at driveway blocked by trees

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Exhibit 9-67 - Intersection Sight Distance Left-turn from the Major Road

Source: AASHTO Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

Exhibit 9-54. Time Gap for Case F---Left Turns from Major Rd 9-54. F---Left 9F---Left
Timegap(tg)(seconds)atdesignspeed
Designvehicle
Passengercar Singleunittruck Single Combinationtruck

ofmajorroad
5.5 6.5 7.5

For multilane highways:

For left turning vehicles that cross more than one opposing lane, add 0.5 seconds for lane, passenger cars or 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed by the turning lane vehicle

Source: AASHTO A Policy on Design of Highways and Streets

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Left-turn sight distance blocked by trees Talk about protected permissive left turns

Passing Sight Distance

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No passing Zone on Horizontal Curve

Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is considered only on 2-lane 2roads At critical locations, a stretch of 3- or 4-lane passing 3- 4section with stopping sight distance is sometimes more economical than two lanes with passing sight distance

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Dashed yellow center line on downhill side of this up hill passing lane!

Passing Sight Distance - AASHTO

The sight distance available for passing at any place is the longest distance at which a driver whose eyes are 3.5 feet above the pavement surface can see the top of an object 3.5 feet high on the road In general, 2-lane highways should be designed to provide for 2passing where possible, especially those routes with high volumes of trucks or recreational vehicles Passing should be done on tangent horizontal alignments with constant grades or a slight sag vertical curve Minimum passing sight distance is about four times the minimum stopping sight distance at the same design speed

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Passing Sight Distance - AASHTO

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance required for the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely and comfortably at a 10 mph speed differential Passing must be accomplished assuming an oncoming vehicle comes into view and maintains the design speed, without reduction after the overtaking maneuver is started
Sight Distance Standards Design Speed (mph) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 Stopping (ft) 125 150 200 250 300 360 430 500 580 660 750 840 930 Passing (ft) 800 950 1100 1300 1500 1650 1800 1950 2100 2300 2500 2600 2700

Minimum Passing Sight Distances - MUTCD

MUTCD Distances are shorter because the assumed difference in speed is greater

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Pedestrians

Clear sight distance should be provided on approaches to a crosswalk

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Clear sight distance based on the gap time needed for a pedestrian to cross the street should be provided on the approaches to a crosswalk

Traffic Signals

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Cone of Vision - MUTCD

Can you spot the signal?

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Railroad Xings

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http://www.ite.org/bookstore/gradecrossing/lo_res_RR_BOOK.pdf

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Sight Distance for Roundabouts

Stopping Sight Distance

Source: FHWA Roundabout Guide

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Source: Modern Roundabouts for Oregon (ODOT)

Source: WA DOT Design Manual Chapter 915

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Source: Caltrans Design Information Bulletin 80-01: 80-

Source: Caltrans Design Information Bulletin 80-01 80-

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(6.5 seconds)

Roundabout stopping sight distance

Source: Caltrans Design Information Bulletin 80-01: Roundabouts 80-

Source: Modern Roundabouts for Oregon (ODOT)

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QUESTIONS ?

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