Stand Alone Power

Stand Alone Power
The State of Queensland (TAFE Queensland) 2008 16, January 2009 Version 01 Revision 01
flexiblelearning.net.au
Stand Alone Power
The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the views of the Commonwealth of Australia. Commonwealth of Australia 2008 This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced without prior written permission. However, permission is given to trainers and teachers to make copies by photocopying or other duplicating processes for use within their own training organisation or in a workplace where the training is being conducted. This permission does not extend to the making of copies for use outside the immediate training environment for which they are made, nor the making of copies for hire or resale to third parties. Requests and inquiries concerning other reproduction and rights should be directed in the first instance to the Director, ICT Policy Section, Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, GPO Box 9880, Canberra, ACT, 2601.
Australian Flexible Learning Framework
Stand Alone Power
Table of contents
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
The major components of a Stand-alone Power system..................................................... 1 Voltage regulation ................................................................................................................... 3 Types of Regulators.......................................................................................................... 3 Connection of Regulators ................................................................................................. 7 Selection and Sizing of Regulators................................................................................... 9 Self Regulating PV Modules ............................................................................................. 9 Inverters.................................................................................................................................. 10 Principle of Operation ..................................................................................................... 10 Other inverter types and system configurations ............................................................. 13 Selection & Sizing of Inverters ........................................................................................ 13 Battery chargers .................................................................................................................... 14 Selection and Sizing of Battery Charger......................................................................... 15 Back-up generators ............................................................................................................... 16 Sizing of Generator ......................................................................................................... 17 Circuit protection................................................................................................................... 18 Battery cable protection .................................................................................................. 19 Renewable input protection ............................................................................................ 19 Battery charger protection............................................................................................... 19 DC load Protection.......................................................................................................... 19 AC circuit protection........................................................................................................ 19 DC control board ................................................................................................................... 19 System efficiency .................................................................................................................. 20
Glossary ................................................................................................................................. 22 Bibliography........................................................................................................................... 24
Stand Alone Power
Introduction
This Unit describes the components of a Stand-alone Power System (SPS). An SPS is a system which supplies electric power to a user, and is not connected to the power distribution systems of an electricity supply authority. Stand-alone power systems are supplied with power from one or more of a number of sources including but not limited to: a photovoltaic array, a wind turbine generator, a micro-hydro generator or a engine generator set. This unit covers the function, operation and efficiency, selection and configuration of components in a typical system. Stand-alone Power Systems are also known as Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS), but since they are used in places which are not necessarily remote, the term SPS is preferred. Renewable energy based generators and batteries are covered in detail in other units. Regulators, inverters, battery chargers and generating sets are dealt with here in detail, along with connection of equipment, circuit protection and system efficiency.
The major components of a Stand-alone Power system

A typical standalone PV power system is illustrated in 0. The purpose of each of the components is as follows: PV Array, Wind Generator or MicroHydro generator...... Blocking Diode........ Regulator ................. Array Ammeter ........ Battery Voltmeter .... Load Ammeter......... Main Battery Fuse/s Batteries .................. provide power input to the system
prevents reverse current flow to the generators from the battery bank. Regulates/manages the flow of current to the battery to maximise state of charge and extend battery life. measures the output current of the PV array measures the battery voltage - giving an approximate indication of the battery state of charge measures the current delivered by the system to the load HRC fuse/s to protect against overcurrent and provide isolation energy storage to match supply profile to demand profile, especially for periods of poor weather
Stand Alone Power
Inverter..................... Load Fuses or Circuit ...... Breakers (C/B) ........................ Battery Charger.......
transforms d.c. power to a.c. at 230 Volts, as required by standard household appliances. circuit protection and isolation
converts a.c. power from a generator to d.c. power suitable for charging the system batteries
PV ARRAY
Blocking Diodes
REGULATOR
CONTROL BOARD
Array O/P Ammeter Battery Voltmeter Load Ammeter DC Load Fuses or C/B DC Load Isolation
DC LOADS
240V AC from GENERATOR BATTERY CHARGER INVERTER MAIN Fusing and Isolation
240V AC to AC SWBD
BATTERY
Stand-alone Power System components in a typical1 configuration

1
Please note that in this configuration it shows the PV array connected to and through the control board. This is no longer common practice since the modern regulators in many cases are the control board. In these modern cases the diagram would show the regulator connected directly to the common main fusing.
The types and operation of each of the above components are described in more detail in the following sections.
Stand Alone Power
The operation of the system is as follows: Power is supplied from the renewable energy source, through the regulator, to the d.c. control board (e.g. 1000 W). Some power is used by the d.c. loads (e.g. 100 W) and the inverter (e.g. 500 W) and the remainder then flows to the battery (e.g. 400 W). When there is insufficient power from the renewable energy source to meet the loads (e.g. a photovoltaic system at night), the battery supplies power to make up the difference. When the backup generator is operating, power flows through the battery charger to the d.c. bus, in effect adding to the power from the renewable energy source. Note that power flow between the battery and the d.c. control board can be in either direction, depending on the balance between supply and demand for power.
Voltage regulation
The basic role of the regulator is to provide battery charge management with a view to maximising battery life. It must: supply maximum current when the battery state of charge is low and reduce the battery charge current as state of charge approaches 100% provide temperature compensated battery charging (only in modern units) provide a low battery voltage warning or load disconnection reduce electrolyte stratification in flooded lead acid cells
Most modern regulators have an operating efficiency of at least 0.95 at their rated output.
Types of Regulators
Most regulators use a simple Boost/Float charge regime. The regulator will provide current to a battery until the battery reaches full charge (Boost mode) and then will allow the battery voltage to drop back to a float voltage (Float mode). This boost voltage is always above the gassing voltage of the battery (the process of gassing is explained in Unit 9). The regulator will then remain in Float mode, maintaining the battery voltage at the float level, until the battery voltage drops lower due to the provision of power to a load. The regulator then returns to Boost mode. Some more complex regulator-controllers will enhance this scheme by making provision for periodic equalise charge at a higher voltage (an equalise charge attempts to ensure that all cells of a battery are fully and evenly charged - refer Unit 9 Energy Storage).
Stand Alone Power
For flooded cell lead-acid batteries, the Boost voltage is the Float voltage is 2.45 to 2.5 volts per cell and 2.3 to 2.4 volts per cell.
Shunt Regulator
In the shunt regulator a current shunting element is used. As the battery becomes fully charged a voltage sensor causes the shunt element to be connected in parallel across the input. Power produced by the source is then dissipated in the shunt element (often called a load dump).
Renewable Input
Voltage Sensor
Shunt Regulator This type of regulator is most often used with wind and micro hydro generators as most types of wind or hydro generators must always be operated under load. The shunt element can be a heating element or other load, that utilises the dumped energy e.g. to heat or pump water. In larger systems the load dump may comprise a number of shunt elements that are sequentially connected, depending upon the power delivered by the source.
Series Regulator
Renewable Input
Voltage Sensor
Series Regulator
Stand Alone Power
In a series regulator a variable resistance element in series with the battery limits the current flow. Here a voltage sensor controls the resistance to reduce the current as the battery voltage rises.
Series Switched Regulator
Renewable Input
Voltage Sensor
Switched Regulator If the input power source can withstand being disconnected, a series switched regulator may be used. When the battery becomes fully charged a voltage sensor disconnects the input. This type of regulator is normally only used with a PV power source, as it is not suitable for wind or micro hydro generators. Some regulators provide an alternate output to enable utilisation of excess power produced e.g. for water pumping. Note that the switching element may be located on either the positive or negative side of the circuit. Most PV regulators switch the negative side, as shown in 0.
Stand Alone Power
Add/Shed PV Regulator
PV ARRAY
REGULATOR
Blocking Diodes PV1
PV2
PV3
PV4
C O N T R O L L E R
BATTERY
PV5
Add/Shed PV Regulator A slightly different approach is used by add/shed regulators. Here a sensor/controller connects more parallel modules, or strings of modules, to inject more current into the batteries when their state of charge is low. This is the adding phase. As the battery state of charge rises, module arrays are gradually shed or turned off so as to reduce the charging current. The array must be divided into a number of parallel strings of modules in order to use this method, so it is more suitable for use on large PV arrays.
Maximum Power Point Tracking Regulators

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) regulators are sometimes used with PV arrays. An MPPT is a form of DC-DC converter. The voltage is usually stepped down, and the current is stepped up. The power conversion efficiency is usually very high (above 95%). It continuously adjusts the load it presents to the PV array and converts the power on the array side to the required voltage and current on the battery side. When charging, the MPPT presents the right electrical load to the PV array to ensure that it operates at its maximum power output, under currently prevailing solar irradiance and module temperature conditions. As the battery approaches full charge, moving the electrical operating point away from the PV maximum power point towards open circuit, reduces the charging current. This reduces the array power output and hence the charging current to the battery.
Stand Alone Power
Generator Field Control

Voltage and current regulation in rotating machines (alternators and dc generators) can be achieved by controlling the magnetic field of the generator. In these regulators, changing the field current varies the strength of the magnetic field. Field control regulators are sometimes used with WECS. For MHS supplying instantaneous a.c. power demand, field control can be used if coupled with a spear valve (to control the volume of water) to maintain the turbine speed and alternator voltage steady despite load changes.
Connection of Regulators
PV ARRAY
Blocking Diodes 24 Volt REGULATOR 24 Volt DC LOADS
24 Volt BATTERY
Connection of regulators for PV systems 0 shows how a regulator is connected in a PV system. A WECS or MHS would be connected in a similar way in place of the PV array. The difference is that the regulator may also have a connection to a dummy load or other load dump. Shunt regulators are often used with WECS to dump excess charging current to a heat sink or dummy load to ensure that the WECS blades remain electrically loaded until feathering of the blades takes place. For MHS using battery storage, excess charging current is directed to dummy loads. Note that for shunt regulators, excess energy need not be simply dumped, it could be used to heat water or drive a pump.
Stand Alone Power
PV ARRAY
MPPT
24 Volt DC LOADS
24 Volt BATTERY
Connection of MPPT regulators for PV systems Two types of MPPT can be used, i.e. input voltage step-up and step-down, but in practice the step-down type (fig. 7) is widely used. A step down regulator requires an input voltage greater than the battery voltage, e.g. at least 3 12 V modules in series for a 24 V battery. With an MPPT, the number of modules does not need to be exactly that required to match the system voltage. This can save money in some cases because an odd number of modules can be used to meet the energy demand. For example a particular 24V demand may be met with 9 modules. With a standard switched regulator 9 modules cannot be arranged to produce 24V. Ten must be used in a series/parallel array comprising two series banks of five modules in parallel. If a MPPT were used 9 modules could be arranged as 3 parallel banks of 3 in series. The output voltage of the array would be about 3 x 16V = 48V while the output of the MPPT would be the required system voltage of 24V. (Refer to Unit 6 for MPP operation of PV modules). Note that many regulators also provide the function of disconnecting all or part of the loads to prevent over-discharging the batteries. This may be necessary during prolonged poor weather conditions when insufficient solar, wind or water power is available to fully recharge the batteries.
Stand Alone Power
Selection and Sizing of Regulators

The regulator should be chosen to meet the maximum power and current output of the source, and minimize energy losses. Example 1 PV regulator
We have 10 80 Watt PV modules supplying 24V (5 in Parallel 2 in Series), and ISC for one module is 5.2 A. Determine the regulator specifications. Solution: The maximum current produced by the modules is simply the short circuit current. The maximum current that may pass through the regulator is then Max current = 5 5.2 = 26 A
Allowing a safety factor of 25% to allow for bright cloud conditions etc., Max current = 5 5.2 1.25 = 32.5A.
Therefore, the regulator required must have the following specifications: nominal operating voltage of 24 V a maximum current capability greater than 33A the PV regulator voltage open circuit (VOC) must be greater than the VOC, in winter, of the array (in this case about 44 volts.)
Self Regulating PV Modules

For PV systems, a separate regulator is not always required. Self- regulating modules have a lower open circuit voltage and knee voltage when compared with the non-self regulating modules. This is achieved by simply reducing the number of cells in series in the module by say 3 or 4 cells. The result is that the module characteristics are more closely matched to the fully charged battery state than the non-self-regulating type. The knee voltage of the self-regulating modules at operating temperatures of 45 C is around maximum battery voltage. (Six battery cells at maximum voltage of 2.35V per cell is 14.1V so the self-regulating modules cannot overcharge the battery). At some times during the day the voltage could exceed the maximum battery voltage and thus gently gas the batteries. However, the maximum module output voltage does not occur for many hours of the day and thus the module produces less voltage for substantial parts of the day. A major disadvantage of these modules is that in regions of high average temperatures e.g. western Queensland, the output of the module falls rapidly as the I-V curve shifts and reduces the maximum power point.
Stand Alone Power
This type of module is not recommended since it is difficult to ensure that the batteries will be neither over- or under-charged for prolonged periods. They may find some application in low cost systems, or applications where the PV modules usually supply a small proportion of the total energy required. Where energy is drawn on a daily basis the re-charging rate is usually not high enough and it is better to use standard modules together with a regulator. This will allow greater charging currents and hence faster, fuller charging.
Inverters
An inverter is a device that transforms d.c. battery voltage and current to a.c. power, similar to that provided from the a.c. mains. This is necessary so that standard 230V (in Australia) a.c. appliances can be powered from a Stand-alone Power System. AC appliances are generally more readily available than their d.c. equivalents.
Principle of Operation
A BATTERY B _
LOAD + VL _
B BATTERY A _
A _
LOAD VL +
VL
A closed
A closed
Time
B closed
B closed
Principle of operation of solid state inverters
10
Stand Alone Power
0 illustrates the basic principle of operation of the inverter. A set of semiconductor switches first connects voltage to the load in one direction then the other. Switches A and B can never be operated at the same time, i.e. when A switches are closed, B switches are open and visa versa. When the A switches are closed the voltage is connected to the load, giving a load voltage , VL, of the polarity shown in the left hand diagram above. When B switches are closed the voltage is connected to the load in the opposite sense, and the polarity of VL is reversed. This switching procedure is repeated at a regular rate (50 cycles per second, or 50 Hertz) and produces the basic alternating voltage & current. This is then fed through a transformer to step up the voltage to the required 230 V (230V is the new standard ac voltage for Australia).
SINE WAVE ( No Distortion )

LOW LOAD HIGH LOAD
SQUARE WAVE ( 40% Distortion )
MODIFIED SQUARE WAVE ( >20% Distortion )
SINE WAVE INVERTER OUTPUT ( <5% Distortion )
Inverter waveforms 0 shows the difference in wave forms of the main types of inverters used in SPS. The ideal wave form is the sine wave. This is produced by alternators and is the waveform that is supplied by the mains. An early attempt to produce 230V a.c. from a battery was called a rotary inverter i.e. a d.c. motor driving an a.c. alternator. These however are quite inefficient (only 60 to 70% at rated power output) in sizes suitable for a household.
11
Stand Alone Power
Early solid state (i.e. electronic) inverters produced a square wave output. The square wave inverter always outputs the same wave shape irrespective of the power demand of the load. This results in very poor efficiency at low load. In addition, there is no way of adjusting the voltage to keep it constant when the battery voltage or load changes. A high frequency type of square wave inverter is still in wide use d.c. lighting inverters. These can operate at high efficiency because they are specially designed to power a fixed load i.e. a single fluorescent tube. A performance improvement is realised with modified square wave inverters. In the modified square wave inverter, the width of the pulse can be adjusted to compensate for changes in battery voltage or losses. This maintains the same rms (route of the means squared or effective) voltage even though the peak voltage of the pulse may change. It also draws less power from the battery when the load has low power demands. As a result the modified square wave inverter provides excellent voltage regulation for the ac power, and is more efficient than the square wave inverter at low loads. They also have excellent surge power capacity which is useful for starting motors in particular. Modified square wave inverters are also sometimes called modified sine wave inverters, however this is really misleading terminology. The rectangular wave shapes produced by the square wave and modified square wave inverters contain many high frequency harmonics, i.e. the basic frequency of the wave shape is 50 Hz but there is also a lot of energy at 150 Hz, 250 Hz, 350 Hz, 450 Hz etc. (square waves contain all the odd harmonics). When motors are driven by these inverters they respond to the 50 Hz component but the motor is unable to respond to the high frequency harmonics. As a result these harmonics produce heat in the motor. This is not usually a problem unless the motor is in a very warm or unventilated place or the motor is of very cheap construction, e.g. common air circulation fan motors. The high frequency harmonics can also cause noise problems with radio, TV and communications equipment. Some appliances have trouble running off modified square wave inverters. This particularly applies to products with timers or variable speed control. The latest development of inverter technology is microprocessor based sine wave inverters. These inverters generally use high frequency switching to produce many small pieces of a sine wave, which are then smoothed out by a filter. This technique produces a waveform almost identical to the ideal sine wave over a wide range of loads. This avoids the problems with pulse-width modulated (PWM) square wave inverters and provides a higher quality waveform, which can run any type of appliance. Because of their microprocessor control, many sine wave inverters can also provide a large range of additional functions, such as: Battery voltage monitoring Inverter d.c. current monitoring Energy monitoring Grid or generator synchronisation Generator start / stop signals
12
Stand Alone Power
Both modified square wave inverters and sine wave inverters have an average efficiency of around 0.85 and a peak efficiency greater than 0.90. The efficiency of both types falls dramatically when supplying loads of less than 5 to 10% of their rated power output. This is illustrated in 0.
100 80 Efficiency (%)

2200 W Sine Wave
1500 W Modified Square Wave
60 40 20 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Inverter Output Power (W)

Efficiency vs load for two different inverters.
Other inverter types and system configurations

Two other categories of inverter are also significant in the SPS equipment market. So far, all of the inverter types mentioned have been uni-directional i.e. they only provide the function of power inversion (dc to ac). Since most systems also incorporate a battery charger which converts power in the reverse direction (from 230 V ac to extra-low-voltage dc), a device which can provide power flow in either direction may give cost savings in both equipment and installation labour. An inverter/charger is a unit which houses an inverter and a battery charger in the same box. They may produce either modified square wave or sine wave as output, and automatically change over the ac supply to loads from the inverter to the generator, and back again. An interactive inverter is a true bi-directional device which can convert power in either direction, and can actually synchronise its ac output with the generator. It has many advantages including a no-break power supply (no changeover time) auto start and stop of the genset and remote control via its internal microprocessor. All interactive inverters produce a sine wave output.
Selection & Sizing of Inverters

The inverter is sized to provide the maximum ac power demand. This means that the inverter is sized to meet the demand of those appliances that may in the worst reasonable case be required to operate at the same time, e.g. washing machine, refrigerator, pressure pump and a TV. Those appliances that automatically turn
13
Stand Alone Power
themselves on and off, such as refrigerators and water pressure pumps, must be included.
Example 2 A households appliances may include a washing machine (400VA) plus fridge (160VA) plus pump (260VA) plus TV (80VA): a total of 900VA. A 900VA inverter would be sufficient to power these appliances while running. It is important to also cater for current surges (on startup) of loads such as motors. In the above example the induction motor of the washing machine could surge to 7 times the normal operating current at start up. The inverter must therefore be able to surge to 7 times the power, i.e. 7 x 400VA = 2800VA. The other loads will be on at the same time, so the total surge load is 2800+160+260+80 = 3300 VA. The inverter must be capable of meeting both the maximum and surge demands. In practice it is found that most inverters can surge to about 2 to 3 times their rated power, which means that a 900 VA inverter probably would handle no more than a 2700 VA surge. Hence the inverter required to meet a 3.3 kVA surge will probably turn out to be one rated at about 1.1 - 1.6 kVA.
It is best to estimate or measure the apparent power consumption (VA) of each appliance rather than the true power (Watts) since the inverter must be able to supply the total current volts at any instance. Note that for any inductive or capacitive load the apparent power is greater than the true power and can be estimated as true power (Watts) . A typical value for power factor is 0.8. Neglecting to consider this power factor important point can result in an undersized inverter.
Battery chargers
The function of the battery charger is to use electrical energy from a diesel or petrol generator to recharge the battery bank. In other words, it converts ac power at mains voltage (230 V), to dc power at the battery voltage (e.g. 24V). There are two major types of battery chargers for lead acid batteries unregulated, and electronically regulated types
14
Stand Alone Power
The first is a standard transformer type charger. The charger will initially supply its rated current output to a battery with a low state of charge. As the battery voltage rises the charging current will fall, eventually stabilising at a final voltage with a trickle charge. Some chargers have provision to adjust the charge rate and final voltage e.g. by selecting different tappings on the transformer secondary winding. The electronically regulated charger provides a current limited maximum output and a regulated maximum voltage on the output. A constant current (the current limit) is supplied to the battery until it approaches full charge, at around the voltage regulation point. The current is then tapered off until a float level is reached, which maintains the battery at full charge. Some chargers of this type use high frequency switchmode techniques which remove the need for a large heavy transformer. This results in a smaller, lightweight charger. Chargers using microprocessor control may use more complex charging procedures. The major differences between these two chargers is that electronic regulation allows faster charging, giving maximum charge rate right up to the final voltage - and the final voltage can be accurately regulated. Accurate voltage regulation can prolong the life of any battery, but is especially important for sealed i.e. valve regulated, batteries. Battery charger efficiency would typically be 0.60 - 0.85 transformer type (unregulated or regulated) 0.80 - 0.95 high frequency switchmode, electronically regulated
Selection and Sizing of Battery Charger

The considerations for battery charger sizing are to be able to charge the battery in a reasonable time, and not to charge it too fast, especially when near fully charged. A simple rule of thumb to size the current rating of the charger is to use the 10 h charge rate, i.e. 10% of C10 (the 10 h capacity). If the C10 rating of the battery was 500 Ah, then a charger rated at 50A would be suitable. The maximum charge rate should be about 15% to 25% of C20 (the 20 hour capacity of the battery bank), so this sets the upper limit to the charger size. Since chargers are usually used with generator sets, the current drawn by the charger must not overload the generator. The charger should therefore have a maximum current draw at least 10% less than the generator capacity. Smaller battery chargers are often used but take longer times to recharge the battery bank. Battery chargers must also be chosen for the correct system voltage.
15
Stand Alone Power
Back-up generators
Because of the variable nature of renewable energy sources an auxiliary power supply is normally required. An internal combustion motor driven 230V a.c. alternator (genset) to provide power on demand, is the auxiliary power option most often selected. 0 shows how a charger and generator set may be added to an SPS. It is advantageous to use a 230V a.c. generator instead of a d.c. generator because : they are more reliable they are readily available off the shelf if another part of the system fails, e.g. the inverter, the generator set can still power the a.c. loads. It can also power the d.c. loads through the battery charger. It is important to maintain load on the generator since the diesel or petrol generator efficiency drops rapidly when operated below 50% of full load. At the same time the life span of diesel generators reduces quickly with low loads because of glazing of the cylinders. 0 demonstrates the cost effects of low loads. It can be seen that running the generator at less than 50% load is very costly.
Regulator Renewable Input

DC Control Board
(Also includes meters, switches etc.)
Renewable I/P cct protection DC charger cct protection DC Load cct protection
DC Load/s Petrol or Diesel generating set

( includes 240V output C/B )
BATTERY CHARGER
Main Battery Fusing
+
BATTERY
Configuration of back-up generator and charger
16
Stand Alone Power
Normalised Cost / kWh

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
8 kVA Diesel Generator
Percent of Rated Capacity
Energy Cost versus Load for a diesel generator. This graph is normalised to show the cost at full rated load as 1.
Sizing of Generator
The generator should be sized to match it to the largest electrical load, with a small safety margin. For simple systems, the largest load is usually the charger.
17
Stand Alone Power
Example 3
If the battery charger were rated at 24V and 100A maximum current and has an efficiency of 0.85, then the power consumed by the battery charger (PBC) at full load is 24V 100A = 2824 Watts (2.8 kW) 0.85
PBC =
If the power factor of the battery charger = 0.8 (a standard assumption), then the apparent power consumption of the battery charger (SBC) is as follows : 2.8 kW 0.8
SBC =
= 3.5 kVA
The generator, which is usually rated in kVA should be rated at least 10% greater than this, i.e. 3.5 1.1 = 3.85 kVA. Note that this power output must be de-rated depending on temperature, altitude and other factors. This will be dealt with in another book (Hybrid Energy Systems) in this series.
Circuit protection
All circuits require protection from overload currents. The function of circuit protection is to prevent the wiring from overheating. Typical circuit protection for a small PV SPS is shown in 0. There are two types of circuit protection in common use DC rated circuit breakers - these can be reset after the removal of the circuit fault. HRC fuses - High Rupture Capacity fuses must be replaced after the removal of the circuit fault. Automotive type or re-wirable fuses should not be used for circuit protection but can be used for appliance protection, at the appliance itself. Fuses and circuit breakers also provide a circuit isolation function (i.e. a circuit can be electrically isolated from the rest of the system so that work may be performed on it etc.)
18
Stand Alone Power
Battery cable protection

HRC fuses are normally used because of the large current requirement of the inverter (in a typical system), and because they are capable of interrupting the enormous fault current that a battery can produce under short circuit. This fusing is located as close as practicable to the battery to ensure that any unprotected cabling is as short as possible.
Renewable input protection

A d.c. circuit breaker or HRC fuse is normally located in the control board, electrically between the regulator and the battery.
Battery charger protection

A d.c. circuit breaker or HRC fuse is normally located in the charger itself.
DC load Protection
A d.c. circuit breaker or HRC fuse is normally located in the control board. Where more than one d.c. circuit is used, each sub-circuit will have individual protection and all sub-circuits should be protected by a Main d.c. Load fuse or circuit breaker.
AC circuit protection
AC circuits in a SPS should be wired by a qualified person and protected to the same standard as mains connected installations (AS 3000).
DC control board
The control board is normally the location of the majority of the systems dc interconnections. It also provides the logical mounting point for some of the circuit protection (mentioned above), isolation switches (if used) and metering. The circuit protection and isolation for the renewable power source and for the dc loads is normally located here. The minimum metering required is normally an ammeter to indicate the output of the renewable energy source, and a voltmeter showing battery voltage, which can give a rough indication of state of charge The other meter most often used is a load current ammeter to show the current supplied from the battery. Other equipment, such as a low voltage cutout or energy flow monitoring equipment can also be located at the control board.
19
Stand Alone Power
System efficiency
The efficiency of a complete SPS is best dealt with in terms of the efficiency of the sub-systems within it. For our purposes, these sub-systems are defined by the power flows in the system. The sub-system efficiency is the product of the efficiency of each component in the sub-system and is dependent upon the particular equipment selected. There are two sub-systems covered by this unit a) the renewable sourced battery charging sub-system, and b) the generator sourced battery charging sub-system. The sub-system efficiency is calculated using equation 2.4c from Unit 2:
TOT = 1 2 ... n.
The components in the renewable energy charging sub-system, and the associated losses are : Cable: Wiring losses between the renewable source and the regulator Regulator: Regulator losses Cable: Wiring losses between the regulator and the battery bank Battery: Battery losses
Note that the inverter efficiency is not included in the sub-systems efficiency calculations. This is because we have already accounted for energy lost in the inverter in our calculations of energy demand for an SPS (see section 8.3.2 of Unit 2). Example 4 The losses in a typical PV sub-system are a) PV to Regulator wiring loss is 5% (worst case) [ PV-R = 0.95 ] b) Regulator efficiency is 0.95 [ Reg = 0.95 ] c) where the regulator is adjacent to the battery bank the wiring loss is negligible [ R-B = 1 ] d) the battery efficiency is 0.80 (refer Unit 9 Energy Storage) [ Batt = 0.8 ] What is the sub-system efficiency? Solution:
SS
= 0.95 0.95 1 0.80 = 0.722 72%
= PV-R Reg R-B Batt
20
Stand Alone Power
The components in the generator charging sub-system, and the associated losses are: Battery Charger: Battery charger losses Cable: Wiring losses between the battery charger and the battery Battery: Battery losses Once we have calculated the sub-system efficiency and daily D.C. energy demand (Table 8, section 8.3.2, Unit 2), then we can calculate how much energy our generator must provide each day to overcome losses and supply the daily energy demand.
Example 5 For a transformer type battery charger the charger efficiency is 0.85 (best case) [ BC = 0.85 ] where the charger is adjacent to the battery bank the wiring loss is negligible [ BC-B = 1 ] the battery efficiency is 0.80 (refer Unit 9 Energy Storage) [ Batt = 0.8 ] What is the sub-system efficiency? Solution:
SS
= 0.85 1 0.80 = 0.68 = 68%
= BC BC-B Batt
Example 6 If the daily d.c. energy demand = 2.7 kWh and SS = 0.72, what must the generator supply on a daily basis? Solution: Daily Generator Output = 2.7 0.72 = 3.75 kWh.
21
Stand Alone Power
Glossary
Term add/shed regulators Description/Definition a PV regulator which disconnects parallel modules, or strings of modules in steps to control the current flow into the system measures the output current of the PV array converts a.c. power from a generator to d.c. power suitable for charging the system batteries measures the battery voltage - giving an approximate indication of the battery state of charge prevents reverse current flow to the generators the location of the majority of the systems dc interconnections. It also provides the mounting point for some of the circuit protection, isolation switches and metering. The circuit protection and isolation for the renewable power source and for the dc loads is normally located here. the positive and negative terminals of the battery, power sources, and loads are all connected together. The point of common connection is called the d.c. bus. It often exists physically as a terminal block with cables connected to it. an electronic device which converts dc power at one value of voltage and current, and converts it to dc power at another voltage and current. The power (product of voltage and current) remains the same, except for losses. It does for dc power what a transformer does for ac power. Not exceeding or 50 V a.c. or 120 V d.c. ripple-free ref AS3000 section 7.7 and AS 4509 Field control regulator A regulator which controls the voltage and current output of rotating machines (alternators and dc generators) by controlling the magnetic field of the machine. The strength of the magnetic field is varied by changing the field current. parts of a waveform which actually have a frequency which is some multiple of the fundamental waveform frequency. E.g. if the fundamental if 50 Hz, harmonics may exist at 100 Hz, 150 Hz, 200 Hz, 250 Hz etc. High Rupture Capacity fuse, particularly good for d.c. currents. These fuses are capable of extinguishing the arc produced when the fuse blows. a true bi-directional device which can convert power, from ac to dc or vice versa, and can synchronize its ac output with a generator or other ac power source
Array Ammeter Battery Charger Battery Voltmeter Blocking Diode control board
DC bus
DC-DC converter
Extra-Low Voltage
harmonics
HRC Fuse
interactive inverter
22
Stand Alone Power
Term Inverter inverter/charger isolation Maximum Power Point Tracking regulator modified square wave inverter Regulator Self regulating modules
Description/Definition converts d.c. power to a.c. at 230 Volts, as required by standard household appliances houses an inverter and a battery charger in the same box a circuit can be electrically isolated from the rest of the system so that work may be performed on it etc. a dc-dc converter which operates in such a way as to ensure that the PV array operates at its maximum power output under any conditions. an inverter which produces a waveform like a square wave, but with a delay period at zero volts between the two half cycles. regulates/manages the flow of current to the battery to maximise state of charge and extend battery life. PV modules which have a lower open circuit voltage and knee voltage compared to the standard modules. They have fewer cells than standard modules e.g. 33 instead of 36. a regulator which uses a variable resistance element in series with the battery to limit the current flow. A voltage sensor controls the resistance to control current flow a regulator which disconnects the input when the battery becomes fully charged. a regulator which uses a current shunting element in parallel with the input in order to dissipate excess power from the source produces a waveform almost identical to the ideal sine wave over a wide range of loads the most simple form of inverter, which has a square output voltage waveform a system which supplies electric power to a user, and is not connected to the power distribution systems of an electricity supply authority. Stand-alone power systems are supplied with power from one or more of a number of sources including but not limited to: a photovoltaic array, a wind turbine generator, a micro-hydro generator or a engine generator set. the product of the efficiency of each component In the subsystem, excluding the inverter. Volt-Amps. This is a.c. apparent power, Volts x Amps.
series regulator
series switched regulator shunt regulator
sine wave inverter square wave inverter Stand-alone Power System (SPS).
sub-system efficiency VA
23
Stand Alone Power
Bibliography
Buresch, M.,(1983) Photovoltaic Energy Systems- Design and Installation. McGraw-Hill Book Company Dunlop Batteries Australia, (1976) Dunlop Traction Batteries - Installation and Maintenance Manual Dunlop Australia Limited- Automotive and Industrial Group, Sandringham, Victoria. Manders, J., (1984) Lead-Acid Batteries For Remote Power Systems Australian Lead Development Association, Melbourne. Paul, T., (1981) How To Design An Independent Power System Best Energy Systems For Tomorrow, Inc., USA. Pedals, P (1993) Energy From Nature - A Complete Guide To Independent Energy Systems Rainbow Power Company , Nimbin, NSW , Australia. Twidell, J., & Weir, A., (1986) Renewable Energy Resources E & F.N. Spon Publishers, London and New York. Victorian Solar Energy Council (1989). Remote Area Power Supply VSEC: Melbourne.
24
Stand Alone Power
For more information contact: Australian Flexible Learning Framework Phone: (07) 3307 4700 Fax: (07) 3259 4371 Email: enquiries@flexiblelearning.net.au Website: flexiblelearning.net.au GPO Box 1326 Brisbane QLD 4001
25

Stand Alone Power

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Stand Alone Power

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Stand Alone Power