S t a t e so fM a t t e r

Universe is made up of Energy and Matter only. Energy exists in countless forms but matter is present only in a few known forms and most common of these are Solid, Liquid, Gas and Plasma. Out of these only Solid, Liquid and Gas phase of matter is too be concerned. Properties of these three states of matter are as follows: a). Solid: Solids have definite shape, size and volume. These are not compressible or if some solids are then they can be compressed in such a minute amount or decrease in volume is so small to observe. b). Liquids: Liquids have definite volume but donot have regular shape. They can be compressed but type minute amount. Such liquids which compress in so much less amount to observe, these liquids are used in Hydrolics. c). Gases: Gases donot have definite volume nor shape. They are easily compressible or expendible by changing pressure and temperature. Gases become liquid under high pressure and low temperature. All the gases in same physical state show same behaviour if chemical properties are not concerned. These physical behaviour of gases can be explained in terms of Mass,Volume, Pressure temperature. These relations are called Gas lows. Pressure: The force exerted by gas particles on unit area of walls of container. Its unit is Nm 2 . Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by atmosphere or air arround an object on its unit surface area. Measurement of Pressure: Pressure is measured by Barometer. Pr essure =

Force area 1 2 1atmospheric pressure = 760mm of Hg = 101.325 Kg m s or Nm 2

Temperature: It is the degree measurement of heat content of a body. It is expressed in three scales. i). Degree Celcius ( o C ) , ii). Farenheit ( o F ) , iii). Kevin (K). Most commonly used scales are Celcius and Kelvin. Both differ only by 273.15 unit that is o C + 273.15 = K . In both the case M.P& B.P of water is differed in 100 parts. Forenheit Scale: In this scale M.P & B.P of water differed by 180 equal Parts M.P of ice is 32 o F & B.P of water by 212 o F . Relation b/w farenheit scale and celcius scale is x C = 5 9 X y F 32 . Gas Laws: Laws or equation that correlate Pressure, Volume and Temperature to study the gases. 1. Boyles Law: It stated that at constant temperature, Volume is inversely proportional to
o o

V = K . P pressure of the given amount of gas. PV = K = cons tan t of proportionality For same amount of gas Case I : P1V1 = K , Case II : P2V2 = K , P1V1 = P2V2 P
Isotherm: The curve obtained by plotting a graph b/w PV & P at constant temperature. Conclusion drawn from Boyles law: a). The most important conclusion is a gas is compressible or expendible by verying pressure. b). Isotherm tells us how much pressure is reqd. by a gas to liquify it at constant temperature. c). If the amount of a gas is known at a given set of condition of Pressure, Volume, we can calculate its volume or pressure in other set of conditions. 2. Charles Law: Its stated that at constant Pressure, Volume of a given mass of a gas is V T ( Pr essure is cons tan t ) directly Proportional to temperature of the gas. Actually, the law is Volume is a linear function of temperature on the celcius scale i.e., V F t o C . So,change in volume is directly proportional to change in temparature of gas. Or,change in volume of a gas is proportional to product of its initial gas volume and change in temparature.

V 1

( at cons tan t Temparature )

( ) V t ( in c )
o

V = V2 V1 V1 . t. So, V2 = V1 [T ] 273

V2 V1 =

273

X V1 .T

T temparature in Kelvin Sir. Anoop Behl

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For a given amount of a gas

V1 V2 = . where T1 & T2 , are temparatures in Kelvin. . T1 T2

Isobars: The curve obtained by plotting a graph b/w Volume & Temparature of a given mass of gas at constant pressure. Conclusions from Charles Law: If temparature is increased, its volume will increased, and so, density decreases and if temparature decreases Volume of gas also decrease and density will increase. 3. Avogadro hypothesis: If says that equal volumeof all the gases contain equal numberof particles of gas in same condition of Pressure & Tempature V N ( No. of molecules of gas )

V N but n =

No. of molecule N = No 6.023 X 10 23

So, V n ( no. of mole )

Note: All the gases at N.T.P or S.T.P (i.e., at 273 Ka. and 1 atm) contain 1 mole particles in 22.4 Litre of gas. Ideal gas equation or Combined gas equation: it is combination of Boyles law, Charles law & Avogadro law. Boyles law: - V

1 P

Charles law: - V T , Avogadros law: - V n

nT . i.e., PV nT PV = nRT R Universal gas cons tan t P P1V1 PV PV PV = nR = 2 2 So, 1 1 = 2 2 Ideal gas equation For a given amount of gas T1 T2 T1 T2 4. Daltons Law of Partial Pressure: It says that total pressure exerted by a mix. Of two or

Combined law is V

more non reacting gases in a container is the sum of the individual pressures which each gas exerts if, same volume of the gas taken in same volume alone at a constant temparature. Kinetic Molecular Theory: This theory provides anexplanation of gaseous particles that how an atom or a molecule acts in its gaseousstate. The important postulates are: 1. All the gases are made up of very small and individual particles called molecules of a gas taken in any amount. 2. The total volume of a gas is so, large w.r.t that of molecules such that actual volume of molecules is negligible. 3. Molecules of a gas are moving randomly with different velocities in all directions of a gas. 4. There is no force of attraction or repulsion between molecules of a gas. 5. On moving randomly molecules collide with each other as well as of container and then change their directions as well as momentum. This means their energies change in every collision but total energy of a gas remains constant. 6. Collisions between molecules and also with walls of container are elastic so, no energy is released in collisions. 7. Pressure of a gas is force exerted by molecules on walls of container which is same in all over the volume of a gas. 8. The average Kinetic energy of a gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature of gas. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution of Molecular speeds: It is a similar concept to kinetic Molecular theory. Its speciality is, it is the distribution of velocities according to experimental data. This dta is expressed in form of a graph b/w number of moles of molecules & their respective speeds. Graph tells us that: 1. The Maximum number of molecules of the gas having same speed then the speed is called the most probable speed.

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N m

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2. The number of molecules having minimum & maximum speed is very small and number of molecules having their speeds nearer to most probable speed is very much and these number of molecules having speeds different by small fractioin with include in temparature.

T1

T2

T3

1 > 2 > 3 & T1 < T2 < T3

Note: The most probable speed ( ) mentioned above is the speed of a fraction of molecules in a given sample of gas this donot represent whole the gas sample so, two more have been discovered which represent the speed of gas molecules is different different conditions: I). Average Speed, II). Root mean square speed. I). Average Speed: It is defined as the average of the speeds of all the molecules of gas. It is denoted by (C ) .

C =

II). Root mean square speed: The concept behind this is if, the total K.E of molecules of a gas sample is divided in equal proportional to all the molecules of gas. Numerically, it is defined as the square root of the mean of the squares of velocities of a large number of molecules of the same gas. It is denoted by Crms

C1 + C 2 + C 3 + ...... + C n N C + N 2V2 + N 3V3 + ..... + N nVn or C = 1 1 N N

C rms =

V12 + V22 + V32 + ........ + Vn2 or C rms = N

N 1V12 + N 2V22 + N 3V32 + ........ + N nVn2 N

Effect of Temparature: If temparature is kept very low then molecules of gas come closer because of lesser energy so, in this case moleculer volume become effective but with include in temparature. The molecules by to go far and far away from each other which decrease the effect of molecular volume. Experiments show that real gases show too much deviations in condition of high pressure or low temparature. To understand behaviour of real gases exactly Vander wool modified the ideal gas equation (PV=nRT). After modification of thisequation real gases obey the new gas equation over a wide range of temparature and pressure. Two modification had done:1. Volume correction: At high pressures when the molecules are quite close together the volume occupied by the molecules become a connsiderable fraction of the total volume of the gas. According to Vander wall, effective volume of molecules is four times to that of their actual volume. And so, volume available to molecules to move is (volume of container - effective volume of all molecules). So, corrected volume = V b b effective volume of 1 mole molecules. For n mole Correct volume = V nb. 2. Pressure corraction: We know that pressure of a gas is due to the collision of molecules with walls of container but along with it due to attractive forces molecules which are just to collide the wall of container to exert pressure is or are attracted inwards which results in decreased pressure. So, exact pressure is P + p PPressure observed, p Force of attraction on molecules colliding with wall per unit area. This inward pull to molecules is proportional to

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(i) border,

number of molecules present in unit volume that attract the molecules at surface or number of molecules at the border. i.e., (i): - p density & (ii): - p density so, p (density ) 2
2

(ii)

an 2 n density of gas is (no. of molecules/Volume) So, p = >p = 2 a cons tan t V V 2 an So, corrected pressure is P + V 2 i.e., ideal pressure. an 2 (V nb ) = nRT . P + Hence modified gas equation becomes V2
This equation is called Vander waals equation. Limitations of Vander waals equation:This equation is very accurate for a wide range of pressure and temparature but not completely correct because we assumed that a and b are constants but their values change in drastic condtions of temparature and pressure. Now, Relation between Most probable speed ( ) , average speed C and Root mean square ( C rms ) is : C : C rms = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224 .

( )

Most probable speed ( ) =

2 RT = M

Diffusion of gases: The phenomenon of inter mixing of two or more gases without help of any external agent. Gases readily show diffusion because of random motion of their motion in all direction and also because of large empty space between them. Grahams law of diffusion: This law states that under similar conditions of temparature and pressure the rate of diffusion is invrsely proportional to the square root of their densities. i.e., Rate of diffusion So,

2 PV 8 RT 3RT , Average speed ( C ) = , R.M.S.speed = . Mn M M

1 . Density

r1 d 2 . where d1 & d 2 are vapour densities. r2 d1

Note: -1. Vapour density is different from absolute density. The former is independent of tempartature & has no unit, while absolute density depends upon temparature and expressed in gm/ml. 2. Vapour density is half of molecular weight of gas. V.D = M.M. So, Grahams law can be expressed as

r1 d M2 /2 2 => = r2 d1 M1 / 2

M2 . M1

So, rate of diffusion of gases is inversely proporetional to the square root of their molecular weight. But Rate means change or happening of any phenomenon with respect to time. So, rate of diffusion can also be stated as time taken by two or more gases to diffuse in each other with respect to time. So, rate of diffusion =

Volume diffused . time taken r2 = V2 / t 2 . So, r1 / r2 = V1 .t 2 . V2.t1

r1 = V1 / t1 ,

The gas equation we know is PV = nRT but this equation does not show satisfactory results because this equation is formed for ideal conditions stated in kinetic theory of gas but all these conditions are not followed by real gases and so, they deviate from ideal behaviour. Real gases: Gases which have real existance or those gases which dont obey gas laws exactly at different- different temparature
and pressure. These are also also known as Non-ideal gases.

1.

Ideal gas Real gas It is hypothetical i.e., does not All gases are real. exist.However, N2 , H2, Helium are very

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2. 3. 4.

close to ideal gases. It obey ideal gas laws (PV=nRT) under all conditions of temparature and pressure. Volume occupied by the molecules is negligible as compared to the volume occupied by the gas. There are no inter-molecular forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules.

It obeys gas laws only at low pressure and high temparature. Volume occupied by molecules is not negligible. There are inter-molecular forces of attraction b/w molecules of gas due to which pressure exerted by gases is less than that calculated from gas laws.

Why all real gases gases deviate from Ideal gas behaviour: 1. Because there is a always an attraction forces b/w molecules of gas called Vander waals forces whuich results in decreased pressure form calculated. 2. In case of high pressure concentration of molecules become such a high that their volume dont remain negligible as compared to vol. Of whole the gas. These two factors collectively effect so much that they never obey the gas laws exactly. So, Effect of Pressure: If a graph is drawn b/w PV/nRT and P then the graph is not a straight except in case of H2 &He which come near & nearer to straight line on increase the pressure of the gas. So, to correlate Real gas and Ideal gas a volume The Liquid State: Liquids have definite volume but dont have definite shape. According to Kinetic theory, liquids are those gases which are highly deviated from ideal behavior and in which intra molecular forces of attraction are so high that they could move beyond a limit by their own however, the forces are not so strong that could result into solid. So, liquids are intermediate state of solids and gases. Kinetic molecular theory of liquids: 1. Liquids are gases with appreciable forces of attraction between molecules. 2. Molecules of liquids are closer to each other w.r.t those in gases. 3. Like gases, molecules of liquids are also in random motion. 4. The average kinetic energy of molecules in a given sample of liquids are proportional to the absolute temperature. Properties of liquids: 1. Volume: In liquids there are strong forces of attraction which dont allow any molecules to go beyond a limit but it does not happen in gases. Because of attraction forces liquids have a limit and hence have a definite volume. 2. Density: Because of stronger forces of attraction molecules of liquids come closer to each other than that in gases. So, more matter occupies same space in liquids and this increases their densities. 3. Evaporation: It is the phenomenon in which liquids placed in open vessels gradually convert to gaseous state. This is because of the fact that molecules at the surface of the liquid are pushed outwards by randomly moving molecules inside liquids. The pushed molecules are converted to vapour state. 4. Compressibility: liquids have very less empty space as compared to gases. Liquid molecules are moving with high energies but dont go to much apart because of strong attraction. This gives very less space in them. So, they compress negligibly by even high pressures. 5. Diffusion: Similar to gases, liquids also posses diffusion but at slower rate because of lesser space. 6. Heat of vaporization: This is the amount of heat required to evaporate I mole of a given liquid at constant temperature. This means that it is the amount of heat required by molecules to convert them to gaseous state from liquid state. In this way, energy is given to molecules to overcome the attraction forces so that they may escape from liquid. Hence, this heat is proportional to attractive forces. Higher the attractive force higher is the heart of vaporization or heat of evaporation.

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Vapour pressure: Pressure exerted by molecules of a liquid in equilibrium state above its surface in a close vessel. This is because of the evaporation and condensation of molecules. Condensation is a process in which molecules of liquid in vapour state having low energies collide each other then they could not separated from each other and thus form liquid drop. Production of vapours is same phenomenon as evaporation and both depend on three factors: 1. Temperature, 2. Strength of attractive forces, 3. Surface area of liquid. All these factors favour evaporation and increase vapour pressure. 8. Boiling: It is the phenomenon of conversion of a liquid become equal to external pressure by its surroundings on it.
7.

Normal Boiling Point: Temperature at which vapour pressure of a liquid become equal to 1 atm. Difference between Evaporation & boiling: 1. 2. Evaporation Evaporation is a process takes place atmospheric simultaneously at all temperature. Evaporation takes place only at surface. 1. 2. Boiling Boiling takes place at a constant temperature if pressure is constant i.e. at boiling point Boiling takes place every where in liquid where temperature is equal to boiling point.

9. Surface tension: we have seen that molecules of real gases move freely inside the gas but at surface they are attracted to inside. Similarly, molecules at the surface of liquid are attracted inwards with stronger force but their momentum try to keep them where they are, which results in a stress on surface known as surface tension. This is decreased by increasing temperature. Because of surface tension liquid drops tries to gain spherical shapes. 10. Viscosity: As stated before liquid form is intermediate form of solid and gas. Gases are made to flow while solid never flow and so, solid character of liquids resist to flow while gaseous character tries to flow, so liquids tries to flow but at lesser rate than gases and thus viscosity is defined as the internal resistance that is offered by one layer to another layer of liquid to slide against each other. Viscosity decreases with rise in temperature. Liquid crystals: This is an intermediate form of sub stance between solids and liquids in which liquids try to move or flow in definite directions not in all directions as ordinary liquids do. This is a special property possessed by liquids having molecules in long thread or planar shape. Such molecules cannot move in between planes but can move along planes. Such liquids also follow or satisfy Braggs law or Braggs equation. (n =2d sin ). They are very temperature sensitive and change the reflected light and so are used for detection of small changes of temperature.

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