Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 25

Metallic Cable Transmission Media

Introduction Transmission media -It is included in the lowest layer of the OSI protocol hierarchy the physical layer. -Transmission medium is simply the path between a transmitter and a receiver in a communications system. Guided Transmission media -some form of conductor that provide conduit in which signals are contained -the conductor directs the signal examples: copper wire, optical fiber Unguided Transmission media -wireless systems without physical conductor -signals are radiated through air or vacuum -direction depends on which direction the signal is emitted examples: air, free space Cable transmission media -guided transmission medium and can be any physical facility used to propagate EM signals between two locations e.g.: metallic cables (open wire, twisted pair), optical cables (plastic, glass core) Incident and Reflected wave -Incident voltage is the voltage that propagates from sources towards the load -Reflected wave is the voltage that propagates from the load towards the source.

Transmission line classifications 1) Balanced Transmission line - two wire balanced line. - both conductors carry current. But only one conductor carries signals.

2) Unbalanced Transmission line - One wire is at ground potential and the other wire is at signal potential - advantage only one wire for each signal - disadvantage reduced immunity to noises

Baluns Balanced transmission lines connected to unbalanced transmission lines e.g.: coaxial cable to be connected to antenna Metallic Transmission Line Types 1)Parallel conductors 2)Coaxial cable 1)Parallel conductors consists of two or more metallic conductors(copper) separated by insulatorair,rubber etc. Most common -- Open Wire Twin lead Twisted Pair (UTP & STP) Open Wire - two-wire parallel conductors -Closely spaces by air -Non conductive spaces support and constant distance between conductors (2-6 inches) -Adv simple construction -Disadv no shielding, high radiation loss, crosstalk application standard voice grade telephone

Twin lead -spacers between the two conductor are replaced with continuous dielectric uniform spacing -application to connect TV to rooftop antennas -material used for dielectric Teflon, polyethylene

Twisted pair--(UTP & STP) -formed by twisting two insulated conductors around each other -Neighboring pairs is twisted each other to reduce EMI and RFI from external sources -reduce crosstalk between cable pairs

----Unshielded Twisted Pair -two copper wire encapsulated in PVC -twisted to reduce crosstalk and interference -improve the bandwidth significantly -Used for telephone systems and local area network

Level 1 (Category 1) -- ordinary thin cables --for voice grade telephone and low speed data Level 2 (Category 2) -- Better than category 1 --For token ring LAN at txn. rate of 4 Mbps Category 3 -- more stringent requirement than level 1 and 2 -- more immunity than crosstalk -- for token ring (16Mbps), 10Base T Ethernet (10Mbps) Category 4 -- upgrade version of category 3 -- tighter constraints for attenuation and crosstalk -- up to 100 Mbps 3

Category 5 -- better attenuation and crosstalk characteristics -- used in modern LAN. Data up to 100Mbps Category 5e -- enhanced category 5 -- data speed up to 350 Mbps Category 6 -- data speed up to 550 Mbps -- fabricated with closer tolerances and use more advance connectors Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) -- wires and dielectric are enclosed in a conductive metal sleeve called foil or mesh called braid -- the sleeve connected to ground acts as shield prevent the signal radiating beyond the boundaries

STP Category Category 5e -- Feature individually shielded pairs of twisted wire Category 7 -- 4 pairs -- surrounded by common metallic foil shield and shielded foil twisted pair -- 1Gbps Foil twisted pair -- Four pairs of 24-AWG copper wires encapsulated in a common metallic-foil shield with a PVC outer sheath -- to minimize EMI susceptibility while maximizing EMI immunity -- > 1Gbps Shielded-foil twisted pair -- Four pairs of 24-AWG copper wires surrounded by a common metallic-foil shield encapsulated in a braided metallic shield -- offer superior EMI protection -- > 1Gbps 2) Coaxial cable -- used for high data transmission -- coaxial reduce losses and isolate transmission path -- center conductor surrounded by insulation -- shielded by foil or braid

Rigid air filled

solid flexible

BNC Connectors -- To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use coaxial connectors. -- The most common type of connector is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman, or BNC, connectors. -- Types: BNC connector, BNC barrel, BNC T, Type-N, Type-N barrel. -- Applications include cable TV networks, and some traditional Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.

Two-wire parallel transmission line electrical equivalent circuit Characteristic Impedance of a Line - A terminated transmission line that is matched in its characteristic impedance is called a matched line - The characteristic impedance depends upon the electrical properties of the line, according to the formula: - The characteristic impedance can be calculated by using Ohms Law: Zo = Eo / Io where Eo is source voltage Io is transmission line current

The characteristic impedance for any type of transmission line can be calculated by calculating the inductance and impedance per unit length For a parallel line with an air the dielectric impedance is:

Z 0 276 log

D r

Zo = the characteristic impedance (ohms) D = the distance between the centers r = the radius of the conductor For a Coaxial cable with an air the dielectric impedance is: Z0 = 138 D log d r

= r0
c= 1 o 0

Z0 = the characteristic impedance (ohms) D = the diameter of the outer conductor d = the diameter of the inner conductor = the permittivity of the material r = the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium 0 = the permeability of free space For extremely high frequencies, characteristic impedance can be given by Zo = L / C Wave propagation on Metallic transmission lines Velocity factor and Dielectric constant --The ratio of the actual velocity of propagation of EM wave through a given medium to the velocity of propagation through vacuum

Vf =
Vf = velocity factor Vp = actual velocity of propagation c = velocity of propagation in vacuum rearranged equation

Vp c

V f c = Vp

the velocity via txn. line depends on the dielectric constant of insulating material 1 r = dielectric constant r The velocity along txn. line varies with inductance and capacitance of the cable as Vp = T = LC velocity x time = distance Therefore, Vp = D LC 1 meters LC second Vp = velocity of propagation LC = seconds L = inductance C = capacitance Vp = distance D = time T

normalized distance to 1 meter, V = p

Q) For a coaxial cable with distributed capacitance C = 96.6 pf/H, Distributed inductance L = 241.56 nH/m, Relative dielectric constant. r = 2.3, determine the velocity of propagation and the velocity factor.

Losses Conductor Losses -- conductor heating loss - I2R power loss -- the loss varies depends on the length of the tx. Line Dielectric Heating Losses -- difference of potential between two conductors of a metallic txn line -- Negligible for air dielectric and increases with frequency for solid core tx line

Radiation Losses -- the energy of electrostatic and EM field radiated from the wire and transfer to the nearby conductive material --Reduced by shielding the cable Coupling Losses -- whenever connection is made between two tx line -- discontinuities due to mechanical connection where dissimilar material meets - tend to heat up, radiate energy and dissipate power Corona -- luminous discharge that occurs between two conductors of transmission line -- when the difference of potential between lines exceeds the breakdown voltage of dielectric insulator

Optical Fiber Communications


Optical fiber communications system is one that uses light as the carrier of information. The information carrying capacity of any electronic communications system is directly proportional to bandwidth. Optical fibers have infinite bandwidth. So they have the capacity to carry much more information than metallic cables. Advantages 1) Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity --Better than metallic cables, up to several thousand GHz --Speed up to several Gbps 2)Immunity to crosstalk --glass fiber/plastic are non-conductor to electrical current --immune to adjacent cables 3)Immunity to static interference --immune to static noise EMI, lightning etc. 4)Environmental Immunity --more resistant to environment, weather variations --wider temperature range operation --less affected by corrosive liquids and gases 5)Safety and convenience --safer and easier to install and maintain --no current and voltage associated --no worry about explosion and fire caused --lighter and compact, flexible, lesser space required 6)Lower transmission loss --lesser loss compared to metallic cables --0.19 dB/km loss @ 1550 nm --amplifiers can be spaced more farther apart 7)Security --virtually impossible to tap into a fiber cable 8)Durability and reliability --last longer, higher tolerance to changes in environment and immune to corrosion 9)Economics --Approximately the same cost as metallic cables --less loss between repeaters. Lower installation and overall systems cost Disadvantages 1)Interfacing cost --Optical cable transmission medium --Needs to be connected to standards electronics facilities often to be expensive 2)Strength --lower tensile strength --can be improved with kevlar and protective jacket --glass fragile less required for portability 3)Remote electrical power --need to be include electrical line within fiber cable for interfacing and signal regeneration 9

4)Loss due to bending --bending causes irregularities in cable dimension the light escapes from fiber core loss of signal power prone to manufacturing defect 5)Specialized tools, equipment and training --tools to splice, repair cable --test equipment for measurements --skilled technicians Electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic wavelength spectrum

Electromagnetic frequency spectrum

10

1)Infrared: The band of light frequencies that is too high to be seen by the human eye with wavelengths ranging from 770 nm to 106 nm. Optical fiber systems generally operate in infrared band. 2)Visible: The band of light frequencies to which the human eye will respond with wavelengths ranging from 390 nm to 770 nm. 3)Ultraviolet: The band of light frequencies that are too low to be seen by the human eye with wavelengths ranging from 10 nm to 390 nm. c Wavelength, = f

= wavelength (meters) c = velocity of light (300.000.000 meters per second) f = frequency (hertz)

Optical Communication systems

Optical fiber communications link In transmitter, the light source can be modulated by a digital or analog signal. The voltage-to-current converter serves as an electrical interface between the input circuitry and the light source.

11

The light source is LED or ILD. The amount of light emitted is proportional to amount of drive current. The source-to-fiber coupler is a mechanical interface. In receiver, fiber-to-light detector coupling device is used to couple as much light Light detector is generally a PIN (p-type intrinsic n-type) diode, an APD (avalanche photodiode). Detectors convert light energy to current. A current-to-voltage converter is required to produce an output voltage proportional to the original source information. Optical fiber construction

Optical fiber cable construction --Protective coating--special lacquer, silicone, or acrylate coating outside of cladding to seal and preserve the fibers strength, protects from moisture -- Buffer jacket additional cable strength against shocks --Strength members increase a tensile strength --Outer polyurethane jacket Fiber cables either glass, plastic or both 1) Plastic core and cladding (PCP) 2) Glass core plastic cladding (PCS) 3) Glass core glass cladding (SCS) --Plastic core more flexible - easier to install but higher attenuation than glass fiber not as good as glass --Glass core lesser attenuation best propagation characteristics but least rugged Selection of fiber depends on its application trade off between economics and logistics of particular application. The Physics of light Einstein and Planck light behaves like EM wave and particles photon posses energy proportional to its frequency. Plancks law: When visible light or high-frequency electromagnetic radiation illuminates a metallic surface, electrons are emitted. The emitted electrons produce an electric current. Plancks law is expressed mathematically as 12

Ep = hf
E p = energy of the photons h = Planck constant f = light frequency

E p = hf Ep = hc

--the lowest energy state grounds state --energy level above ground state excited state --if energy level decays to a lower level loss of energy is emitted as a photons of light --The process of decaying from one level to another spontaneous decay or spontaneous emission --Atoms can absorbs light energy and change its level to higher level absorption

E p = 2E

1E

Ep is the energy of photon measured in joules

Optical power --flow of light energy past a given point in a specified time --also called radiant flux equal to joules per second

P = d (energy) t (tim e) = dQ dt
P = optical power dQ = instanteneous charge dt = instanteneous change in tim e

generally stated in decibel to define power level (dBm) P dBm = 10 log 1mW Question 10 mW in dBm? Velocity of Propagation --in vacuum 3 x 108 m/s --but slower in a more dense material than free space --when it passes through different medium such from one medium to another denser material the ray change its direction due to the change of speed --from less dense to more denser material the ray refracted closer to the normal --from more denser material to less denser material the ray refracted away from the normal

13

Refraction --Occurs when the light travels between two different material density and changes its speed based on the light frequency Refractive Index -- the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given material

n=c v
n = refractive index c = speed of light v = speed of light in a given material

14

Snells Law --how a light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two transmissive materials that have different indexes of refraction

Refractive model for Snells law Angle of incidence is the angle at which the propagating ray strike the interface with respect to the normal Angle of refraction is the angle formed between the propagating ray and the normal after the ray has entered the 2nd medium

n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
n1 = refractive index material 1 n 2 = refractive index material 2

Question medium 1 glass = 1.5, medium 2 ethyl alcohol = 1.36, angle of incidence 30o determine the angle of refraction? Critical Angle --the angle of incident ray in which the refracted ray is 90o and refracted along the interface --the minimum angle of incidence at which the refracted angle is 90o or greater --the light must travel from higher refractive index to a lesser refractive index material sin 1 = n2 sin 2 n1

1 = angle of incidence 2 = angle of refraction

2 = 90 n sin c = 2 (1) n1 n c = sin 1 2 n1


15

Acceptance Angle --the maximum angle in which external light rays may strike the air/glass interface and still propagate down the fiber

in(max)

= sin 1

n2 n2 1 2 n 0

in (max) = acceptance angle


n0 = refractive index of air n1 = refractive index of fiber core n2 = refractive index of fiber cladding

= sin 1 n2 n2 1 2 in(max)
Numerical Aperture NA: --to measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle --describe the light gathering or light-collecting ability of an optical fiber --the larger the magnitude of NA, the greater the amount of external light the fiber will accept

16

NA = sin in NA = n 12 n
2 2

in = sin 1 NA
in = acceptance angle NA = numerical aperture n1 = refractive index fiber core n1 = refractive index fiber cladding

Propagation of light through an optical fiber cable Modes of propagation 1) Single mode --only one path for light rays down the fiber 2) Multimode --many higher order path rays down the fiber

Index Profile --graphical presentation of the magnitude of the refractive index across the fiber --refractive index horizontal axis --radial distance from core vertical axis 1)step index single mode 2)step index multimode 3)graded index - multimode

17

Single Mode Step Index --dominant widely used in telecommunication system and network --the core is significantly smaller in diameter than multimode fiber Multimode Mode Step Index --similar to single mode step index fiber --but the core diameter is much larger --light enters the fiber follows many paths as it propagate down the fiber --results in different time arrival for each of the path Multimode Mode Graded Index --non-uniform refractive index decreases toward the outer edge --the light is guided back gradually to the center of the fiber

18

Comparison Single mode step index (+) minimum dispersion same path propagation same time of arrival (+) wider bandwidth and higher information tx rate (-) small core hard to couple light into the fiber (-) small line width of laser required (-) expensive difficult to manufacture Multimode step index (+) relatively inexpensive, simple to manufacture (+) easier to couple light into the fiber (-) different path of rays different time arrival (-) less bandwidth and transfer rate Multimode graded index -- intermediate characteristic between step index single and multimode Losses in optical fiber Attenuation --power loss reduction in the power of light wave as it travels down the cable --depends on signals wavelength --generally expressed as decibel loss per km, dB/km --effect on systems performance by reducing: 1)systems bandwidth 2)information transmission rate 3)efficiency 4)overall system capacity Attenuation, P A = 10log out (dB) P in A (dB) = total reduction in power level P out = cable output power Pin = cable input power

Optical power in watts measured at a given distance from a power source can be determined mathematically as

P = Pt 10 Al /10
P = measured power level Pt = transmitted power level A = cable power loss l = cable length

19

Fiber cable attenuation Question Single-mode optical cable with input power 0.1 mW light source 0.25 dB/km cable loss, determine optical power 100 km from the transmitter side 1)Absorption Loss --absorption due to impurities absorb lights and convert it into heat --contributors: 1)Ultraviolet ionized valence electron in the silica material. 2)Infrared photons of light absorbed by glasss atom converted into random mechanical vibrations - heating 3)Ion resonance caused by OH- ion in the material. OH- trapped in the glass during manufacturing process

2)Material Rayleigh, Scattering Losses --permanent submicroscopic irregularities during fiber drawing process

20

--when the light propagates and strike one of the impurities, they are diffracted causes the light to disperse and spread out-some continues down the fiber, some escapes via cladding power loss

3)Chromatic Wavelength, Dispersion Loss --many wavelengths being txn. from LED --each wavelength travels at different velocity --arrives at end of fiber at different time --resulting in chromatic distortion --solution: using monochromatic light source 4)Radiation Losses --loss due to small bends and kinks in the fiber --two types of bend: 1)microbend difference in the thermal contraction rates between core and cladding. Geometric imperfection along the axis. 2)constant radius bend excessive pressure and tension during handling and installation 5)Modal Dispersion Losses -- pulse spreading --difference in the propagation times of light rays that take different path -- occur only in multimode fiber -- solution: use graded index fiber or single mode step index fiber 6)Coupling Losses --imperfect physical connection --three types of optical junctions: Light source to fiber connection Fiber to fiber connection Fiber to photo-detector connection --Caused by: 1) Lateral displacement 2) Gap displacement 3) Angular displacement 4) Imperfect surface finish Lateral Displacement --axis displacement between 2 pieces of adjoining fiber cable --amount of loss couple tenth to several decibels 21

Gap displacements miss alignment --end separation --the farther apart, the greater the light loss --if the two fiber is spliced, no gap between fiber --if the two fiber is joined with a connector, the ends should not touch each other Angular displacement --less than 2o, the loss will typically less than 0.5 dB Imperfect surface finish --end fiber should be polished and fit together squarely

Sources: Light source for optical communication system -- efficiently propagated by optical fiber -- sufficient power to allow light to propagate -- constructed so that their output can be efficiently coupled into and out of optical fiber

Tungsten lamp radiation and human eye response 22

Optical sources 1)LED --p-n junction diode --made from a semiconductor (AlGaAs) --emits light by spontaneous emission- light is emitted as a result of the recombination of electrons and holes.

Typical LED characteristics:

Output power versus forward current

Output power versus temperature

Output power versus output wavelength

23

2)ILD (Injection Laser Diode) --Above the threshold current, an ILD oscillates and lasing occurs --As current passes through a forward biased p-n junction diode, light is emitted by spontaneous emission at a frequency determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor material. Advantages: ILDs emit coherent light, used at higher bit rates than LEDs. Disadvantages: 10 times more expensive than LEDs shorter life time, more temperature dependent. Detectors PIN diodes -- light doped material between two heavily doped n and p type semiconductor -- most common as light detector APD -- avalanche photo diode -- more sensitive than PIN diode -- require less additional amplification Characteristic of Light detectors responsivity -- a measure of conversion efficiency of photo-detector -- ratio of output current to the input optical power dark current --the leakage current that flows through photodiode when there is no light input transit time -- time of light induced carrier to travel across the depletion region of semiconductor spectral response -- the range of wavelength values that a given photodiode will respond light sensitivity -- the minimum optical power a light detector can receive and still produce a usable electrical output signal Lasers: LASER-Light amplification stimulated by the emission of radiation --laser technology deals with the concentration of light into a very small, powerful beam --there are 4 types of lasers 1)Gas lasers: Helium and Neon enclosed in a glass tube laser, CO2 lasers --Output is continuous mono chromatic (one colour) 2)Liquid lasers: organic dye enclosed in a glass tube for an active medium --A powerful pulse of light excites the organic dye 3)Solid lasers: solid, cylindrical crystal such as ruby, for the active medium. Ruby is excited by a tungsten lamp tied to an alternating-current power supply. --Output is continuous 4)Semiconductor lasers: Made from semiconductor p-n junctions and are commonly called Injection laser diodes (ILDs). -- a direct-current power supply controls the amount of current to the active medium

24

Laser characteristics: All lasers use 1) convert energy into laser light 2) provide power or energy 3) through the active material to be amplified 4) into a narrow powerful cone of divergence 5) provide continuous operation 6) transmit power out of the laser

an a

active pumping

material source

to to

optics to direct the beam optics to direct the beam a feedback mechanism to an output coupler to

25

Вам также может понравиться