Islam, a major world religion, founded in Arabia and based on the teachings of Muhammad,

who is called the Prophet. The Arabic word islam literally means to surrender, but as a religious term in the Koran, it means to surrender to the will or law of God. One who practices Islam is a Muslim. According to the Koran, Islam is the primordial and universal religion, and even nature itself is Muslim, because it automatically obeys the laws God has ingrained in it. For human beings, who possess free will, practicing Islam does not involve automatically obeying but rather freely accepting God's commandments.

A Muslim is a follower of the revelation (the Koran) brought by Muhammad and thus is a member of the Islamic community. Because the name Muslim is given in the Koran itself to the followers of Muhammad (Koran 22:78), Muslims resent being called Muhammadans, which implies a personal cult of Muhammad, forbidden in Islam. They also object to the spelling Moslem as a distortion of Muslim.

Although exact statistics are not available, the Muslim world population is estimated at more than 1 billion. Islam has flourished in diverse climatic, cultural, and ethnic regions. It has begun to grow rapidly in the United States. The major groups comprising the world community of Islam include the Arabs (North Africa and the Middle East); sub-Saharan Africans (from Senegal to Somalia); Turks and Turkic peoples (Turkey, Central Asia); Iranians; Afghans; the Indo-Muslims (Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh); Southeast Asians (Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines); and a small percentage of Chinese. In Europe, Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity.

Islamic Doctrine
The two fundamental sources of Islamic doctrine and practice are the Koran and the Sunna, or the exemplary conduct of the Prophet Muhammad. The Koran Muslims regard the Koran as the speech of God to Muhammad, mediated by Gabriel, the angel of revelation; they believe that God himself, not Muhammad, is the author and therefore that the Koran is infallible. The document called the Koran is the collection of the passages revealed to Muhammad during the approximately 22 years of his prophetic life (610-32). It is divided into 114 chapters of unequal length, the shortest containing only 3 short verses, the longest containing 306 long verses. Both Islamic and non-Islamic scholars agree on the essential integrity of the text of the Koran throughout its history. The Sunna The second substantive source of Islam, the Sunna, or example of the Prophet, is known through Hadith, the body of traditions based on what the Prophet said or did regarding various issues. Unlike the Koran, which was memorizedeither in whole or in partby many

followers of Muhammad during their lifetime and which was compiled in written form quite early, the transmission of Hadith was largely verbal, and the present authoritative collections date from the 9th century. Unlike the Koran, Hadith is not considered infallible. In the early Islamic period, whether or not the Prophet himself was infallible (apart from the revelations in the Koran) was a point of controversy. Later, however, the consensus of the Islamic community was that both he and the earlier prophets were infallible. Because Hadith was mainly transmitted orally, however, it was conceded that error could enter into the human transmission. Hadith, therefore, is a source secondary to the Koran, although it is almost equally fundamental for most Muslims.

Recent research, not yet accepted by the large body of Muslims, has demonstrated that much of Hadith was not derived from the Prophet but represents the opinions of the early generations of Muslims, opinions that were subsequently attributed to the Prophet. In some cases a genuine statement of the Prophet was preserved, but additions to it were later made by Muslims who wanted to advance certain theological or legal opinions. God Monotheism (tawhid) is central to Islama belief in only one God, unitary and omnipotent. Belief in a plurality of gods or in the extension of God's divinity to any person is emphatically rejected (shirk). God created nature through a primordial act of mercy; otherwise there would be pure nothingness. God provided each element of his creation with its own proper nature, or laws governing its conduct, so that it follows a characteristic pattern. The result is a wellordered, harmonious whole, a cosmos in which everything has its proper place and limitations. No gaps, dislocations, or ruptures, therefore, are found in nature. God presides over and governs the universe, which, with its orderly functioning, is the primary sign and proof of God and his unity. Violations of the natural order in the form of miracles occurred in the past, but although the Koran accepts the miracles of earlier prophets (Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others), it declares them outdated; Muhammad's miracle is the Koran, the like of which no human can produce.

According to Islam, God has four fundamental functions with respect to the universe and to humanity in particular: creation, sustenance, guidance, and judgment. God, who created the universe out of sheer mercy, is bound to sustain it as well. All nature has been made subservient to humanity, which may exploit it and benefit from it. The ultimate purpose of humanity, however, is to be in the service of God, that is, to worship him alone and to construct an ethical social order free from corruptions. Ethics The Koran declares that reforming the earth is the ideal of human endeavour. The basic criticism of humanity in the Koran is that it is too proud and too petty, narrow-minded, and selfish. Man is by nature timid, says the Koran. When evil befalls him, he panics, but when good things come to him he prevents them from reaching others. This pettiness causes

individuals to become so submerged in nature that they lose sight of its Creatoronly when nature fails them do they, in their utter frustration, turn to God. Because of their shortsightedness, people fear that charity and sacrificing for others will result in their own impoverishment. This, however, is Satan's influence, for God promises prosperity in return for generosity to the poor. The Koran insists, therefore, that individuals transcend their pettiness and enlarge themselves. By doing so, they will develop the inner moral quality that the Koran calls taqwa (usually translated fear of God, but actually meaning to guard against danger). By this quality humans can discern right from wrong and, above all, can evaluate their own actions properly, escaping self-deception, a danger to which they are always exposed. Often people think they have done something consequential, but the deed has no importance in the long run. The real worth of a person's deeds can be judged only through taqwa, and an individual's aim should be the ultimate benefit of humanity, not the immediate pleasures or ambitions of the self. Prophets Because of humanity's moral weakness, God has sent prophets to teach both individuals and nations correct moral and spiritual behaviour. After creation and sustenance, God's mercy is consummated in these acts of divine guidance. Although right and wrong are inscribed in the human heart, the inability or refusal of many people to decipher that inscription has made prophetic guidance necessary. This guidance is universal; no one on earth has been left without it. Adam was the first prophet; after his expulsion from the Garden of Eden, God forgave him his lapse (for this reason Islam does not accept the doctrine of original sin). The messages of all prophets emanate from the same divine source, which in the Koran is called The Preserved Tablets, The Hidden Book, or The Mother of All Divine Books.

Religions are, therefore, basically one, even though their institutionalized forms may differ. Prophets are one indivisible unity, and one must believe in all of them, for to accept some and reject others amounts to a denial of the divine truth. All prophets are human; they have no share in divinity, but they are the most perfect exemplars for humanity. Some prophets are superior to others, however, particularly in steadfastness under trial. Thus, the Koran describes Muhammad as the Seal of all Prophets. From this arises the Islamic belief that prophethood was consummated and finished with him and that the Koran is the final and most nearly perfect revelation of God, consummating and superseding all earlier ones. The Day of Judgment The divine activities of creation, sustenance, and guidance end with the final act of judgment. On the Day of Judgment, all humanity will be gathered, and individuals will be judged solely according to their deeds. The successful ones will go to the Garden (heaven), and the losers, or the evil, will go to hell, although God is merciful and will forgive those who deserve forgiveness. Besides the Last Judgment, which will be on individuals, the Koran recognizes another kind of divine judgment, which is meted out in history to nations, peoples, and communities. Nations, like individuals, may be corrupted by wealth, power, and pride, and,

unless they reform, these nations are punished by being destroyed or subjugated by more virtuous nations.

Practices and Institutions

Five duties, known as the pillars of Islam, are regarded as cardinal in Islam and as central to the life of the Islamic community. Profession of Faith In accordance with Islam's absolute commitment to monotheism, the first duty is the profession of faith (the Shahadah): There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet. This profession must be made publicly by every Muslim at least once in his or her lifetime by the tongue and with full assent from the heart; it defines the membership of an individual in the Islamic community. Prayer The second duty is that of five daily prayers. The first prayer is offered before sunrise, the second in the very early afternoon, the third in the late afternoon, the fourth immediately after sunset, and the fifth before retiring and before midnight. In prayers, Muslims face the Kaaba, a small, cube-shaped structure in the courtyard of al-Haram (the inviolate place), the great mosque of Mecca. A single unit of prayer consists of a standing posture, then a genuflection followed by two prostrations, and finally a sitting posture. In each of these postures prescribed prayers and portions of the Koran are recited.

All five prayers in Islam are congregational and are to be offered in a mosque, but they may be offered individually if, for some reason, a person cannot be present with a congregation. Individual, devotional prayers are not obligatory, but Muslims are encouraged to offer them after midnight; they are called tahajjud (night-vigil). In the Middle East and Indonesia, women also join the congregational prayers, although they pray in a separate room or hall. In the Indian subcontinent, Muslim women pray at home. Before praying, the worshiper must make ablutions.

Before every congregational prayer, a formal public call to prayer is made from a minaret of the mosque by the muezzin (from azan, call to prayer). In recent times the call has been made over a microphone so that those at some distance can hear it.

Special early afternoon prayers are offered on Fridays in congregational mosques. These are preceded by a sermon from the pulpit by the Imam, also called the Khatib. On the two annual religious festival days called Ids (one immediately after the end of the fasting month of Ramadan and the other immediately after the pilgrimage to Mecca), there are special prayers

followed by sermons in the morning. These prayers are not held in mosques but in a wide space outside set apart for this purpose. Almsgiving The third cardinal duty of a Muslim is to pay zakat. This was originally the tax levied by Muhammad (and later by Muslim states) on the wealthy members of the community, primarily to help the poor. It was also used for winning converts to Islam; for the ransom of war captives; for the relief of people in chronic debt; for jihad (the struggle for the cause of Islam, or holy war), which, according to the Koran commentators, includes health and education; and for facilitating travel and communications. Only when zakat has been paid is the rest of a Muslim's property considered purified and legitimate. In most Muslim states zakat is no longer collected by the government and instead has become a voluntary charity, but it is still recognized as an essential duty by all Muslims. In a number of countries strong demands have been made to reinstate it as a tax, but this would entail a complete revision of its rates and structure to conform with the needs of a modern state. Fasting The fourth duty is the fast of the month of Ramadan. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar, Islamic festivals are not confined to any one season. Even during hot summers, most Muslims meticulously observe fasting. During the fasting month, one must refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, and sexual intercourse from dawn until sunset. Throughout the month one must abstain from all sinful thoughts and actions. Those who can afford it must also feed at least one poor person. If one is sick or on a journey that causes hardship, one need not fast but must compensate by fasting on subsequent days. Pilgrimage The fifth duty is the pilgrimage to the Kaaba at Mecca. Every adult Muslim who is physically and economically able to do so must make this pilgrimage at least once in his or her lifetime. Held during the first ten days of the last month of the lunar year, the rite requires that the pilgrims enter into a state of purity in which they wear only a seamless white garment, abstain from shedding blood and cutting either hair or nails, and avoid all forms of vulgarity. The main constituents of this lengthy rite are seven circumambulations of the Kaaba, walking fast between two mounds near the sanctuary seven times, marching three miles to Mina, then proceeding six miles to Arafat, staying the afternoon and listening to a sermon there, then marching back to Mecca, offering a sacrifice in a memory of Abraham's attempted sacrifice of his son, and once again circumambulating the Kaaba.

During recent years, air travel has allowed Muslims from all parts of the world to perform the pilgrimage. In 1977 the reported number was close to 2 million. Through the centuries, the Kaaba has played an important role as a meeting place of Islamic scholars for the exchange and diffusion of ideas. For the past two decades, the pilgrimage has also been used to promote political solidarity in the Muslim world.

Besides these five basic institutions, other important laws of Islam include the prohibition of alcohol consumption and of eating the flesh of swine. Besides the Kaaba, the central shrine of Islam, the most important centers of Islamic life are the mosque, where daily prayers are offered, and the cathedral mosque, where Friday services are held.
Islam and Society The Islamic view of society is theocratic in the sense that the goal of all Muslims is God's rule on earth. This does not, however, imply clerical rule, although religious authorities have had considerable political influence in some Muslim societies. Islamic social philosophy is based on the belief that all spheres of lifespiritual, social, political, and economicform an indivisible unity that must be thoroughly imbued with Islamic values. This ideal informs such concepts as Islamic law and the Islamic state and accounts for Islam's strong emphasis on social life and social duties. Even the cardinal religious duties prescribed in the five pillars of Islam have clear social implications. The Community of the Faithful The basis of Islamic society is the community of the faithful, which is consolidated by the performance of the five pillars of Islam. Its mission is to command good and prohibit evil and thus to reform the earth. The community must be moderate, however, and avoid all extremes. During the Middle Ages, Islamic religious authorities began to claim a degree of infallibility for the community, but the European colonial domination of Muslim countries led to speculation that the community must have erred and was being punished. In the 20th century, Islamic thinkers have consequently offered various diagnoses of Muslim society and proposals for reform. Education The Islamic university system contributed to the great cultural developments of Islam. The universities were founded as institutions of religious learning, where the ulama (religious scholars), qadis (judges), muftis (interpreters of the law), and other high religious officials were trained. These officials formed an important political class, especially in Turkey and India, where they had much influence over state policies. In many 20th-century Muslim countries, however, the ulama have lost much of their former influence, especially among Western-educated Muslims who do not wish a strictly religious code of government; in Turkey the ulama have been stripped of legal power altogether. In the 9th century the caliph al-Mamun founded an academy at Baghdad for the study of secular subjects and for the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific texts. In the 10th century, at Cairo, the Fatimid caliphs also established an academy for secular learning, Al Azhar, still the most important center for Islamic learning. Rulers and wealthy patrons usually made funds available for individual scholars. Medieval Islamic scholars made important contributions to the fields of philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and the natural sciences; between the 9th and 13th centuries the Islamic community was the most productive civilization in the world. Among other famous Islamic universities, the Nizamiya, founded (1067) at Baghdad by the Iranian statesman Nizam al-Mulk, taught law, theology, and Islamic tradition and had on its staff the famous philosopher al-Ghazali; the Mustansiriya, founded (1234) at Baghdad, taught religious law and other subjects.

Islamic Law Islamic law, called the Sharia, spells out the moral goals of the community. In Islamic society, therefore, the term law has a wider significance than it does in the modern secular West, because Islamic law includes both legal and moral imperatives. For the same reason, not all Islamic law can be stated as formal legal rules or enforced by the courts. Much of it depends on conscience alone. The Four Sources Islamic law is based on four sources, or roots of law. The first two are the documentary sources, the Koran and the Sunna, or Hadith. The third source is called ijtihad (responsible individual opinion). It has been used when an issue is not covered by passages in the Koran or Sunna; a jurist may then resolve the issue by using analogical reasoning (qiyas). Such reasoning was first employed when Islamic theologians and jurists in conquered countries were confronted with the need to integrate local customs and laws with the Koran and Sunna. Later, Islamic authorities considered this original thinking a threat to the Koran and Sunna and laid down strict rules limiting its use. Because of the profound changes in the Muslim world community during the last few decades, however, a renewed emphasis has been placed on the innovative thinking of ijtihad. The fourth source is the consensus (ijma) of the community, which is reached by gradually discarding some opinions and accepting others. Because Islam has no official dogmatic authority, this is an informal process that often requires a long period of time. Schools of Law Five schools of law developed in Islam, four Sunnite and one Shiite. The four Sunnite schools emerged in the first two centuries of Islam: the Shafi'i, the Hanafi, the Maliki, and the Hanbali. All use systematic reasoning to deal with areas of law not covered by the Koran or Sunna. They differ primarily in their emphasis on textual authority or analogical reasoning, but each school recognizes the conclusions of the others as being perfectly legitimate and within the framework of orthodox Islam. Each school tends to predominate in certain areas: the Hanafi in the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, Turkey, and to some extent in Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine; the Maliki in North Africa; the Shafi'i in Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali in Saudi Arabia. The Shiite school (called the Jafari) prevails in Iran. Jihad The term jihad, usually translated holy war, designates the struggle toward the Islamic goal of reforming the earth, which may include the use of armed force if necessary. The prescribed purpose of jihad, however, is not territorial expansion or the forcible conversion of people to Islam, but the assumption of political power in order to implement the principles of Islam through public institutions. The concept of jihad was nevertheless used by some medieval Muslim rulers to justify wars motivated by purely political ambitions.

According to classical Islamic law, the world was divided into three zones: the House of Islam, where Muslims are ascendant; the House of Peace, those powers with whom Muslims have peace agreements; and the House of War, the rest of the world. Gradually, however, jihad came to be interpreted more in defensive than in offensive terms. In the 20th century the concept of jihad inspired Muslims in their struggle against Western colonialism.

The Family The early Islamic community aimed at strengthening the family at the expense of old tribal loyalties, although it was not able to suppress the latter. The Koran stresses filial piety and love and mercy between husband and wife. Men and women are declared equal, except that men are a degree higher because they are charged with the household expenditure. Sexual fidelity is sternly demanded, and proven adultery is punishable by 100 lashes.

The Koran advocates measures that were intended to improve the condition of women. The infanticide of girls, formerly prevalent among certain tribes, is forbidden; daughters are given a share of inheritances, although only half of that allotted to boys. The Koran repeatedly emphasizes the kind treatment of women and grants to wives the right of divorce in case of maltreatment. The Koran approves polygamy, allowing as many as four wives, but also states, if you fear you cannot do justice among co-wives, then marry only one wife. The abuse of polygamy and of the husband's right in traditional Islam to repudiate his wife, even when her conduct is faultless, has recently led to the enactment of reformed family laws in most Muslim countries. History In Muhammad's time (circa 570-632), the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by nomadic Bedouins engaged in herding and brigandage, and by city-dwelling Arabs engaged in trade. The religion of the Arabs was polytheistic andidolatrous. Nonetheless, an old tradition of monotheism, or at least a belief in a supreme deity, existed. Jewish and Christian communities probably contributed to a growing receptivity to monotheistic doctrines, although neither Judaism nor Christianity proved attractive to the Arabs. A number of monotheistic preachers preceded Muhammad but had little success. Muhammad Muhammad began his ministry at the age of 40, when, he claimed, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him in a vision. Muhammad confided to his family and close friends the substance of this and succeeding visions. After four years he had converted some 40 persons to his views, and he then began to preach openly in his native city of Mecca. Ridiculed by the Meccans, he went in 622 to Medina. It is from this event, the Hegira that the Islamic calendar is dated. At Medina, Muhammad soon held both temporal and spiritual authority, having been recognized as a lawgiver and prophet. Arab and Jewish opposition to him in Medina was crushed, and war was undertaken against Mecca. Increasingly, Arab tribes declared their allegiance to him, and Mecca surrendered in 630. At his death in 632 Muhammad was the leader of an Arab state growing rapidly in power. Muhammad's central teachings were the goodness, omnipotence, and unity of God and the need for generosity and justice in human relations. Important elements from Judaism and Christianity were incorporated into the emergent religion, but it was rooted in the pre-Islamic Arabic tradition; such central institutions as the pilgrimage and the Kaaba shrine were absorbed, in modified form, from Arabic paganism. Muhammad, in reforming the pre-Islamic Arabic tradition, also confirmed it. The Classical Period

During the first centuries of Islam (7th-10th century), its law and theology, the basic orthodox Islamic disciplines, were developed. Theology is next in importance to law in Islam, although it is not as essential as Christian theology has been to Christianity. Theological speculation began soon after Muhammad's death. The first major dispute was provoked by the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, and subsequent political struggles. The question was whether a Muslim remains a Muslim after committing grave sins. A fanatical group called the Kharijites maintained that the commission of serious sins, without due repentance, excludes even an observant Muslim (who continues to subscribe to the articles of faith) from the Islamic community. Good works, therefore, and not just faith, are essential to Islam. The Kharijites came to regard almost all Muslim political authorities as impious, and after numerous rebellions, they were finally suppressed. A more moderate faction of Kharijites, called ibadis, survived, however, and still exists in North and East Africa, Syria, and Oman. The Mutazilites The translation of Greek philosophical works into Arabic in the 8th and 9th centuries resulted in the emergence of the first major Islamic theological school, called the Mutazilites, who stressed reason and rigorous logic. The question of the importance of good works persisted, and the Mutazilites maintained that a person who committed a grave sin without repenting was neither a Muslim nor a non-Muslim but occupied a middle ground. Their fundamental emphasis, however, was on the absolute unity and justice of God. They declared God to be pure Essence without attributes, because attributes would imply multiplicity. Divine justice requires human free will, because if the individual is not free to choose between good and evil, reward and punishment become absurd. God, because he is perfectly just, cannot withhold reward from the good or punishment from the evil. As rationalists, the Mutazilites maintained that human reason is competent to distinguish between good and evil, although it may be supplemented by revelation.

The theology of the Mutazilites was established as a state creed by the caliph al-Mamun, but by the 10th century a reaction had set in, led by the philosopher al-Ashari and his followers. They denied the freedom of the human will, regarding the concept as incompatible with God's absolute power and will. They also denied that natural human reason can lead to a knowledge of good and evil. Moral truths are established by God and can be known only through revelation. The views of al-Ashari and his school gradually became dominant in Sunnite, or orthodox, Islam, and they still prevail among most conservative Muslims. The tendency of the Sunnites, however, has been to tolerate and accommodate minor differences of opinion and to emphasize the consensus of the community in matters of doctrine. Medieval Philosophy The Mutazilites were probably the first Muslims to borrow Greek philosophical methods in expounding their views. Some of their opponents used the same methods, and the debate initiated the Islamic philosophical movement, which relied heavily on the Arabic translation and study of Greek philosophical and scientific works, encouraged by the caliph al-Mamun.

The first important Islamic philosopher was the 9th-century Arab al-Kindi, who tried to bring the concepts of Greek philosophy into line with the revealed truths of Islam, which he still considered

superior to philosophical reasoning. As were subsequent Islamic philosophers of this period, he was primarily influenced by the works of Aristotle and by Neoplatonism, which he synthesized into a single philosophical system. In the 10th century, the Turk al-Farabi was the first Islamic philosopher to subordinate revelation and religious law to philosophy. Al-Farabi argued that philosophical truth is the same throughout the world and that the many different existing religions are symbolic expressions of an ideal universal religion.

In the 11th century, the Persian Islamic philosopher and physician Avicenna achieved the most systematic integration of Greek rationalism and Islamic thought, but it was at the expense of several orthodox articles of faith, such as the belief in personal immortality and in the creation of the world. He also contended that religion is merely philosophy in a metaphorical form that makes it palatable to the masses, who are unable to grasp philosophical truths in rational formulations. These views led to attacks on Avicenna and on philosophy in general by more orthodox Islamic thinkers, notably the theologian al-Ghazali, whose book Destruction of the Philosophers had much to do with the eventual decline of rationalist philosophical speculation in the Islamic community. Averros, the 12th-century Spanish-Arab philosopher and physician, defended Aristotelian and Neoplatonic views against alGhazali and became the most significant Islamic philosopher in Western intellectual history through his influence on the Scholastics. Sufism The mystical movement called Sufism originated in the 8th century, when small circles of pious Muslims, reacting against the growing worldliness of the Islamic community, began to emphasize the inner life of the spirit and moral purification. During the 9th century Sufism developed into a mystical doctrine, with direct communion or even ecstatic union with God as its ideal. This aspiration to mystical union with God violated the orthodox Islamic commitment to monotheism, and in 922 al-Hallaj, who was accused of having asserted his identity with God, was executed in Baghdad. Prominent Sufis subsequently attempted to achieve a synthesis between moderate Sufism and orthodoxy, and in the 11th century al-Ghazali largely succeeded in bringing Sufism within the orthodox framework.

In the 12th century Sufism ceased to be the pursuit of an educated elite and developed into a complex popular movement. The Sufi emphasis on intuitive knowledge and the love of God increased the appeal of Islam to the masses and largely made possible its extension beyond the Middle East into Africa and East Asia. Sufi brotherhoods multiplied rapidly from the Atlantic to Indonesia; some spanned the entire Islamic world; others were regional or local. The tremendous success of these fraternities was due primarily to the abilities and humanitarianism of their founders and leaders, who not only ministered to the spiritual needs of their followers but also helped the poor of all faiths and frequently served as intermediaries between the people and the government. The Shiites The Shiites are the only surviving major sectarian movement in Islam. They emerged out of a dispute over political succession to Muhammad, the Shiites claiming that rule over the community is a divine right of the Prophet's descendants through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali. The Shiites

believe in a series of 12 infallible leaders beginning with Iman Ali and are thus also known as the Twelvers. The 12th and last imam disappeared in 880, and Shiites await his return, at which time the world will be filled with justice. Until that time even the best ruler is only half legitimate. The Shiites, in contrast to the orthodox Sunnites, emphasize esoteric knowledge rather than the consensus of the community. Other Sects Several small sects have developed out of Shia Islam, the most important of which is the Ismailis. The theological ideas of the Ismailis are more radical than those of the Shiites and are largely derived from Gnosticism and Neoplatonism. Ismailis are found mainly in India and Pakistan; others have recently emigrated from East Africa to Canada. An offshoot of Ismailism is the Druze sect, which arose after the mysterious disappearance in Cairo of the Ismaili Fatimid caliph al-Hakim. Many Druze believe al-Hakim to have been an incarnation of God.

In 1844 a young Shiite, Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shraz, in Iran, proclaimed himself the Bab (gateway to God) and assumed a messianic role. His followers, called the Babis, were severely persecuted by the Shiite clergy, and he was executed in 1850. Under the leadership of his disciple Mirza Hoseyn Ali Nuri, known as Bahaullah, the Bahais (as the group came to be called) developed a universalist pacifist doctrine, declared Bahai to be a religion independent of Islam, and won many converts in the United States. Islam in the Modern World The stagnation of Islamic culture after the medieval period led to a reemphasis on original thinking (ijtihad) and to religious reform movements. Unlike the primarily doctrinal and philosophical movements of the Middle Ages, the modern movements were chiefly concerned with social and moral reform. The first such movement was the Wahhabi, named after its founder, Ibn Abd al-Wahhabi, which emerged in Arabia in the 18th century and became a vast revivalist movement with offshoots throughout the Muslim world (see Wahhabis). The Wahhabi movement aimed at reviving Islam by purifying it of un-Islamic influences, particularly those that had compromised its original monotheism, and by stressing the responsibility of Muslims to think independently rather than blindly accepting tradition.

Other Islamic reformers have been influenced by Western ideas. The most influential reformist of the 19th century was the Egyptian Muhammad Abduh, who believed that reason and modern Western thought would confirm the truth of Islam rather than undermine it, and that Islamic doctrine could be reformulated in modern terms. Sir Muhammad Iqbal is the most important modern philosopher to have attempted the reinterpretation of Islamic doctrines. Other intellectuals in Egypt, Turkey, and India attempted to reconcile with the teachings of the Koran such ideas as those raised by constitutional democracy, science, and the emancipation of women. The Koran teaches the principle of rule by consultation, which in modern times, they argued, can best be realized by representative government rather than monarchy. They pointed out that the Koran encourages the study and exploitation of nature, but Muslims, after a few centuries of brilliant scientific work, had passed it on to Europe and abandoned

it. They argued that the Koran had given women equal rights, but these had been usurped by men, who had grossly abused polygamy.

Although the modernist ideas were based on plausible interpretations of the Koran, they were bitterly opposed by Islamic fundamentalists, especially after the 1930s. The reaction against modernism has been gathering momentum since that time for several reasons. The fundamentalists do not oppose modern education, science, and technology per se, but they accuse the modernists of being purveyors of Western morality. They believe that the emancipation of women, as conceived by the West, is responsible for the disintegration of the family and for permissive sexual morality. Some fundamentalists are suspicious of democracy because they do not trust the moral sense of the masses. Moreover, modernist leaders and officials in some Muslim countries have failed to improve significantly the condition of the mostly poor and rapidly increasing populations of those countries. Finally, and perhaps most important, the bitter resentment Muslims feel toward Western colonialism has made many of them regard everything Western as evil.

During the modern period Islam has continued to win new converts, especially among black Africans and some black Americans, to whom its fundamental egalitarianism appeals. Islam and Other Religions Convinced of the absolute truth of Islam, Muslims traditionally have not sought dialogue with representatives of other religions, although medieval Islamic scholars wrote fairly objective works about them. Recently, however, Muslims have engaged in dialogues with representatives of Christianity and Judaism, recognized in Islam as the two other religions of the book (based on revelation). Nonetheless, memories of Western colonialism have generated suspicion and impeded ecumenical efforts.

Ramadan, ninth month of the Islamic year, the holy month of fasting ordained by the Koran for all adult Muslims (see Islam). According to the Koran, the fast of Ramadan has been instituted so that believers may cultivate piety; this particular month was designated because it was the month during which Muhammad received the first of the Koran's revelations. The fast during Ramadan begins each day at dawn, when the white thread becomes distinct from the black thread, and ends immediately at sunset. During the fast Muslims are forbidden to eat, drink, or smoke. Before retirement each night, special congregational prayers are offered in which long passages of the Koran are recited. The night between the 26th and 27th days of Ramadan, on which the first revelation occurred, is called the Night of Determination, during which, according to the Koran, God determines the course of the world for the following year. The day after the end of Ramadan is called the Fast-Breaking and is celebrated with special prayers and festivities.

Koran (Arabic Qur'an, from qaraa, to read), also spelled Alcoran, sacred scripture of Islam. The name was applied by Muhammad to each individual portion of the revelations, which, according to Muslim beliefs, he received from Allah, or God, but the name was later used for the book containing all the divine revelations given to Muhammad. Whenever Muhammad told of his revelations, secretaries wrote them down, and his followers memorized them. The collection as it is now was compiled by his followers a few years after his death in 632. An authorized version was produced in the early 650s by a group of Arabic scholars under Uthman ibn Affan. They attempted to destroy all other versions, but some survived and are now accepted.

The Koran is the earliest known work in Arabic prose; it is divided into 114 suras (chapters) of various lengths and contains the Islamic religious, social, civil, commercial, military, and legal codes. The chief doctrines laid down in the Koran are that only one God and one true religion exist; all will undergo a final judgment, with the just being rewarded with eternal bliss and the sinners punished; and when humankind turned from truth, God sent prophets to lead the way back, the greatest of whom were Moses, Jesus Christ, and Muhammad. Punishments and rewards are depicted with vivid imagery and are exemplified by stories, many of which also are found in the Jewish and Christian Scriptures and Apocrypha. Laws, directions, and admonitions to virtue also parallel those of the Jewish writings.

Accepted by Muslims as the miraculous utterance of the Almighty, the Koran is regarded as above criticism and a work not to be proved but itself the standard of merit. The tone of the book is authoritative and dogmatic throughout; the second chapter opens, This is the book in which there is no doubt. Copies of the Koran are treated by Muslims with great reverence; they are never held below the girdle and are not touched without prior purification of the person. Texts from the Koran are characteristic decorations for banners, buildings, weapons, and other objects. Commentaries on the Koran are numerous; the library in Tripoli, Lebanon, reportedly contains 20,000 commentaries.1

Hadith, the record of the Prophet Muhammad's precepts, actions, and life, which constitute his Sunna, or example. It is accepted as a chief source of Islamic belief and practice and is second in authority only to the Koran. The six canonical Sunnite collections of Hadith, which date from the 9th century, and the corresponding Shiite collections of the 10th and 11th centuries delineate the various relationships among individuals and between the individual and God. They include provisions of law, discussions of theological matters, such as methods of fasting and prayer, and codes of personal, social, and commercial conduct.

1"Koran," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All

rights reserved.

Muhammad (prophet) (circa 570-632), founder of Islam, whose prophetic teachings, encompassing political and social as well as religious principles, became the basis of Islamic civilization and have had a vast influence on world history. Muhammad was born in Mecca. He belonged to the clan of Hashim, a poor but respected branch of the prestigious and influential tribe of Quraysh. His father died before he was born, and after his mother's death when he was six, he was brought up by his uncle Abu Talib. Pensive and withdrawn in temperament, he displayed an acute moral sensitivity at an early age, and he was known as al-Amin (the trusted one). Like his fellow tribesmen, he became a trader and made several journeys to Syria, where he may have met and conversed with Christians. He then began to manage the business of a rich widow, Khadija; she was greatly impressed by both his honesty and ability, and she shortly offered him marriage, which he accepted at the age of 25. First Revelation Muhammad probably heard Christians and Jews expound their religious views at commercial fairs in Mecca, and, troubled by the questions they raised, he periodically withdrew to a cave outside Mecca to meditate and pray for guidance. During one of these retreats he experienced a vision of the archangel Gabriel, who proclaimed him a prophet of God. He was greatly perplexed by the experience but was reassured by his wife, and, as new revelations followed, he came to accept his prophetic mission. His wife and his cousin Ali became his first followers, and eventually he began to preach in public, reciting the verses of his revelation, which came to be known as the Koran. He gained some prominent converts, but the movement grew slowly. Teachings Muhammad's earliest teachings emphasized his belief in one transcendent but personal God, the Last Judgment, and social and economic justice. God, he asserted, had sent prophets to other nations throughout history, but, having failed to reform, those nations had been destroyed. Muhammad proclaimed his own message, the Koran, to be the last revealed Book and himself to be the last of the prophets, consummating and superseding the earlier ones. Opposition Insisting on the necessity of social reform, Muhammad advocated improving the lot of slaves, orphans, women, and the poor and replacing tribal loyalties with the fellowship of Islamic faith. This egalitarian and reformist tendency quickly aroused the enmity of the rich merchants who dominated Mecca. They persecuted some of Muhammad's weaker followers, and in 615 he ordered 83 families to take refuge in Ethiopia. When both his beloved wife Khadija and his uncle and protector Abu Talib died in 619, he despaired of his position in Mecca. After an unsuccessful effort to convert the nearby town of At Taif, he was approached by a delegation from Yathrib (later Medina), a city about 300 km (about 186 mi) to the north that was divided by tribal feuds. They asked him to arbitrate the feuds, offering him considerable authority. After careful negotiations, Muhammad accepted and asked his followers to emigrate from Mecca to Medina. The Hegira Muhammad escaped Mecca just as his enemies were preparing to murder him, and he arrived in Medina eight days later. His flight became known as the Hegira (Arabic hijra, emigration) and marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

Muhammad was soon given supreme authority in Medina, and he began to establish the ritual practices of Islam and to carry out social reforms. He promulgated a charter that specified the rights and relationships of the Muslims, Jews, and other groups of the city. The Meccans, meanwhile, persisted in their hostility, demanding the extradition of Muhammad and his Meccan followers. They were supported in Medina by a group, referred to in the Koran as the Hypocrites, who had submitted to Islam but were secretly working against it. This group in turn was aided by the three Jewish tribes that were residing in Medina. War with Mecca Muhammad's strategy in the developing conflict with Mecca was to attack Meccan trade caravans returning from Syria and thus economically weaken the city. In 624, the first major battle occurred, in which the Muslims, despite their inferiority in numbers and weapons, soundly defeated the Meccans. In the next major battle, the following year, the Meccans had the advantage but were unable to achieve a decisive victory. A Meccan army of 10,000 besieged Medina in 627 but failed to take the city. Muhammad meanwhile eliminated his enemies within Medina. After each of the first two battles he expelled a Jewish tribe, and after the third major battle he had the males of the remaining tribe massacred for collaborating with his opponents. Victory In 630, the Meccans, unable to conquer Medina and crippled by the severing of their trade routes, finally submitted peacefully to Muhammad, who treated the city generously, declaring a general amnesty. Tribal delegations arrived from throughout Arabia, and their tribes were soon converted to Islam. Muhammad, now the most powerful leader in Arabia, enforced the principles of Islam and established the foundation of the Islamic empire. He ordered the destruction of the idols in the Kaaba, the traditional place of pilgrimage in Mecca, which then became the holiest shrine of Islam. He granted Jews and Christians religious autonomy as peoples of the Book, whose revelations anticipated his own. On his last visit to Mecca, at the time of the annual pilgrimage, he gave a sermon in which he summarized his reforms, declared the brotherhood of Muslims, and repudiated all distinctions of class, color, and race. He died suddenly and unexpectedly in Medina about a year later, on June 8, 632. Descendants As long as Khadija lived, Muhammad took no other wives. After her death in 619, when he was 50, he eventually married nine women, including Aisha, the daughter of his kinsman and early follower Abu Bakr, who was to become the first caliph, or successor to Muhammad. He also took a Christian Coptic slave as a concubine. Muhammad's sons all died in infancy, and the only daughter to survive him was Fatima, who married Ali, the fourth caliph. Role in Islam After Muhammad's death, his followers began to embellish the story of his life with mythology, probably derived in part from accounts of the founders of other religions. The story of Muhammad's ascension to heaven from Jerusalem, for instance, seems to have been modeled on the ascension of Jesus. Muhammad's heart, his early followers asserted, was miraculously cleansed of all unworthy thoughts when he was a boy of 12, and he was declared, as were the other prophets, immune from error and able to intercede on the behalf of sinners. Although the Koran explicitly denies that Muhammad performed any miracles, his followers soon credited him with many miraculous feats. Muslims, however, have always attributed their religion to God alone and repudiate any suggestion of the prophet's divinity.

Muhammad's remarkable abilities and personality are demonstrated by the establishment and rapid expansion of Islam, which had to overcome the traditional idolatry and tribal jealousies of the Arabs and the opposition of their most powerful leaders. Kaaba, the central shrine of Islam, a cube-shaped, one-room stone structure in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It already attracted pilgrimages as the most important sanctuary (haram) in pre-Muslim Arabia, and the traditional belief that it was built by Abraham and Ishmael (to whom the Arabs trace their descent) was confirmed by the Koran. The annual pilgrimage to the Kaaba takes place in the first ten days of Dhu alHijja, the last lunar month of the Islamic calendar. The Black Stone set on the outside of one corner of the structure is solemnly kissed by all pilgrims who can gain access to it. Lesser pilgrimages are performed throughout the year. For Muslims, the Kaaba is the House of God, where the divine touches the mundane. It is washed annually and covered with a dark silk cloth. The Kaaba has been greatly expanded since Muhammad's times, a mosque-court having been built around it; recently a gate of solid gold was added.2

Imam (Arabic, leader or exemplar), in general usage in Islam, the political head of the Muslim community or the person who leads prayer services. The Prophet Muhammad and his early successors including those of the Umayyad caliphateperformed both functions; the head of state himself led Friday prayers in the central capital mosque, and his governors did the same in provincial capitals. Later, however, administrative and political functions were separated from religious ones. In Shiite Islam, the term imam is applied to the person who is both the political and religious leader. He must be descended from Ali and Fatima (the son-in-law and daughter of the Prophet Muhammad). No imam, however, except Ali, ever ruled, and beginning with the sixth imam, Jafar al-Sadiq, all eschewed political power. The imam is regarded by the main body of Shiites as immune from error and sin and by the Ismailis as a veritable incarnation of God. Both sects believe the last imam to be in concealment and await his return.

Ismailis, sect of Shiite Muslims, most important from the 10th to the 12th century. The Ismailis emerged from a dispute in 765 over the succession of Jafar al-Sadiq, whom Shiites acknowledged as the sixth imam, or spiritual successor to Muhammad. The Ismailis recognized Ismail, the eldest son of Jafar, as his legitimate successor. On Ismail's death they acknowledged his son Muhammad as the seventh and last imam, whose return on Judgment Day they await. The Ismailis are also known as Seveners, because they accept only 7 imams, rather than the 12 who are recognized by other Shiites. Although Ismailis subscribe to basic orthodox Islamic doctrines, they also maintain esoteric teachings and corresponding interpretations of the Koran. Developed in the 9th and 10th centuries under the influence of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, these posit the creation of the universe by a process of emanation from God. In the late 9th century an Ismaili state was organized on communistic principles in Iraq by Hamdan Qarmat; his followers became known as Qarmatians. His state soon disintegrated, but some of his 2

followers combined with other Ismaili groups to form the Fatimid dynasty of North Africa in the 10th century (see Caliphate). The Fatimids conquered Egypt in 969 and developed a strong and culturally brilliant state that flourished until the 12th century. During the reign of the Fatimid dynasty the Ismailis gradually lost their original revolutionary fervor. A splinter group of Ismailis, known to Westerners as Assassins, established a stronghold in the mountains of northern Iran in the 12th century and carried out terrorist acts of assassination against important religious and political leaders of Sunni Islam.

The two main branches of Ismailis today are the Bohras, with headquarters in Bombay, India, and the Khojas, concentrated in Gujarat State, India. Another subsect, headed by the Aga Khan, has followers in Pakistan, India, Iran, Yemen, and East Africa.

Caliphate, office and realm of the caliph as supreme leader of the Muslim community and successor of the Prophet Muhammad. Under Muhammad the Muslim state was a theocracy, with the Sharia, the religious and moral principles of Islam, as the law of the land. The caliphs, Muhammad's successors, were both secular and religious leaders. They were not empowered, however, to promulgate dogma, because it was considered that the revelation of the faith had been completed by Muhammad. The Sunnites (followers of the Sunna, the body of Islamic custom or the Way of the Prophet), who constitute a majority of Muslims, generally consider the period of the first four caliphs the golden age of Islam. Other sects, however, as they were formed, came to regard this period and subsequent caliphates differently, and as a result great hostility has frequently arisen between the Sunnites and other Muslims, such as the Shiites, concerning the caliphate. During the course of Islamic history the issue of the caliphate probably has created more dissension than any other article of faith. Based on the examples of the first four rightly guided caliphs and companions of the Prophet, the Sunnites formulated the following requirements of the caliphate: the caliph should be an Arab of the Prophet Muhammad's tribe, the Quraysh; he should be elected to his office and approved by a council of elders representing the Muslim community; and he should be responsible for enforcing divine law and spreading Islam by whatever means necessary, including war. In the history of the caliphate, however, all these requirements were rarely met. The Shiites, in contrast, believing that the Prophet himself had designated his son-in-law, Ali, as both his temporal and spiritual successor, accepted only Ali's descendants (by Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) as legitimate claimants to the caliphate. The Immediate Successors Muhammad died in 632, leaving no instructions for the future government of the Muslim community. A group of Islamic leaders met in Medina (now in Saudi Arabia), the capital of the Muslim world at that time, and elected Abu Bakr, the Prophet's father-in-law and closest associate, to lead the community. Abu Bakr took for himself the title khalifat Rasul Allah (Arabic, successor to the Messenger of God), from which the term caliph (Arabic, khalifah, successor) is derived. Umar I became the second caliph in 634. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr had designated Umar as his successor, and all the important members of the Muslim community immediately accepted Umar's succession. Under his leadership, the first great expansion of Islam outside of Arabia took place. Egypt,

Syria, Iraq, and the northern part of Mesopotamia became Islamic territories, and the armies of the Persian Empire were routed several times. Umar added the title amir-al-mum-inin (Arabic, commander of the believers) to that of caliph. After Umar's death in 644, Uthman ibn Affan, Muhammad's son-in-law and one of his first converts, was appointed the third caliph by a panel of six Meccan electors. Although an elderly man, he carried on Umar's policy of territorial expansion. Eventually, however, Uthman earned the enmity of many of his subjects, who felt he favored the Meccan aristocracy in political and commercial affairs. Uthman also antagonized the Islamic preachers by issuing an official text of the Koran, with an accompanying order to destroy all other versions. Rebellious Muslim troops from Al Kufah (Iraq) and Egypt besieged Uthman in Medina and assassinated him in 656. Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was acknowledged as the fourth caliph by the Medinians and the rebellious Muslim troops. The governor of Syria, Muawiyah, later Muawiyah I the first Umayyad caliph, refused to recognize Ali as caliph and called for vengeance for the death of Uthman (who was Muawiyah's kinsman). In 657 the rival parties met at Siffin, on a plain in northern Syria, near the site of the modern city of Ar Raqqah. There, after an inconclusive battle, they agreed to arbitrate the dispute. Ali found himself being considered as a mere candidate for the caliphate on equal grounds with Muawiyah. Angered by this indignity, and with Ali for submitting to it, a group of his followers, later known as the Kharijites, deserted and vowed to assassinate both Ali and Muawiyah. They succeeded in killing only Ali. Ali's son, Hasan, then claimed (661) the still disputed caliphate but abdicated within a few months under pressure from Muawiyah's supporters, who greatly outnumbered Ali's followers, the Shiites. The Umayyad Caliphs (661-750) The Umayyad caliphs were descendants of aristocratic caravan merchants, the Umayya, to which Muawiyah, the first Umayyad caliph, belonged. During his reign, Muawiyah stabilized the Muslim community after Ali's assassination. He moved the capital of Islam from Medina to Damascus, bringing the Muslim rulers into contact with the more advanced cultural and administrative traditions of the Byzantine Empire. Muawiyah also dispensed with the practice of electing the caliph by designating his son Yazid as heir apparent. The principle of election was acknowledged formally, however, by having the council of elders pledge to support the designated heir. The practice of hereditary succession continued throughout the Umayyad dynasty and in subsequent dynasties as well. Many Muslims, however, later disapproved of it as a deviation from the essential nature of Islam. Yazid I (reigned 680-83) succeeded his father but was faced immediately with two rebellions, each supporting a rival claimant to the caliphate. The Kufan Shiites recognized Ali's second son (and the Prophet's grandson), Husayn, as caliph. Thus encouraged, Husayn left Medina for Al Kufah, despite warnings that Yazid's troops had quelled the Kufic uprising. On the plain of Karbala, in Iraq, he and his small escort were intercepted and slaughtered. This event, more than any other, marks the true beginning of the Shiite schism. A second rebellion by Meccans was finally quelled during the caliphate (685-705) of Abd al-Malik, Yazid's third successor. Shiite, Kharijite, and other groups of Muslims and non-Arabic converts (Arabic mawali) frequently revolted against the Umayyads. The mawali accused the Umayyads of religious laxity and of indifference to their demands for full brotherhood in the Muslim community. Umayyad caliphs, nevertheless, vastly enlarged the Muslim empire and created a bureaucracy capable of administering it. Under the Umayyads, Muslim armies swept eastward to the borders of India and China, westward

across North Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, then northward through Spain and over the Pyrenees Mountains into France, where the Frankish infantry under the Carolingian ruler Charles Martel checked them near Poitiers in 732. The Abbasid Caliphs (750-1258) The Umayyads were overthrown by a combination of Shiite, Iranian, and other Muslim and non-Muslim groups dissatisfied with the Umayyad regime. The rebels were led by the Abbasid family, descendants of the Prophet's uncle Abbas. From about 718 the Abbasids had plotted to take the caliphate, sending agents into various parts of the Muslim empire to spread propaganda against the Umayyads. By 747 they had secured enough support to organize a rebellion in northern Iran that led to the defeat of the Umayyad caliphate three years later. The Abbasids executed most of the Umayyad family, moved the capital of the empire to Baghdad, and assimilated much of the pomp and ceremony of the former Persian monarchy into their own courts. Beginning in 750 with Abu al-Abbas, the Abbasid caliphate lasted five centuries; it is the most durable and most famous Islamic dynasty. The Abbasids became patrons of learning and encouraged religious observance. They were the first Muslim rulers to become leaders of an Islamic civilization and protectors of the religion rather than merely an Arab aristocracy imposing an Arab civilization on conquered lands. Under their caliphate Baghdad replaced Medina as the center of theological activity, industry and commerce developed greatly, and the Islamic empire reached a peak of material and intellectual achievement. The 8th- and 9th-century caliphs Harun ar-Rashid and his son Abdullah al-Mamun are especially renowned for their encouragement of intellectual pursuits and for the splendor of their courts. During their reigns scholars were invited to the court to debate various topics, and translations were made from Greek, Persian, and Syriac works. Embassies also were exchanged with Charlemagne, emperor of the West. In the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphs increasingly began to delegate administrative responsibility to ministers of state and other government officials and to lose control over their Baghdad guards. As they gradually gave up personal political power, the caliphs placed more and more emphasis on their role as protectors of the faith. One result of this change in emphasis was the increased persecution of heretics and non-Muslims. About the same time, several successful revolts in the eastern provinces led to the establishment of independent principalities, and independent caliphates were subsequently established in North Africa and in Spain. Eventually, the power of the Abbasids barely extended outside Baghdad, and by the middle of the 10th century, the Abbasid caliphs had virtually no power, serving merely as figureheads at the mercy of the military commanders. The final defeat of the Abbasid dynasty came from outside the Muslim world, when al-Mustasim was put to death by the invading Mongols at the order of Hulagu, the grandson of Genghis Khan. The Abbasids in Cairo (1261-1517) When the Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258, two members of the Abbasid family escaped to Egypt, where they took refuge with Baybars I, the Mameluke sultan. Each was named caliph, successively, by the sultan; but they were allowed to assume only religious duties, and the descendants of the second caliph remained politically powerless under the Mameluke sultans. The Fatimid Dynasty and the Umayyads of Spain

During the decline of Abbasid power, two rival caliphates were established, one in North Africa and another in Spain. The first, ruled by the Fatimid dynasty, was founded by Ubayd Allah, who proclaimed himself caliph in Tunisia in 909. The Fatimids were Shiites, claiming descent from Fatima (thus the name Fatimid), Muhammad's daughter, and her husband Ali, the fourth caliph. At the height of its power, in the latter half of the 10th century, the Fatimid caliphate constituted a serious threat to the Abbasids in Baghdad. The Fatimids ruled most of northern Africa from Egypt to present-day Algeria, as well as Sicily and Syria. In addition the Fatimids claimed the allegiance of other Shiites, both within and outside their domain. They sent missionaries from their capital in Cairo to the rest of the Muslim world, proclaiming the Fatimid caliphs to be infallible and sinless and the bearers of divine illumination handed down directly from Ali. Their dynasty was overthrown in 1171 by Saladin, sultan of Egypt. The second rival caliphate was established by Abd-ar-Rahman III, who proclaimed himself caliph in Spain in 929. He was the descendant of an Umayyad prince who fled the Abbasid massacre of his family and settled (755) in Spain. The Umayyad dynasty of Spain, responsible for a brilliant period in Spanish history, ruled from its capital in Crdoba until 1031, when the caliphate broke up into numerous petty states. The Ottomans and the Modern Period From about the 13th century various monarchs throughout the Muslim world, particularly the Ottoman sultans, assumed the title caliph indiscriminately without regard to the prescribed requirements of the caliphate. The title held little significance for the Ottoman sultans until their empire began to decline. In the 19th century, with the advent of Christian powers in the Near East, the sultan began to emphasize his role as caliph in an effort to gain the support of Muslims living outside his realm. The Ottoman Empire collapsed during World War I (1914-1918). After the war, Turkish nationalists deposed the sultan, and the caliphate was finally abolished (March 1924) by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. The abolition of the caliphate brought consternation to many sections of the Muslim world, and protests were directed against the action of the Turkish government. Subsequently, King Husein ibn Ali of Al Hijaz (the Hejaz, now part of Saudi Arabia), laid claim to the title by virtue of his direct descent from the Prophet and his control of the two holy cities, Mecca and Medina. His claim, however, received little attention outside of Palestine, Syria, and parts of Arabia. The conquest (1925) of Al Hijaz by Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, ruler of Najd, Arabia, made Husein's claim even less significant. An international Muslim congress held in Cairo in 1926 to choose an acceptable successor to the caliphate proved abortive, resulting only in an appeal to the Muslims of the world to work together to reestablish a caliphate. Ever since World War II, however, the preoccupation of Muslim nations has been with national independence and economic problems, and the restoration of the caliphate may now be regarded as irrelevant.3

Shiites (Arabic, partisans), the only surviving major sectarian movement in Islam. Origins

3"Caliphate," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996 Microsoft

Corporation. All rights reserved.

The Shiites emerged out of a dispute over the succession to Muhammad (see Caliphate). After the assassination of the fourth caliph, Ali, in 661, the Shiites (partisans of Ali) were those Muslims claiming that it had been Ali's right to succeed Muhammad directly and that the previous caliphs had therefore been usurpers. They maintained that only the descendants of Ali and his wife, Fatima, Muhammad's daughter, were entitled to rule the Muslim community. This doctrine, known as legitimism, was rejected by the majority of the Muslim community, who came to be known as Sunnites. Distinctive Beliefs and Practices The Shiites developed a doctrine of the infallibility, sinlessness, and divine right to authority of the descendants of Ali, whom they called imams (see Imam). The main body of Shiites recognize 12 imams and are called the Twelvers; the Ismailis recognize 7 and are called the Seveners. The last imam disappeared in 880, and Shiites to this day await his return, when they believe that justice will be established on earth. The imam, as the Shiites conceive him, is a repository of wisdom, absolute in his political and religious authority. Under the theoretical aegis of the 12th imam, Shiite religious leaders exercise immense influence. They are more likely to take an innovative approach to religious issues and to defy political authority than Sunnites. During the early centuries of Islam, the Shiites, politically defeated and persecuted, became an underground movement and adopted the principles of taqwa (which in this case means dissimulation of faith) and of an esoteric interpretation of the Koran. Thus, Shiites believe that beneath the explicit and literal meaning of the Koran are other levels of meaning, which are known only to the imam, who can reveal them to chosen followers. These principles, useful to the movement when it was politically powerless, are still accepted by Shiites. They also affirm the validity of a form of temporary marriage called muta. Shiites pay the tax called zakat (originally levied by Muhammad to help the poor and later levied by Muslim states) to their religious leaders rather than to state authorities, as they did before achieving political power (for instance, in Iran in the 15th century). As a result, many Shiite leaders in Iran and Iraq have immense wealth and property. Development and Extent During the 10th and 11th centuries, Shia Islam had a large following throughout the Middle East, but the spread of the popular mystical movement known as Sufism seems to have greatly diminished its strength. Today Shiites are in the majority in Iran, and large numbers are found in Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, India, Pakistan, and parts of Central Asia. Their total number exceeds 165 million. In recent years several Shiite leaders, including the Iranian political leader the Ayatollah Khomeini, advocated rapprochement and solidarity with Sunnite Islam. Contributed by: Fazlur Rahman4

4"Shiites," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All

rights reserved.

Sunnites, those Muslims constituting the vast majority in the world Islamic community (see Islam). The term sunna, by which the Sunnites refer to themselves (people of the sunna), probably means middle of the road (as opposed to the peripheral ways taken by sectarians). It does not mean the Sunna (example) of the Prophet Muhammad, as is generally believed, for all Islamic groups and sects accept the Sunna, along with the Koran, as binding. The doctrines of the Sunnites were formed toward the end of the 9th century, and their theology was developed as a complete system during the 10th century. Both developments occurred, in large measure, as reactions to early schismatic movements, such as the Kharijites, Mutazilites, and Shiites. The Sunnites' inclusive definition of a Muslim, for instance, was conceived in reaction to the narrow extremism of the Kharijites. Their strong emphasis on God's power, will, and determination of human fate developed in reaction to the Mutazilite insistence on the absolute freedom of the human will. Their political doctrines emerged in the struggle against the legitimism espoused by the Shiites in the dispute over the succession to Muhammad (see Caliphate). Various nuances of interpretation and different schools have developed within Sunnite theology, the Sunnite tendency having been to accommodate minor differences of opinion and to affirm the consensus of the community in doctrinal matters. Four schools of law also developed in the Sunnite tradition: the Shafi'i, the Hanafi, the Maliki, and the Hanbali.

Contributed by: Fazlur Rahman5

Wahhabis, in Islam, members of a puritanical reform movement begun by the conservative Syrian jurist Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-92). Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was faithful to the Koran, the supreme body of Islamic law, and to the Hadith (or Sunna), a second body of Islamic law comprising the actions and utterances attributed to the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam. He rejected, however, all innovations and also the principle of consensus (Ijma) of the Muslim community on any text of Islamic writ and on customs compatible with the Koran or Hadith. The ascetic life and stern preaching of ibn Abd al-Wahhab extended the influence of the Wahhabis, who rejected all luxury, dancing, gambling, music, and the use of tobacco. Wahhabism spread rapidly as a nationalist religious movement, gaining ascendancy throughout Arabia. Wahhabi warriors successfully attacked and purged the Islamic shrine at Karbala and the cities of Riyadh, Mecca, and Medina in the early years of the 19th century before they were defeated by the armies of the Turkish sultan Mahmud II, after a campaign ending in 1818. The number of Wahhabis today probably exceeds 8 million, but they are confined almost entirely to the Arabian Peninsula, in Saudi Arabia.6

5"Sunnites," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All

rights reserved.

6"Wahhabis," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996 Microsoft

Corporation. All rights reserved.