TERM PAPER OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS ON CHANNEL ENCODING

SUBMITTED BY: Amit Kumar Roll no- ROE174A201

REG. NO. :-109

SUBMITTED TO: Mr. Mritunjay Kumar

SECTION: OE174

Lovely Professional University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to present my votes of thanks to all those guidepost who really acted as lightening pillars to enlighten our way throughout this project that has led to successful and satisfactory completion of this study. We are really grateful to our Mr.Mritunjay Kumar for providing us with an opportunity to undertake this project in this university and providing us with all the facilities. We are highly thankful to Mr. Ambrish gangal for her active support, valuable time and advice, whole-hearted guidance, sincere cooperation and pains-taking involvement during the study and in completing the assignment of preparing the said project within the time stipulated. Lastly, We are thankful to all those, particularly the various friends , who have been instrumental in creating proper, healthy and conductive environment and including new and fresh innovative ideas for us during the project, their help, it would have been extremely difficult for us to prepare the project in a time bound framework.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 2. CHANNEL ENCODING 3. HOW IT WORKS 4. TYPES OF CHANNELS 5. MAIN TYPES OF CHANNEL ENCODING 6. TRANSMISSION OVER A CHANNEL 7. ERROR RECOGNITION AND CORRECTION 8. CHANNEL ENCODING FOR DIGITAL COMMUNICATION 9. CHANNEL ENCODING FOR TELECOMMUNICATION 10.CHANNEL ENCODING AS NOISE 11.APPLICATIONS 12.REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
Channel Encoding is a system of error control for data transmission, whereby the sender adds redundant data to its messages, also known as an Error Correction Code or Forward Error Correction (FEC).The main purpose of a channel encoder is to produce a sequence of data that is robust to noise and to provide error detection and forward error correction mechanisms.In simple and cheap transceivers, forward error correction is costly and, therefore, the task of channel encoding is limited to the detection of errors in packet transmission.The physical channel sets limits to the magnitude and the rate of signal transmission. According to the ShannonHartley theorem, the capacity of a channel to transmit a message without an error is given as:

eq.1.1. Where C is the channel capacity in bits per second; B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz; S is the average signal power over the entire bandwidth, measured in watts; and N is The average noise power over the entire bandwidth, measured in watts. States that for data to be transmitted free of errors, its transmission rate should be below the channels capacity. It also indicates how the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio, can improve the channels capacity. The equation reveals two independent reasons why errors can be introduced during transmission.

2. CHANNEL ENCODING
The channel encoder is to produce a sequence of data that is robust to noise and to provide error detection and forward error correction mechanisms. In simple and cheap transceivers, forward error correction is costly and, therefore, the task of channel encoding is limited to the detection of errors in packet transmission. Information will be lost if the message is transmitted at a rate higher than the

channels capacity. This type of error is called equivocation in information theory. It is characterized
Information will be lost because of noise, which adds irrelevant information into the signal. A stochastic model of the channel helps to quantify the impact of these two sources of errors. Suppose an input sequence of data xl that can have j distinct values, xl X = (x1, x2, xj), is transmitted through a physical channel. Let P(xl) denote P(X = xl). The channels output can be decoded with a k-valued alphabet to produce ym Y = (y1, y2, yk). Let P (ym) denote P(Y = ym). At time ti , the channel generates an output symbol yi for an input symbol xi . Assuming that the channel distorts the transmitted data, it is possible to model distortion (or transmission probability) as a stochastic process. eq.1.2. Where, l = 1, 2, j and m = 1, 2, k. In the subsequent analysis of the stochastic characteristic of the channel, the following assumptions hold:

The channel is discrete, namely, X and Y have finite sets of symbols. The channel is stationary, namely, P(ym|xl) are independent of the time instance, i. The channel is memory less, namely, P(ym|xl) are independent of previous inputs and outputs. One way of describing transmission distortion is by using channel matrix, Pc

eq.1.3. Where

eq.1.4. Moreover:

eq.1.5. Or, more generally: eq.1.6. Where both are row matrices.

3. HOW IT WORKS
Channel Encoding is accomplished by adding redundancy to the transmitted information using a predetermined algorithm.

4. TYPES OF CHANNELS 4.1 BINARY SYMMETRIC CHANNEL

A binary symmetric channel (BSC) is a channel model through which bits of information (0 and 1) can be transmitted. The channel transmits a bit of information correctly (regardless of whether 0 or 1 is transmitted) with a probability p and incorrectly (by flipping 1 to 0 and 0 to 1) with a probability 1 p. The conditional probabilities for correct and incorrect transmissions are given as:

eq. 1.7. eq.1.8.

The channel matrix of a binary symmetric channel is, therefore given as:

eq.1.9.

Fig.1.1 A binary symmetric channel modal.

Fig.1.2 a stochastic modal of a binary erasure channel.

4.2 BINARY ERASURE CHANNEL

In a binary erasure channel (BEC), there is no guarantee that the transmitted bit of information can be received at all (correctly or otherwise).Therefore the channel is characterized as a binary input and a ternary output channel. The probability of erasure is p and the probability that the information is correctly received is 1 p. In an erasure channel the probability of error is zero. The channel matrix for a binary erasure channel is given as:

eq.1.10. States that a bit of information is either transmitted successfully with P (1|1) = P (0|0) = 1 p or is erased altogether by the channel with a probability of p. The probability that 0 is received by transmitting 1 or vice versa is 0.

5. MAIN TYPES OF CHANNEL ENCODING 5.1. BLOCK CODES

A block code is a code which encodes strings formed from an alphabet set S into code words by encoding each letter of S separately. Let (k1,k2.km) be a sequence of natural numbers each less than | S |. If S= s1,s2.sn and a particular word W is written as W=sk1,sk2.skm, then the code word corresponding to W,

namely C(W), is C(W)=C(SK1)C(SK2)C(SKM) The trade-off between efficiency and correction capabilities can also be seen from the attempt to, given a fixed codeword length and a fixed correction capability (represented by the Hamming distance d) maximize the total amount of codewords. A[n,d] is the maximum number of codewords for a given codeword length n and Hamming distance d.

INFORMATION RATE
Amount of Transported Information in bits per sec. When C is a binary block code, consisting of A codewords of length n bits, then the information rate of C is defined as (log2 A)/N When if the first k bits of a codeword are independent information bits, then the information rate is log22k/n = k/n

5.2 CONVOLUTIONL CODES

The figure next is a rate 1/3 (m/n) encoder with constraint length (k) of 3. Generator polynomials are G1 = (1,1,1), G2 = (0,1,1), and G3 = (1,0,1). Therefore, output bits are calculated (modulo 2) as follows:
n1 = m1 + m0 + m-1 n2 = m0 + m-1 n3 = m1 + m-1.

The encoder on the picture before is a non-recursive encoder. Here's an example of a recursive one:

5.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN BLOCK AND CONVOLUTIONL CODES Block codes work on fixed-size blocks (packets) of bits or symbols of predetermined size. Convolutional codes work on bit or symbol streams of arbitrary length. A convolutional code can be turned into a block code, if desired.

6. TRANSMISSION OVER A CHANNEL

Given the input message, X: (X, Px, H(X)), the channel matrix, [PC] and the output message, Y : (Y, Py ,H(Y )), it is possible to describe the impact of irrelevance and equivocation as well as the percentage of information that can be transmitted over the channel without an error, which is also called transinformation or mutual information.

6.1. IRRELEVANCE
The content of information that can be introduced into the channel due to noise is described as the conditional information content, I (y|x). It is the information content of y that can be observed provided that x is known. The conditional entropy is given as:

eq.1.11 P (y|x) can be known from the channel matrix [PC]. The average conditional entropy over all input message symbols, x X, is given by:

eq.1.12

This is also equal to:

eq.1.13

From Bayers law, it is clear that:

According to a good channel encoder is one that reduces the irrelevance entropy.

6.2 EQUIVOCATION
The content of information that can be lost because of the channels inherent constraints can be quantified by observing the input x given that the output y is known:

Eq.1.14

Once again, applying Bayers conditional probability:

eq.1.15

The conditional probability of Equation (1.15) is also known as the probability of inference or posterior probability. Therefore, equivocation is sometimes called inference entropy. A good channel encoding scheme is one that has a high inference probability. This can be achieved by introducing redundancy during channel encoding. 6.3 TRAN SIN FORMATION
The information content I (X; Y) that overcomes the channels constraints to reach the destination (the receiver) is called transinformation. Given the input entropy, H(X), and equivocation, H(X|Y), the transinformation is computed as: eq.1.16

Fig.1.3 irrelevance, equivocation, and transinforrmation. Expanding Equation (1.16) yields:

eq.1.17

Rearranging the terms in Equation (5.31) also yields:

eq.1.18 Irrelevance, equivocation, and transinformation, are summarized in Figure 1.3.

7. ERROR RECOGNITION AND CORRECTION

Apart from improving the transinformation of a channel, it is also essential to recognize and correct errors during transmission. Error recognition can be achieved by permitting the transmitter to transmit only specific types of words. If a channel decoder recognizes unknown words, it attempts to correct the error or requests for retransmission (known as automatic repeat request, ARQ). In principle, a decoder can correct only number of errors, where m depends on the size of the word. Error correction, or more precisely, forward error correction, can be achieved by sending n bits of information together with r control bits. The problem with forward error correction is that it slows down transmission. 8. CHANNEL ENCODING FOR DIGITAL COMMUNICATION. The information sequence is passed through the channel encoder. The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduced, in controlled manner, some redundancy in the binary information sequence that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and interference encountered in the transmission on the signal through the channel.

Fig.1.3.the flow of simple communication system.

9. CHANNEL ENCODING FOR TELECOMMUNICATION

As described in Source encoding, one purpose of the source encoder is to eliminate redundant binary digits from the digitized signal. The strategy of the channel encoder, on the other hand, is to add redundancy to the transmitted signal in this case so that errors caused by noise during transmission can be corrected at the receiver. The process of encoding for protection against channel errors is called errorcontrol coding. Error-control codes are used in a variety of applications, including satellite communication, deep-space communication, mobile radio communication, and computer networking. There are two commonly employed methods for protecting electronically transmitted information from errors. 9.1. FORWARD ERROR CONTROL (FEC)

In this method information bits are protected against errors by the transmitting of extra redundant bits, so that if errors occur during transmission the redundant bits can be used by the decoder to determine where the errors have occurred and how to correct them.

9.2. AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ).

In this method redundant bits are added to the transmitted information and are used by the receiver to detect errors. The receiver then signals a request for a repeat transmission. Generally, the number of extra bits needed simply to detect an error, as in the ARQ system, is much smaller than the number of redundant bits needed both to detect and to correct an error, as in the FEC system.

10. CHANNEL ENCODING AS NOISE

Introduction redundancy into the channel encoder and using this redundancy at the decoder to reconstitute the input sequences as accurately as possible, i.e., channel coding is designate to minimize the effect of the channel noise.

Fig.1.4 effect of the channel noise.

11. APPLICATIONS Digital mass storage:

Compact Disc(CD),Digital Versatile Disc(DVD),Digital Magnetic Tapes(DAT), hard disc

Digital wireless communications:

GSM, UMTS, LTE, LTE-A, WLAN (Hiperlan, IEEE 802.11), ... Modem transmission (V.90, ...), ISDN, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) MOBILE PHONES SATELLITE LINKS DIGITAL RADIO BLUETOOTH IMPLEMENTATIONS

Digital wired communications: Digital broadcasting: OTHER

12.REFERENCES
http//www.books.google.co.in/books?isbn=0470997656 http://www.eecs.umich.edu/eecs/research/group.html?r_id=5&g_id=24 www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/.../channelencoding