1a)

A Golgi apparatus B Rough endoplasmic reticulum C Lysosome D Flagellum E Mitochondria F Nucleus G Ribosome

b) C lysosomes, which have an acidic interior, are responsible for the digestion of external material and the remains of cell components c) d) 2a) A F Nucleus A Cytoplasm B Plasmid C Flagella D Peptidoglycan E Pillus F Plasma membrane G Ribosomes

b) Structure B is a plasmid, whose function is to code for the synthesis of certain proteins which are not coded for by the nucleoid 3a) A Mitochondrial matrix B Outer membrane CD Inter-membrane space E Cristae

b) Mitochondria appear to originate only from other mitochondria. They contain their own DNA, which is circular as is true with bacteria, along with their own transcriptional and translational machinery. Mitochondrial ribosomes and transfer RNA molecules are similar to those of bacteria, as are components of their membrane. Human cells have been mutated due to the addition of mitochondria, which maintains a symbiotic relationship with the cell, gaining organic and inorganic compounds from the cell while supplying an increased ATP output. c) Mitochondria in cells are maternal in origin, only being passed down the female line. Using this logic, every single human being can be traced back to one common ancestor who originally gained the mitochondria in her cells. d) Mitochondria contain enzymes for the oxidation of Acetyl CoA to CO2 in a series of reactions known as the Krebs cycle. They also contain the two primary sources of

acetyl CoA. Electrons are transferred to NAD+ or FAD. The resulting NADH or FADH2 is oxidized by the mitochondrial electron transport chain to generate energy used to form ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. 4) Cholera is a severe diarrheal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholera. Transmission to humans is by water or food. The natural reservoir of the organism is not known. It was long assumed to be humans, but some evidence suggests that it is the aquatic environment. Vibrio cholera produces cholera toxin, whose action on the mucosal epithelium is responsible for the characteristic diarrhea. In extreme cases, cholera is one of the most rapidly fatal illnesses known. A healthy person may become hypotensive within an hour of the onset of symptoms and may die within 2-3 hours if no treatment is provided. More commonly, the disease progresses from the first liquid stool to shock in 4-12 hours, with death following in 18 hours to several days. The clinical description of cholera begins with sudden onset of massive diarrhea. The patient may lose gallons of protein-free fluid and associated electrolytes, bicarbonates and ions within a day or two. This results from the activity of the cholera enterotoxin which binds to intestinal cells using its 5 B-subunits, while the A-subunit enters the cell and activates the adenylate cyclase enzyme in the intestinal cells, converting them into pumps which extract water and electrolytes from blood and tissues and pump it into the lumen of the intestine. This loss of fluid leads to dehydration, anuria, acidosis and shock. The watery diarrhea is speckled with flakes of mucus and epithelial cells ("rice-water stool") and contains enormous numbers of vibrio. The loss of potassium ions may result in cardiac complications and circulatory failure. Untreated cholera frequently results in high mortality rates. Treatment of cholera involves the rapid intravenous replacement of the lost fluid and ions. Following this replacement, administration of isotonic maintenance solution should continue until the diarrhea ceases. If glucose is added to the maintenance solution it may be administered orally, thereby eliminating the need for sterility and IV administration. By this simple treatment regimen, patients on the brink of death seem to be miraculously cured and the mortality rate of cholera can be reduced more than ten-fold. Most antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents have no value in cholera therapy, although a few (e.g. tetracyclines) may shorten the duration of diarrhea and reduce fluid loss. 5) Viruses are supramolecular assemblies which act as cell parasites. They contain the simplest minimal design for an organism, namely an RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus-coded protein coat. Viruses are inert outside a host cell, and unable to generate energy of their own. For propagation, viruses depend on the host cells supplying the metabolic and biosynthetic machinery found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Its main objective is to deliver its genome to a host cell to ensure its expression (transcription and translation) by the cell. Fully assembled viruses are called virions, the most simple of which simply contain nucleic acid (single/double-stranded DNA or RNA) and a capsid, which is a protein coat which serves as a protective shell. Capsids are formed as single or double protein shells and consist of only a few structural proteins. Therefore, multiple protein copies must selfassemble to form the continuous three-dimensional capsid structure. This follows two

patterns: helical symmetry (where the protein subunits and nucleic acid are arranged in a helix) or icosahedral symmetry (protein subunits form a symmetric shell covering the genome core. During infection the capsid also attaches the virion to specific receptors on the cell surface. On the capsid surface there are ligands which stich out and act as keys to identify potential hosts. Because of its limited size, the virus genome only codes for a few structural proteins (besides non-structural regulatory proteins involved in virus replication). 6) Cells come from preexisting cells. 7) Reproduction 8) HIV can only survive in a body. It gets destroyed almost immediately outside of a person. As a virus, HIV cannot replicate by itself, so it uses the human DNA for that. HIV binds itself to receptors on the cell membrane, and it takes over the cells metabolic and biosynthetic machinery, implanting its genetic information into the healthy cell's DNA, which subsequently produces more viruses. Eventually, the exhausted cell dies, after synthesizing multiple copies of the virus. HIV affects macrophages and helper T-lymphocytes, which are actively involved in the human immune system. When these cells are infected with HIV, they no longer function as part of the immune system, but as a factory for HIV cells, then subsequently they are destroyed. An infected person produces up to 1 000 000 000 virions per day. They have a half-life of about 6 hours in the plasma. CD4+ lymphocytes are also produced in large numbers. However, once they are infected, they have a half-life of about 1.6 days. Eventually the virus destroys so many of the immune system cells that whatever are left are incapable of effectively fighting off infection. The AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) diagnosis is made usually in a few years (8 to 11 years on average, however that time greatly varies from person to person) after infection when a person gets chronically sick with diseases that are normally fended off by a healthy immune system. For example, early symptoms of AIDS include recurring fever, night sweats, diarrhea, weight loss, acute respiratory viral infections and herpes. 9) 10) Diagnosis. Cell A only.

References: Textbook of Biochemistry, with Clinical Correlations (6th Edition) by Thomas M. Devlin http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8174/ http://www.mediprimer.com/Immunology/hiv_aids/126.html http://textbookofbacteriology.net/cholera.html