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Atomic structure

Jurusan Teknik Mesin dan Industri Fak Teknik UGM 2012/2013

The Atomic Theory of Matter


Atom atomos (Greek) = indivisible
Democritus (460-370 BC)

Daltons atomic theory of 1803:


1. Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms 2. All atoms of a given element are identical 3. Atoms of an element are not changed into different types of atoms by chemical reactions 4. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine

The Atomic Theory of Matter Theories of chemical combinations:


The law of constant composition
(Constant number & kinds of atom in a compound)

The law of conservation of mass


(Constant mass before & after reaction)

Dalton used these "laws" to derive another "law" - the law of multiple proportions
(The ratios of the relative masses of each element in a compound = a small whole number)

The Discovery of Atomic Structure


1803 Dalton - the atom is a indivisible, indestructible, tiny ball 1850 Evidence is accumulating that the atom is itself composed of smaller particles

The Discovery of Atomic Structure

Behavior of moving charge in magnetic field

Cathode rays and electrons


The "rays" traveled towards, or were attracted to the positive electrode (anode) Not directly visible but could be detected by their ability to cause other materials to glow, or fluoresce Traveled in a straight line Their path could be "bent" by the influence of magnetic or electrical fields A metal plate in the path of the "cathode rays" aquired a negative charge The "cathode rays" produced by cathodes of different materials appeared to have the same properties The cathode ray radiation was composed of negatively charged particles (electron)

Cathode rays and electrons

J.J. Thompson (1897) measured the charge to mass ratio for a stream of electrons at 1.76 x 108 coulombs/gram.

Cathode rays and electrons


Robert Millikan (1909) was able to successfully measure the charge on a single electron (the "Milliken oil drop experiment"). This value was determined to be 1.60 x 10-19 coulombs. Thus, the mass of a single electron was determined to be: (1 gram/1.76 x 108 coulombs)*(1.60 x 10-19 coulombs) = 9.10 x 10-28 grams Note: the currently accepted value for the mass of the electron is 9.10939 x 10-28 grams.

Radioactivity
Wilhelm Roentgen (1895) discovered the "x" ray
They could pass unimpeded through many objects They were unaffected by magnetic or electric fields They produced an image on photographic plates (i.e. they interacted with silver emulsions like visible light)

Henri Becquerel (1896)


Uranium radioactivity

Marie and Pierre Curie


Isolate the radioactive components in the uranium mineral.

Radioactivity
Ernest Rutherford studied alpha rays, beta rays and gamma rays, emitted by certain radioactive substances.

The nuclear atom

(1900)

(1910)

The nuclear atom


Rutherford (1919) discovers protons - positively charged particles in the nucleus Chadwick (1932) discovers neutron - neutral charge particles in the nucleus

The Modern View of Atomic Structure


Sub atomic particle:
Electron Negatively charged (-1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs (C) = -1. Proton The proton has a charge of +1 electron charge (+1.602 x 10-19 C) Neutrons Electrically neutral.

The Modern View of Atomic Structure

An atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to 1.66054 x 10-24 grams. Proton = 1.0073 amu Neutron = 1.0087 amu Electron = 5.486 x 10-4 amu The typical range for atomic diameters is between 1 x 10-10 and 5 x 10-10 meters (1 and 5 )

Periodic table
Elements are divided into the general groups of: Metals (everything on the left and middle region) Non-metals (upper diagonal on the right hand side green, salmon and red) Metaloids (atoms in the boundary between the metals and non-metals): Boron(B), Silicon(Si), Germainium(Ge), Arsenic(As), Antimony(Sb), Tellurium(Te), Astatine(At)). These are some of the more useful materials for semi-conductors. The majority of elements are metals: high luster high electrical conductivity high heat conductivity solid at room temperature (except Mercury [Hg])

Isotopes, Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers


All atoms of an element have the same number of protons in the nucleus Since the net charge on an atom is 0, the atom must have an equal number of electrons. Atoms which differ only in the number of neutrons are called isotopes.

Molecules and Ions


Molecules and chemical formulas A molecule is comprised of two or more chemically bonded atoms. Example:
Consists of the same atoms: O2 & O3 Consists of different atoms: H2O & H2O2

Most molecular compounds (i.e. involving chemical bonds) contain only non-metallic elements.

Molecular, Empirical, and Structural Formulas


Molecular formulas refer to the actual number of the different atoms which comprise a single molecule of a compound. Empirical formulas refer to the smallest whole number ratios of atoms in a particular compound. Compound Water Hydrogen Peroxide Ethylene Ethane Molecular Formula Empirical Formula H2O H2O2 C2H4 C2H6 H2O HO CH2 CH3

Structural formulas

Ions
The nucleus of an atom (containing protons and neutrons) remains unchanged after ordinary chemical reactions, but atoms can readily gain or lose electrons. In general, metal atoms tend to lose electrons, and nonmetal atoms tend to gain electrons.

Predicting ionic charges


Many atoms gain or lose electrons such that they end up with the same number of electrons as the noble gas closest to them in the periodic table. Other elements must gain or lose electrons, to end up with the same arrangement of electrons as the noble gases, in order to achieve the same kind of electron stability.

Ionic Compounds
The oppositely charged ions attract one another and bind together to form NaCl (sodium chloride) an ionic compound. An ionic compound contains positively and negatively charged ions

Ionic Compounds
The Na+ and Cl- ions are not chemically bonded together Cannot be described using a molecular formula. Use an empirical formula instead. The concentration of ions in an ionic compound are such that the overall charge is neutral.

Naming Inorganic Compounds


Two early classifications of chemical compounds: Organic compounds. These contain the element Carbon (C). "Life on earth is carbon based" Inorganic compounds. All other compounds

Ionic compounds: (an association of a cation and an anion)


The positive ion (cation) is always named first and listed first in writing the formula for the compound. Na+ Sodium ion Zn2+ Zinc ion Al3+ Aluminum ion If an element can form more than one positive ion: Fe2+ ferrous ion Fe2+ iron(II) ion Fe3+ iron(III) ion Fe3+ ferric ion Cu+ copper(I) ion Cu+ cuprous ion Cu2+ copper(II) ion Cu2+ cupric ion

Ionic compounds: Anions


Monatomic anions are usually formed from non-metallic elements. Cl- chloride ion F- flouride ion S2- sulfide ion O2- oxide ion Some common polyatomic anions include: OH- hydroxide ion CN- cyanide ion

Ionic compounds: Anions


Many polyatomic anions contain oxygen, and are referred to as oxyanions. NO2- nitrite ion NO3- nitrate ion SO32- sulfite ion SO42- sulfate ion Some compounds can have multiple oxyanion forms (the oxyanions involving the halogens, for example): ClO- hypochlorite ion ClO2- chlorite ion ClO3- chlorate ion ClO4- perchlorate ion

Acids
An acid is a substance whose molecules yield hydrogen (H+) ions when dissolved in water. The formula of an acid consists of an anionic group whose charged is balanced by one or more H+ ions. The name of the acid is related to the name of the anion Anions whose names end in -ide have associated acids that have the hydro- prefix and an -ic suffix: Cl- chloride anion HCl hydrochloric acid S2- sulfide anion H2S hydrosulfuric acid

Acids (oxyanions)

Molecular compounds
Prefix Meaning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

The element with the more positive nature in a compound is named first. The second element is named with an -ide ending. CO carbon monoxide (carbon mono oxide) CO2 carbon dioxide

MonoDiTriTetraPentaHexaHeptaOctaNonaDecaUndecaDodeca-

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