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Power system blackout

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Share/download essay: CHAPTER1: INTRODUCTION

In power system, blackouts have been the most problem occur in the interconnected grid which results in large loss. Power system blackout is one of the major challenges of electric utilities in the world such as blackout of Greece, Italy, North America, Sweden and Denmark. However, in recent years this phenomenon has considerably increased base on the f requency and the severity of this problem. T his may be due to the consequence of new regulations and restriction restricted by power system deregulation. In f act, it is not possible to completely prevent these power def iciency occur. However, proper monitoring, control and protection schemes, f requency and the severity of this phenomenon occur may be reduced. Some kind of operation contributes to the recently occurred blackouts such as Incorrect of protective systems, voltage instability, and lack of under f requency load shedding. Under f requency load shedding (UFLS) scheme is proposed to enhance the reliability of power systems to against system f ailure and f ault occur. T his scheme is classif ied as protection scheme or system protection scheme. System protection scheme is def ined as protection strategies designed to detect a particular condition which is known to cause f ailures to the power system and prepare some kind of predetermined action counteract the observed condition in a controlled manner. System protection scheme is specially designed to detect abnormal conditions at the same time take predetermined corrective action, other than the isolation of f aulted element, to preserve system integrity and provide acceptable system perf ormance. T he objective of using the protection scheme is to increase power system reliability especially in term of security during extreme contingencies and to improve power system operation as well. Under f requency load shedding (UFLS) scheme is one of the most commonly used as a protection schemes. T his kind of protection scheme is employed due to the ef f ectiveness to counter power system f ailure regardless what kind of disturbance it is applied. Under f requency load shedding (UFLS) scheme is conventionally designed to preserve the balance power in the island during f ault occur. Under f requency load shedding (UFLS) is a very important approach to prevent f requency decline. It should have capability not only to shed load under dif f erent operating modes when local systems are connected to the main systems, but also capable to maintain the f requency stability when local systems are islands. T he f requency decline, caused by the power imbalance between generation and demand is considered as serious problems which lead to the excess load. T he f requency decline may cause a permanent damage to the turbine blades and plant themselves lead to f ailures because at low f requency their auxiliary are not be able to maintain normal output when the f requency is about 10 to 15% below normal. T he primary method to bring back to the nominal f requency level is to shed amount of load. In power systems protection scheme, the f requencies are widely used as a setting in UFLS design. Under f requency load shedding (UFLS) must be perf ormed quickly to arrest power system f requency decline by decreasing power system load to match available generating capacity. Extreme f requency decline can occur within seconds. An automatic under f requency load shedding (UFLS) scheme is applied to restore the system f requency to an acceptable level f ollowing a major system emergency which can cause a generation def iciency. In conventional under f requency protection design the only measured parameter of the system involved in decision making is f requency. Conventional UFLS schemes are designed to prevent extreme f requency decline because of disturbance which lead to imbalance between generation and demand. Excessive f requency decline may cause damage to the equipments of power

system particularly turbine blades in power plant at f requency below 47.5Hz. During normal operation of power system the amount of generation is equal to the amount of demand. Whenever the f aults occur, either the amount of generation is decreases or the amount of load is suddenly increases, the balance of power is violated and the f requency f alls at the predetermined threshold the portion of the load will be shed in a f ew steps to equalize the amount of demand and generation to prevent the system collapse. T he loads to be shed in this system are shed constant load f eeders and are not selected adaptively. In the other hand, these systems always drop the same load regardless of the location of disturbance. In this system loads are classif ied in three groups of non vital, semi vital and vital loads. T he system usually shed non vital load. Sometime in severe condition semi vital loads may also be shed. Although this kind of protection scheme is easy to implement, but it is suf f er in term of adaptability when various kind of f ault is experience. In the other hand, regardless of the severity of the disturbance, setting of the under f requency load shedding scheme is the same or constant. T his kind of scheme may be introduced over shedding or under shedding f or small disturbance or large disturbance respectively. In this project rate of change of f requency is proposed to enhance the adaptability of under f requency relays. By using this load shedding method, f ast reactions could be obtained f or major system f ailures. Adaptive under f requency load shedding (AUFLS) scheme can prevent complete system blackouts in the case of large or small disturbance. In other word, adaptive under f requency load shedding (AUFLS) scheme is specially designed to counter any kind of in coming disturbance applied. Rate of change of f requency, df /dt is the indicator to detect the magnitude of disturbance or f aults. T he rate of change of f requency df /dt is an instantaneous indicator of power imbalance and is presently used with the f requency f unction to provide a more selective or f aster operation. To make the rate of change of f requency df /dt as power def iciency indicator additional inf ormation about the system is required such as voltage, spinning reserve, load and etc. Such inf ormation may be communicated to the relay. T here are three types of the under f requency relays available f or load shedding scheme purpose. T hey are electromechanical relays, solid-state relays and digital relays. T he purpose of the under f requency relay is f or monitoring the f requency of an alternating current power line and protect the system by giving signal when ever the f requency drop below predetermine value f or a specif ic length interval. T he f requency of grid system must be maintain at 50Hz, if the f requency drop below nominal value the protection scheme must be initiated in order to maintain its generator on line even at low f requency. Frequency drop in power line may take several steps to measure. One of the methods is by using oscillator, the f requency which is substantially higher than the nominal f requency being measured, and counting the number of pulses f rom the oscillator during the period. When the line f requency decrease, the period will correspondingly increase, and theref ore a high number of oscillator output pulse will be obtained. It is no desired to detect under f requency condition which result in load shedding when an under f requency condition does not exist in f act, primarily because of the inconvenience may cause customer unsatisf ied. It is also because of the dif f iculty and duration taken to restore power to those customers. T he objective of the invention of under f requency relay is to provide method of detecting an under f requency condition on an alternating current power line including the step of sensing by means of electrical circuit. Af ter the power def icient has been cleared, the amount of the power generation and the power demand is approximately the same. T heref ore the f requency of the system will bring back to the acceptable level because the power imbalance is proportional to the f requency deviation. T hus, when the f requency is synchronous with the f requency of the grid system, the islanded locations will connected back to the grid in case of the f ault has been cleared.

1.1 OBJECTIVE:
AIM 1: To design adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme f or small Distributed Generation. AIM 2: To develop model to predict the rate of f requency (df /dt) decay during system disturbance.

1.2 SCOPE OF THESIS

T he scopes of work are: 1. Gathering all suitable method f or load shedding scheme f rom reliable resources such as journal or internet. 2. Chose one suitable method which is can adapt any disturbance the network applied. Study and

understand well the method and design the algorithm. 3. Write program into C++ programming language based on the written algorithm. 4. Modeling simulation network by using Power System CAD (PSCAD) sof tware. Interf acing C code to the PSCAD sof tware. 5. Testing adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme in the simulation modeling. 6. T he result is studied f ro dif f erent power imbalance.

CHAPTER2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 OVERVIEW

In our interconnected system all the power demand and power supply is in the balance mode or it is called in synchronism. T hey are all synchronous with the grid system in term of generator speed or f requency to maintain its stability. All synchronous generators are in the same speed or f requency, and not one of them run at slower or f aster to ensure the generator run at rated speed. Bef ore disturbances occur, the f requency is maintained at 50Hz so that the prime movers will drive generator at constant speed. Since the f requency is directly proportional to the speed of the generator, hence when the f requency decreases the generator speed will decreases as well. When there is a disturbance because of f ault or f ailures occur there is instability within the system. T he relay grading will set the time to discriminate the f ault location to protect the equipment and to ensure that there is no total blackout occurs. If we were not discriminating the saf e location it may cause large loss and damage the equipment. Disturbance is classif ied as large, medium and small so that we can know what type of disturbance occur to take predetermines action. T he f ault location is being isolated that location is called islanding. Islanding is condition where the distributed generation (DG) and local bus is disconnected f rom the grid due to f ault or f ailure. When ever islanding occurs, the interconnected grid will not f eed the energy to the islanded location until the entire f ault has been cleared. During islanding, the distributed generation (DG) needs to supply suf f icient power to the local bus because there are loads connected at the bus as well to ensure the security of the load af ter islanding is guaranteed. Whenever islanding occur, the distributed generation (DG) has to run at ref erence speed to saf e the local load. Af ter islanding, the f requency may drop and the speed of the generator is reduced as well. To maintain at nominal f requency the prime mover have to drive the generator much f aster. When the distributed generation (DG) is not capable to supply enough power to the load the power imbalance is establish which is the power of demand is greater than the power of supply. To ensure the power is always available, the spinning reserve is activated. In the case of the spinning reserve take to longer time to supply power or it can not capable to maintaining supply, thus under f requency load shedding scheme is initiated to prevent f requency decline or power imbalance. In the extreme contingency the loads have to shed to prevent f rom total cascaded blackout occur. Frequency decline is detected by under f requency relay. Under f requency relay is very sensitive to the change of the f requency due to the power imbalance between generation and consumption. In this project, the rate of f requency change is used to detect the power def iciency. T he rate of f requency decay is small if there is large imbalance between the supply and demand or it is called large disturbance. In the other word, if there is small disturbance occur then the rate of f requency decay is large. T he rate of change of f requency is inversely proportional to the power imbalance. T he larger the power imbalance the smaller the rate of f requency change. If the disturbance is large the rate of the f requency decline is small which indicate that the f requency will drop f aster and proper action must be taken quickly. Under f requency relay must be perf orms quickly to arrest power system of f requency change (decline) by decreasing power system load to match with the available generating capacity. Adaptive under f requency load shedding is used f or purpose to drop the load in a proper manner when imbalance power established regardless the amount of the power def iciency it is experience. T he value of the rate of f requency change is a powerf ul indicator to achieved proper load shedding scheme. T his method will shedding load based on the magnitude of disturbance without introducing any under shedding or over shedding which lead to the improper load shedding and may cause large loss. T his kind of protection scheme is called Adaptive Under f requency Load Shedding Scheme (AUFLS). T his scheme is usually designed to protect power system f rom total blackout which is the load to be shed is programmed to specif ied which load will be saf e the most. T he load must be saf e the most is usually

related to the government of f ice. T his method is compared with the conventional load shedding which is shed the same location which can cause the importance of the load. Usually, the loads to be shed are chosen f rom the loads which have low degree of importance and the loads are not concentrated at any specif ic area. For the purpose of preserving the island, the amount of the load and supply must be equal. T he power demand and supply is calculated to determine the amount of load to shed and the value will be used to select which load will be shed based on the importance of the load. T he less importance of the load, the f irst load will be shed and vice versa. T he value of the rate of change of f requency is inf luence the value of the load to be shed. Because the large disturbance the large load is to shed. Af ter load is reduced the total load is also reduced then the demand is approximately equal to the power supply. T heref ore the f requency is bringing back to the nominal f requency, but slightly below the nominal level. T he power of the total load might be loss in a small quantity. Af ter the f ault has been cleared the islanding location and the grid will reconnect in the case the islanding location and the grid is synchronous in term of f requency.

2.2 ELECTRICAL GRID SYSTEM

When we say about the power industry, "grid" is a term used f or an electricity network which may support all or some of the f ollowing three obvious operations: 1. Electricity generation 2. Electric power transmission 3. Electricity distribution

1. Elect ricit y generat ion.

T he main component in power generation of power system is synchronous generator or also known as alternator. Synchronous generator comprises of two rotating f ield, which is f rom rotor driven at synchronous speed and excited by dc current and the other f ield is produced by three phase armature currents in the stator windings. T he dc current is provided by the excitation systems f or the rotor windings. In the older units, the dc current exciters are providing by dc generators with rotating rectif iers, known as brushless excitation systems. T he generator voltage and reactive power f low is controlled by the generator excitation system. Ac generators can generate high power at high voltage, typically 30KV due to lack of the commutator. Typically in power plant the size of generators can be varied f rom 50MW to 1500MW. T he prime movers will produce mechanical power to move the turbine blade. T he prime movers usually come f rom hydraulic turbines at waterf alls, steam turbines whose energy comes f rom the burning of coal, gas and nuclear f uel, gas turbines, or occasionally internal combustion engines burning oil. Steam turbines usually operate at 3600 rpm and 1800 rpm f or 2 and 4 poles respectively, the generators to which they are coupled are cylindrical rotor. Hydraulic turbines, particularly those operating with a low pressure, operate at low speed. T heir generators are typically a salient type of rotor with many poles. In the grid system, several synchronous generators are operating in parallel switch other generator to provide the total power needed. T hey are connected at the common point known as BUS.

2. Elect ric power t ransmission

T he purpose of an overhead transmission network is to transf er electric energy f rom generating unit at various locations to the distribution system which ultimately supplies the load. Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities which permits not only economic dispatch of power between regions during normal conditions, but also the transf er of power regions during emergencies. Standard transmission voltages are established in the United States by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Transmission voltage lines operating at more than 60KV are standardizing at 69KV, 115KV, 138KV, 161KV, 230KV, 345KV, 500KV and 765KV line to line. Transmission voltages above 230KV is considered to as extra high voltage (EHV). High voltage transmission lines are terminated in substations, which are called high voltage substations, receiving substations or primary substations. Switching stations are f unction f or switching circuit in and out of service. T he voltage is stepped down to a value more suitable f or the next part of the journey toward the load at the primary substations. Very large industrial customers may be served f rom the transmission system. Sub transmission network is

ref erred as the portion of the transmission system that connects the high voltage substations through step-down transf ormers to the distribution substations. T here is no clear delineation between transmission and sub transmission voltage levels. T he sub transmission voltage level usually ranges f rom 69KV to 138KV. Some large industrial customers may be served f rom the sub transmissions f or maintaining the transmission line voltage.

3. Elect ricit y dist ribut ion

T he distribution system is those parts which connect the distribution substations to consumers service entrance equipment or in the other word part of supply electricity which is dealing with the customer. T he primary distribution lines are usually in the range of 4 to 4.5KV and supply the load in a well def ined geographical area. Some small industrial customers usually served directly f rom the primary f eeders. T he secondary distribution network stepped down the voltage f or utilization commercial and residential consumers. Lines and cable are usually not exceeding a f ew hundred f eet in length then deliver power to the individual consumers. T he secondary distribution serves most of the consumers at a level 240/120V, single phase, three wire, 208Y/120V, three phases, f our wire, 480Y/227V. T he typical power f or home is derived f rom a transf ormer which stepped down the primary f eeder voltage to240/120V using a three wire line. Distribution systems are both overhead and underground. T he growth of underground distribution systems has been extremely rapid and as much as 70% of new residential construction is served underground. In an electricity grid system, electricity demand and supply must be balance at all times, any signif icant imbalance power may cause grid instability or severe voltage f luctuations, and cause f ailures within the grid system. Total generation capacity is theref ore sized to correspond to total peak demand with some margin of error and allowance f or contingencies (such as plants being of f -line during peak demand periods or outages). Operators will generally plan to use the least expensive generating capacity (in terms of marginal cost) at any given period, and use additional capacity f rom more expensive plants as demand increases. Demand response in most cases is targeted at reducing peak demand to reduce the risk of potential disturbances or f ailure, avoid additional capital cost requirements f or additional plant, and avoid use of more expensive and/or less ef f icient operating plant. Consumers of electricity will also pay lower prices if generation capacity that would have been used is f rom a higher-cost source of power generation. Demand response may also be used to increase demand during periods of high supply and/or low demand. Some types of generating plant must be run at close to f ull load (such as nuclear), while other types may yield at negligible marginal cost (such as wind and solar). Since there is usually limited load to store energy, demand response may attempt to increase load during these periods to maintain grid stability. For example, in the province of Ontario in September 2006, there was a short period of time when electricity prices were negative f or certain users. Energy storage such as Pumped-storage hydroelectricity is a way to increase load during periods of low demand f or use during later periods. Use of demand response to increase load is less common, but may be essential or ef f icient in systems where there are large amounts of generating capacity that cannot be easily cycled down. Some grids may use pricing system that are not real-time, but easier to implement (users pay higher prices at the day and lower prices at night, f or example) to provide some of the benef its of the demand response mechanism with less demanding technological requirements. For example, in 2006 Ontario began implementing a "Smart Meter" program that implements "Time-of -Use" (T OU) pricing, which tiers pricing according to on-peak, mid-peak and of f -peak schedules. During the winter, on-peak is def ined as morning and early evening, mid-peak as mid-day to late af ternoon and of f -peak as night-time; during the summer, the on-peak and mid-peak periods are reversed, ref lecting air conditioning as the driver of summer demand. In 2007, prices during the of f -peak were C$0.034 per KWh and C$0.097 during the onpeak demand period, or just less than three times as expensive. As of 2007, f ew utilities had the meters and systems capability to implement T OU pricing, however, and most customers are not expected to get smart meters until 2008-2010. Eventually, the T OU pricing (or real-time pricing) is expected to be mandatory f or most customers in the province.

2.3 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Distributed generation (DG) is anticipated to become more important in the f uture generation system. T he current literature, however, does not use a consistent def inition of DG. T he relevant issues and aims at providing a general def inition f or distributed power generation in competitive electricity markets. In general, DG can be def ined as electric power generation within distribution networks or on the customer side of network. In addition, the terms distributed resources, distribution capacity and distributed utility are discussed. Network and connection issues of the generation are presented. Distributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation, embedded generation, decentralized generation, decentralized energy or distributed energy, generates electricity f rom many small energy resources. Distributed Generation are considered to be important in improving the security of energy supplies by decreasing dependency on imported f ossils f uels and in reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases. Distributed Generation usually ref erred to the local generation of electricity in the case of cogeneration system, heat f or industrial processes or space heating. Basically, distributed generation takes place close to the point where the energy is actually demanded or it is called local generation. Distributed Generation is not centrally planned and mostly conducted or produced by independent power producers or consumers and it is not centrally dispatched. Usually Distributed Generation is produce smaller than 50MW. Distributed Generation is connected to the electricity distribution network or grid. All renewable energy system mostly is also distributed generation systems. Distributed Energy Resources usually ref erred to the distributed electricity generation and electricity storage. Generally, distributed generation will used a portion of the electricity f or local use and the rest will be f ed into the grid. T he heat, on the other hand, is usually used locally due to the costly transport and may cause large loss. Distributed Generation is usually used f or domestic, commercial and industrial purpose. T he purpose of the distributed generation is central rather than distributed is due to the economy of scale, ef f iciency f uel capability and lif etime. T heref ore, by increasing size of production unit increases the ef f iciency and decreases the cost per MW. However, in term of economy advantage, the small units are benef iting f rom continuing technological developments, awhile large units are already f ully developed. T he other reason to keep building large power plants in f uel capability. Coal is not economically suitable f or DG in f act it is most abundant f ossil f uel with steady suppliers all over the world and a stable price. Additionally, large power plants will remain the prime source of electricity within 25 50 years lif etime. Currently, industrial countries generate most of their electricity in large centralized f acilities, such as f ossil f uel (coal, gas powered) nuclear or hydropower plants. T hese plants have excellent economies of scale, but usually transmit electricity long distances and can af f ect to the environment. Most plants are built this way due to a number of economic, health & saf ety, logistical, environmental, geographical and geological f actors. For example, coal power plants are built away f rom cities to prevent their heavy air pollution f rom af f ecting the populace, in addition such plants are of ten built near collieries to minimize the cost of transporting coal. Hydroelectric plants are by their nature limited to operating at sites with suf f icient water f low. Most power plants are of ten considered to be too f ar away f or their waste heat to be used f or heating buildings. Low pollution is a main advantage of combined cycle plants that burn natural gas. T he low pollution permits the plants to be near enough to a city to be used, perhaps even in the same building. T his also reduces the size and number of power lines that must be constructed. Typical distributed power sources in a Feed in Tarif f (FIT ) scheme have low maintenance, low pollution and high ef f iciencies. In the past, these traits required dedicated operating engineers, and large, complex plants to pay their salary and reduce pollution. However, modern embedded systems can provide these traits with automated operation and a renewable, such as sunlight, wind and geothermal. T his reduces the sizes of the power plant that can show a prof it. With everything interconnected, and open competition occurring in a f ree market economy, it starts to make sense to allow and even encourage distributed generation (DG). Smaller generators, usually not owned by the utility, can be brought on-line to help supply the need f or power. T he smaller generation f acility might be a home-owner with excess power f rom his solar panel or wind turbine. It might be a small of f ice with a diesel generator. T hese resources can be brought on-line either at the utility's behest or by owner of the generation in an ef f ort to sell electricity. Many small generators are allowed to sell electricity back to the grid f or the same price they would pay to buy it.

2.3.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

Large scale of power is produced by three phase synchronous generators which are also known as alternators. Synchronous generator is either driven by steam turbines, hydro turbines, or gas turbines. T he stationary part or so called stator is placed armature windings. T he armature winding is specif ically design f or generation of balanced three-phase voltages and are arranged to develop the same number of magnetic poles as the f ield winding which is in the rotor. T he f ield which relatively draw small power (0.2 3 percent of the machine rating) f or its excitation is placed on rotor. T he rotor is also occupied by one or more damper winding as a short circuit winding. T he prime mover drive the rotor at constant speed and its f ield circuit is excited by direct current. Slip rings and brushes will be providing the excitation by means of dc generator also known as exciters mounted on the same shaf t as the rotor of the synchronous machine. However, f or modern excitation systems, they usually use ac generator with rotating rectif iers which is also known as brushless excitation. T he generator voltages and reactive power f low is controlled by the generator excitation to keep maintain. T he rotor of the synchronous generator may either kind of cylindrical or salient construction. T he cylindrical type is also known as round rotor, has one distributed winding and a unif orm air gap. Synchronous generator is driven by steam turbines are design f or high speed at 3600 rpm or at 1800 rpm f or two and f or pole machines respectively. T he rotor of these generators has a relatively large axial length and small diameter to limit the centrif ugal f orces. About 70% of the large synchronous generators are cylindrical rotor type raging f rom 150 to 1500MVA. T he salient type of rotor has concentrated windings on the poles and non unif orm air gaps. T he synchronous generator usually driven by hydraulic turbines in hydroelectric power plant.

2.3.2 POWER SYSTEM DYNAMIC:

T he tendency of power system to develop restoring f orces equal to or greater than the disturbing f orces to maintain the state of equilibrium is known as stability. If the f orces tending to hold the machines in synchronism with one another are suf f icient to overcome the disturbing f orces, the system is said to remain stable (to stay in synchronism). T he stability problem is considered with the behavior of the synchronous generator af ter disturbances occur. In the easy way, stability problems generally divided into two major categories which is steady state stability and transient stability. Steady state stability can be def ined as the ability of the power system to regain synchronism af ter small and low disturbances, such as gradual power changes. It is convenient to assume that the disturbances causing the changes disappear. T he motion is f ree, and stability is assured if the system is returned to its original state. Such a behavior can be determined in a linear system. It is assumed that the linear automatics control, such as voltage regulator and governor is not active. An extension of steady state study is dynamic study. T he dynamic study is concerned with small disturbance lasting f or along time with the inclusion of automatic control devices. T he transient stability studies deal with the ef f ect of large, sudden disturbance such as sudden occurrence of f ault, the sudden outage of a line or the sudden application or removal of loads. Transient stability studies are needed to ensure that system can withstand the transient condition f ollowing a major disturbance. Frequently, such studies are conducted when new generating and transmitting f acilities are planned. T he studies are helpf ul in determining such things as the nature of the relaying system needed, critical clearing time of circuit breakers, voltage level of , and transf er capability between systems.

SWING EQUATION:
Under normal operating conditions, the relative position of the rotor axis and the resultant magnetic f ield axis is f ixed. T he angle between the two is known as power angle or torque angle. Whenever disturbances occur rotor will accelerate or decelerate with respect to the synchronously rotating air gap (mmf ), and a relative motion begins. T he equation describing this relative motion begins. T he equation describing this relative motion is known as the swing equation. If , af ter this oscillatory period, the rotor locks back into synchronous speed, the generator will maintaining its stability. In the case of the disturbance does not involve any net change in power, the rotor return to its original position. if the disturbance is created by a change in generation, load, or in network conditions, the rotor comes to a new operating power angle relative to the synchronously revolving f ield.

Consider a synchronous generator developing an electromagnetic Te and running at the synchronous speed wsm. If T m is the driving mechanical torque, then under steady state operation with losses neglected we have T m=Te (1) A departure f rom steady state due to the disturbance result in an accelerating (T m>Te) or decelerating (T m<="" p=""> Ta=T m-Te (2) If J is the combined moment of inertia of the prime mover and generator, neglecting f rictional and damping torques, f rom laws of rotation we have J(dw/dt) = T m Te = Ta (3)

Where
J is the moment of inertia(kg-m2) w Is the angular velocity(rad/s) dw/dt is the angular acceleration(rad/s2) Ta is the resulting torque(N-m)

2.3.3 AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (AGC)

If the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed drops bef ore the governor can adjust the input of the steam to a new load. Whenever the change in the value of the speed diminishes, the error signal becomes smaller and the position of the governor f ly balls gets closer to the point required to maintain a constant speed. However, the constant speed will not be the set point, and there will be an of f set. One way to restore the speed or f requency to its nominal value is to add an integrator. T he integral unit monitors the average error over a period of time and will overcome the of f set. Because of its ability to return a system to its set point, integral action is known as rest action. As the system load changes continuously, the generation is adjusted automatically to restore the f requency to the nominal value. T his scheme is also known as automatic generation control (AGC). In an interconnected system consisting of several pools, the role of the AGC is to divide the loads among systems, station, and generators so as to achieve maximum economy and correctly controlled interchanges of tie-line power while maintaining a reasonably unif orm f requency. During large transient disturbances and emergencies, AGC is bypassed and load shedding is applied. T he generator excitation system maintains generator and controls the reactive power f low. T he generator excitation of older systems may be provided through the slip rings and brushes by means of dc generator mounted on the same shaf t as the rotor of the synchronous machine. However, modern excitation system usually use ac generators with rotating rectif iers, and are known as brushless excitation. A change in the real power demand af f ects essentially the f requency, whereas a change in the reactive power af f ects mainly the voltage magnitude. T he interaction between voltage and f requency controls is generally weak enough to justif y their analysis separately. T he source of the reactive power is come f rom generators, capacitors and reactors. T he generator reactive powers are controlled by excitation. Other supplementary methods of improving the voltage prof ile on electric transmission systems are transf ormer load-tap changers, switch capacitors, step voltage regulators, and static var control equipment. T he primary means of generator reactive power control is the generator excitation control using automatic voltage regulator (AVR). T he f unction of the AVR is to hold the terminal voltage magnitude of a synchronous generator at a specif ied level. An increase in the reactive power load of the generator is accompanied by a drop in the terminal voltage magnitude. T he voltage magnitude is sensed through a potential transf ormer on one phase. T his voltage is rectif ied and compared to a dc set point signal. T he amplif ied error signal controls the exciter f ield and increases the exciter terminal voltage. T hus the generator f ield current increased, which result in increase in the generated emf . T he reactive power generation is increased to a new equilibrium, raising the terminal

voltage to the desired value. T he f actors which contribute power generation at minimum cost are operating ef f iciencies, f uel cost and transmission losses. A program called dispatch was developed to f ind the optimal dispatch of generation f or an interconnected power system. T he optimal dispatch may be considered within the f ramework of Load Frequency Control (LFC). Digital computer is included in the control loop which scans the unit generation and tie- line f lows in direct digital control systems. T hese setting are compared with the optimal settings which are derived f rom solution of the optimal dispatch program. If the actual settings are deviate f rom optimal values, the computer will generates the raise/lower pulses which are not sent to the individual units. T he other program will also be considered in the tie-line power contracts between the areas. Parallel with the development of modern control theory, several concept are included in the automatic generator control (AGC) which is go beyond the simple tie line bias control. T he basic approach is the use of more extended mathematical models. T he automatic generator control (AGC) can also be used to include the representations of the dynamic area and the complete system as well. Other concepts of modern control theory are also can be employed, such as state estimation and optimal control with linear regulator utilizing constant f eedback gains. In addition to the structures which aim at the control of deterministic signal and disturbances, there are scheme which use stochastic control concepts. T he generator excitation system should be maintaining voltage and controlling f low of reactive power. For older system generator excitation may be provided through slip rings and brushes by means of dc generators mounted on the same shaf t as the rotor of the synchronous machine, but f or modern generator excitation systems usually use ac generators with rotating rectif iers and are known as brushless excitation. Basically, when ever power demands change, it may result in f requency change, whereas a change in reactive power will result a change in the voltage magnitude essentially. T he relationship between voltage and f requency controls is generally weak enough to justif y their analysis separately. Reactive power is draws f rom generator, capacitor and reactors. Field excitation will control the generator reactive power. In addition methods of improving the voltage prof ile on electric transmission systems are transf ormer load tap changers, switched capacitors, step regulators and static var control equipment. T he generator excitation control primarily using automatic voltage regulator (AVR) f or generator reactive power control. T he purpose of the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is to hold the terminal voltage magnitude of a synchronous generator at a specif ied level. If the reactive power loads of the generator increase the terminal voltage magnitude will decrease. T he potential transf ormer will detect the voltage magnitude. Terminal voltage will rectif y and compared to the dc set point signal. T he exciter f ield will controlled by the amplif ied error signals to increase the exciter terminal voltage. T heref ore, the generator f ield current is increased and directly increase the generated emf . T he reactive power generation is established in a new equilibrium, and increase the terminal voltage to the desired value.

2.3.4 RESPONDS OF THE GENERATOR DURING ISLANDING

Island operation occur whenever one or more distributed generation (DG) continues to energize a part of the grid af ter the connection to the rest of the system has been lost. Islanding operation can be in either intentional or unintentional. Intentional islanding is the purposef ul sectionalized of the utility system during widespread disturbances to create power island. T hese islands can be designed to maintain a continuous supply of power during disturbances of the main distribution system. When the disturbances are comes on a distributed utility system, the grid sectionalized by itself . T his protection is really a system protection of last resort. T his scheme are supposes that the integrity of the system cannot be maintained in spite of the automatic load shedding, f or every possible emergency. Instead of allowing the system to disintegrate by the tripping of generators and transmission lines as the disturbance develops, the islanding scheme itself sectionalizes the whole system into sustainable small systems each consisting of a group of generating stations and a group of load that can be supplied by these generating stations. In ef f ect each group becomes a sustainable island and hence the name islanding scheme. T he distributed generation can then supply the load power demand of the islands created until reconnection with the main utility systems occurs. As the demand f or more reliable and secure power systems with greater power quality increases, the concepts of distributed generation (DG) have become more popular. T his popularity of DG concepts has developed simultaneously with the decrease in manuf acturing costs associated with clean and alternative technologies, like f uel cells, biomass, microturbine, and solar cell systems. Although the costs associated with these technologies have continued to decrease more work is essential to make these technologies readily available. To make these distributed

energy resource (DER) technologies more economically viable and energy ef f icient, power electronics based conversion systems need to be developed f or proper conditioning of the energy to be delivered to the current three phase power system. T hese power conversion systems (PCS) allow f or increased reliability, security and f ewer downtimes by incorporating intentional islands into the utility grid without having to add or replace the existing transmission system. When distributed generation (DG) and their local load (the island) are isolated f rom a larger grid. If the distributed generation or so called synchronous generator and its prime mover ( a turbine or a reciprocating engine) and the load of this small "island" that can be isolated f rom the grid and powered by this generator and it's prime mover is 25 MW. So, when this island and it's generator are isolated f rom the larger grid some load has to be shed (automatically disconnected) in order not to exceed the rating of the generator's prime mover. In this example, a total of 5 MW of load would have to be disconnected f rom the isolated island in order not to exceed the rating of the generators' prime mover if it were to be operated at rated f requency when isolated f rom a largergrid. In order f or a prime mover and it's generator to energize a load at a constant f requency the prime mover needs to be operated in that way that it is controlling f requency in response to changes in load. T his is usually called Isochronous Governor mode, or Isochronous Speed Control mode. And a prime mover and its generator can only produce power at rated f requency up to the rating of the synchronous generator's prime mover. When the generator connected to a larger grid in parallel with other generators and their prime movers the normal mode of operation f or the prime mover governor (control system) is Droop Speed Control mode, this is because some other "entity" is controlling the f requency of the grid. when connected to a larger grid in parallel with other generators and their prime movers a generator can only produce power up to the rating of its prime mover. So, when a prime mover and its generator are suddenly disconnected f rom a larger grid and are to be provide power to a local load (the island) independent of the grid, the prime mover's governor is usually switched to Isochronous Speed Control mode. If the load of this small island exceeds the rating of the generator's prime mover then some of the load must automatically be disconnected, and this is ref erred to as load shedding. Usually, there is a contact on the breaker that connects the island to the larger grid that serves to tell the prime mover governor to switch f rom Droop Speed Control mode to Isochronous Speed Control mode *and* to initiate load shedding to reduce the load below the generator prime mover's rating. Depending on how f ast the load is shed when the grid tie breaker opens and also depending on how f ast the prime mover's governor (control system) can react to the change in load, what usually happens if the island load is initially greater than the prime mover's rating is that the f requency will decrease. Once the load of the island has been reduced to at least the rating of the generator prime mover and the prime mover's governor has responded to the change in load, then the f requency should return to rated and remain at rated as long as the load of the island does not exceed the rating of the generator's prime mover. As long as the island load is not allowed to exceed the rating of the generator's prime mover it should be able to respond to any change in load and still maintain rated f requency. T hat is, the prime mover's control system (the governor) should be able to respond to any change in load up the rating of the prime mover and still be able to maintain f requency. T he generator produces power at a f requency that is proportional to the speed at which it's rotor is being turned by the prime mover (the turbine or reciprocating engine). When operating a small island of isolated load, the amount of load must be less than the rated power of the prime mover driving the synchronous generator, or else the f requency will not remain at rated value. It's not the generator which controlling f requency or the amount of load, but it's the control system (the governor) of the generator's prime mover which is controlling the f requency (when operating in Isochronous Speed Control mode) or the load (when operating in Droop Speed Control mode in parallel

with other generators and their prime movers). A generator is just a device f or converting torque (f rom a prime mover) into amperes. T hose amperes can then be transmitted over wires to motors which convert the amperes into torque. (Lighting is a way to convert amperes into heat, heat so hot that it produces light.) So, the load of a generator is proportional to the amount of torque being produced by it's prime mover. And that torque is a f unction of the energy which f lowing into the prime mover (usually f uel or steam or water or wind).

2.3.5 DROOP SPEED CONTROL

T he speed of the synchronous generator is a f unction of f requency or generator speed. Because of its name synchronous generator indicate that no generator can go f aster or slower than the speed that is dictated by the f requency. All are in synchronism to maintaining grid stability. In other word, they are all connected together and their rotors are locked into synchronism with each other (magnetically), the prime movers which are mechanically tied to the generators can not change their speed either. Synchronous generator is connected to a grid with other generators which driven by their prime mover respectively. In the large interconnected grid, the f requency of the generator is controlled by the f requency of the grid, the f requency must be constant and in synchronism with the other generator. T heref ore, the speed of the prime mover is in a f unction of the f requency indicating that the prime mover is inject constantly, hence the speed of the prime mover is f ixed as well. In the grid, all synchronous generators must be run at the same speed. Not one of them runs at f aster or slower than other generator. If the synchronous generators run at 50.0001Hz, all generators must be run at same speed. To make the prime mover (which is providing the torque input that the generator is converting to amps that is being converted to torque by motors which are also connected to the grid) stably control its power output while connected in parallel with the other generators and prime movers on the grid, the control system employ straight proportional control also known as droop control or droop speed control. T he generator is sharing load during controlling stably power output when connected to a grid in parallel with the other generators. Droop speed control will consider both the prime movers speed ref erence and actual speed which is in the f unction of the grid f requency. T he power output is directly proportional to the speed ref erence, hence to increase the power output, the speed ref erences is increased. T he speed actually can not change the increased error between ref erence and actual speed is converted to increase f uel f low which lead to increased f uel f low. T heref ore, the speed will increase due to extra torque as well. T he generators convert that extra torque to the extra current. T his operation is done very smoothly and all the prime movers and their generators behave nicely and work together to provide the load. If the load on the generator is to be increased, then the turbine speed ref erence is increase again, the error between the actual speed and the speed ref erence increases again, which increases the f uel f low directly increases the torque and the amps. Droop speed control is directly proportional control in the strictest, purest sense of the word. T here is no integral action or reset to increase the f uel to make the actual speed be equal to the ref erence speed. T he actual speed can not achieve ref erence speed because it is physically not possible. T heref ore, droop speed control take this disadvantages to stably control f uel in proportion error. T he error can occur either one of two reasons which is a change in the speed ref erence or a change in actual speed. When the grid f requency or the generator speed change, the control system automatically responds to the change because the error changes and adjusts the f uel to try to compensate f or the change in actual speed relative to the speed ref erence. T he errors between speed ref erence and actual speed f or all generators within large inf inite grid are f airly constant. When the f requency change, the error also change because the f requency is proportional to the generator speed hence it will change error of speed as well. If the f requency in the grid decreases, then the error increases this will lead increases in f uel of all the machines because they are all connected together to the grid. Each prime movers governor will respond to a change of f requency as a f unction of the amount of droop that the control system has been programmed. A 1% change in the f requency of the machine with 5% droop will result a 20% change in load, nominally, supposing the machine was running at 80% of load or less to begin with. A unit with 4% droop will respond with a 25% change in load, nominally, again presuming the machine was running at 75% or less than rated load to begin with. the prime mover can not increase its output power f urther if the machine is operate at rated power output on droop speed control whenever the f requency is decrease. T he prime movers always operating at rated power output when interconnected in the grid system. Even though they are in droop speed control mode they can not add additional load by increasing their power output when the grid f requency decreases. Whenever a machine

additional load by increasing their power output when the grid f requency decreases. Whenever a machine which is to have 5% droop speed control will normally reach rated output when the speed ref erence reaches approximately 105% of rated speed. A machine with 4% droop will reach its rated power when the speed ref erence is 104%. T he power produced by the generator heavy duty gas turbine operating on most f uels is generally directly proportional to the f uel f low rate. T he rate of f uel injected is directly proportional to the f uel stroke ref erence (FSR), which is a ref erence f or the opening of the f uel control valve and/or the f uel f low rate through the control valve. T he purpose of droop speed control primarily is to allow a prime mover and its generator to smoothly and stably share in supplying the load of a grid while operating in parallel with other prime movers and their generators. T he secondary purpose of droop speed control is to help to maintain grid f requency when it varies f rom desired. When the grid f requency decreases because of the power imbalance (generally the amount of load is greater than generation), hence droop speed control increases the output to try to help support the local load at particular time. T he amount of generation must be balance with the amount of the load. Droop speed control is ref erred to as proportional control. T he amount of power produced is directly proportional to the error between the turbine speed ref erence and actual speed. T his is explaining that how the f uel is controlled during parallel operation with other prime movers and generator connected to a grid supplying a load. Prime movers mostly uses something similar, it is not only f or stable control of f uel f low f rom no load to rated load based on simple parameters, but it is also usef ul when trying to maintain load on a grid when the grid f requency is not at the rated output. T he speed error will decrease when ever the grid f requency increases above rated. Droop speed control does not try to make the actual speed of generator equal to the speed ref erence. It is based on the f act that there will be an error because under normal circumstances the grid f requency is stable at 100% and theref ore, the actual turbine speed is stable at 100%, and the amount of f uel f low is proportional to the error of speed which is dif f erent of actual speed and ref erence speed. A machine which have 4% droop setting in generally new and clean conditions being operated at ambient temperatures less than nameplate rated will usually reach exhaust temperature control or Base Load at T NR greater than 104% and the load will be greater than nameplate rated value. Generally f or every 1% change in T NR the unit power output will increase by approximately 25% of rated power output and this value is corresponding to the 4% droop speed control. In the case of a machine is not new or in other word in dirty compressor, high inlet f ilter dif f erential pressure and increased tolerances in the axial compressor and/or turbine sections, will not be as ef f icient and the change in load f or the change in T NR will be slightly depending on the severity of the condition less than specif ied values. A machine with 4% droop speed control might have only 23% increases power output and 1% change in speed error. T heref ore, with unclean condition the machine will not be able to achieve optimal result. Droop speed control is only part of the change in the power output relative to the speed error, and that portion is related to rated power output not actual power output under less than rated conditions. T he desired rated power output of the machine is only achieve if the machine in new and clean condition. T he main purpose of the droop speed control is to control prime mover governor to allow a prime mover and its generator to smoothly and stably share in supplying the load of a grid wile operating in parallel with other prime movers and their generators.

2.4 ESTIMATION MAGNITUDE OF DISTURBANCES (EMD)

In this project the auxiliary indicator to determine the magnitude of disturbance is rate of f requency change, df /dt. T he power imbalance is proportional to the rate of f requency change, df /dt. T heref ore we can recognize what kind of the disturbance the system experience to predict the action to be taken. If the disturbance experience is large , the rate of change of f requency is smaller and if the disturbance applied is small, the rate of f requency change is large. In the other word, the power imbalance or disturbance is inversely proportional to the rate of f requency change, df /dt. Under f requency relay is very sensitive to the f requency deviation. If the power in the system is not equal which is imbalance between power demand and power supply, the f requency will decline proportionally with the power imbalance. T his f requency decline will establish slope, these slope will be using as indicator either the disturbance is large, medium or small. From this point of view, we can use the value of rate of f requency change as threshold to shed the load. To shed loads the value of rate of change of f requency is included in several range. T heref ore, we can classif ied what suitable range of rate of f requency change f or small, medium and large disturbance. In this project the instantaneous value of df /dt is taken as auxiliary indicator. Af ter the disturbance has been recognize, the appropriate load will be shed simultaneously. T heref ore, the

f requency is bring back to the acceptable level rapidly without introducing under shedding or over shedding. Large Disturbance: this diagram shows that the sharp drop of the f requency indicate that the islanding experience large disturbance. Medium Disturbance: this diagram shows that the f requency drop is slightly f aster and it is classif ied as medium disturbance because the f requency does not f all as f ast as in large disturbance. Small Disturbance: this diagram shows that the f requency drop is slower than the medium disturbance and this kind of disturbance is classif ied as small disturbance. T he rate of the f requency change is calculated by determine the value of the slope of f requency drop, the equation is shown below. T he short time interval, will give more accurate value. In the other word t2 and t1 must be in the short duration to get accurate value. s1 is representing the small disturbance which is the slope is bigger because the f requency is f all slowly. s2 is representing the slightly greater f rom small disturbance, which is the slope is slightly smaller than the small disturbance. s3 is representing the medium disturbance which is the slope is quite small because the f requency is drop quite f aster. s4 is representing the slightly greater f rom medium disturbance, which is the slope is slightly smaller than the medium disturbance. s5 is representing the large disturbance which is the slop is very small because the f requency is drop rapidly.

CHAPTER3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION ADAPTIVE UNDER FREQUENCY LOAD SHEDDING SCHEME
T he method that employed in this project is adaptive LD df /dt characteristic scheme. In this method the amount of load to be shed is a f unction of df /dt variable. T he load to be shed in based on the value of the df /dt. Because rate of change of f requency of the system will determine the magnitude of the disturbance, hence load to be shed is proportional to the value of the df /dt. Adaptive LD df /dt is very powerf ul characteristic to achieve proper load shedding. Whenever large disturbance occur, this scheme will shed large load and in the case of small disturbance occur, small load will be shed and the same cases f or medium disturbance. In other word, this load shedding scheme will introduce proper load shedding and enhancing the power system reliability without introducing large loss. T his type of scheme is designed several times f or dif f erent levels of df /dt. T he adaptive Under Frequency Load Shedding Scheme is specially designed to encounter f or any level of disturbance, with its related df /dt, minimum f requency of the system does not f all to the below a certain value. T his method is designed f or each value of df /dt a suitable value of LD is calculated where LD is the amount of the load to be shed.

3.2 ADAPTIVE LD -df /dt CHARACTERISTIC SCHEME.

1. DET ERMINAT ION OF T HE EXPECT ED OVERLOAD: T he expected overload will determine the amount of the protection is to be provided. T he value is get f rom the f ollowing f ormula. 2. DET ERMINAT ION OF T HE NUBMBER OF LOAD SHEDDING ST EPS:

In the adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme, the load will be shedding simultaneously based on the magnitude of the disturbance and it will result f aster recovery of f requency decline. Compared to the conventional load shedding, the take a f ew step to shed load and it will result under shedding or over shedding because they shed constantly regardless what kind of the disturbance it is applied. Hence it will result slower f requency recovery. In adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme, the main powerf ul tool is the rate of f requency change df /dt variable, so the load to be shed is programmed based on the several range of the df /dt value. 3. DET ERMINAT ION OF T HE AMOUNT OF LOAD T O BE SHED: T he f irst step is to calculate the amount of load to be shed to maintain f requency above minimum permissible f requency f or maximum expected overload. Total amount of load to be shed is calculated by the f ollowing equation: Where LD = total load that must be shed L = expected overload f = minimum permissible f requency d = load reduction f actor f n = nominal f requency (50Hz) T he value of the load must be shed is included in the several range of the rate of the f requency change. Because LD value is proportional to the value of the rate of f requency change. T he disturbance is large if the value of the rate of f requency change is large and directly the load to be shed is also large. T heref ore, the value of large load to be shed is included in the large value of df /dt interval. Adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme will be shed the load simultaneously or lump sum based of the magnitude of the disturbance. Compare to the conventional under f requency load shedding scheme, the load to be shed is divide into several percentage and shed f ollowing several steps. T his method will lead to the under shedding or over shedding. LD df /dt CHARACT ERIST IC SCHEME: T his characteristic scheme is very important part in adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme. T his part will distinguish between the conventional and adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme. In this method the amount of the to be shed is in the f unction of the df /dt. T he characteristic of LD df /dt is shown below. From the diagram, this method indicates that the load to be shed is in a f unction of df /dt. If the smallest the value of the df /dt the larger the load is to be shed. For example, Df 2 is large disturbance and its value is smaller, the load to be shed is LD3 which indicate that the largest load is to be shed. T his correlation is explaining that when the large disturbance occur, the f requency decline is very f ast which result the smaller value of df /dt and this indicate that the larger value of load must be shed to prevent excess f requency decline. In the case of Df 1, the load to be shed is LD2, this indicate when medium magnitude of disturbance occur, the medium value of load is to be shed. T he same case f or the small disturbance.

3.2.1 ALGORITHM
1. START 2. Insert values of Generation power, pg Frequency, f

Power load1, pload1 Power load2, pload2 Power load3, pload3 Power load4, pload4 Power load5, pload5 Power load6, pload6 Power load7, pload7 Power load8, pload8 Power load9, pload9 3. Calculate value of total power load, pt Total power load, pt = power load4, pload4 + power load5, pload5 + power load6, pload6 + power load7, pload7 + power load8, pload8 + power load9, pload9 Or Total power load, pt =pload4+pload5+pload6+pload7+pload8+pload9 Pload1 = pload4+pload5 Pload2=pload6 +pload7 Pload3 =pload8+pload9 4. Calculate expected overload, L or 5. Calculate d and LD 6. Calculate rate of f requency change, df /dt 7. Set several range of rate of change of f requency change, df /dt df /dt=s1=-0.0001 f or small disturbance which is large value of rate f requency drop df /dt=s2 =-0.002 f or slightly bigger than smaller disturbance which is slightly less than s1 f /dt=s3=-0.004 f or medium disturbance which is medium value of rate of f requency drop df /dt=s4=-0.005 f or slightly large than medium disturbance which is slightly smaller than s3 df /dt=s5=-0.007 f or large disturbance which is give smaller value of rate f requency change T he rate of f requency change is divided into several range if s2< df /dt< p=""> <> if s3< df /dt< p=""> <> if s4< df /dt< p=""> <> if s5< df /dt< p=""> <> if df /dt>s5 8. T he value of the load to be shed, LD is compared to the load which is selected to shed. If the load

to be shed is less or equal to the value of the selected load, the corresponding breaker of the load will be tripped. If LD<= selected load then the breaker will trip(sl) 9. Breaker trip. If logic 1 is send to the breaker, the breaker will be trip if logic 0 is send the breaker will close. In the PsCAD sof tware when the breaker close(load energize) the breaker is colored red while when the breaker trip(load not energize) the breaker is colored green. BRK=1(OPEN) GREEN BRK=0(CLOSE) RED 10. EXIT

3.2.2 FLOW CHART 3.3 PROPOSED SIMULATION MODELLING

In this project, model of network is developed by using sof tware, simulation is run by using Power System CAD (PSCAD). T he calculation is done by interf acing C++ code to the PSCAD. T he accurate result is obtained by using C++ and f aster respond of breaker can be using C++ or FORT RAN.

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO PSCAD SOFTWARE HISTORY OF PSCAD

PSCAD was f irst conceptualized in 1988 and began its long evolution as a tool to generate data f iles f or the EMT DC simulation program. In its early f orm, Version 1 was largely experimental. Nevertheless, it represented a great leap f orward in speed and productivity, since users of EMT DC could now draw their systems, rather than creating text listings. PSCAD was f irst introduced as a commercial product as Version 2 targeted f or UNIX platf orms in 1994. It arrived as a suite of associated sof tware tools that perf ormed circuit draf ting, runtime plotting/control and of f -line plotting. When Version 3 f or Windows arrived in 1999, it sought to push the envelope by introducing a simulation system that could be built in a modular f orm. Systems could now be built up using interconnecting drawing blocks, compiled individually and having their own private data space. T his modular system improved accuracy and correctness of the simulation. In addition, Version 3 brought some new usability by f ully integrating the draf ting and runtime systems of its predecessor. T his integration produced an intuitive environment f or both design and simulation. PSCAD Version 4 represents the latest developments in power system simulation sof tware. With much of the simulation engine being f ully mature f or many years, the new challenges lie in the advancement of the design tools f or the user. T he goal is to produce sof tware that is both powerf ul and easy to use. Version 4 retains the strong simulation models of its predecessors while bringing to the table an updated and f resh new look and f eel to its windowing and plotting. New single-line representations and new compiler enhancements improve both the accuracy and reliability of the simulation. New editors and easier navigation mean that f inding your way and maintaining larger systems is f ar easier to do. Portability to Version 3 means updating to Version 4 is as simple as point, click, and run. T hese and many other enhancements are why PSCAD has been, and is, the prof essional's choice f or transients simulation.

WHAT IS PSCAD

PSCAD (Power Systems CAD) is a powerf ul and f lexible graphical user interf ace to the worldrenowned, EMT DC solution engine. PSCAD enables the user to schematically construct a circuit, run a simulation, analyze the results, and manage the data in a completely integrated, graphical environment. Online plotting f unctions, controls and meters are also included, so that the user can alter system parameters during a simulation run, and view the results directly. PSCAD comes complete with a library of pre-programmed and tested models, ranging f rom simple passive elements and control f unctions, to more complex models, such as electric machines, FACT S devices, transmission lines and cables. If a particular model does not exist, PSCAD provides the f lexibility of building custom models, either by assembling them graphically using existing models, or by utilising an intuitively designed Design Editor. T he f ollowing are some common models f ound in systems studied using PSCAD: Resistors, inductors, capacitors Mutually coupled windings, such as transf ormers Frequency dependent transmission lines and cables (including the most accurate time domain line model in the world!) Current and voltage sources Switches and breakers Protection and relaying Diodes, thyristors and GT Os Analog and digital control f unctions AC and DC machines, exciters, governors, stabilizers and inertial models Meters and measuring f unctions Generic DC and AC controls HVDC, SVC, and other FACT S controllers Wind source, turbines and governors PSCAD, and its simulation engine EMT DC, have enjoyed close to 30 years of development, inspired by ideas and suggestions by its ever strengthening, worldwide user base. T his development philosophy has helped to establish PSCAD as one of the most powerf ul and intuitive CAD sof tware packages available.

3.3.2 INTERFACING C CODE TO THE PSCAD SOFTWARE

In this project C language programming is used to give better calculation result. PSCAD itself is using FORT RAN as a compiler, so that C code have to interf ace with PSCAD with several method. 1. PAST E C CODE FILE T O PROJECT - First, we have to copy C code f ile f rom CINT ERFACE example, and paste it inside our project. C code is written inside this C code f ile. Any programmed we want to write is written inside the C code f ile f or C language only. T he ways we write C code inside the C code f ile is slightly dif f erent f or make it readable by the PSCAD sof tware. T he header must be include * whether it is type of double or f loat or integer. Anything is not come f rom PSCAD must be attach with the *. NOT E: what ever variable we want to used inside the program, must be declare in the header. If not it may cause error. T he variable is attach with * to make the readable by the PSCAD sof tware.

2. CREAT E NEW COMPONENT -New component is created to determine how many input and output we desire to do. Usually the lef t hand side is input and right hand side is the output. 3. CALL C SUBROUT INE - T he way we call c subroutine is by call c code f rom the c code f ile through the new component script. Write header in the c code f ile like f ollowing header And call c code through the new component script T heref ore, anything program written in the c code f ile will be read by calling through new component script. T he f low of operation is shown below.

3.3.3 TAKE VALUE FROM CONTINUOUS DATA.

In the PSCAD sof tware the value input we want to use is must be stored or taken to ensure the right value is use f or programming C. the way to store data is explain below. 1) Create new component T he new component f or store the data is dif f erentiating with the new component f or interf acing with C Code. T he input is set accordingly with the input of the C interf ace component, this is because the stored data is using f or the input of c code interf ace. And obviously the output of this new component is the same with the input of the c interf ace component. 2) Write at what time we want to read the input at new component script. T his f igure shows that the value f or L4 will be read f rom 9 second onward because the time is set greater or equal to 9 second (GE is in Fortran mean greater or equal). In the case we want the value at instantaneous time, we can set the time is equal to ==. And this data will be send to the input of the c code interf ace. T he data we want to stored is address f rom the generated FORT RAN compiler like shown below. T he address of the data is taken f rom this diagram. Cautious must be taken in the writing program to store data FORT RAN is used. T he whole process of interf acing and storing data is shown above; this f low process is easily to understand and save time to understand. For the summary of this part, the data is catch or stored f rom the meter by call the address of the variable and set the time in the FORTAN script when we want to start storing the data. T his data is used f or the input of the calculation in the c code programming to run the process and af ter that the output is send to the channel and can be displayed in the graph or control panel.

3.4 SIMULATION MODELLING

In this project, the network modeling is in single phase diagram. T he Grid system comprises of 3BUS, BUS1 BUS2 and BUS3 is f eed 33KV, 11KV and 11KV respectively. T he load is connected to the BUS3 which is 11KV f eeder. Six load is connected to the same BUS to get power supply. T he distributed generation (DG) is rated at 4.51MVA or 1.0 p.u. When ever f ault occur at the grid system, BREAKER1 is trip and the load is islanded to prevent f rom the total blackout.

3.4.1 MEASURING DATA

Figure above shows that the power generation, voltage, f requecy, torque, power load and breaker 1 is monitored and measured. T hose variable are measure their data through the channel and can

be displayed by using graph f rame or control panel. Next step is take the data or storing the data to be use.

3.4.2 STORING DATA

Figure above is block diagram of new component created to take value f rom the continuous data. the data is taken f rom the meter which read the variable data. From f igure, pload1 to pload9, w2(f requency) and Pdg1(power generation) is input to the new component f or storing the input data. the output of the new component is the data which is has been stored and ready to be use in programming.

3.4.3 BREAKER CONTROL

Figure 3.4.30 above shows the block of control created f rom new component. T his diagram is illustrate how the breaker is control f rom the C Code. T he input f rom the continuous data is process inside the block and give the output in the right hand side. T he program will determine which breaker will be trip depending on the what kind of disturbance it is applied. T he OR gate is f unction to hold the state of breaker af ter load shedding, theref ore the load has been shed is maintain shed.

3.4.4 GENERATOR SPEED CONTROLLER

Figure 3.4.40 above is torque-speed controller. T he current f requency is compared with the speed ref erence which is 1p.u or 50Hz. T his comparison will produce error if the speed or f requency deviate f rom the nominal speed, and this error will send to the droop speed control to produce more power to bring back the f requency to the nominal. In this project the droop control is 5% which is generate excess 20% of the rated generation. And the power generated is compared with the rated speed ref erence to ensure that the speed or f requency is between in the acceptable level. And f inally this signal is send to adjust the torque directly change the speed. T his controller will run in its droop mode when ever the BREAKER1 is trip which is indicate the network is islanded and speed will decrease. In the normal condition the speed error is does not exist and the generation is constant.

3.4.5 DERIVATIVE OF FREQUENCY (df /dt )

Figure 4.4.50 shows how the derivative of f requency is obtain f rom the continuous data. Frequency is input and the FORT RAN comment line is set to derivative and the output is derivative of f requency or the other word is rate of f requency change, df /dt. T he rate of change is set to 0.001 second which mean the time interval is set to 0.001s. And this time interval will give the accurate answer of the f requency derivative.

CHAPTER4: 4.1 CASE 1(For 0.9 p.u of power generat ion) DISCUSSION
In this case power generation is 4.09MVA and the power load is 5.25MW. T he power generated is 0.9 f rom the rated power. T here is imbalance of power exist and some load has to be shed to match with the power generated. T he expected overload, L is calculated and the value is 0.2934 which is indicate that the loss of 23 percent of total generation. T he load to be shed is 1.1623MW which indicate that this amount of power must be shed to bring back the f requency to nominal. T his amount is the minimum number of load must be shed. From the f requency graph, there is slope exist and it is indicate that there is power imbalance. For this case the rate of f requency change measured is -0.0003 Hz/s which is mean the f requency is drop -0.0003Hz in a second. T his value is not critical yet and hence it is consider as a small disturbance. T heref ore, this value of f requency change is f all at the f irst interval which is between -0.001 and -0.0001. if the load

shedding is not initiate the f requency drop at 45Hz which cause turbine blade damage. And by initiate load shedding scheme the f requency drop at 49.6Hz which is in the saf e mode. T he appropriate load to be shed is properly chosen. Because the priority load can not be shed, in this modeling network, the priority load is load 6 which is the larger load in this network. To choose load to be shed, the power imbalance is calculated and we got 1.19MW. T his number of load must be shed either equal or slightly equal. For this case the closer load is power load1 which have 1.2MW. T heref ore, power load1, load4 and load5 are shed by tripping breaker 2, 5, and 6 respectively. All the loads to be shed are shed simultaneously by tripping the breaker at the same time setting. T heref ore, the f requency will recover f aster and bring back to the acceptable level. So, the remain power load is 4.05MW which is approximately equal to the power generation which is 4.09MW. Hence, the f requency is bringing back to the nominal value. Network diagram shows that the corresponding load is shed. T he breaker is trip by give signal logic 1 to the breaker. Figure of 4.10, 4.11 and 4.12 shows the behavior of f requency when without load shedding, with load shedding and comparison between them respectively. T he f requency without load shedding f inish at slightly below load shedding f requency because the f requency can not bring back to nominal due to generator trip. Load shedding succeed to bring the f requency rise at 49.6Hz to prevent f rom total blackout. Figure 4.13 illustrate simulation model af ter load shedding.

4.2 CASE 2(. For 0.8 Power Generat ion) DISCUSSION

In this case power generation is 3.608MVA and the power load is 5.25MW. T he power generated is 0.8 f rom the rated power. T here is imbalance of power exist and some load has to be shed to match with the power generated. T he expected overload, L is calculated and the value is 0.4550 which is indicate that the loss of 31 percent of total generation. T he load to be shed is 1.6MW which indicate that this amount of power must be shed to bring back the f requency to nominal. T his amount is the minimum number of load must be shed. From the f requency graph, there is slope exist and it is indicate that there is power imbalance. For this case the rate of f requency change measured is -0.00217 Hz/s which is mean the f requency is drop -0.00217Hz in a second. T his value is quite critical and hence it is consider as a slightly greater than small disturbance. T heref ore, this value of f requency change is f all at the second interval which is between -0.004 and -0.002. if the load shedding is not initiated the f requency is drop at 42Hz which cause the turbine blade damage. And by initiate load shedding scheme the f requency will drop at 48.9Hz which is in the saf e mode. T he appropriate load to be shed is properly chosen. Because the priority load can not be shed, in this modeling network, the priority load is load 6 which is the larger load in this network. To choose load to be shed, the power imbalance is calculated and we got 1.642MW. T his number of load must be shed either equal or slightly equal. For this case the closer load is total of power load1 and power load8 which have 1.2MW and 0.45MW respectively. T heref ore, power load1, load4, load5 and load8 are shed by tripping breaker 2, 5, 6 and 8 respectively. All the loads to be shed are shed simultaneously by tripping the breaker at the same time setting. T heref ore, the f requency will recover f aster and bring back to the acceptable level. So, the remain power load is 3.6MW which is approximately equal to the power generation which is 3.608MW. Hence, the f requency is bringing back to the nominal value. Network diagram shows that the corresponding load is shed. T he breaker is trip by give signal logic 1 to the breaker. Figure 4.20, 4.21 and 4.22 shows the behavior of f requency when without load shedding, load shedding and comparison between them respectively. Load shedding brings the f requency rise at 48.9Hz and go back to the nominal level. T he f requency is not exactly 50Hz but slightly below that. Figure 4.23 illustrate simulation model af ter load shedding.

4.3 CASE 3(For 0.7 Power Generat ion) DISCUSSION

In this case power generation is 3.157MVA and the power load is 5.25MW. T he power generated is 0.7p.u f rom the rated power. T here is imbalance of power exist and some load has to be shed to

match with the power generated. T he expected overload, L is calculated and the value is 0.6629 which is indicate that the loss of 40 percent of total generation. T he load to be shed is 2.02MW which indicate that this amount of power must be shed to bring back the f requency to nominal. T his amount is the minimum number of load must be shed. From the f requency graph, there is slope exist and it is indicate that there is power imbalance. For this case the rate of f requency change measured is -0.00409 Hz/s which is mean the f requency is drop -0.00409Hz in a second. T his value is critical and hence it is consider as a medium disturbance. T heref ore, this value of f requency change is f all at the third interval which is between -0.005 and -0.004. if the load shedding is not initiated the f requency is drop at 38Hz which cause the turbine blade damage. And by initiate load shedding scheme the f requency will drop at 48.2Hz which is in the saf e mode. T he appropriate load to be shed is properly chosen. Because the priority load can not be shed, in this modeling network, the priority load is load 6 which is the larger load in this network. To choose load to be shed, the power imbalance is calculated and we got 2.093MW. T his number of load must be shed either equal or slightly equal. For this case the closer load is total of power load1 and power load3 which have 1.2MW and 1.05MW respectively. T heref ore, power load1, load4, load5, load3, load8 and load9 are shed by tripping breaker 2, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 10 respectively. All the loads to be shed are shed simultaneously by tripping the breaker at the same time setting. T heref ore, the f requency will recover f aster and bring back to the acceptable level. So, the remain power load is 3.0MW which is approximately equal to the power generation which is 3.157MW. Hence, the f requency is bringing back to the nominal value. Network diagram shows that the corresponding load is shed. T he breaker is trip by give signal logic 1 to the breaker. Figure 4.30, 4.31, 4.32 shows the behavior of f requency when without load shedding, load shedding and comparison between them respectively. For this case, f requency with load shedding is slightly odd, because the gap between load shed and power generation is large which 0.157MW is. so the behavior of graph is inf luence by the response of the generator. Fortunately the f requency is still can be bring back to acceptable level. Figure 4.33 illustrate simulation model af ter load shedding.

4.4 CASE 4(For 0.6 Power Generat ion) DISCUSSION

In this case power generation is 2.706MVA and the power load is 5.25MW. T he power generated is 0.6p.u f rom the rated power. T here is imbalance of power exist and some load has to be shed to match with the power generated. T he expected overload, L is calculated and the value is 0.940 which is indicate that the loss of 48 percent of total generation. T he load to be shed is 2.41MW which indicate that this amount of power must be shed to bring back the f requency to nominal. T his amount is the minimum number of load must be shed. From the f requency graph, there is slope exist and it is indicate that there is power imbalance. For this case the rate of f requency change measured is -0.00508 Hz/s which is mean the f requency is drop -0.00508Hz in a second. T his value is very critical and hence it is consider as a large disturbance. T heref ore, this value of f requency change is f all at the f ourth interval which is between -0.007 and -0.005. If the load shedding is not initiated the f requency is drop at 35Hz which cause the turbine blade damage. And by initiate load shedding scheme the f requency will drop at 47.5Hz which is in the border of the saf e mode. T he appropriate load to be shed is properly chosen. Because the priority load can not be shed, in this modeling network, the priority load is load 6 which is the larger load in this network. To choose load to be shed, the power imbalance is calculated and we got 2.544MW. T his number of load must be shed either equal or slightly equal. For this case the closer load is total of power load1, power load7 and power load9 which have 1.2MW, 0.75MW and 0.6MW respectively. T heref ore, power load1, load4, load5, load7 and load9 are shed by tripping breaker 2, 4, 5, 8 and 10 respectively. All the loads to be shed are shed simultaneously by tripping the breaker at the same time setting. T heref ore, the f requency will recover f aster and bring back to the acceptable level. So, the remain power load is 2.7MW which is approximately equal to the power generation which is 2.706MW. Hence, the f requency is bringing back to the nominal value. Network diagram shows that the corresponding load is shed. T he breaker is trip by give signal logic 1 to the breaker. Figure 4.40, 4.41 and 4.42 shows the behavior of f requency when without load shedding, load shedding and comparison between them respectively. For this case the f requency is drop at the

border of the saf e mode which is 47.5Hz. af ter load shedding the f requency is bring back to the acceptable level. Figure 4.43 illustrate the simulation model af ter load shedding.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
Adaptive under f requency load shedding scheme is designed in this project to prevent f rom extreme f requency drop which might cause turbine blade damage and cause total blackout in power system. T he Adaptive LD-df /dt Characteristic scheme is applied f or this project. T his characteristic is very powerf ul to prevent f rom under shed or over shed which may cause large loss. Figure 4.44 shows the summary of Adaptive LD-df /dt Characteristic scheme. T his method is proven by changing the power imbalance between power generation and power load. T he power imbalance is represented as disturbance, the greater the imbalance between power generation and power load the greater disturbance exist. T he rate of f requency change is used as an indicator to determine the severity of the disturbance and theref ore predetermine action can be taken. T he instantaneous of f requency change is taken to predict the power imbalance inside the system. Simulation model is developing to predict the outcome of the scheme. T he algorithm is written in the sequence to properly shed the appropriate load. T he rate of f requency change can predict the disturbance. Simulation modeling shows the network af ter and bef ore the load shedding is initiated. When the load shedding is not applied the f requency is drop at 35Hz f or the worst case which cause damage turbine blade and cause total blackout. Whenever, Adaptive UFLS is applied , T he result is load to be shed is corresponding to the severity of the disturbance and load to be shed is shed simultaneously which result f aster f requency rise.

REFERENCES
1. (URL-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Generation), 17/11/2009a 2. (URL-http://www.dh.history.vt.edu/ch3/islanding.html), 17/11/2009b 3. (URL-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_Respond), 15/03/2010 4. (URL-http://f reepatentsonline.com/3993984.pdf .html), 16/03/2010 5. H. Saadat (2009) . Power System Analysis . 2nd Ed. Mc Graw Hill. Milwaukee Scholl of Engineering. 6. H.seyedi, M. Sanaye-Pasand (2009) . Design of New Load Shedding Special Protection Schemes f or a double Area Power System . American Journal of Applied Sciences 6(2):317-327. 7. IEEE Std C37.117 (2007) . IEEE Guide f or the Application of Protective Relays Used f or Abnormal Frequency Load Shedding and Restoration. IEEE Power Engineering Society. 8. L. Z hang, J. Z hong (2006) .UFLS Design by Using f and Integrating df /dt. T he University of Hong Kong. 9. V.V. Terzija (2006). Adaptive Under f requency Load Shedding Based on the Magnitude of the Disturbance Estimation. Senior Member, IEEE. 10. M. Parniani, Member, IEEE, and A.Nasri (2006). SCADA Based Under Frequency Load Shedding Integrated with Rate of Frequency Decline. Department of Electrical Engineering Sharif University of technology Tehran, Iran. 11. M. Sanaye Pasand, H.Seyedi. New Centralized Adaptive Under Frequency Load Shedding Algorithms. Senior Member, IEEE. 12. J.G. T hompson . Adaptive load shedding f or isolated power systems. B.Fox, Phd, CEng, MIEE. 13. V. Terzija. M. Kayikcitnei. D. Cai (2009), POWER IMBALNCE EST IMAT ION IN DIST RIBUT ION NET WORKS WIT H RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES. 20th International Conf erence on

electricity Distribution. 8 -11. 14. V.V.Terzija (2006). Adaptive Underf requency Load Shedding Based on the Magnitude of the Disturbance Estimation. Senior member, IEEE. VOL. 21, NO. 3. 15. H.seyedi, M. Sanaye-Pasand. M.R Dadashzadeh. Design and Simulation of an Adaptive Load Shedding Algorithm using a Real Network. Senior Member, IEEE.

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