Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 1

1 Introduction
1.1 Denitions
Vibration
A motion that repeats itself after a time interval or oscillation (e.g. pendulum,
plucked guitar string).
Vibrating system
Consists of a mass, spring and possibly a damper.
Mass (or inertia element for rotating systems) is a rigid body that stores kinetic
energy
Spring stores potential energy
Damper dissipates energy
1.2 Spring Elements
A spring element is generally assumed to have no mass and no damping. It will store
potential energy due to stretch (or compression) or twist (for torsional springs).
For a linear spring the spring force is proportional to the change in length of the spring
element:
1 = /r (1)
where, r is the measured deformation of the spring from its undeformed length, and
/ is the spring constant.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 2
The work done deforming a spring from r
1
to r
2
is:
l
12
=
_
x
2
x
1
1 dr =
_
x
2
x
1
/rdr =
/
2
(r
2
2
r
2
1
) (2)
and this work is stored as potential energy.
The spring constant of a helical spring is:
/ =
Gd
4
8:1
3
(3)
wehere G is the shear modulus of the spring material, d is the diameter of the wire,
1 is the mean coil diameter, and : is the number of active turns of the coil.
A rod can act as a spring (or consider an elevator cable when the winding drum
suddenly stops). Consider a rod being stretched by a force 1:
For linear elastic behaviour Hookes Law applies:
o
c
= 1
Since o = 1, and c = r,1, then:
11
r
= 1
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 3
or
1 =
1
1
r = /r
i.e. the linear spring constant for a rod (or cable in tension) is:
/ =
1
1
(4)
1.3 Damping Elements
Damping is the mechanism by which vibrational energy is converted into heat or
sound.
A damping element is assumed to have zero mass and elasticity.
There are three standard models of damping: (1) viscous damping; (2) Coulomb or
dry friction damping; and (3) hysteretic damping.
Viscous Damping:
Fluid dynamic drag is used to dissipate energy (e.g. air drag on a pendulum,
drag as a liquid is forced through an orice (shock absorber)).
Viscous damping is the most common form of damping used in vibrating systems.
The damping force is proportional to the rate of change of length of the damping
element or the relative velocity between the two ends of the damping element.
1 = c _ r (5)
Note: Kinematics of a rigid body is used to give the position, velocity and
acceleration of various components of a suspension system. The distance between
the mounting points of the spring is used to give the spring force. The rate of
change of the distance between the mounting points of the damper is used to
give the damping force. If the spring and damper are coaxial, only one length is
of interest.
Coulomb Damping:
Coulomb damping is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
motion.
Due to the friction between rubbing surfaces (dry or with insucient lubrication).
1 = j
k
(6)
Hysteretic, Solid or Material Damping:
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 4
As a material is deformed, the work done on the material is stored as strain
energy or heat.
Since energy is absorbed, a body subjected to material damping shpows a hys-
teresis loop on a stress-strain diagram.
1.3.1 A Simple Viscous Damper
Consider two parallel plates separated by a distance /. The bottom plate is xed and
the top plate moves to the right at a constant speed . The space between the plates
is occupied by a uid with dynamic viscosity j.
Solution of the Navier-Stokes equation show that the velocity prole is linear, i.e.
Couette ow.
The shear stress in the uid is:
t = j
0n
0j
= j

/
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 5
The drag (i.e. frictional) force exerted by the uid on the bottom plate is:
1 = t[
y=0
=
j
/

where c = j,/ is the damping constant and the damping force behaves linearly wrt
v.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 6
2 Free Vibration of a One Degree of Freedom System
2.1 Undamped Motion of a Single DOF System
Consider a mass, :, resting on a at frictionless surface and connected to a rigid
support by a linear spring, /:
2.1.1 Equation of Motion
We will need an equation governing the motion of the mass as it is moved from its
equilibrium position. Such an equation of motion can be derived from Newtons 2nd
Law using the following steps:
1. Sketch the system and dene a suitable positive co-ordinate direction to dene
the motion of the mass.
2. Determine the static equilibrium position of the system. It is common (and
recommended) to dene the positive co-ordinate from the equilibrium position.
3. Draw a free body diagram (FBD) of the mass, assuming positive displacement,
velocity and acceleration are given to it. Draw the forces acting on the mass.
4. Use Newtons 2nd Law to derive an equation of motion.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 7
+

1
x
= :a
x
: r = /r
or
: r +/r = 0 (7)
Equation (7) is the equation governing the free vibration of the mass.
What about a mass, :, suspended from a rigid support by a linear spring, /?
+ |

1
x
= :a
x
: r = /r + (\ /c
st
)
But, from statics:
\ = /c
st
so the governing equation is:
: r +/r = 0
Note: The same governing equation arises when r is dened from the equilibrium
position (this is the advantage of dening r measured from equilibrium).
2.2 Solution of the Governing Equation
The governing equation for undamped free vibration of a 1 DOF mass-spring system
is an homogeneous ordinary dierential equation (ODE):
: r +/r = 0 (8)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 8
Assume a solution of the form:
r(t) = Cc
st
then:
_ r(t) = C:c
st
r(t) = C:
2
c
st
Substitution of the assumed solution into Eq. (8) gives:
:C:
2
c
st
+/Cc
st
= 0
or
::
2
+/ = 0 (9)
which is called the characteristic equation.
The solution of Eq. (9) is:
: =
_

/
:
_
1=2
= i.
n
(10)
where
.
n
=
_
/
:
_
1=2
(11)
is the natural frequency of the undamped system. It is the frequency of oscillation of
the undamped system.
The two values of : are the roots or eigenvalues of the characteristic equation. Since
both values of : will satisfy the governing equation, the solution for r(t) is written as:
r(t) = C
1
c
i!nt
+C
2
c
i!nt
(12)
where C
1
and C
2
are constants to be determined from initial conditions. It is dicult
to interpret the motion given by Eq. (12), so lets make it look pretty.
Eulers formula states:
c
i!nt
= cos .
n
t i sin.
n
t
Substitution of Eulers formula into Eq. (12) gives:
r(t) = C
1
[cos .
n
t +i sin.
n
t] +C
2
[cos .
n
t i sin.
n
t]
or
r(t) = (C
1
+C
2
) cos .
n
t +i(C
1
C
2
) sin.
n
t
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 9
Since r(t) is a displacement, it must be real, therefore, (C
1
+ C
2
) must be real and
(C
1
C
2
) must be imaginary. For this to be true C
1
and C
2
must be complex
conjugates:
C
1
= a +i/ ; C
2
= a i/
so:
r(t) = 2a cos .
n
t 2/ sin.
n
t
Then the displacement r(t) can be written as:
r(t) =
1
cos .
n
t +
2
sin.
n
t (13)
where
1
and
2
are new constants evaluated from the initial conditions of the system.
Two conditions are required (i.e. the same number as the order of the governing
equation).
Specifying the initial displacement and velocity at t = 0:
r(t = 0) = r
o
_ r(t = 0) = _ r
o
and solving for
1
and
2
:

1
= r
o
_ r(t) =
1
.
n
sin.
n
t +
2
.
n
cos .
n
t
_ r
o
= .
n

2
=
_ r
o
.
n
So the solution to Eq. (8) is:
r(t) = r
o
cos .
n
t +
_ r
o
.
n
sin.
n
t (14)
i.e. harmonic motion. Equation (14) is the motion of any system whose governing
equation can be written in the form of Eq. (8).
Note:
1. If r
o
= 0:
r(t) =
_ r
o
.
n
sin.
n
t
2. If _ r
o
= 0:
r(t) = r
o
cos .
n
t
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 10
Equation (13) can be written in a more convenient form by dening:

1
= cos c (15)

2
= sinc (16)
Square and add Eqs. (15) and (16) to nd :
=
_

2
1
+
2
2
_
1=2
=
_
r
2
o
+
_
_ r
o
.
n
_
2
_
1=2
Divide Eq. (16) by Eq. (15) to nd c:
c = tan
1
_

1
_
= tan
1
_
_ r
o
r
o
.
n
_
Substitution of Eqs. (15) and (16) into Eq. (13) gives:
r(t) = cos ccos .
n
t +sincsin.
n
t
Using the trigonometric identity:
cos(r j) = co: rcos j + sinrsinj
Then
r(t) = cos(.
n
t c) (17)
where the amplitude and phase angle c are:
=
_
r
2
o
+
_
_ r
o
.
n
_
2
_
1=2
(18)
c = tan
1
_
_ r
o
r
o
.
n
_
(19)
This is a very convenient form of the solution for r(t) as it makes the motion quite
obvious. The velocity and acceleration of mass : are:
_ r(t) = .
n
sin(.
n
t c) = .
n
cos(.
n
t c +

2
) (20)
r(t) = .
2
n
cos(.
n
t c) = .
2
n
cos(.
n
t c +) (21)
i.e. _ r(t) leads r(t) by ,2 (or 90
o
) and r(t) leads r(t) by (or 180
o
).
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 11
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 12
The motion r(t) can also be expressed as a sine wave by dening
1
and
2
in Eq.
(13) as:

1
= sinc
o

2
= cos c
o
Then:
=
_

2
1
+
2
2
_
1=2
=
_
r
2
o
+
_
_ r
o
.
n
_
2
_
1=2
c
o
= tan
1
_

2
_
= tan
1
_
r
o
.
n
_ r
o
_
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 13
Substitution of the denitions of
1
and
2
into Eq. (13) gives:
r(t) = sinc
o
cos .
n
t +cos c
o
sin.
n
t
Using the trigonometric identity:
sin(r +j) = :i:rcos j + cos rsinj
Then
r(t) = sin(.
n
t +c
o
) (22)
with the same magnitude as Eq. (17), but a new phase angle, c
o
:
c
o
= tan
1
_
r
o
.
n
_ r
o
_
(23)
2.3 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping
Consider a mass, :, resting on a at frictionless surface and connected to a rigid
support by a linear spring, /, and a viscous damper, c:
We will need an equation governing the motion of the mass as it is moved from its
equilibrium position. Such an equation of motion can be derived using Newtons 2nd
Law.
2.3.1 Equation of Motion
The FBD for a 1 DOF mass-spring-damper system is shown below:
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 14
To derive the equation of motion assume a positive displacement, velocity and accel-
eration of the mass :.
Newtons 2nd Law gives:
+

1
x
= : r = 1
s
1
d
= /r c _ r
where, for a linear spring 1
s
= /r, and a viscous damper 1
d
= c _ r.
The governing equation can be rearranged to give:
: r +c _ r +/r = 0 (24)
This equation governs the motion of all 1 DOF systems in translation with a linear
spring and viscous damper.
2.3.2 Solution of the Governing Equation
The governing equation for viscously damped vibration of a 1 DOF system is an
homogeneous ODE:
: r +c _ r +/r = 0
As for undamped motion, assume a solution of the form:
r(t) = Cc
st
Substitution of the assumed solution into the governing equation, Eq. (24), gives the
following characteristic equation:
:C:
2
c
st
+cC:c
st
+/Cc
st
= 0
or
::
2
+c: +/ = 0 (25)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 15
i.e. a quadratic equation in :. The roots of the characteristic equation are:
:
1;2
=
c
_
c
2
4:/
2:
=
c
2:

_
_
c
2:
_
2

/
:
(26)
So the solution to Eq. (24) is:
r(t) = C
1
c
s
1
t
+C
2
c
s
2
t
or
r(t) = C
1
c

c
2m
+
q
(
c
2m
)
2

k
m

t
+C
2
c

c
2m

q
(
c
2m
)
2

k
m

t
(27)
where, C
1
and C
2
are constants obtained from initial conditions. This form of the
solution is hard to interpret so other forms are used.
Dene:
1. Critical Damping, c
c
, as the damping constant c which makes the radical in Eq.
(26) zero:
_
c
c
2:
_
2

/
:
= 0
or
c
c
= 2:
_
/
:
= 2
_
/: = 2:.
n
(28)
2. Damping ratio, , as the ratio of the damping constant c to the critical damping
constant c
c
:
= c,c
c
(29)
Using Eqs. (28) and (29):
c
2:
=
c
c
c

c
c
2:
= .
n
(30)
Using Eqs. (30) and the denition of .
n
, Eq. (11), the roots :
1
and :
2
, Eq. (26), can
be written in terms of and .
n
:
:
1;2
=
_

_

2
1
_
.
n
(31)
The solution of Eq. (24) can be rewritten in the following form:
r(t) = C
1
c

+
_

2
1

!nt
+C
2
c
(
_

2
1)!nt
(32)
Note: if = 0, the solution reduces to that for undamped free vibration, Eq. (12).
It should be obvious that due to the
2
1 term in the radical dierent types of
solution will arise if < 1, = 1 and 1. These three cases correspond to
underdamped, critically damped, and overdamped cases, respectively. The solutions
for these dierent cases will now be considered separately.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 16
2.3.3 Case 1: Underdamped Motion ( < 1, c < c
c
)
If < 1, then
2
1 < 0, and
_

2
1 = i
_
1
2
, therefore, the roots :
1
and :
2
can
be written as:
:
1;2
=
_
i
_
1
2
_
.
n
= .
n
i.
d
(33)
where .
d
is the damped frequency of oscillation:
.
d
=
_
1
2
.
n
(34)
The solution to Eq. (24) can be written in the following form:
r(t) = C
1
c
(!n+i!
d
)t
+C
2
c
(!ni!
d
)t
or
r(t) = c
!nt
_
C
1
c
i!
d
t
+C
2
c
i!
d
t

(35)
Compare Eq. (35) with Eq. (12) for undamped motion. The solution will be harmonic
with an exponentially decaying amplitude. The frequency of oscillation will be .
d
=
_
1
2
.
n
, i.e. less than .
n
for undamped motion. Due to the similarities of Eqs.
(12) and (35) the same techniques may be used to rewrite Eq. (35) in more easily
interpreted forms.
r(t) = c
!nt
[(C
1
+C
2
) cos .
d
t +i(C
1
C
2
) sin.
d
t]
or
r(t) = c
!nt
_
C
0
1
cos .
d
t +C
0
2
sin.
d
t

Then:
r(t) = Ac
!nt
sin(.
d
t +c
o
) (36)
or
r(t) = Ac
!nt
cos (.
d
t c) (37)
Where the nal two forms of the solution clearly show that the motion is harmonic
with frequency .
d
and exponential decay in the amplitude.
The constants C
0
1
and C
0
2
can be derived from the initial conditions:
r(t = 0) = r
o
_ r(t = 0) = _ r
o
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 17
and solving for C
0
1
and C
0
2
:
C
0
1
= r
o
(38)
_ r(t) = .
n
c
!nt
_
C
0
1
cos .
d
t +C
0
2
sin.
d
t

+c
!nt
_
.
d
C
0
1
sin.
d
t +.
d
C
0
2
cos .
d
t

_ r
o
= .
n
C
0
1
+.
d
C
0
2
C
0
2
=
_ r
o
+.
n
r
o
.
d
(39)
The amplitude A and phase angles c and c
o
are dened as follows:
A =
_
(C
0
1
)
2
+ (C
0
2
)
2
(40)
c
o
= tan
1
(C
0
1
,C
0
2
) (41)
c = tan
1
(C
0
2
,C
0
1
) (42)
The amplitude A is the maximum amplitude that would exist at t = 0, for zero phase
angle.
A typical underdamped system response is shown below.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 18
The motion is harmonic, with exponential decay of amplitude and damped frequency
of oscillation, .
d
, which is always less than .
n
since < 1.
Vehicle suspension systems are examples of underdamped systems.
2.3.4 Case 2: Critically Damped Systems ( = 1, c = c
c
)
If = 1 the roots :
1
and :
2
are not distinct:
:
1
= :
2
=
c
c
2:
= .
n
= .
n
(43)
To determine the motion take the limit of Eq. (36) as 0.
lim
!1
r(t) = lim
!1
c
!nt
_
C
0
1
cos .
d
t +C
0
2
sin.
d
t

= c
!nt
_
(C
0
1
+C
0
2
.
d
t

Remember:
.
d
=
_
1
2
.
n
lim
!0
(cos c) = 1
lim
!0
(sinc) = c
So the solution can be written as:
r(t) = (C
0
1
+C
0
2
.
d
t)c
!nt
Using Eqs. (38) and (39), the motion of a critically damped system is given by:
r(t) = (r
o
+ ( _ r
o
+.
n
r
o
) t) c
!nt
(44)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 19
The motion is not harmonic, it is aperiodic and decreases to zero as t increases due
to the c
!nt
term.
Critical damping, c
c
, is the lowest value of c that will not produce oscillations.
A typical example of critically damped motion is shown below with an underdamped
case of the same system for comparison.
2.3.5 Case 3: Overdamped System ( 1, c c
c
)
For this case, the roots :
1
and :
2
are both real, distinct and less than 1.
:
1
=
_
+
_

2
1
_
.
n
(45)
:
2
=
_

_

2
1
_
.
n
(46)
and :
2
< :
1
.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 20
The solution is:
r(t) = C
1
c
(+
_

2
1)!nt
+C
2
c
(
_

2
1)!nt
(47)
For initial conditions:
r(t = 0) = r
o
_ r(t = 0) = _ r
o
the constants are:
C
1
=
r
o
.
n
( +
_

2
1) + _ r
o
2.
n
_

2
1
(48)
C
2
=
r
o
.
n
(
_

2
1) _ r
o
2.
n
_

2
1
(49)
The motion is aperiodic. It has a similar form to the critically damped solution,
however, it overshoots the maximum amplitude of the critically damped system and
takes longer to return to equilibrium.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 21
A good example of an overdamped system is the closer on a screen door which takes
forever and an age to close.
2.3.6 Summary
Underdamped motion:
is harmonic with exponential decay of amplitude.
The frequency of oscillation of underdamped motion (.
d
=
_
1
2
.
n
) is always
less than the frequency of oscillation of undamped motion (.
n
).
Underdamped motion will not reach the same peak amplitude as undamped
motion, unless the phase angle is zero.
The underdamped case is the only solution that results in oscillatory motion.
Underdamped systems return to equilibrium quickly, but continue to oscillate.
In the context of a suspension system the wheels would be in position to respond
to another bump more quickly than a critically damped system.
Critically damped motion:
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 22
is aperiodic with exponential decay to equilibrium position.
Critically damped systems are quickest to return to the equilibrium postion.
A critically damped system would transmit too much force to car passengers.
Vehicle suspensions are underdamped.
Overdamped systems:
take a long time to return to the equilibrium position. This is not practical
for suspension systems. These systems are useful for controlled, slow return to
equilibrium without oscillation. Screen door closers are overdamped.
2.3.7 Logarithmic Decrement
Consider the motion of an underdamped system.
The ratio of displacements at two times separated by one period of damped oscillation
is:
r
1
r
2
=
Ac
!nt
1
cos(.
d
t
1
c)
Ac
!nt
2
cos(.
d
t
2
c)
But t
2
= t
1
+t
d
where t
d
= 2,.
d
.
Since the angle in the cosine terms would be dierent by 360
o
(2 radians or one full
oscillation) the cosines would be equivalent.
r
1
r
2
=
c
!nt
1
c
!n(t
1
+
d
)
Dene the logarithmic decrement as the natural log of the displacement ratios:
c = ln
r
1
r
2
= .
n
t
d
= .
n
2
.
n
_
1
2
=
2
_
1
2
=
2
.
d

c
2:
(50)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 23
Note: in the log domain the amplitude decay is constant. In the gure above the
dashed line is Ac
!nt
.
The damping ratio, , can be dened as a function of c:
=
c
_
(2)
2
+c
2
(51)
How can logarithmic decrement be used?
1. Given a system with a known .
n
and both amplitude ratio and t
d
are specied
, i.e. the damping ratio and thus the damping constant. Suspension design.
2. Given a system with known .
n
and c, i.e. the amplitude ratio. Suspension
analysis.
Experimental measurement of time and displacement can be used to determine the
damping constant. It is not necessary to use only one period of oscillation, however,
as any numnber of periods may be used:
r
1
r
m+1
=
r
1
r
2

r
2
r
3

r
3
r
4

r
m
r
m+1
where : is the number of cycles. Note: : may be a partial cycle.
Since
r
1
r
2
= c
!n
d
then
r
1
r
m+1
= c
m!n
d
or
ln
_
r
1
r
m+1
_
= :c
and
c =
1
:
ln
_
r
1
r
m+1
_
(52)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 24
3 Forced Vibration - Harmonic Excitation
Forced vibration is caused by an external applied force or displacement.
Harmonic excitation implies the applied force is of the form 1(t) = 1
o
c
i(!t+)
of
1(t) = 1
o
cos(.t + c) or 1(t) = 1
o
sin(.t + c). The phase angle, c, is often chosen
to be zero as only the steady state response of the system is of interest.
3.1 Equation of Motion
Consider a 1 DOF spring-mass-damper system subjected to an external appled force.
The governing equation is:
: r +c _ r +/r = 1(t) (53)
Equation (53) is a nonhomogeneous ODE that has solution r(t) that is a sum of an
homogeneous solution r
h
(t) and a particular solution r
p
(t).
The homogeneous solution satises:
: r +c _ r +/r = 0
i.e. the equation for free vibration. The solution r
h
(t) will, therefore, decay to zero
for any under, over or critically damped system.
The solution to Eq. (53) will, after some transient during which the homogenous
solution decays to zero, reduce to the particular solution, r
p
(t).
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 25
Harmonic response will be considered separately for undamped and damped motion.
3.2 Undamped Motion
Consider Eq. (53) for the undamped case when 1(t) = 1
o
cos(.t):
: r +/r = 1
o
cos .t (54)
The homogeneous solution is:
r
h
(t) = C
1
cos .
n
t +C
2
sin.
n
t (55)
where .
n
=
_
/,:.
Since 1(t) is harmonic, the particular solution is also harmonic. Propose:
r
p
(t) = A cos .t (56)
Substitue Eq. (56) into Eq. (54):
:.
2
A cos .t +/A cos .t = 1
o
cos .t
then
A =
1
o
/ :.
2
=
c
st
1
_
!
!n
_
2
(57)
where
c
st
= 1
o
,/ (58)
is the static deection due to force 1
o
.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 26
The total solution is:
r(t) = r
h
(t) +r
p
(t) = C
1
cos .
n
t +C
2
sin.
n
t +
1
o
/ :.
2
cos .t
Using the initial conditions: r(t = 0) = r
o
, _ r(t = 0) = _ r
o
:
r
o
= C
1
+
1
o
/ :.
2
So:
C
1
= r
o

1
o
/ :.
2
(59)
_ r(t) = C
1
.
n
sin.
n
t +C
2
.
n
cos .
n
t
1
o
/ :.
2
. sin.t
then
_ r
o
= C
2
.
n
or
C
2
=
_ r
o
.
n
(60)
And the total solution for the motion is:
r(t) =
_
r
o

1
o
/ :.
2
_
cos .
n
t +
_ r
o
.
n
sin.
n
t +
_
1
o
/ :.
2
_
cos .t (61)
Interesting stu can be seen by writing Eq.(57) in a non-dimensional form:
A
c
st
=
1
1
_
!
!n
_
2
(62)
which is callled the amplitude ratio (or amplitude factor or magnication factor). It
is the ratio of the dynamic amplitude to the static amplitude of the motion.
A plot of A,c
st
versus .,.
n
yields:
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 27
As shown by the gure there are three distinct behaviours.
Case 1: 0 < .,.
n
< 1
The frequency of the input force is less than the natural frequency of the system
and the denominator in Eq. (62) is positive.
The steady state motion is given by Eq. (61) and the harmonic response of the
system, r
p
(t), is in phase with the forcing function.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 28
Case 2: 1 < .,.
n
<
The frequency of the input force is greater than the natural frequency of the
system and the denominator in Eq. (62) is negative, therefore, the amplitiude
ratio is negative. The motion of the system, r
p
(t), Eq. (56), will be out of phase
with the external force.
As .,.
n
, A 0, i.e. zero response to a high frequency input. In other
words there is insucient time for the system to respond to the input. Later this
concept will be used to show why you should always drive faster.
Case 3: .,.
n
= 1 Resonance
The frequency of the input force equals the natural frequency of the system.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 29
A = , i.e. resonance and if energy is continuously fed into the system it will
fail. Lets prove it.
Equation(61) can be rewritten as:
r(t) = r
o
cos .
n
t +
_ r
o
.
n
sin.
n
t +
1
o
/ :.
2
(cos .t cos .
n
t)
or
r(t) = r
o
cos .
n
t +
_ r
o
.
n
sin.
n
t +c
st
_
_
_
cos .t cos .
n
t
1
_
!
!n
_
2
_
_
_ (63)
Consider the response at . = .
n
. The last term in Eq. (63) is undened when
. = .
n
, so use lHpitals Rule:
lim
!!!n
_
_
_
cos .t cos .
n
t
1
_
!
!n
_
2
_
_
_ = lim
!!!n
_
_
_
_
d
d!
(cos .t cos .
n
t)
d
d!
_
1
_
!
!n
_
2
_
_
_
_
_
= lim
!!!n
_
t sin.t

2!
!
2
n
_
=
.
n
t
2
sin.
n
t
So, the system response at resonance is:
r(t) = r
o
cos .
n
t +
_ r
o
.
n
sin.
n
t +
c
st
.
n
t
2
sin.
n
t (64)
which is harmonic with linear increase in amplitude.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 30
3.2.1 Total Response
Similar to free vibration, r(t), can be written as follows:
r(t) = cos(.
n
t c) +
c
st
1
_
!
!n
_
2
cos .t (65)
Note: Eq. (3.17) in the text is incorrect. The negative sign in front of the second
term should be a positive, and then Eq. (3.170 is redundant.
3.2.2 Beat Phenomena
Beating occurs when . is close to, but not equal to, .
n
.
The amplitude will build up and diminish in a regular pattern.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 31
3.3 Damped Motion
Consider a 1 DOF system with a linear spring and viscous damper subjected to a
harmonic applied force.
The governing equation is:
: r +c _ r +/r = 1
o
cos .t (66)
Assume a particular solution of form:
r
p
(t) = A cos(.t c) (67)
with derivatives:
_ r
p
(t) = .A sin(.t c)
r
p
(t) = .
2
A cos(.t c)
Substitution of the assumed solution into Eq. (66) gives:
A
_
(/ :.
2
) cos(.t c) c. sin(.t c)

= 1
o
cos(.t) (68)
The trigonometric relations:
cos(.t c) = cos(.t) cos(c) + sin(.t) sin(c)
sin(.t c) = sin(.t) cos(c) cos(.t) sin(c)
can be used in Eq. (68) to give:
A
_
(/ :.
2
)(cos(.t) cos(c) + sin(.t) sin(c)) c.(sin(.t) cos(c) cos(.t) sin(c))

= 1
o
cos .t
or
A
_
cos .t((/ :.
2
) cos c +c. sinc) + sin.t((/ :.
2
) sinc c. cos c)

= 1
o
cos .t
(69)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 32
Equating LHS and RHS coecients of cos .t and sin.t in Eq. (69):
A
_
(/ :.
2
) cos c +c. sinc

= 1
o
(70)
A
_
(/ :.
2
) sinc c. cos c

= 0 (71)
Equations (70) and (71) can be solved for A and c.
To solve for A, square each equation and then add the resultants to eliminate c:
A
2
_
(/ :.
2
)
2
cos
2
c + 2c.(/ :.
2
) cos csinc + (c.)
2
sin
2
c + (/ :.
2
)
2
sin
2
c 2c.(/ :.
2
) cos csinc + (c.)
2
cos
2
c

= 1
2
o
or
A
2
_
(/ :.
2
)
2
+ (c.)
2

= 1
2
o
So:
A =
1
o
[(/ :.
2
)
2
+ (c.)
2
]
1=2
(72)
and from Eq. (71):
c = tan
1
_
c.
/ :.
2
_
(73)
A typical plot of a forcing function and steady-state system response, r
p
(t), is shown
below. Here, the system motion lags the forcing function.
Using the denitions of undamped natural frequency, .
n
, damping ratio, , static
deection, c
st
, and frequency ratio, r:
.
n
=
_
/,:
=
c
c
c
=
c
2:.
n
c = 2:.
n
c
st
=
1
o
/
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 33
r =
.
.
n
(74)
the amplitude ratio (or magnication factor, '), A,c
st
, can be obtained from Eq.
(72):
A =
1
o
,/
_
(1
m!
2
k
)
2
+ (
c!
k
)
2
_
1=2
=
c
st
_
(1 (
!
!n
)
2
)
2
+ (2
!
!n
)
2
_
1=2
So:
' =
A
c
st
=
_
_
_
1
_
.
.
n
_
2
_
2
+
_
2
.
.
n
_
2
_
_
1=2
=
1
_
(1 r
2
)
2
+ (2r)
2
(75)
Similarly, c, Eq. (73) can be written in terms of r and :
c = tan
1
_

_
2
!
!n
1
_
!
!n
_
2
_

_ = tan
1
_
2r
1 r
2
_
(76)
Plots of ' = A,c
st
and phase angle, c, versus frequency ratio are shown below for
various values of .
Magnication factor comments:
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 34
1. Any amount of damping reduces ' at all frequency ratios. Damping slows
system response and leads to the phase angle, see Eq. (76).
2. As , ' | at any r, i.e. more damping less motion.
3. As r , ' |, i.e. the system does not respond to high frequency inputs.
4. Damping produces a signicant reduction in ' near r = 1, i.e. damping is very
important near resonance as it controls the motion.
5. For what value of r would ' be a maximum, and what is '
max
?
d'
dr
= 0 =
_
(1 r
2
)
2
+ (2r)
2

3=2
_

1
2
_
_
2(1 r
2
)(2r) + (2)
2
(2r)

0 = 2(1 r
2
) + (2)
2
So:
r =
_
1 2
2
(77)
then
'
max
=
_
(1 (1 2
2
))
2
+ (2
_
1 2
2
)
2
_
1=2
= (4
2
(1
2
))
1=2
=
1
2
_
1
2
(78)
If is known, Eq. (77) gives r and Eq. (78) gives '
max
and A
max
= '
max
c
st
gives an estimate of the maximum displacement.
Measurement of A
max
will give an estimate of (if 1
o
and / are known).
Phase angle comments:
1. For 0, 0 < r < 1, then 0
o
< c < 90
o
, i.e. the response lags the input.
2. For 0 r 1 then 90
o
< c < 180
o
, i.e. response is out of phase with input
(similar to undamped system).
3.3.1 Total Response (Damped System)
The complete expression for the response of the damped 1 DOF system to a harmonic
input is:
r(t) = A
o
c
!nt
cos(.
d
t c
o
) +A cos(.t c) (79)
Note: the rst term in Eq. (79) is the homogeneous solution and it will decay to zero,
and the solution will reduce to the steady-state solution, i.e. the second term which
is the particular solution.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 35
A
o
and c
o
are obtained from initial conditions: r(t = 0) = r
o
and _ r(t = 0) = _ r
o
r
o
= A
o
cos(c
o
) +A cos(c)
= A
o
cos(c
o
) +A cos(c) (80)
_ r = A
o
(.
n
c
!nt
cos(.
d
t c
o
) .
d
c
!nt
sin(.
d
t c
o
)) A. sin(.t c)
_ r
o
= A
o
(.
n
cos(c
o
) .
d
sin(c
o
)) A. sin(c)
= A
o
(.
n
cos(c
o
) +.
d
sin(c
o
)) +A. sin(c) (81)
It is easier to solve for A
o
and c
o
with numbers from a particular problem, rather
than derive a messy general solution.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 36
4 Harmonic Motion of the Base
Consider a 1 DOF viscously damped system subjected to a harmonic motion of the
base.
The motion of the base is dened by:
j(t) = 1 sin.t (82)
The spring force and damping force will be functions of both r and j:
1
s
= /(r j)
1
d
= c( _ r _ j)
the governing equation for the motion is:
: r +c( _ r _ j) +/(r j) = 0 (83)
Note: there is no forcing function.
Since j(t) = 1 sin.t, the governing equation can be written as:
: r +c _ r +/r = c _ j +/j
= c.1 cos .t +/1 sin.t
= sin(.t c) (84)
where
= 1
_
/
2
+ (c.)
2
(85)
c = tan
1
_

c.
/
_
(86)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 37
Comparison of Eq. (84) with Eq. (53) shows that they are of the same form (i.e. a
damped 1 DOF system with a harmonic forcing function). The forcing motion is not
transmitted directly to the mass, however, as it is transmitted through the spring and
damper (e.g. a suspension system). The particular solution is then:
r
p
(t) =
1
_
/
2
+ (c.)
2
((/ :.
2
)
2
+ (c.)
2
)
1=2
sin(.t c
1
c) (87)
where
c
1
= tan
1
_
c.
/ :.
2
_
(88)
i.e. similar to Eqs. (??, (??) and (??).
Using the trigonometric identities for angle addition, Eq. (87) can be written as:
r
p
(t) = A sin(.t c) (89)
where
A
1
=
_
/
2
+ (c.)
2
(/ :.
2
)
2
+ (c.)
2
_
1=2
=
_
1 + (2r)
2
(1 r
2
)
2
+ (2r)
2
_
1=2
(90)
c = tan
1
_
:c.
3
/(/ :.
2
) + (c.)
2
_
= tan
1
_
2r
3
1 + (4
2
1)r
2
_
(91)
The ratio of the amplitudes of the response to base input, A,1 , is called the displace-
ment transmissibility, T
d
.
The variation of T
d
and c with frequency ratio are shown below for various values of
.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 38
T
d
has a maximum value at:
r
m
=
1
2
_
_
1 + 8
2
1
_
1=2
The force, 1, acting on the base is
1 = c( _ r _ j) +/(r j) = : r (92)
Using Eq. (89) for r:
1 = :.
2
A sin(.t c) = 1
T
sin(.t c)
where 1
T
= :.
2
A is the amplitude of the force transmitted to the base. Using Eq.
(90):
1
T
/1
= r
2
A
1
(93)
where 1
T
,/1 is the force transmissibility.
The behaviour of force transmissibilty with frequency ratio is plotted below for various
values of damping ratio.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 39
Dene . = r j as the motion of the mass relative to the base, then Eq. (84) can be
written as:
: . +c _ . +/. = : j = :.
2
1 sin.t (94)
Comparison of Eq. (??) with Eq. (84) gives the solution:
.(t) = 7 sin(.t c
1
) (95)
where
7 =
:.
2
1
_
(/ :.
2
)
2
+ (c.)
2
= 1
r
2
_
(1 r
2
)
2
+ (2r)
2
(96)
c
1
= tan
1
_
c.
/ :.
2
_
= tan
1
_
2r
1 r
2
_
(97)
The variation of 7,1 with frequency ratio for several values of is shown below.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 40
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 41
5 System Modelling
5.1 Combinations of Springs
In practical systems several linear springs may be used in combination (e.g. four
springs used in a car).
An eective spring constant can be developed for spring combinations in parallel and
series.
5.1.1 Springs in Parallel
Consider the case where two linear springs support a platform.
If a force

\ is applied to the platform such that it does not rotate, the springs will
obtain the same static deection, c
st
.
Using the FBD of the platform when it is in static equilibrium:
+

1
y
= 0 = 1
1
+1
2
\
But
1
1
= /
1
c
st
1
2
= /
2
c
st
therefore
\ = /
1
c
st
+/
2
c
st
We want an equivalent spring /
eq
that will support force \ and attain the same static
deection, c
st
.
\ = /
eq
c
st
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 42
So
/
eq
= /
1
+/
2
For any combination of parallel springs:
/
eq
=
n

i=1
/
i
(98)
5.1.2 Springs in Series
Consider two linear springs /
1
and /
2
attached in series:
When load

\ is applied to spring 2 the springs will deect a dierent amount, unless
/
1
= /
2
.
Consider an FBD for each spring:
Each spring will carry the same load, \:
\ = /
1
c
1
= /
2
c
2
= /
eq
c
st
= /
eq
(c
1
+c
2
)
Dene an equivalent linear spring /
eq
that would carry load \, but deect c
st
=
c
1
+c
2
.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 43
Note:
c
1
=
\
/
1
=
/
eq
/
1
c
st
c
2
=
\
/
2
=
/
eq
/
2
c
st
Then:
c
st
= c
1
+c
2
=
/
eq
/
1
c
st
+
/
eq
/
2
c
st
or
1
/
eq
=
1
/
1
+
1
/
2
For any combination of springs in series:
1
/
eq
=
n

i=1
1
/
i
(99)
5.1.3 General Method for Combinations of Springs
Since springs are used to store potential energy it is possible to equate the potential
energy stored due to the deformation of a new equivalent spring to that stored in the
original spring system.
e.g. springs in parallel
1
2
/
1
c
2
st
+
1
2
/
2
c
2
st
=
1
2
/
eq
c
2
st
/
eq
= /
1
+/
2
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 44
e.g. spings in series:
1
2
/
1
c
2
1
+
1
2
/
2
c
2
2
=
1
2
/
eq
c
2
st
But
c
1
=
\
/
1
=
/
eq
/
1
c
st
c
2
=
\
/
2
=
/
eq
/
2
c
st
Then
1
2
/
eq
c
2
st
=
1
2
/
1
_
/
eq
/
1
c
st
_
2
+
1
2
/
2
_
/
eq
/
2
c
st
_
2

1
/
eq
=
1
/
1
+
1
/
2
5.2 Combinations of Damping Elements
To obtain equivalent damping elements use the method of equivalence of force between
the original combination and the equivalent damper.
5.2.1 Viscous Dampers in Parallel
Assume the velocity at the end of each damper is equivalent.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 45
Since the ends of each damper will have the same velocities:
1
1
= c
1
( _ r
2
_ r
1
)
1
2
= c
2
( _ r
2
_ r
1
)
1
eq
= c
eq
( _ r
2
_ r
1
)
But the equivalent damper will exert the force of both original dampers:
1
eq
= 1
1
+1
2
So:
c
eq
= c
1
+c
2
For any combination of dampers in parallel:
c
eq
=
n

i=1
c
i
(100)
5.2.2 Viscous Dampers in Series
Consider three viscous dampers in series to be replaced by and equivalent viscous
damper c
eq
that will have the same velocites at its end points.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 46
Each damper will carry the same force:
1
1
= 1
2
= 1
3
= 1
eq
where
1
1
= c
1
( _ r
2
_ r
1
)
1
2
= c
2
( _ r
3
_ r
2
)
1
3
= c
3
( _ r
4
_ r
3
)
1
eq
= c
eq
( _ r
4
_ r
1
)
From kinematics:
( _ r
4
_ r
1
) = ( _ r
2
_ r
1
) + ( _ r
3
_ r
2
) + ( _ r
4
_ r
3
)
Therefore
1
eq
c
eq
=
1
1
c
1
+
1
2
c
2
+
1
3
c
3
Then
1
c
eq
=
1
c
1
+
1
c
2
+
1
c
3
For any combination of viscous dampers in series:
1
c
eq
=
n

i=1
1
c
i
(101)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 47
6 Two Degree of Freedom Systems
6.1 Governing Equations
Consider the two degree of freedom (2 DOF) system shown below:
Each mass can move in one dimension, therefore the system has two degrees of free-
dom. This system is the most general case where a forcing function is applied to each
mass.
Use the FBD for each mass to derive the governing equations:
To dene directions of forces assume relative magnitudes for the motion of each mass,
e.g. r
2
r
1
and _ r
2
_ r
1
.
:
1
r
1
= c
2
( _ r
2
_ r
1
) +/
2
(r
2
r
1
) /
1
r
1
c
1
_ r
1
+1
1
(t)
:
2
r
2
= c
2
( _ r
2
_ r
1
) /
2
(r
2
r
1
) /
3
r
2
c
3
_ r
2
+1
2
(t)
or
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 48
:
1
r
1
+ (c
1
+c
2
) _ r
1
c
2
_ r
2
+ (/
1
+/
2
)r
1
/
2
r
2
= 1
1
(t)
:
2
r
2
c
2
_ r
1
+ (c
2
+c
3
) _ r
2
/
2
r
1
+ (/
2
+/
3
)r
2
= 1
2
(t) (102)
or
_
:
1
0
0 :
2
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
+
_
(c
1
+c
2
) c
2
c
2
(c
2
+c
3
)
_ _
_ r
1
_ r
2
_
+
_
(/
1
+/
2
) /
2
/
2
(/
2
+/
3
)
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
=
_
1
1
(t)
1
2
(t)
_
(103)
Note: The governing equation for any 2 DOF system can be written in the following
general form:
_
:
11
:
12
:
21
:
22
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
+
_
c
11
c
12
c
21
c
22
_ _
_ r
1
_ r
2
_
+
_
/
11
/
12
/
21
/
22
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
=
_
1
1
(t)
1
2
(t)
_
(104)
Here:
_
:
11
:
12
:
21
:
22
_
=
_
:
1
0
0 :
2
_
_
c
11
c
12
c
21
c
22
_
=
_
(c
1
+c
2
) c
2
c
2
(c
2
+c
3
)
_
_
/
11
/
12
/
21
/
22
_
=
_
(/
1
+/
2
) /
2
/
2
(/
2
+/
3
)
_
For dierent systems, the entries in the matrices on the RHS of the equations would
change.
6.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped 2 DOF System
Simplify the system above for the case of undamped free vibration:
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 49
From the general form of the governing equation for a 2 DOF system Eq. (104) the
equations of motion for this system are:
_
:
11
:
12
:
21
:
22
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
+
_
/
11
/
12
/
21
/
22
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
=
_
0
0
_
(105)
For this system, :
12
= :
21
= 0. This will have signicance later.
So, the governing equations are:
:
11
r
1
+/
11
r
1
+/
12
r
2
= 0
:
22
r
2
+/
21
r
1
+/
22
r
2
= 0 (106)
Can :
1
and :
2
oscillate at the same frequency and phase angle, but with dierent
amplitude?
r
1
(t) = A
1
cos(.t +c)
r
2
(t) = A
2
cos(.t +c) (107)
The same phase angle would imply each mass passes through its equilibrium position
at the same time.
From Eq. (107):
r
1
= .
2
A
1
cos(.t +c)
r
2
= .
2
A
2
cos(.t +c) (108)
Substitution of Eqs. (107) and (108) into Eq. (105):
__
:
11
.
2
+/
11
_
A
1
+/
12
A
2
_
cos(.t +c) = 0
__
:
22
.
2
+/
22
_
A
2
+/
21
A
1
_
cos(.t +c) = 0 (109)
or
_
(:
11
.
2
+/
11
) /
12
/
21
(:
22
.
2
+/
22
)
_ _
A
1
A
2
_
=
_
0
0
_
(110)
For a nontrivial solution:

(:
11
.
2
+/
11
) /
12
/
21
(:
22
.
2
+/
22
)

= 0 (111)
So:
(:
11
:
22
).
4
(:
11
/
22
+:
22
/
11
).
2
+ (/
11
/
22
/
12
/
21
) = 0 (112)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 50
This equation is quadratic in .
2
. For convenience, rewrite the equation in the fol-
lowing form:
a.
4
+/.
2
+d = 0 (113)
where:
a = :
11
:
22
/ = (:
11
/
22
+:
22
/
11
)
d = /
11
/
22
/
12
/
21
(114)
Solving for the two roots gives:
.
1
=
_
/
_
/
2
4ad
2a
_
1=2
(115)
.
2
=
_
/ +
_
/
2
4ad
2a
_
1=2
(116)
These are the two natural frequencies of the system!
Substitution of Eqs. (115) and (116) into Eq. (110) allows determination of amplitude
ratios at the two natural frequencies.
(:
11
.
2
1
+/
11
)A
1
+/
12
A
2
= 0
(:
22
.
2
1
+/
22
)A
2
+/
21
A
1
= 0
and
(:
11
.
2
2
+/
11
)A
1
+/
12
A
2
= 0
(:
22
.
2
2
+/
22
)A
2
+/
21
A
1
= 0
Then the amplitude ratios:
r
1
=
_
A
2
A
1
_
(1)
=
(:
11
.
2
1
+/
11
)
/
12
=
/
21
_
:
22
.
2
1
+/
22
_ (117)
r
2
=
_
A
2
A
1
_
(2)
=
(:
11
.
2
2
+/
11
)
/
12
=
/
21
_
:
22
.
2
2
+/
22
_ (118)
.
1
, .
2
, r
1
and r
2
dene the natural modes of the system. The bracketed superscripts
indicate the rst and second natural modes of the system.
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 51
Use of the amplitude ratios allows for a general solution for the motion of the system
to be written as:
r
(1)
(t) =
_
r
(1)
1
(t)
r
(1)
2
(t)
_
=
_
A
(1)
1
cos(.
1
t +c
1
)
r
1
A
(1)
1
cos(.
1
t +c
1
)
_
= rst mode (119)
r
(2)
(t) =
_
r
(2)
1
(t)
r
(2)
2
(t)
_
=
_
A
(2)
1
cos(.
2
t +c
2
)
r
2
A
(2)
1
cos(.
2
t +c
2
)
_
= second mode (120)
Using superposition, the motion of each mass can be written as:
r
1
(t) = A
(1)
1
cos(.
1
t +c
1
) +A
(2)
1
cos(.
2
t +c
2
)
r
2
(t) = r
1
A
(1)
1
cos(.
1
t +c
1
) +r
2
A
(2)
1
cos(.
2
t +c
2
) (121)
where the general solution for A
(1)
1
, A
(2)
1
, c
1
and c
2
is given by:
A
(1)
1
=
1
r
2
r
1
_
r
2
r
1
(0) r
2
(0)
2
+
r
2
_ r
1
(0) + _ r
2
(0)
2
.
2
1
_
1=2
A
(2)
1
=
1
r
2
r
1
_
r
1
r
1
(0) r
2
(0)
2
+
r
1
_ r
1
(0) + _ r
2
(0)
2
.
2
2
_
1=2
c
1
= tan
1
_
r
2
_ r
1
(0) + _ r
2
(0)
.
1
[r
2
r
1
(0) r
2
(0)]
_
c
2
= tan
1
_
r
1
_ r
1
(0) + _ r
2
(0)
.
2
[r
1
r
1
(0) r
2
(0)]
_
(122)
See the derivation for Eq. (5.18) in the text.
The i-th mode can be excited by setting initial conditions as follows:
r
1
(t = 0) = A
(i)
1
_ r
1
(t = 0) = 0
r
2
(t = 0) = r
i
A
(i)
1
_ r
2
(t = 0) = 0
(123)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 52
So whats that about? Consider the following simple system:
From Eq. (103) the governing equation is:
_
: 0
0 :
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
+
_
2/ /
/ 2/
_ _
r
1
r
2
_
=
_
0
0
_
(124)
So, for reference:
_
:
11
:
12
:
21
:
22
_
=
_
: 0
0 :
_
_
/
11
/
12
/
21
/
22
_
=
_
2/ /
/ 2/
_
From Eq. (114):
a = :
2
/ = (2/:+ 2/:) = 4/:
d = 4/
2
/
2
= 3/
2
From Eqs. (115) and (116):
.
1
=
_
4/:
_
(4/:)
2
4(:
2
3/
2
)
2:
2
_
1=2
=
_
/
:
(125)
.
2
=
_
4/:+
_
(4/:)
2
4(:
2
3/
2
)
2:
2
_
1=2
=
_
3/
:
(126)
From Eqs. (117) and (118)
r
1
=
_
A
2
A
1
_
(1)
=
_
:
_
k
m
_
+ 2/
_
/
=
/
_
:
_
k
m
_
+ 2/
_ = 1 (127)
r
2
=
_
A
2
A
1
_
(2)
=
_
:
_
3k
m
_
+ 2/
_
/
=
/
_
:
_
3k
m
_
+ 2/
_ = 1 (128)
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 53
The bracketed superscripts indicate the 1st and 2nd natural modes.
+ 1st mode - amplitudes of both masses are equivalent.
+ 2nd mode - amplitudes of both masses are the same, but the motion is out
of phase (due to the negative sign).
The modes are often shown on a mode diagram.
As shown in the mode diagram for the second mode, the point in the middle of
the second spring remains xed for all time. This point is called a node.
The general solution for the motion of the system is (using Eq. (121)).
r
1
(t) = A
(1)
1
cos
_
_
/
:
t +c
1
_
+A
(2)
1
cos
_
_
3/
:
t +c
2
_
r
2
(t) = A
(1)
1
cos
_
_
/
:
t +c
1
_
A
(2)
1
cos
_
_
3/
:
t +c
2
_
(129)
where c
1
, c
2
, A
(1)
1
and A
(2)
1
are dependent on the intial conditions: r
1
(0), r
2
(0),
_ r
1
(0) and _ r
2
(0). See Eq. (122) or Eq. (5.18) in the text.
Lets use some numbers. Consider the case where : = 100 kg, / = 10 kN, m.
Then:
.
1
=
_
/
:
= 10 rad, s
.
2
=
_
3/
:
= 17.32 rad, s
Consider the following three initial states:
1. First mode:
r
1
(0) = 0.02 m
r
2
(0) = r
1
r
1
(0) = 0.02 m
_ r
1
(0) = _ r
2
(0) = 0
Eng5932 - Mechanical Vibrations 54
From Eq. (122) or Eq. (5.18) in the text:
c
1
= c
2
= 0
A
(1)
1
=
1
1 1
(1 (0.02) 0.02) = 0.02 m
A
(2)
1
=
1
1 1
(1 (0.02) + 0.02) = 0 m
Then from Eq. (121) or Eq. (129):
r
1
(t) = 0.02 cos(10t) m
r
2
(t) = 0.02 cos(10t) m
2. Second mode:
r
1
(0) = 0.02 m
r
2
(0) = r
2
r
1
(0) = 0.02 m
_ r
1
(0) = _ r
2
(0) = 0
From Eq. (122) or Eq. 5.18 in the text:
c
1
= c
2
= 0
A
(1)
1
=
1
1 1
(1 (0.02) + 0.02) = 0 m
A
(2)
1
=
1
1 1
(1 (0.02) 0.02) = 0.02 m
Then from Eq. (121) or Eq. (129):
r
1
(t) = 0.02 cos(17.32t) m
r
2
(t) = 0.02 cos(17.32t) m
3. Arbitrary initial conditions:
r
1
(0) = 0.02 m
r
2
(0) = 0.01 m
_ r
1
(0) = _ r
2
(0) = 0
From Eq. (122) or Eq. (5.18) in the text:
c
1
= c
2
= 0
A
(1)
1
=
1
1 1
(1 (0.02) (0.01)) = 0.005 m
A
(2)
1
=
1
1 1
(1 (0.02) 0.01) = 0.015 m
Then from Eq. (121) or Eq. (129):
r
1
(t) = 0.005 cos(10t) + 0.015 cos(17.32t) m
r
2
(t) = 0.005 cos(10t) 0.015 cos(17.32t) m