Chapter 2: Biochemistry Forms of Energy Chemical Energy stored in bonds of chemical substances.

nces. When bonds break, potential energy is unleashed Electrical Energy results from movement of charged particles; generated in body when ions (charged particles) move across cell membranes Mechanical Energy directly involved in moving matter. ex: when you ride a bike, your legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedals Radiant Energy travels in waves, energy of electromagnetic spectrum such as e-rays and infrared. Light energy is important in vision and ultraviolet waves are responsible to make vitamin D.

Energy Form Conversions Every is easily converted from one form to another Chemical energy of foods is trapped in ATP and ATPs energy may be formed into electrical energy of nerve impulse of mechanical energy of muscle movement Energy conversions are quite inefficient; some of the initial energy is always lost in some form of heat to the environment

Composition of Matter All matter is composed of elements substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. Ex: oxygen, carbon, gold, copper, & iron 4 elements make up about 96% of body weight O, C, N, H Atom building block of an element or smallest particle that still retains special properties of an element

Atomic Structure Atom loses properties of its element when it breaks down into smaller subparticles such as protons, neutrons, & electrons Protons & neutrons = approximately same mass Electrons negative charge and usually mass is so small that it is known as 0 amu All atoms are electrically neutral, number of protons = number of electrons Atoms that have gained/lost electrons are called ions

Planetary & Orbital Models of an Atom planetary model portrays atoms as a miniature solar system, where protons and neutrons are at the center and electrons are orbiting them orbitals regions around the nucleus where electrons are likely to be found most of the time orbital model more modern model of atomic structure, consists of a haze of negative charge referred to as the electron cloud Most of the volume of an atom is empty space, nearly all the mass is concentrated in the center (nucleus).

Identifying Elements All protons, neutrons, & electrons are alike regardless of the atoms being considered Unique properties of an element are determined by the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons it has Number of neutrons in an atom is not easy to figure out, but light atoms tend to have equal numbers of protons and neutrons where has larger atoms have more neutrons than protons. In order to identify a particular element, all you need to know is its atomic number, mass number, and atomic weight. atomic number equal to the number of protons the atoms contain, it also indirectly tells us the number of electrons the atom contains since # of protons = # of electrons atomic mass number sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom

Atomic Weight and Isotopes Isotopes atoms of elements that exhibit two or more structural variations Isotopes have the same number of protons & electrons but vary in the number of neutrons Isotopes chemical properties are exactly same as the elements Atomic Weight same as the mass number of an elements most abundant isotope Radioisotopes heavier isotopes that are unstable and tend to decompose to become more stable Radioactivity process of spontaneous atomic decay Alpha emission has the least penetrating power & Gamma radiation has the most PET scans use radioisotopes such as radioisotope of iodine to scan thyroid gland Certain radioisotopes are used to destroy localized cancers

Molecules & Compounds Molecules when 2 or more atoms combine chemically ex: H + H = H2 Compound when two or more DIFFERENT atoms combine to form a molecule, the molecule. Ex: methane is a compound Molecule is the smallest part of a compound that still retains the properties of the compound

Chemical Bonds & Reactions Chemical reactions occur whenever atoms combine with or dissociate from other atoms. When atoms unite, chemical bonds are formed

Role of Electrons Electrons occupy fixed regions of space around the nucleus called electron shells/energy levels. Max # of electron shells = 7 Electrons closest to the nucleus are the ones most strongly attached Valence shell outermost shell whose electrons determine the chemical behavior of the atom

Types of Chemical Bonds Ionic bonds form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another When an atom gains an electron, its called a anion (negatively charged) When an atoms loses an electron, its called a cation (positively charged) Sodium chloride and other compounds formed by ionic bonding fall into category of SALTS Covalent bonds atoms share electrons Nonpolar covalently bonded molecules electrons have been shared equally between atoms of the molecule Polar molecule molecule with two charged poles Ex: WATER Hydrogen bonds extremely weak bonds and common between molecules of water Hydrogen bonds are important intra-molecular bonds because they help bind different parts of the same molecule together into a special 3D shape- very important in helping to maintain structure of proteins

Patterns of Chemical Reactions Chemical reactions involve making or breaking of bonds b/w atoms Total # of atoms remains the same but atoms appear in different combinations Synthesis Reactions occur when 2 or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule. Always involve bond formation, energy-absorbing reactions, underlie all anabolic (constructive) activities in body cells. Important for growth & repair of worn-out/damaged tissue A + B AB Decomposition Reactions occur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions. Chemical energy is released; underlie all catabolic (destructive) processes in body cells. Ex: Digestion of food into building blocks and breakdown of glycogen Ex: AB A + B Exchange Reactions involve both synthesis and decomposition reactions. Ex: ATP into ADP.

Biochemistry: The Chemical Composition of Living Matter All chemicals in body are either organic or inorganic Inorganic Compounds do not contain carbon and tend to be small, simple molecules such as water, salts, and many acids & bases Organic Compounds carbon containing compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids; largely covalently bonded Both (inorganic & organic) are equally essential for life Inorganic Compounds WATER most abundant inorganic compound, 2/3 of body weight High-Heat Capacity prevents sudden changes in body temp. Polarity-solvent properties excellent solvent, all chemical reactions in body depend on waters solvent properties, can act as a transport/exchange medium Chemical Reactivity water = important reactant in chemical reactions: hydrolysis reactions- when water added to larger molecules Cushioning cushion around the brain. Ex: similar to amniotic fluid around fetus

Salts ions & most abundant contain calcium & phosphate in them such as in bones and teeth All salts are electrolytes substances that conduct an electrical current in solution

Acids & Bases Acids have a sour taste, dissolve many metals, release hydrogen ions (H+), also known as proton donors. Bases bitter taste. feel slippery, proton acceptors, (OH-) Neutralization Reaction exchange reaction in which an acid and base interact pH scale based on the number of protons in the solution pH of 7 = neutral solution, < 7 = acidic , >7, - basic (alkaline) buffers stability of acid- bases, present in body fluids, ex: kidneys & lungs blood pH varies from 7.35-7.45

Organic Compounds Carbohydrates include sugars & starched. Contain C, H, O. ex: glucose = C6H12O6 Carbs are classified according to their size mono, di, and polysaccharides Monosaccharide building blocks of carbohydrates, referred to as simple sugars, EXAMPLE: glucose (blood sugar- universal cellular fuel), fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose. Fructose & galactose are often converted to glucose Disaccharides double sugars joined by dehydration synthesis. EXAMPLES: sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), & maltose (glucose + glucose) Polysaccharides starch & glycogen. Starch = storage polysaccharide formed by plants.

Lipids

examples: enter body in form of milk, egg yolks, meats, and oils Most abundant lipids in body = triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids contain C, H, & O, but H & C outnumber O. most lipids are insoluble in water but readily soluble in other lipids and alcohol Triglycerides (neutral fats) composed of building blocks of fatty acids (3) and glycerol (1) Fatty acids vary whereas glycerol stays same. Maybe solid (animal fat) or liquid (plant oils). Represent the bodys most abundant and concentrated source of usable energy Animal fats saturated (single bonds, solid) oils unsaturated (double bonds-liquid) phospholipid polar head (attracts water), non-polar tail (repels water). 1 phosphate group, 1 glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acid chain. present in cell membrane steroids flat molecules made of 4 interlocking rings. example Cholesterol enters body thru animals products such as meat, eggs, cheese, used to form vitamin D, hormones, and salts.

Proteins account for over 50% of organic matter in body building blocks = amino acids have amine group (gives it its properties) & acid group (COOH)

20 varieties of amino acids R-group of amino acids sets them apart from each other polypeptides = amino acid chains containing fewer than 50 amino acids Fibrous proteins (structural proteins) appear in body structures, binding structures together, providing strength in tissues. ex: collagen (bone, tendons, cartilage) and most abundant protein in body. Keratin (hair, nails, etc.) globular proteins (functional proteins) mobile, spherical molecules, play crucial roles in all biological processes. ex: provide immunity, growth, development, etc. ex: hemoglobin, enzymes, hormones, antibodies, etc. enzymes are reusable. end in ase

Nucleic Acids largest biological molecules in the body their building blocks nucleotides bases come in 5 varieties : A, T, G, C, & U 2 major kinds of nucleic acid: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA genetic material found inside cell nucleus. (1) it replicates itself before cell divides and (2) provides instructions for building proteins. doubt helix. RNA located outside nucleus, slave of DNA, carries out order for protein synthesis issued by DNA. single stranded. A & T and G &C 3 varieties of RNA: messenger, ribosomal, and transfer mRNA carried info for building the protein from DNA genes to ribosome (proteinsynthesizing sites) tRNA ferries amino acids over to ribosomes rRNA- forms part of the ribosomes where it oversees translation of the message and binding together of amino acids to form proteins