voiUxi rr, No.

r6
Novixnin zorr
The Possibility of
Choice: Three Accounts
of the Problem with
Coercion
Japa Pallikkathayil
New York University
zorr Juu Pullillulhuyil
<www.philosophersimprint.org/orror6/>
Q
Uis+ioNs nio.niiNo iinxissiniii+v unu iesonsiLilily inlei-
secl in cuses of coeicion. lheie is u sliong moiul iesumlion
uguinsl lhe use of coeicion, unu lhose vho uie coeiceu seem
lo Le less iesonsiLle foi lhe uclions lhey veie coeiceu lo eifoim.
These lvo consiueiulions seem lo iefecl lhe sume feuluie of coeicive
inleiuclions. When coeicion is imeimissiLle, lhis seems lo Le Le-
cuuse il imioeily consliuins lhe viclim's choice, unu vhen coeicion
miligules iesonsiLilily, lhis loo seems iefecl lhe efecl of coeicion on
lhe viclim's choice. In lhis uei, I exloie lhis conneclion unu uevel-
o un uccounl of vhen unu vhy lhe use of coeicion is imeimissiLle
unu hov coeicion ufecls lhe iesonsiLilily of viclims.
Il is imoilunl lo uislinguish lvo lyes of lieulmenl lhul uie Lolh
somelimes uesciiLeu us coeicion. Physicul coeicion oeiules Ly luling
hysicul conliol of ul leusl some uil of unolhei's Louy, e. g., giuLLing
unolhei's uim unu ulling hei oul of hei chuii. The efecl of hysicul
coeicion on lhe viclim's choice is fuiily cleui. lhe viclim is nol uLle lo
move us she chooses.
The focus of lhis uei vill Le on vhul mighl Le culleu volilionul
coeicion'. Volilionul coeicion oeiules on unolhei's uclions, e. g., lhe
muggei vho suys, Youi money oi youi life,' meuning, I vill lill you
if unu only if you iefuse lo hunu ovei youi money.' Theie is u lemlu-
lion lo unueislunu volilionul coeicion on lhe sume mouel us hysicul
coeicion. Thul is, il muy seem us lhough lhe viclim of volilionul coei-
cion is nol uLle lo ucl us she chooses in lhe sume vuy lhul lhe viclim
of hysicul coeicion is nol uLle lo move us she chooses. A lillle iefec-
lion, hovevei, ieveuls lhul hysicul unu volilionul coeicion funclion in
funuumenlully uifeienl vuys. The oinl of lhe muggei's lhieul is lo gel
his viclim lo mule u uilicului choice iulhei lhun lo ievenl hei choice
fiom Leing efeclive. Yel lhe lhoughl lhul one uoes nol really choose
vhen one is coeiceu iemuins veiy inluilive. Unueislunuing hov vo-
lilionul coeicion, vhich I vill hencefoivuiu simly cull coeicion',
consliuins lhe viclim's choice vilhoul ciicumvenling il ullogelhei
lhus iequiies fuilhei exuminulion.
Imprint
Philosophers
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ z voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
iesonsiLilily of lhe muggei's viclim, unu () iuenlifes vhy lhe
lunchlime conlingency unnouncemenl uoes nol give iise lo lhis
moiul oLjeclion unu uiminisheu iesonsiLilily.
I vill comuie lhiee vievs lhul exlicule lhe efecl of lhe muggei's
conlingency unnouncemenl on his viclim's choice in uifeienl vuys.
The fisl viev comes closesl lo unueislunuing lhe efecl of lhe mug-
gei's conlingency unnouncemenl on lhe mouel of hysicul coeicion.
This viev, vhich I vill cull lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl', cluims lhul
lheie is somelhing uefeclive uLoul lhe viclim's uclion in iesonse lo
lhe muggei. The uclion fuils lo meiil some seciul quulifei lile 'uulon-
omous' oi 'uulhenlic'. The sense in vhich one uoes nol really choose is
lhus somehov loculeu vilhin lhe viclim's ugency. I vill suy u Lil moie
uLoul vhul lhis meuns shoilly unu uigue uguinsl lhe lvo mosl iomis-
ing vuys of suoiling such un uccounl.
Seconu, I vill consiuei vhul I cull lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl'.
This linu of uccounl, fuvoieu Ly some conlemoiuiy Kunliuns lile
Chiisline Koisguuiu unu Cnoiu C'Neill, suggesls lhul ullhough lhe
viclim is nol ievenleu fiom ucling, she is ievenleu fiom uoing
somelhing of uilicului noimulive signifcunce. hei iesonse uoes nol
umounl lo consenting lo uiliciule in Liinging uLoul lhe muggei's enu,
unu in lhis sense, she is foiceu lo uo so.
3
Heie lhe sense in vhich one
uoes nol ieully choose is loculeu in one's ielulionshi lo lhe coeicei
iulhei lhun one's ugency. one uoes nol ieully choose Lecuuse unolhei
eison is choosing foi one. Aflei ievieving seveiul veisions of lhe im-
uiieu consenl uccounl, I vill concluue lhul lheie is one viev in lhis
culegoiy lhul ieveuls somelhing imoilunl uLoul vhul is going viong
in cuses lile lhul of lhe mugging. I vill suggesl, hovevei, lhul lhe fxu-
lion of lhis viev on lhe iueu of consenl is misguiueu.
. As I inuicule in nole r;, C'Neill's viev sliues Lelveen lhe imuiieu uclion
uccounl unu lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl. See Cnoiu C'Neill, Belveen
Consenling Auulls', in Constructions of Reason: Explorations of Kants Practical
Philosophy (CumLiiuge. CumLiiuge Univeisily Piess, rq8q) unu Chiisline
M. Koisguuiu, Kunl's Ioimulu of Humunily' unu The iighl lo lie. Kunl on
ueuling vilh evil', in Creating the Kingdom of Ends (CumLiiuge. CumLiiuge
Univeisily Piess, rqq6).
The lileiuluie on coeicion in moiul hilosohy lenus lo focus on
ueveloing u uefnilion of coeicion.
l
In conliusl, I vill nol Legin Ly
ullemling lo iuenlify necessuiy unu sumcienl conuilions foi luLeling
un ucl coeicive. Insleuu, I focus on uiuuigmulic cuses of coeicion unu
ulleml lo exluin hov lhe coeicei's lieulmenl of lhe viclim is moiully
oLjeclionuLle unu hov lhe viclim's iesonsiLilily is uiminisheu.
2
This
invesligulion vill ieveul lhul ve cun unsvei lhe noimulive queslions
iuiseu Ly coeicion vilhoul comleling lhe uefnilionul iojecl.
Puiuuigmulic cuses of coeicion, lile lhe muggei's lhieul, involve
inleiuclions of lhe folloving foim. lhe iniliuloi inuicules lhul she vill
uo x if unu only if lhe ieciienl uoes y. In olhei voius, lhe iniliuloi is
unnouncing lhul vhul she is going lo uo is conlingenl on vhul lhe
ieciienl uoes. Lel us cull seech ucls lhul huve lhis linu of sliucluie
conlingency unnouncemenls'. The culegoiy of conlingency unnounce-
menls conluins Lolh moiully ioLlemulic cuses unu moiully Lenign
cuses. Conliusl lhe cuse of lhe muggei vilh lhe folloving lunchlime
inleiuclion. I suy lo you, I vill give you my ielzels if (unu only if)
you give me youi chis.' As I suggesleu uLove, inluilively il seems
us lhough lhe ioLlem vilh lhe muggei's conlingency unnouncemenl
lies in lhe vuy il consliuins his viclim's choice. This linu of consliuinl
seems lo Le uLsenl in lhe lunchlime cuse. So ve neeu u chuiucleiizu-
lion of lhis linu of consliuinl lhul (r) exluins lhe moiul oLjeclion lo
lhe muggei's conlingency unnouncemenl, (z) exluins lhe uiminisheu
r. Ioi un oveiviev of lhe uifeienl uiouches lo secifying lhe conlouis of lhe
culegoiy of coeicive uclions unu lhe ielulive meiils of lhose uiouches, see
Alun Weilheimei, Coercion (Piincelon, N.J.. Piincelon Univeisily Piess, rq8;).
Ioi lhe oiigin of lhis vuy of uiouching lhe suLjecl, see RoLeil Nozicl, Co-
eicion', in Philosophy, Science and Method: Essays in Honor of Ernest Nagel, eus.
Siuney MoigenLessei, Puliicl Sues, unu Moilon While (Nev Yoil. Sl. Mui-
lin's Piess, rq6q).
z. Milchell N. Beimun ulso eschevs lhe uefnilionul iojecl foi lhe noimu-
live iojecl. See Milchell N. Beimun, The Noimulive Iunclion of Coeicion
Cluims', Legal Theory 8 (zooz). j8q. Beimun, hovevei, uuols lhe noimulive-
ly focuseu uiouch Lecuuse he Lelieves lhul lheie is no unifeu concelion of
coeicion lhul liucls Lolh consiueiulions of eimissiLilily unu consiueiulions of
iesonsiLilily. I lule il lo Le u slienglh of my uccounl lhul il is uLle lo exluin
hov lhe sume feuluies of coeicive ucls ufecl eimissiLilily unu iesonsiLilily.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
Le icleu oul Ly lhe quulifeis I jusl menlioneu. Theie is un imoilunl
umLiguily in leims lile uulonomy. The iueus of uulonomy unu lhe
lile uie oflen unueisloou us culuiing somelhing signifcunl uLoul
lhe ielulionshi Lelveen un ugenl's sychologicul slules unu hei uc-
lions suy, lhul she is molivuleu Ly lhe incenlive Kunl culls iesecl
foi lhe moiul luv, oi us in Huiiy Iiunlfuil's viev, ucling in uccoiuunce
vilh hei highei-oiuei uesiies. Bul iueus lile uulonomy mighl ulso
Le lhoughl lo huve some linu of inleieisonul elemenl, e. g., lhul
in oiuei lo Le uulonomous one musl slunu in ceiluin ielulionshis
lo olheis. Ioi my uioses heie, I um only conceineu vilh seciul
quulifeis lile 'uulonomy' unueisloou in lhe fisl sense. Thul is, lhe
imuiieu uclion uccounl us I unueislunu il suggesls lhul lhe ioLlem
vilh coeicion lies in uisiuling some seciul conneclion Lelveen un
ugenl's sychologicul slules unu hei uclions. I consiuei loculing lhe
ioLlem vilh coeicion in some usecl of lhe ielulionshi Lelveen
ugenls in Seclions z unu .
Even vilh lhis limilulion, leims lile 'uulonomy' cun slill Le un-
ueisloou in u numLei of vuys, unu lhus lheie uie muny olenliul
exlunulions of lhe ioLlem vilh coeicion unuei lhis heuuing. Ioi
exumle, Iiunlfuil uigues lhul u lhieul violules lhe viclim's uulono-
my Ly leuuing him lo comly vilh lhe lhieul on lhe Lusis of u molive
Ly vhich he voulu iefei nol lo Le moveu.
4
Rulhei lhun consiueiing
ull lhe ossiLle veisions of lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl, ve cun ieuu-
ily unueicul lhe lvo feuluies of cuses lile lhe muggei lhul ioviue
lhe sliongesl suoil foi chuiucleiizing lhe viclim's iesonse us u ue-
feclive uclion. lhe viclim's uiminisheu iesonsiLilily foi hei iesonse
unu lhe viclim's exeiience of lhe inleiuclion us one in vhich she
uiliciules unvillingly. I vill consiuei euch of lhese feuluies in luin.
. Huiiy Iiunlfuil, Coeicion unu moiul iesonsiLilily', in The Importance of
What We Care About: Philosophical Essays (CumLiiuge. CumLiiuge Univeisily
Piess, rq88), . . Iiunlfuil is, I Lelieve, imioeily confuling ucling on u
molive one voulu iefei nol lo Le moveu Ly unu ucling in ciicumslunces one
voulu iefei nol lo Le in.
This ioLlem vilh lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl molivules lhe
move lo lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl'. Thiough lhe
exeicise of vhul I cull noimulive uiscielionuiy oveis', eole uie
uLle lo chunge lhe lunuscue of oLligulions unu eimissions simly
Ly choosing lo uo so. Civing consenl is un exumle of un exeicise of
u noimulive uiscielionuiy ovei, Lul il is nol lhe only one. Muling u
iomise, foi exumle, is unolhei vuy lo chunge lhe oLligulions unu
eimissions eole huve, numely Ly oLliguling oneself. The inuLilily
of lhe viclim lo consenl lo uiliciuling in lhe muggei's lun simly
iefecls lhe viclim's inuLilily lo exeicise hei noimulive uiscielionuiy
oveis moie geneiully, vhich in luin iefecls lhe viclim's inuLilily lo
exeicise un even moie Lusic noimulive uulhoiily. I vill concluue lhul
lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl ioviues lhe coiiecl uiug-
nosis of vhy, unlile in lhe lunchlime cuse, lhe muggei's conlingency
unnouncemenl is imeimissiLle unu limils his viclim's iesonsiLilily
foi hei iesonse.
. The Impaired action account
Lel us Legin lhen vilh lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl. The imuiieu uc-
lion uccounl is u nuluiul uiieclion lo luin vhen one iecognizes lhul
lhe mouel of hysicul coeicion cunnol Le uiieclly ulieu in lhe cuse
of volilionul coeicion. The iueu of uefeclive uclion is suoseu lo hel
mule sense of lhe vuy in vhich lhe viclim Lolh uoes unu uoes nol
choose hei iesulling uclions.
The queslion of vhul conslilules un uclion is, of couise, u comli-
culeu unu conlenlious issue on ils ovn. Ioi oui uioses, lhe inluilive
conliusl Lelveen somelhing un ugenl uoes unu somelhing lhul hu-
ens lo hei vill sumce us u sluiling oinl. Wilh lhis Luie Lones iueu
of somelhing un ugenl uoes in minu, some go on lo uuu some linu of
quulifei foi exumle, 'uulonomous', 'uulhenlic', 'full-Llooueu', unu
so on. Nov, of couise, vhen lhe viclim hunus hei money lo lhe mug-
gei, lhis is nol u meie huening lile huving hei uim joslleu Ly u
sliong gusl of vinu. If lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl is lo Le ul ull luu-
siLle, il musl Le uiiecleu lovuiu lhe seciul sense of uclion meunl lo
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
ugenl uulonomously eifoims unu lhen slill neeu lo unsvei u fuilhei
queslion ieguiuing vhelhei lhis uclion vus Llumevoilhy unuei lhe
ciicumslunces. So lheie is conceluul suce Lelveen lhe iueu lhul
coeicion, in some sense, miligules lhe viclim's iesonsiLilily unu ue-
nying lhul lhe viclim ieully chooses vhul lo uo in iesonse.
7

Wheie uoes lhis leuve lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl` Since ve huve
nol ievieveu ull lhe ossiLle seciul senses of uclion, foi ull lhul I huve
suiu il muy yel Le lhe cuse lhul lhe viclim's iesonse fuils lo Le un
uclion in some seciul sense oi unolhei. Whul I lule lhe uiscussion
of iesonsiLilily lo shov, hovevei, is lhul ve neeu nol move fiom
lhe lhoughl lhul lhe viclim is, in some sense, nol iesonsiLle foi hei
iesonse lo queslioning lhe slulus of hei uclion us meiiling u quuli-
fei lile 'uulonomous'. Inueeu, il is oflen luusiLle lo unueislunu lhe
viclim's ulleieu iesonsiLilily in unolhei vuy. Ioi lhis ieuson, con-
siueiulions ieguiuing lhe viclim's iesonsiLilily cunnol Le useu lo
molivule lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl in uny sliuighlfoivuiu vuy.
;. Cne mighl uccel lhis unu slill oLjecl lhul lhe uilicului vuy ve conceive of
lhe miliguleu iesonsiLilily of lhe viclim involves uenying lhul lhe iesonse
is ulliiLuluLle lo lhe viclim us lhe ioei oLjecl of moiul evuluulion unu u-
iuisul. SuLjeclion lo coeicion, lhis oLjeclion cluims, is un excuse foi lhe
iesulling Lehuvioi iulhei lhun u juslifculion foi il. The culegoiy of excuses
involves lhings lile ucciuenls, mislules, unu insunily. These seem lo Le cuses
in vhich lhe ugenl's uclion uoes nol seem lo Le uccuiulely chuiucleiizeu Ly u
quulifei lile 'uulonomous'. Cne mighl lheiefoie lule lhis lo inuicule lhul in
cuses of coeicion lhe ieciienl's iesonse fuils lo meiil some such quulifei.
In fucl, ve neeu nol unueislunu suLjeclion lo coeicion us un excuse. When
lhe Lunl ioLLei oinls his gun ul lhe lellei unu uemunus money, lhe ucl of
hunuing il ovei is eimissiLle. Inueeu, ve mighl even iuise lhe lellei foi
leeing u cool heuu unu nol unicling. These linus of cuses mule il luu-
siLle lo lhinl of suLjeclion lo coeicion us u juslifculion iulhei lhun un excuse.
Clheis huve ulso uigueu lhul suLjeclion lo coeicion muy Le unueisloou us u
juslifculion. See, foi exumle, Weilheimei, op. cit., . r6jr6q unu Scunlon,
op. cit., . z;qz8o. Ioi u helful oveiviev of lhe lileiuluie on vhelhei coei-
cion shoulu Le unueisloou us u juslifculion oi un excuse in lhe luv, see Pelei
Weslen unu Jumes Mungiufco, The Ciiminul Defense of Duiess. A Juslifcu-
lion, Nol un Excuse Anu Why Il Mulleis,' 3uqu|c Crininu| Iun Rc.icn, Vol. 6,
No. z (zoo), . 8qjo.
... Rcspcnsibi|it
Being suLjecl lo lhe conlingency unnouncemenls ve lyicully cull co-
eicive is oflen lhoughl lo miligule lhe iesonsiLilily of lhe viclim foi
hei iesonse. This in luin is somelimes lulen lo imly lhul lhe viclim
shoulu nol Le ieguiueu us enguging in lhe ielevunl uclions in u vuy
lhul meiils lhe quulifeis 'uulonomous', 'uulhenlic', elc. Iiunlfuil, foi
exumle, mules lhis move exlicilly.
5
This move, hovevei, involves u
fuiluie lo uislinguish Lelveen uifeienl senses of iesonsiLilily.
Consiuei foui queslions ve mighl Le usling ieguiuing lhe ieson-
siLilily of u uilicului ugenl in u uilicului siluulion.
6
Iiisl, muy lhe
Lehuvioi in queslion Le ulliiLuleu lo lhe ugenl so lhul il is lhe ioei
oLjecl of moiul evuluulion unu uiuisul` This queslion seems lo Le
liucling lhe uioiiuleness of ulying some seciul quulifei lo lhe
uclion lile 'uulonomous'. Seconu, is lhe uclion eimissiLle oi imei-
missiLle (fuilheimoie, is il oLliguloiy oi sueieioguloiy)` Thiiu, is lhe
uclion iuisevoilhy, Llumevoilhy, oi moiully neuliul` Iouilh, shoulu
ve lel lhe Lenefls unu Luiuens iesulling fiom lhe Lehuvioi full lo lhe
ugenl vho engugeu in il`
We uo nol neeu u comlele viev on lhe ielulionshi Lelveen lhese
foui queslions lo see lhul lhe iesence of vhul ve lyicully cull co-
eicion in u siluulion cun ufecl lhe unsvei lo some oi ull of lhe lullei
lhiee queslions vilhoul ufecling lhe unsvei lo lhe fisl queslion. The
cluim lhul un uclion is ulliiLuluLle lo un ugenl us lhe ioei oLjecl of
moiul evuluulion unu uiuisul uoes nol ilself sellle vhul lhe uio-
iiule evuluulion unu uiuisul uie. We mighl, foi exumle, Le uLle lo
iuenlify un uclion lile hunuing ovei lhe leys lo u sufe us one lhul un
j. Iiunlfuil, Coeicion unu moiul iesonsiLilily', . 6. See ulso Huiiy Iiunlfuil,
Thiee concels of fiee uclion', in The Importance of What We Care About: Philo-
sophical Essays (CumLiiuge. CumLiiuge Univeisily Piess, rq88).
6. The fisl unu lhe fouilh queslion seem lo Le liucling vhul T.M. Scunlon culls
iesonsiLilily us ulliiLuluLilily unu suLslunlive iesonsiLilily, ieseclively.
Bul I lhinl lhe seconu unu lhiiu queslions uie imoilunl foi muling sense of
lhe vuys in vhich un ugenl's iesonsiLilily cun Le miliguleu us vell. See T.M.
Scunlon, What We Owe to Each Other (CumLiiuge, Muss.. Huivuiu Univeisily
Piess, rqq8), . z8zq.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ j voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
lo usl vhul you oughl lo uo, unu you mighl even usl youiself lhul
veiy queslion Lefoie ueciuing. Moieovei, lhe iesulling Lehuvioi is lhe
ioei oLjecl of moiul uiuisul. Aflei sellling vhelhei fuiling lo luin
in youi fiienu is eimissiLle il is uioiiule lo usl vhul ulliluue ve
shoulu lule lo lhul uclion (iuise, Llume, oi somelhing else).
l0

Seconu, in uuuilion lo muling lhe viclim fuce hoslile ulleinulives, u
coeicei oflen shues lhe ulleinulives such lhul lhe Lulunce of ieusons
oinls sliongly in one uiieclion. This cun mule il seem lo un ugenl us
lhough lheie is no uecision lefl lo Le muue unu hence lhul lhe ensuing
Lehuvioi is nol u lo hei. This ueuiunce involves u sliue Lelveen
lvo lhoughls. (r) lhul lhe ieciienl uoes nol choose lo ucl us she uoes
unu (z) lhul lhe ieciienl hus no olhei meuningful olions. Il is imoi-
lunl lo see lhul lhese ieully uie lvo uislincl cluims unu lhul (z) uoes
nol imly (r). This is cleui vhen ve lool ul u moie leusunl exumle.
Suose you uie ofeieu youi uieum joL ul un iueul momenl in youi life
unu you huve no olhei joL iosecls in youi chosen felu. Eveiylhing
counls in fuvoi of ucceling unu nolhing counls uguinsl ucceling. Even
lhough you huve no olhei meuningful olions, il voulu Le u mislule lo
suy lhul ucceling lhe osilion is nol u genuine uclion, i. e., lhul you uie
jusl going lhiough lhe molions.
Why, lhen, mighl one lhinl lhul lhe unleusunl cuse is uifei-
enl lhul one is nol ieully ucling vhen Lolh lhe ulleinulives uie hoslile
unu lhe consiueiulions lo vhich lhey give iise uie uecisive` The unsvei
muy huve lo uo vilh hov ve exeiience lhe foice of ieuson. When lhe
ueliveiunce of lhe iocess of ieusoning is viiluully inslunluneous unu
lhe veiuicl is nol one lhe ugenl is leuseu Ly, lheie is u lenuency lo see
lhe veiuicl us imoseu fiom lhe oulsiue. Nolice, hovevei, lhul in Lolh
lhe leusunl unu lhe unleusunl cuse, ciicumslunces Lioughl uLoul Ly
unolhei ugenl uie uicluling lhe veiuicl. Anu in Lolh cuses lhe ugenl
ro. The ulliluues of iuise unu Llume neeu nol exhuusl lhe iunge of ulliluues ve
cun uuol in moiul uiuisul. Somelimes some linu of neuliulily is uioii-
ule. Moieovei, even iuise unu Llume come in uifeienl giuuienls unu fuvois.
So ve shoulu nol Le misleu inlo lhinling lhul lheie uie only lvo ulliluues ve
coulu lule vilh iesecl lo lhe uecision.
..: Unni||ingncss
Lel us luin lhen lo lhe seconu vuy one mighl olenliully liy lo mo-
livule lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl. Theie seems lo Le some sliong
sense in vhich lhe viclim uoes vhul she uoes unvillingly. Insofui us
lhis is So she is in some vuy ulienuleu fiom vhul she uoes. This mighl
Le lhoughl lo suggesl, lhen, lhul lhe viclim's iesonse fulls shoil of un
uclion in some seciul sense. I vill uislinguish foui senses of unvill-
ingness lhul lhe viclim muy exeiience.
S
We vill see, hovevei, lhul
only lhe lhiiu unu fouilh linus ufecl lhe viclim in u vuy lhul mighl
incline us lo ieguiu hei uclion us somelhing less lhun u genuine uc-
lion, unu lhul lhese linus of unvillingness uie limileu in u vuy lhul
ievenls lhem fiom giounuing u geneiul exlunulion of lhe ioLlem
vilh moiully susecl conlingency unnouncemenls.
Iiisl, one mighl lhinl lhul coeicion is ioLlemulic Lecuuse il in-
volves lucing viclims in ciicumslunces lhul uie hoslile lo lheii uims.
The sense lhul one hus lo choose lhe lessei evil' seems lo culuie one
fumiliui ieuson un ugenl muy nol iuenlify himself vholly vilh vhul
he uoes. Bul ullhough one muy iegiel oi iesenl huving lo choose in
ceiluin ciicumslunces, one chooses nonelheless.

Suose you huu lo

ueciue vhelhei lo luin in u close fiienu foi commilling u seiious ciime.
Allhough lhis voulu Le u leiiiLle choice lo huve lo mule, il mules
sense lo ieguiu youi iesulling Lehuvioi us u genuine uclion. This cun
Le seen Ly nolicing lhul ve voulu ieguiu lhe iesulling Lehuvioi us ul-
liiLuluLle lo you us lhe ioei oLjecl of moiul evuluulion. Theie muy
Le giounus foi ueLuling vhul you oughl lo uo. Bul il mules sense
8. This uiscussion is loosely inueLleu lo Huiiy Iiunlfuil's uiscussion of lhiee
linus of unvillingness in Thiee concels of fiee uclion'. My uiscussion,
hovevei, uifeis in suLslunliul iesecls unu uoes nol iely on Iiunlfuil's con-
celion of ugency.
q. Aiislolle comes lo u similui conclusion ieguiuing suilois vho musl lhiov
lheii cuigo oveiLouiu in u sloim in oiuei lo suve lhemselves. Aiislolle cluims
lhul ullhough such uclions uie mixeu, involving some elemenl of involun-
luiiness, lhey uie moie lile volunluiy uclions Lecuuse lhey voilhy of choice
vhen lhey uie eifoimeu. See Aiislolle, Nicomachean Ethics in The Complete
cr|s cf Aristct|c. Thc Rc.isc! Oxfcr! Truns|uticn, eu. Jonulhun Buines (Piinc-
elon, NJ. Piincelon Univeisily Piess, rq8), Bool III, Sec. r, . r;jz.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ 6 voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
uny sliuighlfoivuiu vuy. So ullhough lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl is u
nuluiul sluiling luce in lhe uiugnosis of lhe sense in vhich lhe viclim
of coeicion uoes nol really choose, lhe lvo mosl commonsensicul mo-
livulions foi lhis viev uo nol holu u unuei sciuliny.
. The Impaired consent account
The imuiieu consenl uccounl iesonus lo lhe uefcils of lhe imuiieu
uclion uccounl Ly ieloculing lhe sense in vhich lhe viclim uoes nol
ieully choose. This viev suggesls lhul lhe ioLlem vilh susecl
conlingency cluims is nol lhul lhey imuii lhe conneclion Lelveen
lhe viclim unu hei uclions Lul iulhei lhul lhey imuii lhe ielulion-
shi Lelveen lhe viclim unu lhe coeicei. This imuiimenl hus u veiy
secifc foim. lhe viclim's iesonse uoes nol umounl lo consenling lo
uiliciule in Liinging uLoul lhe coeicei's enu unu, in lhis sense, she
is foiceu lo uo so.
In oiuei lo unueislunu vhul lhis suggeslion involves, ve neeu lo
unueislunu lhe nuluie of consenl. As I noleu euiliei, lo consenl lo
somelhing is lo exeicise u noimulive uiscielionuiy ovei. In uilicu-
lui, vhen one gives one's consenl lo unolhei, one iemoves u Luiiiei
lo lhe eimissiLilily of lhe olhei's ucl.
l2
Nolice lhul heie I um focusing
rz. Il is voilh emhusizing lhul I um heie using lhe leim 'consenl' in u vuy lhul
is nuiiovei lhun il is somelimes useu. I use lhe leim 'consenl' lo iefei lo
u uilicului noimulive uiscielionuiy ovei, i. e., one Ly vhich one iemoves
u Luiiiei lo lhe eimissiLilily of unolhei's uclion. The leim 'consenl' is ulso
somelimes useu in u Liouuei vuy, in vhich il seems lhul if cun signify any
linu of noimulive uiscielionuiy ovei. So on lhis Liouuei use of lhe leim, il
mules sense lo suy, I consenleu lo mov his luvn,' vheie lhis is equivulenl lo
I iomiseu lo mov his luvn.' I uo nol lo use lhe leims in lhis vuy Lecuuse il
oLscuies lhe conceluul ossiLilily lhul lhe ieconuilions foi chunging ei-
missions unu lhe ieconuilions foi geneiuling oLligulions uie uifeienl. As I
uigue in Sec. , I lhinl lhul il luins oul lhul lhe ielevunl ieconuilions uie lhe
sume in Lolh cuses unu foi noimulive uiscielionuiy oveis in geneiul. Bul I
lhinl il mules sense lo use lhe leims in u vuy lhul mules eviuenl lhe os-
siLilily of u uifeience.
Il is ulso voilh noling, hovevei, lhul I lhinl lhul il is genuinely uncleui
vhelhei Koisguuiu unu C'Neill, vho I uiscuss us ioonenls of lhe imuiieu
consenl viev, uie using 'consenl' in lhe nuiiovei oi Liouuei senses. My
choice lo use lhe nuiiovei sense shoulu nol Le unueisloou us un inleiielive
ussesses lhe consiueiulions lo vhich lhe ciicumslunces give iise unu
lhis ussessmenl leuus lo uclion. So il uoes nol mule sense in eilhei
cuse lo cluim lhul lhe uclion is nol ieully lhe ugenl's ovn.
We huve seen so fui lhul lvo geneiully ulicuLle exlunulions of
lhe unvillingness involveu in iesonuing lo u susecl conlingency
unnouncemenl uie consislenl vilh muinluining lhul lhe iesonse
conslilules u genuine uclion. In conliusl, consiuei lhe unvillingness
involveu in uclions lhul uiise fiom ueliLeiulive confusion oi uliusiu.
These lhiiu unu fouilh linus of unvillingness muy ufecl lhe slulus
of lhe Lehuvioi us u genuine uclion.
ll
Bul lhese linus of unvilling-
ness uie nol necessuiy efecls of susecl conlingency unnouncemenls.
While lhe muggei's viclim muy feel ufiuiu unu us u iesull Lecome
confuseu, she mighl muinluin u cleui heuu lhioughoul lhe encounlei.
Nonelheless, vhul lhe muggei is uoing in lhis cuse seems ioLlem-
ulic in Lusicully lhe sume vuy. Anu vhile some susecl conlingency
cluims mighl oeiule Ly inuucing uliusiu, mosl iely on lhe iulionul-
ily of lhe viclim's iesonse. So neilhei of lhese lvo olenliul linus of
unvillingness is geneiul enough lo giounu un exlunulion of lhe Lusic
ioLlem vilh susecl conlingency unnouncemenls.
Wheie uoes lhis leuve lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl` Aguin, since
ve huve nol ievieveu ull lhe ossiLle seciul senses of 'uclion', foi ull
lhul I huve suiu il muy yel Le lhe cuse lhul lhe viclim's iesonse fuils
lo Le un uclion in some seciul sense oi unolhei. Whul I lule lhe uis-
cussion of unvillingness lo shov, hovevei, is lhul ve neeu nol move
fiom lhe lhoughl lhul lhe viclim's iesonse is, in some sense, unvill-
ing lo queslioning lhe slulus of hei uclion us meiiling u quulifei lile
'uulonomous'. Inueeu, il seems lhul in uiuuigmulic cuses of coeicion
lheie uie goou ieusons lo conlinue ieguiuing lhe ugenl's uclion us fully
hei ovn. Ioi lhis ieuson, consiueiulions ieguiuing lhe viclim's unvill-
ingness cunnol Le useu lo molivule lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl in
rr. If ve exluin uliusiu in leims of ueliLeiulive confusion, lhis fouilh linu of un-
villingness is un inslunce of lhiiu. We neeu nol, hovevei, uuol uny uilicului
exlunulion of suoseuly uliulic Lehuvioi in oiuei lo see lhul il muy Le ieu-
sonuLle lo vilhholu lhe honoiifc 'uulonomous' oi 'uulhenlic' oi vhulevei in
lhese cuses.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ ; voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
of hov huving u gun lo one's heuu, elc., ufecls lhe uLilily lo give con-
senl. This, unfoilunulely, is nol somelhing lhe conlemoiuiy Kunliuns
vho uuvocule lhis viev huve suiu much uLoul. In vhul follovs, I vill
uiuv on vhul hus Leen suiu lo uevelo un exlunulion.
:.. Hcn Cccrcicn Inpuirs thc Icssibi|it cf Ccnscnt
In lhe Kunliun sloiy, lhe iueu of consenl enleis in lhe exliculion of
Kunl's Ioimulu of Humunily. This veision of lhe culegoiicul imeiulive
iequiies lhul ugenls lieul humunily, i. e., iulionul nuluie, in lhemselves
unu olheis ulvuys us un enu unu nevei meiely us u meuns.
l4
Cn one
common vuy of selling oul vhul il is nol lo lieul someone meiely us
u meuns, vhul is imoilunl is lhul one nol lieul olheis in u vuy lhul
iecluues lhe ossiLilily of lheii consenl lo one's use of lheii uclions
lo fuilhei one's enus.
This ieuuing comes oul of Kunl's uiscussion of lhe imeimissiLil-
ily of uecelion. Kunl suggesls lhul lhe ioLlem vilh u lying iomise
is lhul lhe ieciienl cunnol ossiLly ugiee lo my vuy of Lehuving
lovuiu him, unu so himself conluin lhe enu of lhis uclion.'
l5
In vhul
sense is lhe viclim of uecelion unuLle lo consenl lo uiliciule in
Liinging uLoul lhe ueceivei's enu` As Chiisline Koisguuiu uesciiLes il,
if I usl you foi u loun vilh no inlenlion of ieuying il, vhen you hunu
ovei lhe money you huve nol ugieeu lo uiliciule in Liinging uLoul
lhe ieulizulion of my liue enu, numely, lhe eimunenl ucquisilion of
youi money.
l6
You lhinl my enu is somelhing enliiely uifeienl. Since
you uie in lhe uuil uLoul my liue enu, consenling lo youi uclion's
conliiLulion lo lhis enu is suoseuly imossiLle. Il is ceiluinly liue
lhul you ucl in u vuy lhul fuilheis my enu. Hunuing ovei lhe money
ieully is un uclion you eifoim. Bul consenl iequiies nol jusl lhul you
r. Immunuel Kunl, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Practical Philosophy,
eu. unu liuns. Muiy J. Ciegoi (CumLiiuge, Englunu. CumLiiuge Univeisily
Piess, rqq6) . 8o (.zq in Kants gesammelte Schriften uLlisheu Ly lhe Preus-
sische Akademie der Wissenschaften).
rj. Kunl, . 8o (.o).
r6. Koisguuiu, The iighl lo lie', . rqro.
on vhul mighl Le culleu vuliu consenl' iulhei lhun meie lolens of
consenl. In olhei voius, I um using 'consenl' us u success leim. one
counls us consenling only if one successfully iemoves u Luiiiei lo lhe
eimissiLilily of unolhei's uclion. Ioi exumle, consenl iemoves un im-
oilunl Luiiiei lo lhe eimissiLilily of u uocloi's eifoiming suigeiy on
u ulienl. In lhis vuy, giving consenl, lile lhe exeicise of uny noimu-
live uiscielionuiy ovei, is u moiully liunsfoimulive ucl. il ieshues
lhe lunuscue of eimissions unu oLligulions.
l3

Nolice, hovevei, lhul if lhe muggei oinls u gun ul his viclim unu
uemunus lhe money, lhe ucl of hunuing il ovei uoes nol seem lo Le
moiully liunsfoimulive. lhe muggei is no moie enlilleu lo lee lhe
money lhun if he huu flcheu lhe viclim's vullel vilhoul hei lnovl-
euge. The imuiieu consenl uccounl cluims lhul lhis is lhe ioLlem
vilh susecl conlingency unnouncemenls lile lhul of lhe muggei. ie-
ciienls uie unuLle lo consenl lo uiliciuling in lhe iniliuloi's lun.
This uccounl seems iomising in lhul il oinls lo vhul seems lo Le
u ieuuily iecognizuLle efecl of lhe muggei's unnouncemenl on his vic-
lim's choice. Bul if lhis uccounl is lo succeeu, ve neeu un exlunulion
cluim Lul insleuu us u choice meunl lo fucililule lhe uiscussion. So il mighl
luin oul lhul Koisguuiu unu C'Neill cun Le unueisloou us ioonenls of lhe
imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl lhul lhul I uefenu in Sec. . Even if so,
lhey voulu slill nol huve succeeueu in uefenuing lhul uccounl, vhich is lhe
iojecl lhul I Legin in lhis seclion unu comlele in Sec. .
r. Some eole unueislunu consenling lo Le iuenlicul vilh u ceiluin linu of
menlul slule. See, foi exumle, Heiui M. Huiu, The Moiul Mugic of Consenl',
Legal Theory z, (rqq6), . rzrr6 unu Luiiy Alexunuei, The Moiul Mugic
of Consenl (II)', Legal Theory z, (rqq6), . r6jr;. I um nol using lhe leim
'consenl' in lhis vuy. Insleuu, I unueislunu consenl lo involve u linu of uclion
(lhough un omission cun somelimes counl us un uclion in lhis conlexl). Veiy
Liiefy, I suggesl lhul lhe ieuson lhul hilosoheis lile Huiu unu Alexunuei
fnu lhe ovei lo consenl mugicul' is Lecuuse lhey unuei-uieciule lhe in-
leieisonul uimension of consenl, u uimension lhul only mules sense vhen
consenl is unueisloou us un ucl iulhei lhun u menlul slule. Ioi olheis vho
iejecl lhe iuenlifculion of consenl vilh u menlul slule, see Joel IeinLeig, The
Moral Limits of the Criminal Law, Vol. (Nev Yoil. Cxfoiu Univeisily Piess,
rq8), . r;z, John Kleinig, The Elhics of Consenl', Canadian Journal of Phi-
losophy. Sulemenluiy Vol. 8 (rq8z) . qrrr8, Ailhui Rislein, Force and
freedom: Kants legal and political philosophy (CumLiiuge, Muss.. Huivuiu Uni-
veisily Piess, zooq) . ro;r.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ 8 voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
his viclim's uecision lo uiliciule in Liinging uLoul his enu. He hus
nol usleu foi lhe viclim's consenl lo lhe leims exiesseu in lhis un-
nouncemenl. This seems lo Le u sense in vhich lhe viclim lucls ovei
ovei lhe ioceeuings. She hus huu no suy in hov hei olions huve
Leen shueu.
This suggeslion iuises lhiee queslions. Iiisl, vhy is u suy in lhe
shuing of one's olions u ieconuilion foi consenl` Seconu, vhul
linu of suy is iequiieu` Thiiu, uoes lhe muggei ievenl his viclim fiom
huving lhis linu of suy` Il is nol immeuiulely oLvious hov lo unsvei
lhe fisl queslion unu, in lighl of lhis, unsveiing lhe seconu queslion
oses u chullenge. Luclily, ve cun voil Luclvuius, sluiling vilh lhe
lhiiu queslion. An exuminulion of lhe linus of conliol ovei ciicum-
slunces one cun huve ieveuls only one linu of conliol lhul lhe muggei's
viclim is necessuiily uenieu. So if lhe iueu of conliol us u ieconuilion
foi consenl is going lo uo uny voil in exluining lhe ioLlem vilh
susecl conlingency unnouncemenls, il vill Le viu lhis uilicului linu
of conliol. Anu us ve vill see, once ve huve u cleui unueislunuing of
lhe linu of conliol ve uie lulling uLoul, lhe imoilunce of lhis linu of
conliol foi ensuiing lhe ossiLilily of consenl is cleui.
:.: Icncr O.cr thc Ircccc!ings
We cun uislinguish lvo geneiul uiouches lo exliculing ovei ovei
lhe ioceeuings, i. e., conliol ovei lhe ciicumslunces. Iiisl consiuei
lhe non-moral uiouch. Vievs in lhis culegoiy cluim lhul ueleimining
vhelhei lhe uilies lo un inleiuclion ull huve ovei ovei lhe ioceeu-
ings uoes nol iequiie Liinging in uny moiul evuluulion of vhul lhe
uilies uie uoing. We cun ueleimine vhelhei lhe uilies huve ovei
ovei lhe ioceeuings jusl Ly looling ul hov euch of lhe uilies lules
lhe olhei's luns inlo uccounl in hei ueliLeiulions. The ulliuclion of
lhe non-moiul uiouch is lhul il ullovs foi lhe ossiLilily lhul co-
eicion is u basic moiul viong u viong lhul ve cun iuenlify vilhoul
neeuing lo iuenlify uny olhei viong. Desile lhis ueul of lhe non-
moiul uiouch, I vill uigue lhul lhis uiouch is unlenuLle unu lhul
ils uefecls ush us in lhe uiieclion of lhe moral uiouch. Vievs in lhis
choose lo ucl in u vuy lhul in fucl fuilheis my liue enus Lul lhul you
choose lhis uclion unuei u uesciilion lhul mules some iefeience lo
my liue enus.
The ioLlem vilh lhe conlingency unnouncemenls ve lyicully
cull coeicive is suoseu lo huve lhe sume foim. The muggei's viclim
cunnol, so lhe sloiy goes, consenl lo uiliciule in Liinging uLoul lhe
muggei's enu of oLluining hei money. This sliulegy, hovevei, fuces
un oLvious queslion. Civen lhul lhe muggei's viclim lnovingly unu
inlenlionully gives him hei money, in vhul sense uoes she nol consenl
lo uiliciule in Liinging uLoul his enu of oLluining hei money` Whul
moie lhun lhis uoes consenl iequiie`
l7
Koisguuiu cluims one hus lo huve some ovei ovei lhe ioceeu-
ings' in oiuei lo counl us ugieeing lo uiliciule in Liinging uLoul
unolhei ugenl's enus.
lS
Allhough Koisguuiu uoes nol exluin vhul lhis
involves, ve mighl lule ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings lo meun some-
lhing lile conliol ovei lhe ciicumslunces in vhich one hus lo mule u
choice. The muggei is using his conlingency unnouncemenl lo ioml
r;. Cne vuy of molivuling lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl jusl involves sliuing
Lucl inlo lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl. You uo nol counl us ugieeing lo Liing
uLoul lhe muggei's enu Lecuuse youi iesonse uoes nol ieully counl us u
genuine uclion. As Cnoiu C'Neill uls il, Viclims muy want lhe sume enus us
lheii coeiceis, Lul lhul is nol lhe sume us shuiing lhose enus, foi one vho is
coeiceu, even if oinllessly, is nol uisuing, noi lheiefoie shuiing, enus ul ull'
(Belveen Consenling Auulls', . rr). Heie C'Neill ciilicizes lhe coeicei on
lhe giounus lhul his viclim uoes nol shuie lhe enu hei uclions uie Leing useu
lo fuilhei. C'Neill, hovevei, juslifes lhis cluim viu lhe cluim lhul lhe viclim
is nol uisuing enus ul ull'. We huve ulieuuy seen lhul lhis neeu nol Le liue.
The viclim's iesonse muy Le u genuine uclion. Anu il is eseciully imoilunl
foi Kunliuns lo uclnovleuge lhis. As I menlioneu uLove, foi Kunl, un uulono-
mous uclion is one lhul is molivuleu Ly lhe incenlive Kunl culls iesecl foi lhe
moiul luv. Kunl's concelion of uulonomy is focuseu on lhe inleinul sliucluie
of un ugenl's villing. Nolhing lhe muggei uoes neeu ufecl lhis sliucluie. This
feuluie of Kunl's viev Lecomes even moie eviuenl in his lulei voil, vheie
he uevelos lhe uislinclion Lelveen inleinul fieeuom, i. e., uulonomy, vhich
iefecls oveicoming lhe lhieul of Leing uominuleu Ly one's ovn inclinulions,
unu exleinul fieeuom, vhich is focuseu on oveicoming lhe lhieul of Leing
uominuleu Ly olhei ugenls. I uiscuss lhis uislinclion in ueluil in Juu Pullillu-
lhuyil, Deiiving Moiulily fiom Polilics. Relhinling lhe Ioimulu of Humunily',
Ethics, Vol. rzr, No. r (CcloLei zoro), . rr6r;.
r8. Koisguuiu, The Righl lo Lie', . rq.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ q voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
olheis' luns. Cn lhis viev, in oiuei lo counl us consenling lo ui-
liciule in unolhei's lun, euch eison musl Le given u velo ovei uny
uclion of lhe olhei's lhul ufecls hei olions.
Il mighl seem lile lhe muggei vill nol Le uLle lo meel lhis slunuuiu.
If lhe viclim hus velo ovei ovei his inlenlion lo lill hei if she uoes
nol hunu ovei lhe money, he cun, one mighl lhinl, no longei use lhe
conlingency unnouncemenl lo gel vhul he vunls. When lhe muggei
suys, Youi money oi youi life,' his viclim cun simly iequiie him lo
uLunuon lhe conlingenl inlenlion lhis exiesses.
Unfoilunulely, hovevei, lhe sliong inleiielulion is u Lil loo sliong
unu fuces u seiious conceluul uimcully. If ve uie iequiieu lo give olh-
eis velo ovei ovei ull lhe uclions lhul ufecl lhem, lhe muggei cun
velo uny uclion of his viclim's lhul ufecls him, unu hence he cun velo
hei velo of his conlingenl inlenlion. We coulu conlinue ileiulions of
lhe veloes inuefnilely. In olhei voius, if eveiyone ulvuys hus u velo
olion, conficls Lecome iiiesolvuLle.
Hov cun ve move Leyonu lhis imusse vhile slill giving euch
uily ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings` Cn lhe bilateral inleiielulion, lhe
uilies uie iequiieu lo come lo u shuieu viev of hov lhe inleiuclion
vill ioceeu. Consiuei vhul lhis viev imlies uLoul lhe siluulion of
lhe muggei unu his viclim. The muggei luns lo lill lhe viclim if she
uoes nol hunu ovei hei money. The viclim luns lo hung on lo Lolh
hei money unu hei life. Theii ieseclive luns uie in lension. Neilhei
is lilely lo Le uLle lo eisuuue lhe olhei of lhe sueiioiily of lheii
ieseclive luns, eseciully in lhe uLsence of u moiul evuluulion of
lheii ieseclive luns. So il seems lile lhey vill Le uLle lo come lo u
shuieu viev uLoul vhose lun shoulu go foivuiu only Ly ugieeing lo
some ioceuuie lhul vill iunuomly ueciue lhe mullei, lile u coin loss.
Inueeu, lhe viclim musl ugiee lo some ioceuuie lile lhis in oiuei lo
ensuie lhul lhe muggei loo hus uuequule ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings.
This ulieuuy mules lhis viev iulhei imluusiLle. Moieovei, nolice lhul
lhis voulu meiely uuu u luyei of uimcully lo lhe muggei's uclivilies. If
lhe muggei von lhe coin loss, he coulu ioceeu us Lefoie. Anu yel, on
lhe Liluleiul inleiielulion, lhe viclim vill huve huu ovei ovei lhe
culegoiy Liing in consiueiulions ieguiuing lhe moiul eimissiLilily of
vhul euch ugenl is uoing in oiuei lo ueleimine vhelhei lhe uilies ull
huve ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings. This suggesls lhul vhen coeicion is
imeimissiLle, il is u parasitic viong lhe viong of coeicion ueenus
on olhei viongful usecls of un inleiuclion.
i.i.. The Non-Moral Approaches
Lel us Legin, lhen, Ly exumining lhe non-moiul uiouches lo ex-
liculing lhe ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings' ieconuilion on consenl.
Theie seem lo Le lhiee vievs in lhis culegoiy. Iiisl, on lhe weak in-
leiielulion, ull lhul is neeueu lo give unolhei uuequule ovei ovei
lhe ioceeuings is u villingness lo ievise one's luns in lighl of con-
siueiulions lhe olhei iuises. Cn lhis inleiielulion, vhul is imoilunl
is lhul one nol enguge in inleiuclions vilh unolhei huving ulieuuy
comlelely sellleu vhul one is going lo uo. Bul on lhis viev, ulli-
mulely il is u lo euch eison lo ueciue vhelhei lhe olhei's conceins
vuiiunl u chunge in luns.
This viev is loo veul lo uelivei lhe uesiieu iesull, Lecuuse lhe
muggei's viclim coulu huve ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings in lhis sense.
Consiuei lhe folloving ossiLilily. The muggei suys lo his viclim,
Cive me youi vullel oi I vill shool you.' The viclim iesonus, Tule
lhe money Lul leuse lel me lee lhe icluies. They meun u lol lo
me.' The muggei ugiees. If ve veie lo uccel lhe veul inleiielu-
lion, lhe ieconuilion foi consenl voulu Le mel unu lhus lhe muggei
voulu nol Le lieuling his viclim in u vuy lhul iecluues lhe ossiLil-
ily of consenl.
We mighl ovei-coiiecl lhis ioLlem vilh lhe strong inleiielulion.
Cn lhis inleiielulion, huving ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings iequiies
lhul one's olions nol Le ulleieu Ly olheis vilhoul one's ugieemenl.
Lile lhe veul inleiielulion, lhe sliong inleiielulion focuses on
lhe sliucluie of hov euch ugenl lules lhe olhei's lun inlo consiuei-
ulion, unu uoes nol iely on u moiul ussessmenl of eilhei uily's lunneu
uclions. Unlile lhe veul inleiielulion, hovevei, lhe sliong inleiie-
lulion iequiies much moie lhun meie fexiLilily vhen consiueiing
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ ro voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
Cne mighl oLjecl lhul lhe velo concelion of consliuinl is neeu-
lessly comliculeu. Why nol simly suy lhul lhe efecl of u conlingency
unnouncemenl on lhe ieciienl's olions is inescuuLle vhen lhe olh-
ei is uenieu velo ovei ovei lhe inlenlion Leing unnounceu` To see
vhy lhis foimululion is inuuequule, lel us ieluin lo lhe lunchlime cuse
I uesciiLeu ul lhe oulsel of lhe uei. I suy lo you, I vill give you my
ielzels if (unu only if) you give me youi chis.' Suose lhul I iefuse
lo give you velo ovei ovei my inlenlion Lecuuse I ieully lile lo huve
my vievs uLoul ull olenliul lunchlime liuues sellleu. Theie is u veiy
minimul sense nov in vhich my unnounceu inlenlion hus un inescu-
uLle efecl on youi olions you uie slucl inleiucling vilh someone
vho hus sellleu vievs uLoul lunch. Bul lheie is u meuningful sense in
vhich you cun escue lhe efecl of my inlenlion on youi olions in lhe
lunchlime cuse even if I ueny you velo ovei ovei my inlenlion. If I
guve you velo ovei unu you exeiciseu il, lhe iesull voulu Le lhul I
lee my ielzels unu you lee youi chis. This is u iesull lhul is uvuil-
uLle lo you even if you lucl velo ovei. you cun simly uecline lo
liuue, lhus leuving me vilh my ielzels unu you vilh youi chis. Thus,
lheie is u cleui sense in vhich lhe efecl of lhe conlingency unnounce-
menl on youi olions in lhis cuse is one you cun escue Lecuuse you
conlinue lo huve lhe olion lhul veloing lhe inlenlion voulu iouuce.
The velo concelion of consliuinl liucls lhis oLseivulion. Recull
my foimululion of lhe inescuuLilily conuilion. un unnouncemenl is
inescuuLle if il hus lhe olenliul lo infuence lhe ieciienl only if she
is uenieu velo ovei ovei lhe inlenlion Leing unnounceu. I um using
'olenliul lo infuence' us shoilhunu foi lhe folloving. un unnounce-
menl hus lhe olenliul lo infuence lhe ieciienl if ve cun mule sense
of hov il could give hei u ieuson lo ucl in u ceiluin vuy. In lhe lunch-
lime cuse, lhe unnouncemenl mighl give you u ieuson lo give me youi
chis if you vunl my ielzels. This ossiLle ieuson iemuins jusl lhe
sume ieguiuless of vhelhei you huve velo ovei ovei my inlenlion.
Conliusl lhis vilh lhe cuse of lhe muggei. The muggei's unnounce-
menl mighl give his viclim u ieuson lo hunu ovei hei money if she
vunls lo suve hei life. Bul if lhe muggei guve lhe viclim velo ovei
ioceeuings unu hei ucl of hunuing ovei lhe money vill counl us con-
senling lo lel lhe muggei lee il. So lhe Liluleiul inleiielulion slill
uoes nol give us lhe unsvei ve uie looling foi. il uoes nol shov us
lhul lhe muggei mules il imossiLle foi lhe viclim lo huve ovei ovei
lhe ioceeuings unu hence uoes nol shov us lhul lhe muggei mules il
imossiLle foi his viclim lo consenl lo his luling hei money.
i.i.i 1he \cra| Apprcach
All lhiee non-moiul inleiielulions of ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings
uie unuLle lo uiliculule u luusiLle ieconuilion foi consenl. I suggesl,
hovevei, lhul ve ul lhe iueu of velo ovei lhul vus inliouuceu in
lhis uiscussion lo voil in u somevhul uifeienl vuy. I um going lo use
lhe iueu of velo ovei lo hel uiliculule vhul il meuns lo consliuin
unolhei's olions lhiough u conlingency unnouncemenl. I vill lhen
uigue lhul lhe comLinulion of lhis concelion of consliuinl unu lhe
oLseivulion lhul lhe muggei inlenus lo uo somelhing imeimissiLle
l

cun Le useu (r) lo esluLlish lhul lhe muggei imeimissiLly consliuins
his viclim's olions, unu (z) lo uevelo u moiul inleiielulion of ovei
ovei ioceeuings lhul inuicules hov imeimissiLly consliuining lhe
viclim's olions conliiLules lo muling il imossiLle foi hei lo consenl
lo giving lhe muggei hei money.
I suggesl lhul u conlingency unnouncemenl consliuins lhe iecii-
enl's olions vhen lhe unnouncemenl hus lhe olenliul lo infuence
lhe ieciienl only if lhe ieciienl is uenieu velo ovei ovei lhe inlen-
lion Leing unnounceu. This conuilion ensuies lhul lhe efecl of lhe
conlingency unnouncemenl on lhe ieciienl's olions is inescuuLle
unu hence lhul lhe conlingency unnouncemenl muy Le uioiiulely
ieguiueu us consliuining lhe ieciienl's olions. Cull lhis lhe velo
concelion' of consliuinl.
rq. DesciiLing lhe muggei's inlenlion us one lhul il voulu Le imeimissiLle lo
ucl on iequiies iefeience lo some sel of moiul noims. I um nol iesuos-
ing uny uilicului uccounl of lhese noims. Heie I um simly ielying on lhe
inluilion lhul uny luusiLle sel of moiul noims voulu conuemn ucling on lhe
muggei's inlenlion.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ rr voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
vhelhei lhe muggei smushes hei vinushielu. So lhe conlingency un-
nouncemenl voulu nol ucluully succeeu in iomling hei lo icl lhe
muggei's iefeiieu olion.
Nole one fnul imoilunl feuluie of lhe velo concelion of con-
sliuinl. lhe velo concelion of consliuinl uoes nol mule iefeience
lo lhe imeimissiLilily of ucling on lhe inlenlion Leing unnounceu.
Announcing un inlenlion lhul il voulu Le imeimissiLle lo ucl on is
neilhei necessuiy noi sumcienl lo mule u conlingency unnounce-
menl one lhul consliuins lhe ieciienl's olions. To see lhul il is nol
sumcienl, consiuei lhe cuse of u voulu-Le Lunl ioLLei vho suys lo
u olenliul uccomlice, I vill give you hulf lhe money if (unu only
if) you uiive lhe geluvuy cui.' Heie lhe inlenlion Leing unnounceu
is imeimissiLle lhe Lunl ioLLei is nol enlilleu lo lhe soils of lhe
ioLLeiy unu so nol enlilleu lo uiviue u lhose soils. Bul us in lhe
lunchlime cuse, lhis conlingency unnouncemenl hus lhe olenliul lo
infuence lhe ieciienl ieguiuless of vhelhei lhe ieciienl hus velo
ovei ovei lhe inlenlion Leing unnounceu. The inlenlion leuves lhe
olenliul uccomlice vilh lhe veiy olion lhul he voulu huve if he
huu velo ovei, numely, nol lo uiive lhe geluvuy cui. So on lhe velo
concelion of consliuinl, ullhough lhe Lunl ioLLei unnounces un
inlenlion lhul il voulu Le imeimissiLle lo ucl on, his conlingency
unnouncemenl uoes nol consliuin lhe olenliul uccomlice's olions.
This, I lule il, is un inluilive uiugnosis of lhis cuse lhe Lunl ioLLei
seels lo infuence his olenliul uccomlice lhiough lemlulion iulhei
lhun lhiough consliuinl.
To see lhul unnouncing un inlenlion lhul il voulu Le imeimis-
siLle lo ucl on is nol necessuiy lo mule u conlingency unnouncemenl
one lhul consliuins lhe ieciienl's olions, consiuei lhe cuse of lhe
emloyei vho suys lo hei emloyee, If you shov u lule uguin, you
uie fnisheu heie,' meuning, I vill fie you if (unu only if) you uie lule
lo voil uguin (oi commil uny olhei ieviously esluLlisheu fieuLle of-
fense).' Lel us suose lhul lhe emloyei hus no oLligulion nol lo fie
lhe emloyee in lhese ciicumslunces. So lhe emloyei is nol unnounc-
ing un inlenlion lo uo somelhing imeimissiLle. Nonelheless, in lhis
ovei his inlenlion lo lill hei, he voulu lheieLy huve given hei u cosl-
less vuy lo uvoiu ueulh. Il voulu lheiefoie Le uimcull lo unueislunu
hov his unnouncemenl coulu give hei u ieuson lo hunu ovei hei
money. In olhei voius, lhe olenliul of lhe muggei's unnouncemenl
lo infuence lhe viclim mules sense only if lhe viclim cunnol simly
enu lhe inleiuclion. Theie is, lhen, u sense in vhich uenying lhe vic-
lim velo ovei is u necessuiy elemenl of lhe muggei's conlingency
unnouncemenl, unlile in lhe lunchlime cuse. This iefecls lhe sense
in vhich lhe muggei's unnouncemenl hus un inescuuLle efecl on his
viclim's olions vhile my lunchlime unnouncemenl uoes nol huve un
inescuuLle efecl on youi olions.
To Le cleui, nolice lhul u conlingency unnouncemenl mighl huve
un inescuuLle efecl on lhe ieciienl's olions unu slill nol succeeu in
iomling hei lo icl lhe muggei's iefeiieu oulcome. Theie uie lvo
vuys in vhich lhis mighl huen. Iiisl, lhe unnouncemenl mighl suc-
ceeu in giving lhe viclim u ieuson lo uo vhul lhe muggei vunls, Lul
nol one she ieguius us sumcienl. Suose lhul insleuu of unnouncing
un inlenlion lo lill his viclim, lhe muggei unnounces un inlenlion lo
Leul u his viclim. This unnouncemenl hus un inescuuLle efecl on
lhe viclim's olions. lhe olenliul ieuson lhis muggei is liying lo give
his viclim voulu evuoiule if she huu velo ovei ovei his inlenlion.
Bul il mighl nonelheless luin oul lhul, ullhough lhe viclim ieguius lhe
Leuling us u ieuson lo hunu ovei hei money, she uoes nol lule il lo Le
u sumcienl ieuson. So lhe conlingency unnouncemenl voulu nol uclu-
ully succeeu in iomling hei lo icl lhe muggei's iefeiieu olion.
Seconu, lhe unnouncemenl mighl nol succeeu in giving lhe viclim
u ieuson ul ull lo icl lhe muggei's iefeiieu olion. Consiuei unolhei
mouifeu veision of lhe mugging cuse. In lhis cuse, lhe muggei un-
nounces un inlenlion lo smush his viclim's cui vinushielu. Cnce uguin,
lhis unnouncemenl hus un inescuuLle efecl on lhe viclim's olions.
lhe olenliul ieuson lhis muggei is liying lo give his viclim voulu
evuoiule if she huu velo ovei ovei his inlenlion. Bul suose lhul
lhe muggei uoes nol lnov lhul lhe viclim's cui is ulieuuy ueslineu foi
lhe junlyuiu unu il lheiefoie mules no uifeience lo lhe viclim ul ull
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ rz voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
inlenlion lo violule un oLligulion lo lhe ieciienl heiself. The mug-
gei's viclim is lhus enlilleu lo velo ovei vilh iesecl lo his inlenlion
iecisely Lecuuse il is un inlenlion lo viong hei.
Bul nol ull cuses uie quile so sliuighlfoivuiu. Consiuei u liunu-
ing. Lisu liunus Puul unu uemunus u iunsom fiom Jounnu, uecluiing
lhul she vill lill Puul if unu only if Jounnu iefuses lo uy lhe iunsom.
Cf couise Puul hus slunuing lo legilimulely uemunu lhul Lisu uLunuon
lhis inlenlion. Bul vhul uLoul Jounnu` Peihus she hus some slunu-
ing simly us u memLei of lhe moiul communily lo uemunu lhul Lisu
nol viong Puul. Bul vhelhei oi nol lhis is so, given Lisu's conlingency
unnouncemenl, il seems lhul Jounnu, lile Puul, hus some moie uiiecl
cluim uguinsl Lisu's inlenlion lhun u meie Lyslunuei (even if she huu
no iioi ielulionshi lo Puul). I suggesl lhul Ly linling hei inlenueu
vionguoing lo one of Jounnu's uclions, Lisu gives Jounnu lhe slunu-
ing lo legilimulely uemunu lhul she uLunuon hei inlenlion. This is lhe
sense in vhich Jounnu is enlilleu lo velo ovei ovei Lisu's inlenlion.
Since Lisu necessuiily uenies Jounnu lhe velo ovei lo vhich Jounnu
is enlilleu, she uoes nol meiely consliuin Jounnu's olions Lul con-
sliuins lhem imeimissiLly.
I vill uesciiLe someone vho hus lhe slunuing lo legilimulely
uemunu lhul unolhei uLunuon hei inlenlion us someone vho is
enlilleu lo u moiul velo' ovei lhe olhei's inlenlion. This suggesls
lhe folloving uccounl of imeimissiLly consliuineu olions. u con-
lingency unnouncemenl imeimissiLly consliuins lhe ieciienl's
olions vhen lhe unnouncemenl hus lhe olenliul lo influence lhe
ieciienl only if lhe ieciienl is uenieu u moiul velo. The muggei's
viclim is sliuighlfoivuiuly enlilleu lo u moiul velo ovei lhe muggei's
inlenlion. The muggei's conlingency unnouncemenl lhus imeimis-
siLly consliuins his viclim's olions.
This exlunulion of hov lhe muggei imeimissiLly consliuins his
viclim's olions ioviues lhe Lusis foi un inleiielulion of ovei ovei
ioceeuings lhul inuicules hov imeimissiLly consliuining lhe viclim's
olions conliiLules lo muling il imossiLle foi hei lo consenl lo give
lhe muggei hei money. Unlile lhe lhiee non-moiul inleiielulions of
cuse lhe emloyee's olions inluilively seem lo Le consliuineu. The
velo concelion of consliuinl umims lhis ussessmenl. The conlingency
unnouncemenl meels lhe inescuuLilily conuilion. lhe unnouncemenl
only hus lhe olenliul lo infuence lhe emloyee if lhe emloyee lucls
velo ovei ovei lhe inlenlion Leing unnounceu. Civing lhe emloyee
conliol ovei vhelhei he is suLjecleu lo lhis moue of infuence voulu
mule lhis moue of infuence inefeclive.
The cuse of lhe emloyei lhus ioviues us vilh un exumle of
hov u conlingency unnouncemenl cun consliuin lhe ieciienl's o-
lions Ly unnouncing un inlenlion lhul il voulu Le eimissiLle lo ucl
on. Allhough lhe emloyei consliuins lhe emloyee's olions, since
he uoes so lhiough lhe unnouncemenl of un inlenlion lhul il voulu
Le eimissiLle lo ucl on, ve huve no ieuson lo lhinl lhul lhe emloyei
imeimissiLly consliuins lhe emloyee's olions.
20
This, I suggesl, is
confimeu vhen ve exumine hov lo chuiucleiize lhe moiul oLjeclion
lo lhe vuy in vhich lhe muggei consliuins his viclim's olions.
Civen lhe velo concelion of consliuinl, iuenlifying lhe sense
in vhich lhe muggei imeimissiLly consliuins his viclim's olions
umounls lo iuenlifying lhe sense in vhich lhe viclim is oveu lhe velo
ovei lhul lhe muggei necessuiily uenies hei. I suggesl lhul vhen ve
focus on lhe imeimissiLilily of lhe muggei's unnounceu inlenlion,
lhe sense in vhich lhe viclim is oveu velo ovei Lecomes cleui.
Legilimule uemunus uie lhe counleiuils of moiul oLligulions. If
you huve un oLligulion lo lieul u eison in u ceiluin vuy, lhul eison
cun legilimulely uemunu lhul you lieul hei in lhul vuy. In muny cuses
lile lhul of lhe muggei, lhe iniliuloi's inlenlion is one lhul lhe ieciienl
hus slunuing lo legilimulely uemunu lhul he uLunuon Lecuuse il is un
zo. Cne mighl lhinl lhul lhe uifeience in lhe eimissiLilily of lhe inlenlion Le-
ing unnounceu is nol lhe only imoilunl uifeience Lelveen lhe mugging
unu emloyei cuses. Unlile lhe muggei, lhe emloyei muy huve ieusons lo
fie lhe emloyee lhul uie inueenuenl of lhe usefulness of unnouncing un
inlenlion lo uo so. Unfoilunulely, I uo nol huve lhe suce lo exloie lhis con-
liusl heie. I Lelieve, hovevei, lhul lhis uifeience uoes nol liucl u uifeience
in lhe eimissiLilily conuilions on conlingency unnouncemenls.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ r voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
uifeience lo lhe viclim ul ull vhelhei lhe muggei smushes hei vinu-
shielu. Heie lhe muggei imeimissiLly consliuins lhe viclim's olions,
Lul lhis uoes nol seem lo consliuin hei ueliLeiulions Lecuuse il uoes
nol ufecl lhe ieusons she lules heiself lo huve. Theie is, lhen, I lhinl u
meuningful sense in vhich lhe viclim in lhis linu of cuse is uLle lo ex-
eicise uiscielionuiy uulhoiily uesile hei imeimissiLly consliuineu
olions. Hei choices conlinue lo iefecl only hei ovn evuluulion of lhe
olions she is enlilleu lo conliol. In lighl of lhis linu of cuse, il mighl
seem uioiiule lo mouify lhe uLove concelion of ovei ovei lhe
ioceeuings lo inuicule lhul one lucls ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings
only if one hus Leen ueiiveu of olions lhul one ieguius us ueliLeiu-
lively signifcunl.
We lhus fuce u choice Lelveen lvo concelions of lhe ovei-ovei-
lhe-ioceeuings ieconuilion on consenl.
2l
Choosing Lelveen lhese
lvo concelions voulu iequiie fuilhei exuminulion inlo lhe nuluie
of lhe uiscielionuiy uulhoiily lhul consenl involves. I vill nol unuei-
lule lhul exuminulion heie foi lvo ieusons. Iiisl, eilhei concelion
vill conuemn lhe muggei's conlingency unnouncemenl in lhe slun-
uuiu cuse. This is Lecuuse conlingency unnouncemenls lile lhose of lhe
muggei uie uesigneu lo ufecl lhe ieciienl's ueliLeiulions. Somelhing
zr. Cn eilhei inleiielulion of ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings, lhe exlunulion
of vhy consenl is imossiLle liucls lhe innei logic of consenl. hei uclion
cunnol iefecl hei uiscielion in lhe vuy lhul ucls of consenl uie suoseu lo.
Nolice lhul lhis uccounl is silenl uLoul vhelhei lucling lhe ovei lo con-
senl leuves lhe viclim Lellei of oi nol. Bui-Cill unu Ben-Shuhui uigue lhul
somelimes lhe vell-Leing of lhose vho mighl Le coeiceu voulu Le Lellei
seiveu if lheii choices in iesonse lo coeicion veie lulen us vuliu ucls of
consenl. Clheivise, olenliul coeiceis muy huve ieuson lo simly inficl lhe
oulcome lhul voulu huve Leen lhieuleneu iulhei lhun giving lhe viclim u
choice Lelveen lhis oulcome unu u lessei evil. See Cien Bui-Cill unu Cmii
Ben-Shuhui, CieuiLle Coeicion', Tcxus Iun Rc.icn Vol. 8, Iss. , IeL zooj,
. ;r;;8o. Even if Bui-Cill unu Ben-Shuhui's uigumenls succeeu, I muinluin
lhul lhis consiueiulion uoes nol ufecl lhe foice of my uigumenl. Il is ossiLle
lo imugine ciicumslunces in vhich ignoiing olhei uclnovleugeu consenl-
unueimining feuluies of un inleiuclion, e. g., uecelion, mighl leuve lhe viclim
Lellei of, e. g., vhen lhe uecelion is uleinulislicully molivuleu. Bul lhis is
lhe viong linu of consiueiulion lo Liing lo Leui on vhelhei un ucl unuei-
lulen in iesonse lo uecelion conslilules vuliu consenl.
ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings uiscusseu uLove, lhe inleiielulion I um
nov going lo give is u moiul inleiielulion. il ielies on u moiul ussess-
menl of lhe muggei's unnounceu inlenlion in oiuei lo exluin vhy lhe
viclim is unuLle lo consenl lo lhe muggei's luling hei money.
Recull lhul consenl is u moiully liunsfoimulive ucl. By consenling lo
somelhing, one iemoves u Luiiiei lo lhe eimissiLilily of unolhei's uc-
lion. So lhe iueu of consenl iesuoses u Luclgiounu of moiul noims
lhul secify lhe iohiLilions lhul giving consenl cuncels. The secif-
culion of lhese iohiLilions cuives oul u sheie foi euch eison vilhin
vhich she is solely enlilleu lo ueleimine vhul huens. The ovei lo
consenl enuLles hei lo give lhis enlillemenl lo olheis, lheieLy cuncel-
ing lhe iohiLilion. Ioi exumle, lhe Luclgiounu moiul noims muy
iohiLil olheis fiom louching one's Louy unu ioeily in ceiluin vuys.
In lhese iesecls, one is solely enlilleu lo ueleimine vhul huens lo
one's Louy unu one's ioeily. The ovei lo consenl enuLles one lo
enlille unolhei eison, u uocloi foi exumle, lo ueleimine vhul hu-
ens lo one's Louy in some iesecls, lhus cunceling lhe iohiLilion.
The ovei lo consenl enuLles u eison lo liunsfoim some sel
of moiully iolecleu olions inlo unolhei sel of olions ul hei ovn
uiscielion. Cn lhe velo concelion of consliuinl, vhen lhe muggei
imeimissiLly consliuins his viclim's olions, he imeimissiLly lules
conliol of un olion lhul lhe viclim is enlilleu lo huve lo lee Lolh
hei money unu hei life. Since lhe viclim uoes nol huve uccess lo lhe
olions she is enlilleu lo vilh iesecl lo hei money, lhe ucl of hunuing
lhe money ovei lo lhe muggei cunnol Le un exeicise of hei uiscielion-
uiy uulhoiily vilh iesecl lo hei money. This suggesls lhe folloving
inleiielulion of lhe ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings ieconuilion on con-
senl. in oiuei lo huve ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings, one's olions musl
nol Le imeimissiLly consliuineu.
Cne mighl voiiy lhul lhis inleiielulion of ovei ovei lhe io-
ceeuings is loo sliong. To see vhy, ieluin lo lhe vinushielu cuse lhul
I uesciiLeu uLove. In lhul cuse, lhe muggei unnounces un inlenlion
lo smush his viclim's cui vinushielu, Lul unLelnovnsl lo lhe muggei
lhe cui is ulieuuy ueslineu foi lhe junlyuiu unu il lheiefoie mules no
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ r voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
uie ueliLeiulively signifcunl, unu eihus nol ul ull. Recull lhul u conlin-
gency unnouncemenl imeimissiLly consliuins unolhei's olions vhen
ils olenliul lo infuence lhe ieciienl ueenus on uenying hei u moiul
velo. I vill lheiefoie cull lhis lhe moiul-velo' concelion of ovei ovei
lhe ioceeuings. Ioi euse of exosilion, in vhul follovs I vill ussume lhul
lhe ueliLeiulive signifcunce conuilion is mel, unless olheivise noleu.
Nolice lvo feuluies of lhe moiul-velo concelion of ovei ovei
lhe ioceeuings. Iiisl, nolice lhul lhe viclim is only unuLle lo chunge
olheis' enlillemenls vilh iesecl lo lhose lhings uLoul vhich hei
olions huve Leen imeimissiLly consliuineu. To see vhy, consiuei
lhis cuse. Suose lhe viclim is lhe ovnei of u locul uL vho is luling
hei nighlly ioceeus lo lhe .+x, unu lhul lhe muggei is one of hei
iegului ulions. When he ulls oul his gun unu uemunus hei money,
she hunus il ovei unu ul lhe sume lime uecluies, You uie no lon-
gei velcome ul my uL.' Inluilively, hunuing ovei lhe money uoes
nol enlille lhe muggei lo lee il, vhile uecluiing lhul lhe muggei
is no longei velcome cuncels his enlillemenl lo enlei lhe uL. The
exlunulion foi lhis uifeience is simly lhul lhe muggei hus imei-
missiLly consliuineu lhe viclim's olions ieguiuing hei money Lul
nol hei uL.
Seconu, nolice lhul lhe viclim's uLilily lo consenl is imuiieu nol jusl
vilh iesecl lo lhe muggei Lul ulso vilh iesecl lo olheis. If lhe muggei
uemunus lhul she give hei money lo u lhiiu uily she cunnol consenl lo
giving lhe money lo lhis lhiiu uily eilhei. Hei olions vilh iesecl lo hei
money huve Leen imeimissiLly consliuineu unu hence hei choices vilh
iesecl lo hei money cunnol Le un exeicise of hei uiscielionuiy uulhoi-
ily vilh iesecl lo il, even if lhe lhiiu uily is nol iesonsiLle ul ull foi
lhe vuy in vhich hei olions huve Leen imeimissiLly consliuineu.
23
z. I lhinl lheie is u seiious ioLlem foi lhe ossiLilily of consensuul inleiuclions
Lelveen viclims unu lhiiu uilies, us uesciiLeu in lhe lexl. Hovevei, lheie
muy Le vuys in vhich lhis ioLlem cun Le oveicome. Unfoilunulely, I uo nol
huve lhe suce lo exloie lhis ossiLilily heie.
hus gone uviy if lhe ueliLeiulive signifcunce conuilion is nol mel. Al-
lhough cuses lile lhul of lhe vinushielu meiil fuilhei ullenlion, lhey uie
nol uiuuigmulic cuses of coeicion.
Seconu, fuilhei comliculions muy vush oul lhe uifeience Lelveen
lhe lvo concelions in iuclice. The exeicise of lhe ovei lo consenl
muy iequiie lhe ossiLilily of ulule on lhe uil of lhose vhose ei-
missions uie ufecleu. I vill nol Le uLle lo unueilule un exloiulion of
ulule conuilions on consenl heie.
22
Bul il is voilh oLseiving lhul, us
long us lhe muggei unueislunus lhe viclim us iesonuing lo his lhieul,
he shoulu nol unueislunu hei uclion us consliluling consenl. So il mighl
Le lhul even if lhe viclim hus uiscielion ovei ull lhe olions she ieguius
us ielevunl unu vunls lo consenl lo give lhe muggei hei money Lecuuse,
suy, she ilies him, she mighl slill Le unuLle lo consenl Lecuuse il voulu
Le u mislule foi lhe muggei lo ieguiu hei us uoing so. In iuclice, lhen,
lhe lvo concelions of ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings on ofei muy yielu
lhe sume ussessmenl of cuses.
I suggesl, lhen, lhe folloving oen-enueu concelion of lhe ovei-
ovei-lhe-ioceeuings ieconuilion on consenl. in oiuei lo huve lhe ovei
ovei lhe ioceeuings lhul is neeueu lo mule consenl ossiLle, u eison's
olions musl nol Le imeimissiLly consliuineu, ul leusl nol in vuys lhul
zz. The exlenl lo vhich consenl iequiies lhe ossiLilily of ulule is u uimcull
issue unu I vill nol Le uLle lo uefenu u comlele viev heie. Heie I simly
vunl lo nole lhe luusiLilily of lhinling lhul lheie is some such iequiiemenl.
Suose Linuu is consiueiing vhelhei lo lenu Teu hei cui. As I oLseiveu in
nole r, some eole iuenlify consenling vilh u linu of menlul slule. Cn lhis
viev, ull Linuu neeus lo uo lo consenl is lo huve some uioiiule lhoughl,
lile Teu muy huve my cui on Suluiuuy nighl.' I lhinl lhis mules il veiy mys-
leiious hov Teu's eimissions uie in uny vuy ufecleu Ly Linuu's consenl. So I
unueislunu consenl us involving un uclion iulhei lhun meiely u menlul slule.
(See nole r foi olhei uefenueis of lhis viev.) Cnce one sees consenling in
lhis lighl, il seems lile lhe ielevunl linus of uclions musl involve some os-
siLilily of ulule on lhe uil of lhe eison vhose eimissions uie Leing uf-
fecleu. If Linuu vhiseis, Teu muy huve lhe cui on Suluiuuy nighl,' vhile ul
home ulone, lhis seems no Lellei lhun simly huving lhe lhoughl. This voulu
comlelely miss lhis sense in vhich consenling seems lo involve u liunsuc-
lion Lelveen ugenls. So I susecl lhul lheie is some linu of ossiLilily of
ulule conuilion on lhe consenl, ullhough I um nol uuvoculing uny uilicului
concelion of lhul conuilion heie.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ rj voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
enough ul uecelion lo ull lhis of unu lhus uoes nol even liy. Slill,
since ve voulu nol ieguiu un ulleml ul suLoluge us u mislule in
lhe ielevunl sense, il is eusy lo see lhul ve shoulu nol ieguiu hei us
u co-consiiuloi.
Suose Rosu is in fucl eugei lo cuiiy oul lhe LomLing. This is u
non-slunuuiu cuse unu ils lieulmenl muy ueenu lo some exlenl on
hov lhe oen-enueu concelion of ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings is
flleu oul. Nolice, lhough, lhul us long us Elliol's unnounceu inlenlion
lo lill Rosu is ul ull ueliLeiulively signifcunl, lhe viev is commilleu lo
cluiming lhul il vill Le imossiLle foi hei lo consenl lo uiliciule in
his lun. To see lhul lhis is un inluilive conclusion, nolice lhul ullhough
Rosu mighl vunl lo uiliciule in lhe LomLing, she mighl uisugiee
uLoul lhe mosl sliulegicully vuluuLle siles lo LomL. So she voulu nol
Le muling u mislule in lhe ielevunl sense if she suLolugeu Elliol's lun
in fuvoi of hei ovn. Thus, lhey uie slill nol voiling logelhei. Anu
even if lhey nevei ucluully uisugiee, lheii luns voulu meiely coinciue
Lul slill voulu nol counl us colluLoiulion. If Rosu coulu convince El-
liol lo uLunuon his unnounceu inlenlion Lecuuse she hus inueenuenl
ieuson lo vunl lo uiliciule, only lhen she coulu counl us consenling
lo uiliciule in Elliol's lun, lhus giving Elliol some giounu foi com-
luinl if she suLoluges his lun.
The imuiieu consenl uccounl is lhus uLle lo iuenlify u meuningful
sense in vhich Rosu's iesonsiLilily is ulleieu Ly Elliol's imeimis-
siLle consliuinl of hei olions. Hei uclion uoes nol huve lhe licensing
efecl il olheivise voulu. Cne vuy of seeing lhis is Ly oLseiving lhul
she cunnol huve lhe iesonsiLilily foi his lun lhul u co-consiiuloi
voulu huve, Lecuuse hei uclion uoes nol umounl lo consenling lo
uiliciule in his lun. Nolice lhul, unlile on lhe imuiieu uclion uc-
counl, Rosu's uclion is slill ulliiLuluLle lo hei us lhe ioei oLjecl
of moiul evuluulion unu uiuisul. Insleuu, Leing suLjecl lo Elliol's
conlingency unnouncemenl ufecls lhe unsveis lo lhe lulei lhiee
iesonsiLilily queslions cunvusseu in Seclion r.r, i. e., lhe queslions
ieguiuing eimissiLilily, Llume, unu lhe uisliiLulion of Lenefls
unu Luiuens. While unueimining u genuine joinl iojecl mighl Le
:., Thc Inpuirc! ccnscnt ucccunt Rcccnsi!crc!
Huving exliculeu lhe moiul-velo concelion of ovei ovei lhe io-
ceeuings, ve uie nov in u osilion lo uieciule hov lhis concelion
cun Le useu lo comlele lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl of lhe efecl of
lhe muggei's unnouncemenl on his viclim's choice. Cn lhe imuiieu
consenl uccounl, lhis efecl is moiully oLjeclionuLle in lvo vuys. Iiisl,
il umounls lo imeimissiLly consliuining lhe viclim's olions. Seconu,
lhe efecl of imeimissiLly consliuining lhe viclim's olions on hei
uLilily lo consenl conslilules u fuilhei viong lhe ieciienl is ie-
venleu fiom exeicising u ovei she is enlilleu lo exeicise.
Iuilheimoie, lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl iuenlifes u sense in
vhich viclims uie nol iesonsiLle foi lheii uclions lhul uoes nol involve
sliuing Lucl inlo lhe imuiieu uclion uccounl. Allhough u viclim's uclion
muy Le ieguiueu us lhe ioei oLjecl of moiul evuluulion unu uiuisul,
lhe viclim's uclion uoes nol huve lhe licensing efecl il voulu olheivise
huve. To fully uieciule vhul lhis involves, consiuei u fuilhei cuse.
Elliol lhe leiioiisl lnovs lhul Rosu lhe engineei hus ueluileu lnovl-
euge of lheii cily's suLvuy syslem. He lhieulens lo lill Rosu if she uoes
nol uiuv u u lun foi uelonuling LomLs lhioughoul lhe syslem. The
imuiieu consenl uccounl suggesls lhul, even if Rosu uoes vhul Elliol
uemunus, hei uclion vill nol counl us consenling lo uiliciule in his
lun. Ioi lhis ieuson, lheie is u moiully signifcunl sense in vhich she
uoes nol counl us voiling vilh Elliol lo LomL lhe suLvuy syslem.
24

This, I lhinl, is lhe iighl iesull. A co-consiiuloi voulu Le mul-
ing u mislule of soils if she liieu lo suLoluge lhe iojecl. Insofui us
she is engugeu in lhe iojecl, she musl ucl lo ensuie ils success. Rosu
voulu nol Le muling lhul sume linu of mislule if she suLolugeu El-
liol's iojecl. Peihus, us il so huens, Rosu lnovs she is nol goou
z. Theie uie u vuiiely of lheoiies of joinl uclion. Heie I uo nol meun lo enuoise
uny uilicului lheoiy. So I leuve oen lhe ossiLilily lhul lheie is some sense
in vhich Rosu unu Elliol uie voiling logelhei. Bul I lhinl lhul mosl, eihus
even ull, of lhe inleiesling noimulive imliculions lhul uie commonly ussoci-
uleu vilh voiling logelhei uie cuncelleu in lhe cuse of Rosu unu Elliol. The
uiscussion lhul follovs ieguiuing hov Rosu shoulu ieguiu lhe iosecl of
suLoluging Elliol's lun is meunl lo suoil lhis conclusion.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ r6 voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
iisl of mechunicul mulfunclions unu leiioiisl LomLing lols is vell-
lnovn. The imuiieu consenl uccounl leuves ioom foi lhese linus of
fuilhei exlunulions of miliguleu iesonsiLilily, vhich uie nol unique
lo cuses in vhich one ugenl imeimissiLly consliuins unolhei's choice,
ul lhe sume lime,il insisls lhul lheie is somelhing unique uLoul lhe
miliguleu iesonsiLilily in lhul linu of cuse.
The imuiieu uclion uccounl suggesls lhul conlingency unnounce-
menls lile Elliol's uisiul some seciul conneclion Lelveen un ugenl
unu hei Lehuvioi. Rulhei lhun focusing on lhe ielulionshi Lelveen un
ugenl unu hei Lehuvioi, lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl focuses on lhe
ielulionshi Lelveen un ugenl unu olhei ugenls. The sense in vhich
Rosu's uclion is nol genuine is lo Le selleu oul in leims of lhe sense in
vhich il is nol u genuine inslunce of joinl uclion vilh Elliol iulhei lhun
in leims of some uefecl inleinul lo hei ielulionshi lo hei ovn Lehuv-
ioi. This ullovs lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl Lolh lo uecluie Rosu's
uclion imeimissiLle unu lo leuve ioom foi fuilhei exlunulions of
vhy she mighl nol Le us Llumevoilhy us Elliol. The imuiieu consenl
uccounl lhus ofeis u much moie iomising exlunulion of hov unu
vhy lhe efecl of u conlingency unnouncemenl lile Elliol's on Rosu's
choice is iesonsiLilily-miliguling.
Civen lhe success of lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl in exluining
lhe moiully oLjeclionuLle unu iesonsiLilily-miliguling efecl of con-
lingency unnouncemenls lile lhose of lhe muggei unu lhe leiioiisl, I
lhinl lhul lhis uccounl is heuueu in lhe iighl uiieclion. Bul us I noleu
ul lhe oulsel, I lhinl lhul lhe fxulion of lhis uccounl on lhe iueu of con-
senl is misguiueu. In lhe nexl seclion, I vill sell oul lhe molivulion
Lehinu lhis voiiy unu oulline lhe ulleinulive, vhul I cull lhe imuiieu
noimulive uulhoiily uccounl.
. The Impaired normative authority account
The iinciul ioLlem vilh lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl is simly
lhul consenl is nol lhe only linu of moiully liunsfoimulive uclion. The
ovei lo mule u iomise is unolhei exumle of vhul I vill iefei lo
us u noimulive uiscielionuiy ovei. Noimulive uiscielionuiy oveis
imeimissiLle, Llumevoilhy unu somelhing foi vhich one shoulu
Leui lhe cosls, none of lhese consiueiulions uie ulicuLle in lhe cuse
of Rosu unu Elliol.
Nolice, hovevei, lhul Leyonu lhis oLseivulion, lhe imuiieu
consenl uccounl mules no cluims uLoul lhe unsveis lo lhese lhiee
queslions ieguiuing iesonsiLilily. Insleuu, lhe uccounl leuves
suce foi lhese queslions lo Le unsveieu on lhe Lusis of consiu-
eiulions lhul uie nol uniquely lieu lo lhe issue of coeicion. To see
hov lhis mighl go, nole some of lhe consiueiulions lhul mighl Le
ielevunl in evuluuling Rosu's uclions.
Even in sile of lhe signifcunl cosls in iefusing, ve mighl luusiLly
suose lhul uoing vhul Elliol uemunus is imeimissiLle. Nolice, hov-
evei, lhul u juugmenl lhul un uclion is imeimissiLle muy Le comLineu
vilh vuiying uegiees of Llume. If Rosu is eugei lo cuiiy oul lhe LomL-
ing, hei Llumevoilhiness muy nol uifei gieully fiom Elliol's, Lecuuse
Rosu voulu huve Leen u co-consiiuloi oi cuiiieu oul hei ovn lol if
she coulu huve. Bul in lhe cuse in vhich Rosu uoes nol huve inueen-
uenl ieuson lo vunl lo LomL lhe suLvuy, she mighl Le consiueiuLly
less Llumevoilhy lhun Elliol. The exlenl lo vhich one musl mule
unusuul unu signifcunl suciifces in oiuei lo uo lhe iighl lhing oflen
ufecls lhe exlenl lo vhich one is Llumevoilhy foi uoing somelhing
imeimissiLle. The exlenl of lhe suciifce mules il unueislunuuLle
lhul uoing lhe iighl lhing voulu Le uimcull, unu lhe unusuulness of
lhe suciifce mules il unueislunuuLle lhul one voulu Le unieuieu
lo oveicome lhis uimcully. These consiueiulions uie ielevunl vhelhei
oi nol unolhei ugenl is iesonsiLle foi muling lhe suciifce necessuiy.
Consiuei u cuse in vhich Rosu musl choose vhelhei lo suve heiself oi
lo cuuse lhousunus of suLvuy iiueis lo uie Lecuuse of un unfoieseeuLle
mechunicul mulfunclion. The exlenl lo vhich she voulu Le Llumevoi-
lhy in lhis cuse foi choosing lo cuuse lheii ueulhs seems lo Le lhe sume
us in lhe cuse in vhich Elliol geneiules lhe neeu foi lhe suciifce. Anu
lhe Llumevoilhiness voulu incieuse in Lolh cuses if eilhei lhe sucii-
fce veie less signifcunl suy, she voulu only lose hei legs unu nol
hei life oi lhe neeu foi lhe suciifce veie moie foieseeuLle suy, lhe
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ r; voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
uo. Anu if one hus u uuly lo oneself oi eihus lo humunily in geneiul
nol lo enguge in lhul linu of uecelion, eihus one mighl geneiule
un oLligulion lo uo vhul one cluims lo iomise in lhis linu of cuse
even lhough one voulu nol ove lhul to the mugger.
I susecl lhul ve uo nol ove il lo ouiselves oi lo olheis geneiully
lo mule goou on un uuienl iomise in lhis linu of cuse. Bul foi my
uioses heie il sumces lo nole lhul lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoi-
ily uccounl cun leuve ioom foi lhese olenliul uuuilionul comlexilies
in lhe cuse of iomising. Recull lhul Rosu's uclions uie slill moiully
ussessuLle even lhough she hels Elliol lun his suLvuy LomLing in
oiuei lo suve hei life. Lilevise, in lhe iomising cuse, lhe viclim's ul-
leiunce is slill moiully ussessuLle even lhough she mules il in oiuei
lo suve hei life. If she hus un oLligulion lo someone olhei lhun lhe
muggei nol lo enguge in uecelive ucls, she muy huve un oLligulion lo
follov lhiough vilh hei uuienl iomise in oiuei lo uvoiu vionging
lhese olheis. The imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl is only com-
milleu lo cluiming lhul lhe iomise ilself is nol Linuing. This conclusion
seems uimcull lo iesisl.
I suggesl, lhen, lhul lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl is inuuequule
Lecuuse il uoes nol uieciule lhul lhe moiul-velo concelion of ov-
ei ovei lhe ioceeuings uiliculules u ieconuilion foi lhe exeicise of
uny noimulive uiscielionuiy ovei, nol jusl lhe ovei lo consenl.
Moving lo lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl ieclifes lhis
omission. Nexl, nolice lhul noimulive uiscielionuiy oveis lile lhe
ovei lo consenl unu iomise uie simly lhe mosl exlicil exumles
of u moie Lusic noimulive uulhoiily. Noimulive uiscielionuiy ov-
eis ullov us lo chunge lhe lunuscue of eimissions unu oLligulions
simly Ly choosing lo uo so. Bul muny of lhe uclions ovei vhich ve
uie enlilleu lo huve uiscielion chunge vhul olheis uie eimilleu unu
oLliguleu lo uo even lhough lhey uo nol necessuiily uim ul lhis ie-
sull. When one chooses umong eimissiLle uclions, lhe chunge in lhe
eimissions unu oLligulions of olheis Lioughl uLoul Ly one's chosen
uclion is un exeicise of one's noimulive uulhoiily, lhul is, one's enlille-
menl lo shue lhe vuy lhe voilu is unu vhul olheis muy unu musl uo
enuLle eole lo chunge lhe lunuscue of eimissions unu oLligulions
Ly choosing lo uo so. As ve huve seen, consenl iemoves u Luiiiei lo
lhe eimissiLilily of un uclion. Piomising, on lhe olhei hunu, genei-
ules un oLligulion lo eifoim lhe iomiseu uclion. These uclions lhus
ieiesenl uifeienl vuys of ieshuing lhe moiul lunuscue. The ovei
lo muiiy unolhei eison oi lo give unolhei eison ovei of ulloiney
uie exumles of moie comlex vuys in vhich one muy chunge eo-
le's eimissions unu oLligulions Ly choosing lo uo so.
Conlingency unnouncemenls lhul violule lhe moiul-velo conce-
lion of ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings mule imossiLle lhe exeicise of
noimulive uiscielionuiy oveis moie geneiully, nol simly lhe ovei
lo consenl. Consiuei lhe cuse of iomising. Suose lhul lhe muggei's
viclim huens lo huve no money on hei. He lules hei lo u Lunl unu
ullemls lo gel hei lo iomise lo give him ull lhe money she vilh-
uiuvs unu nol lo uleil lhe uulhoiilies vhile he vuils oulsiue. Heie he
conveys lhe messuge, Piomise oi I vill lill you.' As vilh lhe cuse of
consenling, iomising mules sense only uguinsl u Luclgiounu of moi-
ul noims lhul esluLlish lhe eimissions unu oLligulions in luce Lefoie
lhe iomise is muue unu give one lhe uiscielion lo chunge lhose ei-
missions unu oLligulions. Since lhe viclim uoes nol huve uccess lo lhe
olions she is enlilleu lo, unu (ve suose) she ieguius us ueliLeiu-
lively signifcunl, lhe ucl of ulleiing lhe voius I iomise' cunnol Le un
exeicise of hei uiscielionuiy uulhoiily vilh iesecl lo hei oLligulions.
Some mighl fnu lhis conclusion less inluilive lhun lhe conclusion
ieguiuing consenl. Auum Smilh, foi exumle, ugiees lhul one cleuily
oves nolhing lo lhe uggiessoi in lhis linu of cuse, Lul vonueis vhelh-
ei lhe viclim's ovn uignily unu honoi' mighl suggesl lhul some ieguiu
is uue lo lhe invioluLle sucieuness of lhul uil of his chuiuclei vhich
mules him ieveience lhe luv of liulh unu uLhoi eveiy lhing lhul u-
iouches lo lieucheiy unu fulsehoou.'.
25
Even in lhe mugging cuse
eihus lheie is somelhing uecelive uLoul ueuiing lo iomise
vhen one hus no inlenlion lo uo vhul one ueuis lo Le iomising lo
zj. Auum Smilh, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Lonuon. r;jq), . jzq.
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ r8 voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
olenliul lo infuence lhe ieciienl ueenus on uenying lhe ieciienl u
moiul velo. The imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl iecognizes lhis
viong unu cluims lhul lhe viclim is ulso viongeu Lecuuse she cunnol
exeicise hei noimulive uulhoiily. Anu lhis fuilhei viong iefecls lhe
vuy in vhich Leing suLjecleu lo lhis linu of conlingency unnounce-
menl miligules hei iesonsiLilily. The viclim's uclions uo nol huve lhe
licensing efecl lhey voulu olheivise huve unu lhis lheieLy ulleis lhe
unsveis lo lhe lullei lhiee queslions ieguiuing iesonsiLilily oullineu
in Sec. r.r.
Since lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl Luilus on lhe
sliucluie of lhe imuiieu consenl uccounl, lhe foimei inheiils lhe o-
lenliul ioLlems of lhe lullei. In uilicului, Lolh vievs unueislunu lhe
viong of coeicion us uiusilic on lhe viongfulness of ucling on lhe in-
lenlion Leing unnounceu. uil of lhe exlunulion foi vhy lhe muggei
counls us imeimissiLly consliuining his viclim's olions lies in lhe
imeimissiLilily of ucling on his unnounceu inlenlion lo lill lhe viclim.
Allhough I huve ulieuuy liieu lo uemonsliule lhe uimcully involveu in
unueislunuing coeicion us u Lusic viong (Seclion z.z.r), some mighl
slill fnu lhis imliculion of lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl
unululuLle. Heie I vunl lo suggesl lhul cuieful ullenlion lo lhe muny
noimulive feuluies of un inleiuclion muy uifuse uny lingeiing ueul
of lhe iueu of coeicion us u Lusic viong.
Consiuei u cuse of sexuul huiussmenl. Lel us suose lhul lhe em-
loyei suys lo lhe emloyee, I vill fie you if unu only if you iefuse lo
huve sex vilh me.' This unnouncemenl ufecls lhe emloyee's olions
in u vuy lhul is inescuuLle. So on lhe velo concelion of consliuinl,
lhis unnouncemenl consliuins lhe emloyee's olions. In oiuei lo
ueleimine vhelhei lhis consliuinl is imeimissiLle, lhe imuiieu
noimulive uulhoiily uccounl Legins Ly usling vhelhei lhe emloyei
muy eimissiLly fie lhe emloyee. Assessing lhis is olenliully moie
comliculeu lhun il mighl ul fisl seem. The emloyei muy huve insli-
lulionul oi conliucluul oLligulions lo fie lhe emloyee only on ceiluin
giounus. If lhis is nol one of lhose giounus, il voulu Le imeimissiLle
lo fie lhe emloyee in lhis cuse unu lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily
in il. Ioi exumle, if I vull inlo u movie lheulei unu lule u seul, my fel-
lov movie ulions uie no longei eimilleu lo lule lhul seul. Anolhei
ulion cunnol, foi exumle, ull me oul of lhe chuii unu sil uovn in
my luce.
Jusl us imeimissiLly consliuineu olions mule lhe exeicise of noi-
mulive uiscielionuiy oveis imossiLle, imeimissiLly consliuineu
olions ulso mule il imossiLle lo exeicise one's Lusic noimulive uu-
lhoiily. Wilh lhis in minu, consiuei lhe folloving exumle. In oiuei lo
Loosl ullenuunce ul hei lheulei eifoimunce, un ucloi lells usseisLy
on lhe slieel lhul she vill lill lhem if lhey uo nol ullenu. In lhe uLsence
of such un unnouncemenl, ullenuing lhe eifoimunce voulu huve
huu lhe efecl of licensing lhe ucloi lo use lhe lime unu ullenlion lhe
uuuience gives hei. This licensing efecl is suLllei lhun one uchieveu
lhiough lhe exeicise of u noimulive uiscielionuiy ovei lhe ucl of
shoving u lo lhe eifoimunce neeu nol Le inlenlionully uiiecleu ul
ieshuing lhe moiul lunuscue in lhe vuy lhul giving consenl oi mul-
ing u iomise is. Nonelheless, lhe ucloi's unnouncemenl imeues lhis
licensing efecl in lhe sume vuy lhul il imeues lhe exeicise of noi-
mulive uiscielionuiy oveis. Thiough hei unnouncemenl, lhe ucloi
lules conliol of un olion lhul lhe olenliul uuuience memLeis uie
enlilleu lo huve, numely, lo sli lhe eifoimunce vilhoul Leing lilleu.
By foicing hei olenliul uuuience lo ueliLeiule in leims of u sel of im-
eimissiLly consliuineu olions, she mules il imossiLle foi lhem
lo exeicise lheii uiscielionuiy uulhoiily ovei lheii uclions unu lhus
mules il imossiLle foi lhose uclions lo huve lhe licensing efecl lhey
voulu olheivise huve. So jusl us lhe ucl of hunuing ovei lhe money
lo lhe muggei fuils lo huve lhe noimul imliculion of eimilling lhe
muggei lo lule il, so lhe ucl of ullenuing lhe eifoimunce fuils lo huve
lhe noimul imliculion of eimilling lhe ucloi lo use lhe lime unu ul-
lenlion of lhe uuuience.
The imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl lhus Luilus on lhe im-
uiieu consenl uccounl lo mule sense of u viuei iunge of cuses. Bul
lhe Lusic sliucluie of lhe uccounl iemuins lhe sume. A conlingency
unnouncemenl imeimissiLly consliuins unolhei's olions vhen ils
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ rq voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
u Lusic viong muy iefecl u fuiluie lo consiuei lhe muny giounus on
vhich il mighl Le imeimissiLle foi un ugenl lo ucl on lhe inlenlion
he is unnouncing.
26

. Conclusion
Al lhe oulsel, I uislinguisheu my iojecl fiom lhe uefnilionul iojecl
lhul hus uominuleu much of lhe conlemoiuiy lileiuluie on coeicion.
We cun nov see hov lhe issues of eimissiLilily unu iesonsiLilily
lhul uie iuiseu Ly coeicion cun Le uuuiesseu vilhoul comleling lhe
uefnilionul iojecl. Nolice, fuilheimoie, lhul lhe noimulive iojecl ie-
veuls un umLiguily in oui concelion of coeicion. We mighl luusiLly
use lhe voiu 'coeicion' lo iefei eilhei lo u geneiul vuy of consliuining
unolhei oi lo u moie secifc vuy of viongfully consliuining unolhei.
The use of 'coeicion' in eveiyuuy conveisulion equivocules Lelveen
lhese lvo culegoiies. Cn my viev, eilhei vuy of using lhe voiu is uc-
celuLle us long us one is cleui hov one is using il.
Lel me Liiefy ieviev, lhen, hov my iojecl uuuiesses lhe noimu-
live issues iuiseu Ly coeicion. I Legun Ly noling lhul Lolh lhe moiul
oLjeclion lo coeicion unu ils iesonsiLilily-miliguling efecls seem
lo Le iooleu in lhe efecl of coeicion on lhe viclim's choice. While il
z6. Bluclmuil is somelimes ulso suggesleu us u cuse in vhich coeicion seems lo Le
u Lusic viong. The Lluclmuilei suys lo lhe ieciienl, I vill ieveul youi seciel
if unu only if you uo nol uy me.' The unnouncemenl ufecls lhe ieciienl's
olions in u vuy lhul is inescuuLle. Hence lhis cuse involves consliuining lhe
ieciienl's olions. Is lhis consliuinl imeimissiLle` As vilh lhe sexuul huiuss-
menl cuse, ueleimining lhe unsvei lo lhis queslion muy ulso Le moie comli-
culeu lhun il fisl ueuis. Cne is nol ulvuys enlilleu lo ieveul infoimulion
even if one hus eimissiLly oLluineu il suy Ly innocenlly slumLling uon
il. Reveuling lhe infoimulion mighl slill conslilule u violulion of unolhei's
iivucy. Moieovei, if ieveuling lhe infoimulion voulu cuuse unolhei eison
lo sufei leiiiLly, lhul mighl counl us u uecisive oLjeclion lo lhe eimissiLilily
of uoing so. Bul if lhe infoimulion ieully is somelhing lhul lhe Lluclmuilei is
enlilleu lo uisseminule, vhul is lhe iemuining oLjeclion lo seeling uymenl
foi foigoing lhis uclion` Peihus, us lhe sexuul huiussmenl cuse illusliuleu,
lheie uie some lhings lhul il is imeimissiLle lo lieul us commouilies. If lhis is
nol such u cuse, ve uie lefl vilh lhe conclusion lhul lhe Lluclmuilei is liying
lo sell u commouily lhul Lelongs lo him. Anu lhul uoes nol seem ioLlemulic
in lhe vuy lhul lhe muggei's unnouncemenl uoes.
uccounl cun use lhis lo exluin hov lhe emloyei necessuiily uenies
lhe emloyee u moiul velo unu hence imeimissiLly consliuins lhe
emloyee's olions.
Lel us suose lhul lheie uie no such inslilulionul oi conliuclu-
ul oLligulions in lhis cuse. Theie uie lvo fuilhei giounus one mighl
olenliully ueul lo in oiuei lo esluLlish lhul il is imeimissiLle lo
fie lhe emloyee. Iiisl, nolice lhul ucling on lhe emloyei's conui-
lionul inlenlion involves uying foi sex. Cn some vievs, lhul mighl
Le imeimissiLle. Seconu, nolice lhul il muy Le veiy inluilive lo
lhinl of lhe sexuul huiussmenl cuse us involving un uLiul unu
iuuicul chunge in joL uesciilions. Insleuu of simly Leing, suy, u
secieluiy lhe emloyee musl nov ulso ucl us u ioslilule. Peihus
lheie is somelhing moiully oLjeclionuLle uLoul emloymenl con-
liucls lhul involve lhe ossiLilily of lhis linu of uLiul unu iuui-
cul chunge. Thul is, eihus il is imeimissiLle lo huve un ul vill'
emloymenl uiiungemenl. If so, lhis cuse voulu involve lhe un-
nouncemenl of un inlenlion lo uo somelhing imeimissiLle, i. e.,
fiie lhe emloyee on lhe Lusis of un uLiul unu iuuicul chunge in
lhe joL uesciilion. If lhis uiugnosis is coiiecl, il voulu uly lo
olhei cuses lile ones in vhich lhe emloyei uuueu LuLysillei oi
muiu lo lhe joL uesciilion of someone vho huu ieviously Leen
only u secieluiy.
Heie I uo nol meun lo enuoise uny of lhe uLove ieusons foi
concluuing lhul il voulu Le imeimissiLle foi lhe emloyei lo ucl
on lhe inlenlion Leing unnounceu. I simly vunl lo nole lhul in
lhe uLsence of uny such exlunulion, lhe imuiieu noimulive uu-
lhoiily uccounl is inueeu commilleu lo lhe conclusion lhul lhe em-
loyei uoes nol imeimissiLly consliuin lhe emloyee's olions
unu hence lhul lhe unnouncemenl is nol viong oi iesonsiLilily
miliguling in lhe vuy lhul lhe muggei's unnouncemenl is. Bul if
ull of lhe uLove consiueiulions foi lhinling lhul il voulu Le viong
foi lhe emloyei lo ucl on lhe conuilionul inlenlion uie iuleu oul,
lhis uoes nol seem lo me lo Le un imluusiLle ussessmenl of lhe
cuse. I suggesl lhen lhul lhe lemlulion lo unueislunu coeicion us
.i. i.iiiii.+n.vii The Possibility of Choice
iniiosoinins' ixiniN+ zo voi. rr, No. r6 (Novixnin zorr)
mighl seem nuluiul lo inleiiel lhis efecl in leims of some uefecl in
lhe viclim's uclion, I huve uigueu lhul lhis ueuiunce is misleuuing.
Uon closei exuminulion, neilhei consiueiulions ieguiuing lhe mili-
guleu iesonsiLilily of lhe viclim noi lhe viclim's unvillingness lo ucl
us she uoes cun uuequulely suoil lhe conclusion lhul lhe viclim of
coeicion is unuLle lo enguge in genuine uclion. Insleuu of looling
foi lhe ioLlem in lhe conneclion Lelveen lhe viclim's sychologi-
cul slules unu hei Lehuvioi, I huve uigueu lhul ve shoulu lool foi lhe
ioLlem in lhe ielulionshi Lelveen lhe viclim unu lhe coeicei. As u
fisl uss ul uilicululing lhis ioLlem, I consiueieu lhe viclim's inuLil-
ily lo consenl lo lhe muggei's leeing hei money. I huve uefenueu u
uilicului exlunulion foi lhis. The muggei's uclion violules u iecon-
uilion on lhe ossiLilily of consenl. This ieconuilion is uilicululeu Ly
lhe moiul-velo concelion of ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings. Iinully, I
uigueu lhul lhe moiul-velo concelion of ovei ovei lhe ioceeuings
is nol meiely u ieconuilion on lhe ossiLilily of consenl Lul ulso u
ieconuilion on lhe ossiLilily of lhe exeicise of noimulive uulhoiily.
I huve lhus uiiiveu ul lhe imuiieu noimulive uulhoiily uccounl. lhe
viclim is unuLle lo exeicise hei uulhoiily lo mule uiscielionuiy chung-
es in lhe eimissions unu oLligulions of olheis. This chuiucleiizulion
of lhe efecl of coeicion on lhe viclim's choice culuies Lolh u vuy in
vhich lhe coeicei viongs lhe viclim unu miligules lhe viclim's ieson-
siLilily, lhus vinuiculing lhe uuienl conneclion Lelveen lhese lvo
usecls of coeicion.
27

z;. I um inueLleu lo muny eole foi helful commenls on euiliei uiufls of lhis
uei. Kylu ELels Duggun, Michuel Joel Kesslei, Nilo Kolouny, Chiisline
Koisguuiu, T. M. Scunlon, unu lhe memLeis of lhe Huivuiu Woilsho in
Moiul unu Polilicul Philosohy. I um ulso giuleful foi queslions fiom uuui-
ences ul lhe NYU Colloquium in Legul, Polilicul unu Sociul Philosohy unu
ul lhe Piincelon Univeisily Cenlei foi Humun Vulues. Iinully, lhis uei hus
imioveu consiueiuLly in iesonse lo queslions unu commenls fiom unony-
mous ievieveis.