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1507;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\qj\f0\fs20 Project mana gement\par From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\par Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, motivating, and co ntrolling resources to achieve specific goals. A project is a temporary endeavor with a defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, and often constrain ed by funding or deliverables),[1] undertaken to meet unique goals and objective s,[2] typically to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary n ature of projects stands in contrast with business as usual (or operations),[3] which are repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent functional activities to prod uce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is of ten quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and management strategies.\par The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goa ls[4] and objectives while honoring the preconceived constraints.[5] The primary constraints are scope, time, quality and budget.[6] The secondary \emdash and m ore ambitious\emdash challenge is to optimize the allocation of necessary input s and integrate them to meet pre-defined objectives.\par Contents [hide] \par 1 History\par 2 Approaches\par 2.1 The traditional approach\par 2.2 PRINCE2\par 2.3 PRiSM (Projects integrating Sustainable Methods)\par 2.4 Critical chain project management\par 2.5 Event chain methodology\par 2.6 Process-based management\par 2.7 Agile project management\par 2.8 Lean project management\par 2.9 Extreme project management\par 2.10 Benefits realisation management\par 3 Processes\par 3.1 Initiating\par 3.2 Planning and design\par 3.3 Executing\par 3.4 Monitoring and controlling\par 3.5 Closing\par 3.6 Project controlling and project control systems\par 4 Topics\par 4.1 Project managers\par 4.2 Project management triangle\par 4.3 Work breakdown structure\par 4.4 Project management framework\par 4.5 International standards\par 4.6 Project portfolio management\par 5 See also\par 6 References\par 7 External links\par [edit]History\par \par \par \par Roman soldiers building a fortress, Trajan's Column 113 AD\par Until 1900 civil engineering projects were generally managed by creative archite cts, engineers, and master builders themselves, for example Vitruvius (first cen tury BC), Christopher Wren (1632\endash 1723), Thomas Telford (1757\endash 1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806\endash 1859).[7] It was in the 1950s that org anizations started to systematically apply project management tools and techniqu es to complex engineering projects.[8]\par

\par \par Henry Gantt (1861\endash 1919), the father of planning and control techniques\pa r As a discipline, project management developed from several fields of application including civil construction, engineering, and heavy defense activity.[9] Two f orefathers of project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques,[10] who is famous for his use of the Gantt chart as a pr oject management tool (alternatively Harmonogram first proposed by Karol Adamiec ki[11]); and Henri Fayol for his creation of the five management functions that form the foundation of the body of knowledge associated with project and program management.[12] Both Gantt and Fayol were students of Frederick Winslow Taylor' s theories of scientific management. His work is the forerunner to modern projec t management tools including work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocat ion.\par The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era where core e ngineering fields come together to work as one. Project management became recogn ized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline with engine ering model.[13] In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad-hoc basis, using mostly Gantt charts and informal techniques and tools . At that time, two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed. The " Critical Path Method" (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between DuPont Corp oration and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. And the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, was developed by Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Loc kheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program;[14] These mathematical tec hniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.\par \par \par PERT network chart for a seven-month project with five milestones\par At the same time, as project-scheduling models were being developed, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evol ving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Associ ation of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the Advance ment of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project managemen t and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, an d cost/schedule control (project control). AACE continued its pioneering work an d in 2006 released the first integrated process for portfolio, program and proje ct management (Total Cost Management Framework).\par The International Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967,[15] as a federation of several national project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and now includes member associations on every continent except Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certification pro gram based on the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB).[16] The ICB covers technical, contextual, and behavioral competencies.\par In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA.[17] PMI p ublishes A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), whic h describes project management practices that are common to "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers multiple certifications.\par [edit]Approaches\par \par There are a number of approaches to managing project activities including lean, iterative, incremental, and phased approaches.\par Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to t he overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and resp onsibilities of all participants and stakeholders.\par [edit]The traditional approach\par A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", five developmental components of a project can be d istinguished (four stages plus control):\par

\par \par Typical development phases of an engineering project\par initiation\par planning and design\par execution and construction\par monitoring and controlling systems\par completion\par Not all projects will have every stage, as projects can be terminated before the y reach completion. Some projects do not follow a structured planning and/or mon itoring process. And some projects will go through steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple tim es.\par Many industries use variations of these project stages. For example, when workin g on a brick-and-mortar design and construction, projects will typically progres s through stages like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design, design development, construction drawings (or contract documents), and construction adm inistration. In software development, this approach is often known as the waterf all model,[18] i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In so ftware development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recom mend this practice. Waterfall development works well for small, well defined pro jects, but often fails in larger projects of undefined and ambiguous nature. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial p hase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes espe cially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel p roduct. In projects where requirements have not been finalized and can change, r equirements management is used to develop an accurate and complete definition of the behavior of software that can serve as the basis for software development.[ 19] While the terms may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typi cally follow common steps to problem solving\emdash "defining the problem, weigh ing options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."\par [edit]PRINCE2\par Main article: PRINCE2\par \par \par The PRINCE2 process model\par PRINCE2 is a structured approach to project management, released in 1996 as a ge neric project management method.[20] It combined the original PROMPT methodology (which evolved into the PRINCE methodology) with IBM's MITP (managing the imple mentation of the total project) methodology. PRINCE2 provides a method for manag ing projects within a clearly defined framework. PRINCE2 describes procedures to coordinate people and activities in a project, how to design and supervise the project, and what to do if the project has to be adjusted if it does not develop as planned.\par In the method, each process is specified with its key inputs and outputs and wit h specific goals and activities to be carried out. This allows for automatic con trol of any deviations from the plan. Divided into manageable stages, the method enables an efficient control of resources. On the basis of close monitoring, th e project can be carried out in a controlled and organized way.\par PRINCE2 provides a common language for all participants in the project. The vari ous management roles and responsibilities involved in a project are fully descri bed and are adaptable to suit the complexity of the project and skills of the or ganization.\par [edit]PRiSM (Projects integrating Sustainable Methods)\par PRiSM[21] is a process-based, structured project management methodology that int roduces areas of sustainability and integrates them into four core project phase s in order to maximize opportunities to improve sustainability and the use of fi nite resources.\par \par \par

The PRiSM Flowchart\par The methodology encompasses the management, control and organization of a projec t with consideration and emphasis beyond the project life-cycle and on the five aspects of sustainability, People, Planet, Profit, Process and Product. It deriv es the framework from ISO:21500 as well as ISO 14001, ISO 26000, and ISO 9001 PR iSM is also used to refer to the training and accreditation of authorized practi tioners of the methodology who must undertake accredited qualifications based on competency to obtain the GPM certification.[22]\par [edit]Critical chain project management\par Main article: Critical chain project management\par Critical chain project management (CCPM) is a method of planning and managing pr oject execution designed to deal with uncertainties inherent in managing project s, while taking into consideration limited availability of resources (physical, human skills, as well as management & support capacity) needed to execute projec ts.\par CCPM is an application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization (throughput). Applying th e first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all p rojects is identified as are the resources. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projec ts are planned and managed to ensure that the resources are ready when the criti cal chain tasks must start, subordinating all other resources to the critical ch ain.\par The project plan should typically undergo resource leveling, and the longest seq uence of resource-constrained tasks should be identified as the critical chain. In some cases, such as managing contracted sub-projects, it is advisable to use a simplified approach without resource leveling.\par In multi-project environments, resource leveling should be performed across proj ects. However, it is often enough to identify (or simply select) a single "drum" . The drum can be a resource that acts as a constraint across projects, which ar e staggered based on the availability of that single resource.\par One can also use a "virtual drum" by selecting a task or group of tasks (typical ly integration points) and limiting the number of projects in execution at that stage.\par [edit]Event chain methodology\par Main article: Event chain methodology\par Event chain methodology is another method that complements critical path method and critical chain project management methodologies.\par Event chain methodology is an uncertainty modeling and schedule network analysis technique that is focused on identifying and managing events and event chains t hat affect project schedules. Event chain methodology helps to mitigate the nega tive impact of psychological heuristics and biases, as well as to allow for easy modeling of uncertainties in the project schedules. Event chain methodology is based on the following principles.\par Probabilistic moment of risk: An activity (task) in most real-life processes is not a continuous uniform process. Tasks are affected by external events, which c an occur at some point in the middle of the task.\par Event chains: Events can cause other events, which will create event chains. The se event chains can significantly affect the course of the project. Quantitative analysis is used to determine a cumulative effect of these event chains on the project schedule.\par Critical events or event chains: The single events or the event chains that have the most potential to affect the projects are the \ldblquote critical events\rd blquote or \ldblquote critical chains of events.\rdblquote They can be determi ned by the analysis.\par Project tracking with events: Even if a project is partially completed and data about the project duration, cost, and events occurred is available, it is still possible to refine information about future potential events and helps to foreca st future project performance.\par Event chain visualization: Events and event chains can be visualized using event

chain diagrams on a Gantt chart.\par [edit]Process-based management\par Main article: Process-based management\par Also furthering the concept of project control is the incorporation of process-b ased management. This area has been driven by the use of Maturity models such as the CMMI (capability maturity model integration; see this example of a predeces sor) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE \endash software process improvement and capabilit y estimation).\par [edit]Agile project management\par Main article: Agile Project Management\par \par \par The iteration cycle in agile project management\par Agile project management approaches based on the principles of human interaction management are founded on a process view of human collaboration. It is "most ty pically used in software, website, technology, creative and marketing industries ."[23] This contrasts sharply with the traditional approach. In the agile softwa re development or flexible product development approach, the project is seen as a series of relatively small tasks conceived and executed as the situation deman ds in an adaptive manner, rather than as a completely pre-planned process.\par [edit]Lean project management\par Main article: Lean project management\par Lean project management uses principles from lean manufacturing to focus on deli vering value with less waste.\par [edit]Extreme project management\par Main article: Extreme project management\par \par \par Planning and feedback loops in Extreme programming (XP) with the time frames of the multiple loops.\par In critical studies of project management it has been noted that several PERT ba sed models are not well suited for the multi-project company environment of toda y.[citation needed] Most of them are aimed at very large-scale, one-time, non-ro utine projects, and currently all kinds of management are expressed in terms of projects.\par Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few weeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and low maneuverability in several cases [citation needed]. Instead, project management experts try to identify different "lightweight" models, such as Extreme Programming and Scrum.\par The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projects is extreme project management, which may be used in combination with the process modeling a nd management principles of human interaction management.\par [edit]Benefits realisation management\par Main article: Benefits realisation management\par Benefits realization management (BRM) enhances normal project management techniq ues through a focus on agreeing what outcomes should change (the benefits) durin g the project, and then measuring to see if that is happening to help keep a pro ject on track. This can help to reduce the risk of a completed project being a f ailure as instead of attempting to deliver agreed requirements the aim is to del iver the benefit of those requirements.\par An example of delivering a project to requirements could be agreeing on a projec t to deliver a computer system to process staff data with the requirement to man age payroll, holiday and staff personnel records. Under BRM the agreement would be to use the suppliers suggested staff data system to see an agreed reduction i n staff hours processing and maintaining staff data (benefit reduce HR headcount ).\par [edit]Processes\par \par \par \par

The project development stages[24]\par Traditionally, project management includes a number of elements: four to five pr ocess groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic project management processes will be used. Major process g roups generally include:[6]\par initiation\par planning or design\par production or execution\par monitoring and controlling\par closing\par In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., research a nd development), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided. An examp le is the Phase\endash gate model.\par [edit]Initiating\par \par \par Initiating process group processes[24]\par The initiating processes determine the nature and scope of the project.[25] If t his stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be success ful in meeting the business\rquote needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all necess ary controls are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be repor ted and a recommendation should be made to fix them.\par The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas: \par analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals\par reviewing of the current operations\par financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget\par stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project\par project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule\par [edit]Planning and design\par After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of de tail (see example of a flow-chart).[24] The main purpose is to plan time, cost a nd resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to effectively manage ri sk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a failure to adequately plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully accomplish ing its goals.\par Project planning generally consists of[26]\par determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave);\par developing the scope statement;\par selecting the planning team;\par identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure;\par identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequence;\par estimating the resource requirements for the activities;\par estimating time and cost for activities;\par developing the schedule;\par developing the budget;\par risk planning;\par gaining formal approval to begin work.\par Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope manageme nt, identifying roles and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable.\par For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and plann ing activities.\par [edit]Executing\par \par

\par Executing process group processes[24]\par Executing consists of the processes used to complete the work defined in the pro ject plan to accomplish the project's requirements. Execution process involves c oordinating people and resources, as well as integrating and performing the acti vities of the project in accordance with the project management plan. The delive rables are produced as outputs from the processes performed as defined in the pr oject management plan and other frameworks that might be applicable to the type of project at hand.\par Execution process group include:\par Direct and Manage Project execution\par Quality Assurance of deliverables\par Acquire, Develop and Manage Project team\par Distribute Information\par Manage stakeholder expectations\par Conduct Procurement\par [edit]Monitoring and controlling\par \par \par Monitoring and controlling process group processes[24]\par Monitoring and controlling consists of those processes performed to observe proj ect execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner an d corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of th e project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan.\par Monitoring and controlling includes:[27]\par Measuring the ongoing project activities ('where we are');\par Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be);\par Identify corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How can we get on track again);\par Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented.\par In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control process also provides feedba ck between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive action s to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.\par Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:[6]\par Continuing support of end-users\par Correction of errors\par Updates of the software over time\par \par \par Monitoring and controlling cycle\par In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved.\par Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change i s a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the res ult of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material avail ability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change nor mally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is refe rred to as change management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record t o show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents \end ash usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end produ ct of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, \ldblquote as built.\rdblquote The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts.\par When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targe

ts of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not j ustify the original proposed investment in the project.\par [edit]Closing\par \par \par Closing process group processes.[24]\par Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof. Ad ministrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lesso ns learned.\par This phase consists of:[6]\par Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to forma lly close the project or a project phase\par Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project ph ase.\par [edit]Project controlling and project control systems\par Project controlling should be established as an independent function in project management. It implements verification and controlling function during the proce ssing of a project in order to reinforce the defined performance and formal goal s.[28] The tasks of project controlling are also:\par the creation of infrastructure for the supply of the right information and its u pdate\par the establishment of a way to communicate disparities of project parameters\par the development of project information technology based on an intranet or the de termination of a project key performance index system (KPI)\par divergence analyses and generation of proposals for potential project regulation s[29]\par the establishment of methods to accomplish an appropriate the project structure, project workflow organization, project control and governance\par creation of transparency among the project parameters[30]\par Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved by applying specif ic methods and instruments of project controlling. The following methods of proj ect controlling can be applied:\par investment analysis\par cost\endash benefit analyses\par value benefit Analysis\par expert surveys\par simulation calculations\par risk-profile analyses\par surcharge calculations\par milestone trend analysis\par cost trend analysis\par target/actual-comparison[31]\par Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on-track, on-time and within budget.[27] Project control begins early in the project with planning an d ends late in the project with post-implementation review, having a thorough in volvement of each step in the process. Each project should be assessed for the a ppropriate level of control needed: too much control is too time consuming, too little control is very risky. If project control is not implemented correctly, t he cost to the business should be clarified in terms of errors, fixes, and addit ional audit fees.\par Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change, procurement, and human resources. In addition, auditors should consider how imp ortant the projects are to the financial statements, how reliant the stakeholder s are on controls, and how many controls exist. Auditors should review the devel opment process and procedures for how they are implemented. The process of devel opment and the quality of the final product may also be assessed if needed or re quested. A business may want the auditing firm to be involved throughout the pro cess to catch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more easily. An audi tor can serve as a controls consultant as part of the development team or as an

independent auditor as part of an audit.\par Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes. These help assure that systems are developed successfully. A formal process is more effective in creating strong controls, and auditors should review this process to confirm tha t it is well designed and is followed in practice. A good formal systems develop ment plan outlines:\par A strategy to align development with the organization\rquote s broader objective s\par Standards for new systems\par Project management policies for timing and budgeting\par Procedures describing the process\par Evaluation of quality of change\par [edit]Topics\par \par [edit]Project managers\par A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers can have the responsibility of the planning, execution, and closing of any project, typically relating to construction industry, engineering, architect ure, computing, and telecommunications. Many other fields in production engineer ing and design engineering and heavy industrial have project managers.\par A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives. Key project management responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the project requirements, and managing t he triple constraint for projects, which is cost, time, and scope.\par A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and impl ement the exact needs of the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are rep resenting. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of the contra cting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is esse ntial in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, clie nt satisfaction, can be realized.\par [edit]Project management triangle\par \par \par The project management triangle\par Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and delivered under ce rtain constraints. Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as "scope," "time," and "cost".[1] These are also referred to as the "project management tr iangle", where each side represents a constraint. One side of the triangle canno t be changed without affecting the others. A further refinement of the constrain ts separates product "quality" or "performance" from scope, and turns quality in to a fourth constraint.\par The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project . The cost constraint refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. T he scope constraint refers to what must be done to produce the project's end res ult. These three constraints are often competing constraints: increased scope ty pically means increased time and increased cost, a tight time constraint could m ean increased costs and reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean increased t ime and reduced scope.\par The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the project team (not just the project manager) to organize their w ork to meet these constraints.\par [edit]Work breakdown structure\par The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree structure that shows a subdivision of effort required to achieve an objective\emdash for example a program, project , and contract. The WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, or process-oriente d (see an example in a NASA reporting structure (2001)).[32]\par A WBS can be developed by starting with the end objective and successively subdi viding it into manageable components in terms of size, duration, and responsibil ity (e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks, sub-tasks, and work packages) , which include all steps necessary to achieve the objective.[19]\par

The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural develop ment of the overall planning and control of a contract and is the basis for divi ding work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be deve loped and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established .[32]\par [edit]Project management framework\par The Program (Investment) life cycle integrates the project management and system development life cycles with the activities directly associated with system dep loyment and operation. By design, system operation management and related activi ties occur after the project is complete and are not documented within this guid e[24] (see an example of an IT project management framework).\par For example, see figure, in the US United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) the program management life cycle is depicted and describe in the overall V A IT Project Management Framework to address the integration of OMB Exhibit 300 project (investment) management activities and the overall project budgeting pro cess. The VA IT Project Management Framework diagram illustrates Milestone 4 whi ch occurs following the deployment of a system and the closing of the project. T he project closing phase activities at the VA continues through system deploymen t and into system operation for the purpose of illustrating and describing the s ystem activities the VA considers part of the project. The figure illustrates th e actions and associated artifacts of the VA IT Project and Program Management p rocess.[24]\par [edit]International standards\par There have been several attempts to develop project management standards, such a s:\par Capability Maturity Model from the Software Engineering Institute.\par GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project Performance Standards \endash an open source standard describing COMPETENCIES for project and program managers.\par A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge from the Project Management Institute (PMI)\par HERMES method, Swiss general project management method, selected for use in Luxe mbourg and international organizations.\par The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of standards for quality management systems , and the ISO 10006:2003, for Quality management systems and guidelines for qual ity management in projects.\par PRINCE2, PRojects IN Controlled Environments.\par Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge[33]\par Team Software Process (TSP) from the Software Engineering Institute.\par Total Cost Management Framework, AACE International's Methodology for Integrated Portfolio, Program and Project Management.\par V-Model, an original systems development method.\par The Logical framework approach, which is popular in international development or ganizations.\par IAPPM, The International Association of Project & Program Management, guide to p roject auditing and rescuing troubled projects.\par [edit]Project portfolio management\par An increasing number of organizations are using, what is referred to as, project portfolio management (PPM) as a means of selecting the right projects and then using project management techniques[34] as the means for delivering the outcomes in the form of benefits to the performing private or not-for-profit organizatio n.\par }