INTERACTIVE SIMULATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:

ETAP APPLICATIONS AND TECHNIQUES

Keith Brown Student Member, IEEE Herminio Abcede, Member, IEEE
Ooeration Tichnolow. Inc. Flour Daniel Inc.
Iriine, California -- Irvine, California
Farrokh Shokooh Senior Member, IEEE Gary Donner Member IEEE.
Operation Technoiogy, Inc. Texaco Refiding and harketmg
Irvine, California Los Ange1es;California

Abstract base including (optionally) load flow and/or

short circuit results.
For many years electrical engineers have
relied on the power (but not necessarily the ETAP, while capable of handling 1000 buses,
convenience) of mainframe computers to ana- contains a load schedule program which tracks
lyze and design power systems. Recent advanc- up to 10,000,000 load items, and reports the
es in microcomputers have brought the power voltage and short-circuit current at the
of mainframe computing to the desktop, paving terminals of each load item. This capability
the way for straight-forward, easy to use makes ETAP suitable for large industrial
engineering applications which are designed facilities, as well as utility systems.
especially for the personal computer. ETAP 5.5 includes the following programs :
System studies are an integral part of power * One Line Diagram
system engineering and design. A structured * Load Flow
computer program that uses technically cor- * Short Circuit
rect models, employs a user-friendly inter- * Dynamic Stability
face, uses a common data base, and traps user * Motor Acceleration
errors is a powerful tool which greatly en- * Motor Starting
hances the engineer's efficiency and produc- * Cable Derating
tivity. ETAP is an engineering design and * Cable Pulling
analysis program which satisfies these cri- * Ground Grid Design
teria. In addition, ETAP performs numerical * Induction Machine Parameter Estimation
calculations with tremendous speed, automati- * Induction Machine TorqueISlip Curve
cally applies industry accepted standards, * Load Schedule
and provides easy to follow output reports.
This paper discusses solution techniques used
by ETAP for various problems, as well as Common Data Base
other features that make ETAP unique.
A complete system analysis includes load
flow, short circuit, and transient stability
Introduction studies. Because of the unique data sharing
capability of ETAP's programs, the data for
The Electrical Transient Analyzer Program, an entire system needs to be entered only
commonly known as ETAP, began as a mainframe once with three user-friendly editors (Bus,
program and was rewritten for the PC as an Branch, and Machine). By not having to contin-
interactive power system analysis and design ually enter data, the user is free to concen-
tool. Significant effort has been made to trate his attention on analytical tasks,
insure that ETAP will provide the user with rather than bookkeeping. Errors in data input
the highest possible technical accuracy, are thus reduced and more meaningful study
while maintaining a thoroughly user-friendly results are obtained.
format.
The common data base exemplifies the inter-
active nature of ETAP. Separate data editors
for Bus, Branch, and Machine data allow the
user to model the system in a common data
base. User-edited libraries provide typical
data which can be substituted into the data
! 1
base upon request. When system studies are to
be performed, ETAP automatically extracts the
necessary parameters from the common data
base. An interface with AutoCad is provided
to automatically produce a detailed one-line
diagram of the network modeled in the data

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 Often, when conducting system studies, the
engineer does not have a complete set of
input data, i.e. data is not available for
certain machines, transformers, etc. The ETAP
data editors are equipped with a large set of
typical data for these situations. Based on
information already entered (such as voltage
rating), ETAP will automatically substitute
typical data into the appropriate data fields
upon request.
As indicated in Figure 1, ETAP data editors
accept raw manufacturer data in standard NEMA
form, as well as in per unit values, giving
the user added flexibility.
using a new program often requires spending a
considerable amount of time flipping through
manuals to figure out what the computer is
asking for in a certain entry field. On-line
tutorials in the ETAP editors all but
eliminate this problem. Each entry field has
its own tutorial which is printed at the
bottom of the screen. Another useful feature
is the comprehensive error trapping that is
continually occurring within the program
while data is being entered. If the editor
detects an unreasonable input, especially one
which will result in meaningless study
results, the user is immediately alerted, and
given instructions on how to correct the
mistake.
There are actually four levels of error detec-
tion in ETAP. As described above, during data
entry, ETAP checks each data input for valid-
ity. When exiting a data editor, ETAP again
checks the data for errors. A third error
check is made before any study is run, check-
ing the validity of the data extracted from
the common data base. Finally, run-time er-
rors are trapped during program execution.
ETAP contains an on-line power conversion
calculator which can be invoked from the data
editors by pressing a function key. Real and
reactive power, voltage, current, and power
factor can be calculated and substitute&
directly into the editors.
A graphic representation of the network mod-
eled in tha common data base can be generated
w i n g ET-'. One-Line Diagram. This program
1931
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is an interface with AutoCad whereby the user
can create a detailed one-line diagram with-
out the assistance of a draftsman or CAD
operator. The program automatically extracts
data from the common data base and generates
the one-line diagram, optionally indicating
load flow and/or short circuit study results
on the drawing.
XFRW 13
10,000 YVA
New XFRW XFRY TRB
7.500 YVA 7.500 YVA
13.80-2.40 k V 13.80-2.40 k V
- 12.0 L'R 14.0 X/R
Figure 2. ETAP One-Line Diagram
Load Flow
Load flow studies are essential in the plan-
ning and operation of electrical systems. The
results obtained from a load flow study (in
conjunction with short-circuit study results)
are used to size capacitors, feeders, trans-
formers, and current-limiting reactors. Wheth-
er designing a new system, or analyzing an
existing one, factors such as voltage drop,
load capacity, power factor constraints,
steady-state stability limits, transformer
tap settings, and generator excitation levels
must be considered. The load flow study aids
in the evaluation of these factors, and pro-
vides a convenient way of predicting the
effects of system modification and expansion.
The two most commonly used methods for calcu-
lating load flow are Gauss-Seidel and Newton-
Raphson [1,2]. The Gauss-Seidel method starts
with an initial guess of bus voltages. Using
the scheduled power injected into the buses
as well as the most immediate voltages of the
other buses, the voltage at each bus is recal-
culated. These corrected voltages are then
used to recalculate the voltages at all buses
except the swing bus, continuing until all
bus voltages have been evaluated, thus com-
pleting the first iteration. Iterations con-
tinue until all voltage corrections are less
than a specified precision. A modification to
this method is the Accelerated Gauss-Seidel
method, which uses an acceleration factor tn
a p e d up the convergence of the solution.
 Like Gauss-Seidel, the Newton-Raphson method of iterations. All system parameters are
is an iterative algorithm for solving a set extracted from the ETAP common data base.
of nonlinear simultaneous equations. At each
iteration, the Jacobian matrix is used as a The standard output report produced by ETAP
linear approximation for calculating a new lists all input parameters on separate pages:
set of bus voltages. This results in a qua- bus input parameters, linejcable parameters,
dratic convergence of the solution. However, and transformer and reactor parameters. The
this method is sensitive to the initial guess load flow results show bus voltages, loads,
of bus voltages, as well as the level of generation, and power flows, as well as
system nonlinearity. To overcome the initial transformer tap setting.
condition dependency, the Newton-Raphson
method is preceded by a few iterations of Equipment exposed to undervoltage or over-
Gauss-Seidel. voltage can be severely damaged and can pre-
vent the efficient operation of machinery.
Due to the nature of the Newton-Raphson meth- Overloaded cables and transformers have con-
od, extremely large humps in the admittance siderably reduced life expectancies. When
matrix could delay or even prevent solution conducting a load flow study, these con-
convergence. Depending on the system configu- ditions are of paramount importance to the
ration and impedances, the Newton-Raphson and engineer. ETAP provides four optional summary
Gauss-Seidel methods converge at different reports to bring this information to the
speeds. It is therefore advantageous to have engineer's attention:
both methods available. The load flow analy-
sis package in ETAP provides both the Newton- * Overvoltage Buses
Raphson and the Accelerated Gauss-Seidel * Undervoltage Buses
methods, providing the flexibility needed to * Overloaded Branches
model loop and radial systems efficiently. * Branch Losses and Voltage Drop
Since some systems may be solved even faster
by raising or lowering the acceleration The user simply specifies the voltage or
factor, ETAP allows the user to adjust this loading limits, and ETAP lists all violations
factor. Other adjustable solution controls in the respective summary reports. Figure 3
include the precision and the maximum number shows a sample ETAP load flow output report.

Motor Load
---------__-
------_____-
MU Mvar
----_ _____
* 1 Main A Gen. 13.80 100.0 1.3 25.00 7.43 .oo .oo

2 Rain B Load 13.80 99.4 -.5 .OO .00 .oo .oo .00 -1.97 2 13 1.70 2.15 115. 62.0
2 100 -2.25 -1.62 117. 81.1
2 100 -2.24 -1.62 116. 81.1
2 5 2.61 1.99 138. 79.6 -2.500
2 8 .oo .oo 0. .o
2 6 .19 1.08 46. 17.1 -2.500
* 3 Rain C Gen. 13.80 100.0 1.6 25.00 8.27 .oo .oo .OO .OO 3 14 3.76 2.29 184. 85.5
3 9 1.95 1.29 98. 83.5
3 100 7.80 1.61 333. 97.9 -.625
3 100 7.84 1.62 335. 97.9 -.625
3 6 3.65 1.46 .%11 92.8 -2.500
4 Sub. 2-A Load '2.40 100.9 -.1 .00 .oo 2.45 1.52 .oo .00 4 1 -3.19 -1.71 862. 88.1 2.500
4 5 .74 .19 182. 96.9
5 Sub. 2-B Load 2.40 100.2 -1.6 .00 .00 3.34 2.07 .OO .OO 5 4 -.74 -.17 182. 97.5
5 2 -2.60 -1.90 774. 80.7 2.500
6 Sub.6AlB Load 2.40 100.7 -.5 .00 .00 3.82 2.37 .OO .OO 6 2 -.19 -1.07 259. 17.2 2.500
6 3 -3.63 -1.30 922. 94.1 2.500
7 FCCU -A Load 4.16 99.7 -.7 .00 .00 6.00 .OO .OO .OO 7 1 -6.00 .OO 835. 100.0
8 FCCU -B Load 4.16 99.4 -.5 .00 .00 .oo .oo .oo .oo 8 2 .oo .oo 0. .o
9 Linc end Load 13.80 99.9 1.6 .00 .00 .oo .oo .oo .oo 9 3 -1.95 -1.28 98. 83.5
v 10 1.95 1.28 98. 83.5

Figure 3 . ETAP Load Flow Output Report

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 Short-circuit
Short-circuit studies are performed for an
electric power system in order for the engi-
neer to determine an adequate protection
scheme for the system and to coordinate the
operation of protective devices during fault
conditions. Almost instantaneously, short-
circuit currents produce powerful magnetic
forces and intense heat in the power system,
which can result in considerable damage to
affected equipment if not promptly inter-
rupted. These values of short-circuit
currents must be determined by the engineer
to ensure that the short-circuit ratings of
all equipment are adequate to handle the
currents available at their locations. In
addition, the engineer can use data about
these currents in conjunction with time-
current characteristics of protective devices
to determine the required relay settings and
fuse ratings to achieve coordinated operation
during faults. A properly coordinated protec-
tion system will generally result in fast and
selective isolation of faulted equipment with
minimum equipment outage.
Calculation of short-circuit currents for
industrial power systems tend to be more
complex because of the mixture of sources
contributing currents to the fault. In a
typical modern industrial system the basic
sources of fault currents are the utility,
the in-plant generation, and synchronous and
induction motors. These sources contribute
additional exponentially decaying currents
which make fault current magnitudes at
Various locations time dependent. ANSI, IEEE,
and IEC provide recommendations [3,4,5] as to
how the decay of the ac and dc components of
By doing so, a more accurate representation
of the power system is achieved. The user has
the option of choosing either method.
ETAP provides two methods for selecting the
X/R ratio of individual machines. The first
method, Variable X/R Ratio, calculates the
X/R ratio using the subtransient reactances
for 112 cycle currents, and transient reac-
tances for 1.5 to 4 cycle currents. The
second method, Fixed X/R Ratio, calculates
the X/R ratio using the subtransient
reactance for both 112 cycle and 1.5 to 4
cycle fault currents. This method is
consistent with the IEEE adjustment tables
which consider the X/R ratio a measure of the
time constant of the exponentially decaying
dc component during a fault at the machine
terminals. Note that the fixed X/R ratio does
not imply a varying armature resistance, but
is included merely for consistency with the
way the multiplying factor tables have been
formed.
For branches, the impedances of transformers
and current-limiting reactors are adjusted if
tolerances are specified. ETAP automatically
uses the lower impedance values for conserva-
tive results. The reactance representation
that ETAP uses for the different sources in
calculating the 112, 1.5 to 4 and 30 cycle
fault currents are summarized in Table 1,
where XI1 represents utility short-circuit
reactance and machine subtransient reactance,
and represents machine transient reac-
tance. This reactance selection is automa-
tically performed by ETAP.

2
fault currents from various sources should be
considered in fault calculations.
Contributions
From Cycle Cycle Cycle
The ETAP Short-circuit program is a user-
friendly, fully interactive program for utilities
calculating rms values of fault currents
corresponding to different time periods after Synchronous X '1 X" X'
fault occurrence. Specifically, it calculates
the 112 cycle, 1.5 to 4 cycle and 30 cycle Generators
m s symmetrical fault currents for three- X"
phase, line-to-ground, line-to-line and Synchronous X'
line-to-line-to-ground faults. Motors
Induction X" X'
For calculating device duties, provides ETAp Motors
two methods for determining X/R ratios. The
first method, which is in full compliance
with ANSI and IEEE Standards, finds the Table 1. Recommended reactance representation
equivalent resistance and reactance of the for utilities and machines in short-circuit
entire system, resulting in a single valued calculations.
X/R ratio for a given fault location. The
second method differs from the first in that
it combines the individual branch current
contributions (each with a separate X/R
ratio) into a total value. This method, Table 2 presents typical reactances that the
unique to ET-, assumes the individual branch program will automatically use for induction
contributions to be exponentially decaying motors of varying sizes if the user decides
currents, with time constants corresponding to use this feature of ETAP [ 6 ] . As in the
to the equivalent X/R ratios of the other programs, the user can access typical
individual branches. For each time period, data for use by the short-circuit program by
these exponential currents are evaluated and pressing a function key during data entry.
summed to get the total fault duty at a bus. Table 2 presents a locked-rotor current (LRC)
The IEEE method was designed for simple of 650% for medium voltage and 600% for low
manual calculations. As a result, it yields voltage motors. Using these LRC's, the
conservative results to insure safety. With corresponding subtransient and transient
the power of today's computers, ETAP is able reactances for the given HP size and speed
to track individual fault contributions and ratings are reported based on ANSI and/or
their rates of decay. IEEE recommendations.
1933

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 The short-circuit results are printed in a
format that can easily be understood by even
the novice user. Selection of appropriate
breaker duties and bus bracing for each
location in the power system is directly
obtained from the printout. ETAP applies all
@ 41800 rpm appropriate ANSI, IEEE, IEC, and UL standards
and procedures for device duty selection. For
relay setting and coordination, fault contri-
butions from all branches in the network to a
given fault location ?ay be calculated and
X'=3.0 X" printed. This calculation is facilitated by
an efficient, fast, and reliable algorithm
using the bus impedance matrix with nodal
injection method. Table 3 summarizes the
application of the ETAP Short-circuit program
output data.
Table 2. Typical parameters recommended for
induction motors for use in short-circuit
calculations (if actual data is unavailable). 112 Cycle 1.5-4 30 Cycle
Except for a LRC of 650 % for MV motors, all Currents Cycle Currents
parameters are based on ANSIIIEEE standards. Currents
When calculating 112 cycle and 1.5 to 4 cycle Mv CI Closing &
fault currents for ac high-voltage circuit Latching zapability
breakers, synchronous generators are modeled Capability
with the same reactance (subtransient). Note
that this results in the same generator rms LV Cf Interrupting
symmetrical contribution for both 112 cycle Capability
and 1.5 to 4 cycle fault currents, i.e., no
ac decay. However, the symmetrical interrupt- Fuse Interrupting
ing fault current for each bus is calculated Capability
as a combination of the utility, generator
and motor contributions. For this reason, the SWGR/ Bus Bracing
program determines from the network config- ICC
uration if a generator contribution to a
given fault location is local or remote based Relab Instantaneous --- Overcurrent
on the amount of impedance separating the Settings Settings
generator from the fault location. Therefore, -
for a given fault, the percentage of local
and remote contributions is determined to Table 3 . Device duty and usage of fault cur-
calculate the NACD (No AC Decay) ratio. For rent contributions.
the remote component, a multiplying factor
with no ac decrement is applied while for the Figure 4 contains a sample ETAP short-circuit
local component a factor with both ac and dc output report indicating fault contributions
decrement is used. one bus level away from the faulted bus.

Three-phase f a u l t a t bus nuker: 1 Main A , 13.80 kV bus ( Prefault Voltage = 100.00 X )

*.***********.****

Contritution To
F r m Bus BUS
------ ----- s=ii==

No. Name No.

--__- _--___-_- _ _ _ _
12 5A Cable 1 .94 .124 -1.890 15.2 1.894
100 Utility 1 82.14 .238 -9.310 39.1 9.313
100 Utility 1 82.14 .241 -9.310 38.6 9.313
4 Sub. 2-A 1 23.30 .071 -1.372 19.4 1.374
7 FCCU - A 1 20.3s .o60 -1.418 23.8 1.419
101 Gen. #1 ' 1 100.00 .129 -11.536 89.5 11.537

Manentary Duty: Spmetrical = 34.848 M rms

Aspmetrical = 58.077 W rms ( MF = 1.667, X/R = 53.3 frm separate R B X networks )
Asyrmetrical = 55.756 M rms ( MF = 1.60 a t X/R = 25.0 )

CB Capability = 77.000 M rms

Interrupting Duty: syrmetrical = 33.936 M rms ( NAU) r a t i o = .66 )

Aspmetrical = 46.238 M rms ( MF = 1.362, X I R = 54.7 frm separate R B X networks )

CB Capability = 40.200 W rm6 ( 5 cycle CB, total current r a t i n g bnsis )

Figure 4. ETAP sample short-circuit report.

1934

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 mansient (Dynamic) Stability
Over the years, the size and complexity of
utility power systems have increased tremen-
dously with the additions of large power
plants and long distance high-voltage ties
between utility power pools. Similarly,
industrial power systems, particularly oil
refineries, have grown in size and complexity
with the popularity of in-plant cogeneration
systems and large synchronous and induction
motor drives. As these power systems grow
bigger and become more complex, the need to
predict system behavior more accurately, both
dynamic and steady-state, has also increased.
In this paper! the words transient and
dynamic stabilities are used interchangeably
since both are commonly used to indicate
studies which include the machine swing
equations.
For a typical industrial power system consist-
ing of induction and synchronous motors,
in-plant synchronous generators, and utility
interties, a power system engineer using
ETAP investigates two types of system
instabilities. The first type of transient
stability study investigates the system behav-
ior during the first cycle of the machine
power angle swing. This study is commonly
known as the first swing analysis. First
swing analyses can cover disturbances such as
faults, generator rejection, abrupt dropping
of a large load, and loss of utility ties. A
simulation time of 1 second is typically
adequate for this type of study. The second
type of stability analysis is commonly refer-
red to as multi-swing analysis and requires
more sophisticated simulation models and
numerical solution techniques to accurately
predict system performance over a relatively
longer simulation time.
A good stability analysis program employs
technically accurate simulation models for
various power system components, namely,
generators, generator excitation systems,
prime mover speed-governing systems, synchro-
nous motors, induction motors, static loads
and system equivalents.
The ETAP stability program includes all of
the above simulation models. Moreover, it
uses efficient numerical techniques to solve
the differential equations of the simulation
models and the algebraic equations for the
network. All relevant system parameters are
extracted from the common data base, and the
load flow program is automatically run prior
to the stability solution. The ETAP stability
program 1s fully menu-driven. An input menu
screen with an on-line tutorial is provided
for each power system component to be includ-
ed in the study. Running the program and
accessing the output are as simple as press-
ing a series of function keys. Although the
ETAP stability program is designed for indus-
trial power systems, it could also be used
For most utility power systems, except for
those with HVDC interties.
The simulation models and the required
parameters of the ETAP stability program are
deecribed in the following paragraphs.
For synchronoum machines,
implemented. The simpler
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include the effects of damper windings, while
the more complex model does [ 7 ] . Machine
parameters including subtransient, transient
and synchronous reactances and time constants
are used in the more sophisticated model. As
such, this model is suitable for studies that
concentrate on damping of machine oscilla-
tions. The effect of magnetic saturation is
considered for both models. Total inertia
constant for the generator and prime mover is
also a required input.
For excitation systems, different models are
provided from which a user can select the
type that best matches the actual exciter to
be used [ 8 ] . These include: IEEE Type 1 -
Continuously Acting Regulator With Rotating
Exciter System; IEEE Type 2 Rotating -
Rectifier Exciter With Static Regulator
System; and IEEE Type 3 -
Static System With
Terminal Potential.
The IEEE Type 1 excitation system is represen-
tative of the majority of modern systems now
in service and presently being supplied. As
variations of the Type 1 excitation system,
Type 2 and Type 3 have similarities to Type
1. The Type 2 system applies to units with
the main input to the damping loop provided
from the regulator output rather than the
exciter output. Although the regulator trans-
fer function of the Type 3 is similar to Type
1, the regulator output is combined with a
signal which represents the self-excitation
from the generator terminals. This feature
makes Type 3 different from Type 1.
Three models are provided €or governor-
turbine systems to represent the most common-
ly used turbines and governing systems [ 9 ] .
Type ST is used for steam turbine, Type GT
for gas turbine, while Type GP models a
general turbine prime mover application. The
mathematical derivations of these models are
consistent with the IEEE Committee Report on
governors and turbines.
Induction machines are represented dynamical-
ly by their equivalent circuit as obtained
either from locked rotor test data or from
manufacturer's performance curves. ETAP pro-
vides two induction machine models. The sin-
pler model (Figure 5) uses a single-rotor
equivalent circuit with an internal voltage
source behind the machine locked-rotor reac-
tance and stator resistance. The slip of the
machine is a variable and is calculated from
the acceleration equation. Changes in rotor
flux linkages are considered in the model.
The second model includes the effects of
rotor deep bars and double cage machines.
Electrical dynamics in the rotor circuit are,
therefore, represented more accurately with
this model.
Other parameters that are required for both
models include the combined inertia constant
of motor and load and the mechanical load
torque-speed characteristic. In cases where
the circuit parameters are not known, the
parameters can be estimated from manufactur-
er's performance curves, namely, torque,
current, and power factor versus speed
two modelm are curves, using the ETAP induction motor
model does not parameter estimation program.
 ETAP provides a total of six time events for
specifying the occurrence times of the net-
work changes. The first time event is default-
ed at time T=O.O while all the other time
events are user-specified. The seventh time
event corresponds to the total simulation
out# 4 time. Up to a maximum of 4 2 network changes
8.98B N czm P= 48) can be specified per time event, which is
out mtor load:
P= 2,458 N generally adequate for simulation of most
9- 1.serullR
9.W PaRr Factor commonly occurring system disturbances.
out uoltage: llachlne I l24
Unag. =1W.93x llachlne I125
uang. = -8.86 aeg. A print/plot menu is provided in the ETAP
stability program for use in selecting the
variables to be included in the program out-
put report. The calculated values of these
variables are printed out at an interval
corresponding to the specified time step or
multiples thereof. A plot of these values as
a time function may also be included in the
output if the user so specifies. The vari-
The available models for synchronous motors ables that the user can specify for inclusion
are identical to those for synchronous genera- in the program output report are:
tors, however, the excitation system and
speed-governing system are not represented. * Synchronous machine power angles
Field excitation is considered constant dur- * Generator exciter voltages
ing the simulation. The required subtransient * Bus voltages and frequencies
and transient parameters for the more sophis- * Induction motor slips
ticated model allow the damping of machine * Branch power flows
oscillations to be investigated more closely * Apparent impedances
as the system frequency changes during a
transient. The various study categories for which the
ETAP stability program may be used are:
Other loads are modeled either as constant
kVA or constant impedance loads. In the con- Generator Parameter Specifications
stant kVA model, the load volt amperes is which may involve determining generator
held constant only within a specified range. reactances, generator-turbine combined
When the voltage goes out of this range, the inertia, and unit transformer reactance
model automatically reverts to constant imped- to achieve a certain stability margin
ance. With constant impedance representation, for the generator as part of a system
the load real and reactive power vary as a under specified disturbances;
function of voltage squared. In the ETAP
stability program, motor representation can Generator Control which may cover spe-
be switched from dynamic models to constant cific areas, namely, excitation re-
kVA and vice versa for a particular simula- sponse time, excitation voltage ceil-
tion by pressing a single function key. If ing, and generator dynamic breaking for
the detailed response of a given motor is not investigation relative to system tran-
important for the case being studied, then sient performance;
the constant kVA representation is used for
that particular run. In general this results System Control which may deal wfth
in less computing time. controlled separation of various is-
lands of a utility system and also load
In the ETAP stability program, the swing bus shedding to prevent system collapse
is automatically represented as a constant during an overload condition of an
voltage of constant frequency behind a fixed ascended subsystem;
impedance corresponding to the fault avail-
ability at the bus. This is done by the pro- Plant Equipment which may cover various
gram without user intervention. With this conditions relating to the starting of
representation, the swing bus acts as a sink large motors and their stability during
or source of power as the system oscillates fault disturbances in the system;
after a disturbance. Generally, the presence
of a swing bus in a given simulation results Transmission System Design which could
in a better transient stability margin for address items such as line design,
the system. voltage level, requirements for interme-
diate switching stations, voltage sup-
Simulation of system disturbances in the ETAP port, series compensation and shunt
stability program is carried out by inputting compensation relative to transient
a series of switching events in the dynamic stability performance of the system;
simulation menu. This menu is used to specify
the network changes such as short circuit, Transmission Line Protection which may
load/generator rejection, circuit switching, study breaker and relaying speeds,
and/or impact loading situations. The menus breaker schemes, automatic reclosing
provide for entry of the type of switching and transfer tripping relative to criti-
along with their time of occurrences. The cal fault clearing time.
specific network changes that are allowed in
ETAP are branch addition and deletion, and
bus revision (swing, generator, load, delete,
fault, and accelerate)
1936

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 Motor Acceleration user to accelerate motors under a variety of
circumstances.
In large industrial power systems and power
plants, acceleration or re-acceleration of The required data €or this study are de-
large motor drives is always necessary. It is scribed previously under the Transient (Dynam-
therefore crucial f o r the design engineer to ic) Stability Program. The motor to be start-
predict accurately whether or not a large ed is modeled dynamically, preferably using
motor would be able to successfully start and the induction motor double cage model. This
to determine how long it would take to reach is generally an accurate representation for
the steady state condition. If analysis any ac starting motor since the rotor reac-
indicates that operating problems would tance and resistance generally change with
arise, the engineer can then identify neces- the machine speed. The torque-speed character-
sary changes or adjustments to the system istics of the driven load are specified by
during its design stage. I f problems are not indicating its shape and the machine loading
accurately predicted, then practical solu- at the steady state condition. ETAP uses a
tions at the later stage of plant testing may curve fitting program to form a 5th order
be limited and uneconomical. A computer pro- polynomial for the load torque. For no-load
gram that is based on technically accurate starting, the final value of the load torque
simulation models for motor acceleration and can be either zero or a small value to re-
re-acceleration analysis is therefore very flect motor friction and windage losses.
useful to an engineer to help investigate all
the W h a t ift1 scenarios early in the design ETAP can provide a compplete load flow report
of the system. at each time event, i.e., at the first time
event (T=O.O before starting), second time
The ETAP stability program has the capability event, and so on including the end of simula-
to simulate motor acceleration or re- tion time. As described earlier in this pa-
acceleration dynamically. Motors to be per, plots and print outs of the different
started are specified in the dynamic simula- motor variables as functions of time can be
tion menu as machines to be accelerated in a requested from the program printlplot menu to
specific time event. In addition, other net- obtain a complete picture of the motor accel-
work changes can be specified at the instant eration. A sample motor acceleration curve
of motor starting. This feature allows the generated by ETAP is shown in Figure 6.

~ n d .motor Slip (X) vs Time (Secwds)

104 (3500 HP ) - 124 (1250 HP ) - X 125 (700 HP 1 - +

33.3
.oooo
.0500

.3500
.4000
.4500

.5500
.6000 +
.6500
.7000
.?so0
.woo + *
.a500 + *
.woo .I +
.E500 +
--
X

1.2500
1.3000 *
1.3500

1.6500 +x
r.moo t*
1.7500 +x
1.8ooo it
1.8500 +x
1.9000 +x
1.9500 *I

Figure 6. Sample Motor Acceleration Output Plot

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 Cable m a t i n g ETAP-CD contains many extra features tailored
especially for the design engineer.
Electrical power systems are only as reliable User-friendly data entry menus as well as a
as the cables that network them together. A cable library database make the cable derat-
complete analysis of a power system should ing process straight-forward and hassle free.
therefore include an analysis of the cable Since the design engineer starts from
ampacities. This analysis is complicated scratch, simply finding the temperature rise
since the ampacity of a conductor varies with of cables in a given installation is not
different installation configurations. Ampaci- sufficient. This is why ETAP-CD includes
ty is defined as "the current in amperes a special options for sizing cables and optimiz-
conductor can carry continuously under the ing ampacities.
conditions of use (conditions of the surround-
ing medium in which the cables are installed) Finding ampacities which optimize the amount
without exceeding its temperature rating." of current that can flow through a given
Therefore, a cable ampacity study is the underground installation would usually be
calculation of the temperature rise of the done by trial and error, but with the Find
conductors in a cable system under steady Ampacities option, the engineer simply enters
state conditions. The National Electrical the maximum rated temperature for the cables
Code (NEC) [lo] now accepts the Neher-McGrath in the duct bank, and ETAP-CD finds ampaci-
method [11] of determining the ampacities of ties which will bring each conductor to the
conductors. NEC gives ampacity tables for a specified temperature, thus maximizing the
few specific configurations, but since most current through the entire installation.
practical applications have yore complex Alternatively, it may be desirable to run
configurations than those given in the each unique cable size at the same ampacity.
tables, the engineer must turn to a computer ETAP-CD computes these ampacities just as
program which calculates the temperatures of easily. If the loading requirements are known
each conductor in the installation, and for each cable, and the cable sizes have not
verifies that they do not exceed the rated been determined, selecting the Size Cables
maximum temperature. ETAP Cable Derating option tells ETAP-CD to choose adequate cable
Program (ETAP-CD) is based on the sizes from the library.
Neher-McGrath method, and not onl-y calculates
temperature rise in cables, but also contains User-friendliness is an important aspect that
options for sizing cables, and optimizing is often overlooked in engineering applica-
ampacities. tions. Special care has been taken to make
data entry as simple as possible in ETAP-CD.
When an electrical current flows through a A separate menu was designed to aid in the
cable, it generates heat. The type of cable entry of repetitive data which also calcu-
and its location in the installation are two lates the spacing of the cables for direct
of the factors which determine how many compo- substitution into the appropriate entry
n nts of heat generation are present, such as field. popup menus allow the user to select a
5
I R losses, sheath losses, dielectric loss- run option (see Figure 7).
es, and so on. The heat flows from these
sources through a series of thermal resistanc-
es to the surrounding environment [12]. The
cable operating temperature is directly
related to the amount of heat generated and
the effective thermal resistance through -
which it flows. The Neher-McGrath method -
ill
I
involves the application of a series of 1
1
thermal equivalents of Ohm's and Kirchoff's I
laws to a thermal circuit. This circuit 2
2
includes several parallel paths with heat 2
entering at several points. The steady state 3
3
Conductor temperature can be determined by 3
4
the temperature differential created across
the thermal resistances as the heat flows to
the ambient temperature.
-4
4
Clrarlt uller)*ulber or Iu=der Mber
lun
Important characteristics of the installation
that determine thermal resistance between the Figure 7. ETAP-CD Cable Location Menu
cable and the ultimate surrounding environ-
ment include the type of conduit (steel, PVC,
etc.), the depth of the underground installa- The output report can be printed by pressing
tion, the thermal resistivity of the earth a single function key. All input parameters
surrounding the installation, and the conduc- (including any data extracted from the li-
tor insulation thermal resistivity. Factors brary) are printed, followed by a structured
that determine the external heat sources output which graphically shows the location
include the proximity of nearby cables and of the cables in the installation, making the
the temperature of the surrounding environ- report easy to use. Figure 8 shows a sample
ment. The heat generated in each cable de- duct bank system, with the output report
pends on the cable attributes, such as the shown in Figure 9.
type of conductor and the thermal resistivity
of the insulation, as well as the dielectric
losses.

1938

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 Induction Machine Parmeter - t h a t i o n
Available circuit parameters of induction
machines are usually sufficient for short-
circuit analysis only. Many steady state and
transient studies require more sophisticated
models which include the resistances and
reactances representing the stator, rotor,
and magnetizing branches. Additional para-
meters used in some models include the
effects of saturation, hysteresis, eddy
currents, deep rotor bars, and double rotor
cages.
Figure 8. Sample 3x5 duct bank installation
An equivalent circuit representing the steady
state behavior of a polyphase induction motor
COLUINS: 1 2 3 4 5 is shown in Figure 10 where the deep rotor
_----__ --__--- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _------
-----.- bars and double cage effects are included in
Cable: 500 500 350 350 350 the rotor reactance and resistance as a
IOU 1 Mp.: 209.8 175.9 138.5 146.9 176.3 function of slip and full-load values.
Tanp.: 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0

Cable: 500 500 350 350 350

RW 2 Ap.: 173.8 129.4 99.0 110.3 149.3
7anp.: 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0

Cable: 500 500 350 350 350

ROU 3 Mp.: 185.3 148.4 115.1 124.8 157.6
hap.: 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0

Figure 9. Output report from ETAP-CD using

the Find Ampacities (Uniform Temperatures)
option.
Cable pulling
In the design of underground distribution
8y8temSI the limiting factors imposed by
cable pulling design criteria must be consid-
ered. For most underground installations, the
number and location of splices, electrical
manholes, pull boxes and other pull points in
the system are known to be dependent upon the
maximum allowable pulling lengths of cables.
Therefore, in order to achieve an optimum
design that will be economical and will not
cause damage or distortion to the cables
being pulled into the conduits, the practical
application of cable pulling theory and de-
sign criteria is necessary. The ETAP Cable
Pulling program, ETAP-CP, was developed using
widely accepted cable pulling equations and
criteria. It is user-friendly, fully interac-
tive, and menu driven, and is certainly a
handy tool for a cable run designer. The user
can model three dimensional configurations by
specifying lengths and slopes of pull seg-
ments, angles and radii of bends, coeffi-
cients of friction, etc. Cable libraries that
can be modified and expanded by the user are
provided. These include physical and electri-
cal data for various cables of different
voltage ratings.
The ETAp Cable Pulling program is used to
determine tensions and sidewall pressures
that a cable is subjected to when pulled into
conduits. A point-by-point calculation method
ie performed at every conduit bend and pull
point. The program is applicable to simple as
well as complex conduit configurations where
both the forward and reverse pulling tensions
as well as sidewall pressures are calculated
to determine the best direction of pull.
Additionally, it checks for percent fill, jam
ratio and other NEC and cable requirements.
The program automatically flags any installa-
tion problems.
1939
Figure 10. Equivalent circuit representing
polyphase induction motors.
The task of obtaining machine design data can
be difficult, if not impossible for some
machines. Manufacturers do not always supply
complete data, while owners may misplace data
that has been supplied. For most small ma-
chines, the only available data appears on
their nameplates. Additional data available
for some larger motors are the steady-state
performance curves, which include the torque,
current, and power factor versus slip.
The Parameter Estimation Program (ETAP-PE),
assumes that the nameplate data along with
two points from the motor performance curves
are available. These points, which include
the locked rotor torquelcurrent and breakdown
torque, may be obtained from actual machine
tests or from curves supplied by the manufac-
turer. Indeed, these points are often the
only reliable information available from the
performance curves since the rest of the
curve might have been provided merely as an
indication of the machine's generic behavior.
The algorithm for estimating the equivalent
circuit parameters [13] proceeds by first
determining the parameters of a simplified
equivalent circuit. Next the method utilizes
exact machine equations to obtain a more
accurate estimation. A sensitivity analysis
of the performance characteristics with re-
spect to the circuit parameters is then per-
formed to obtain a higher degree of accuracy.
TO illustrate the application of ETAP-PE, a
three-phase, 1000 HP, 4.16kV, 60Hz induction
motor was selected. This particular example
required 20 iterations of sensitivity
adjustments until the performance characteris-
tics calculated from the estimated Circuit
parameters were within 1 percent of the given
values, as indicated in the computer output
shown in Figure 11.

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 Inprt Data ( 60 Hz ): ETAP-GRD provides options which allow the
Rated ( F u l l Load) Max. Locked Rotor engineer to optimize the design and to deter-
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _mine
Torque
_ * _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ ----
the - - - economically sound implementa-
most
_ _ H_ P_ _ _ ______ _ _ _ _ _
kV Poles X Slip
______ .___ X PF X Eff. X X I X T X PF tion of a given configuration. For a fixed
_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ __ number of rods, the program finds the optimum
1000.0 4.00 2 1.50 89.0 96.0 220.0 450.0 35.0 15.0
number of conductors. Based on the
user-specified costs of conductors and rods
Calculated Full Load Current = 126.0 A~ps (including installation costs), ETAP-GRD
finds the optimum number of conductors and
F u l l Load Speed = 3546.0 RPM rods for the configuration. Both of these
F u l l Load Torque = 1481.3 ft-Lb options find solutions which limit the step
and touch potentials to acceptable values.
M a x i m Torque = 3258.8 ft-lb The program also checks the ground conductors
and rods for their capability to carry the
ground fault current.
Estimated Parameters ( X ) :

Conclusion
Engineers depend on continual development
of software to keep in step with fast-paced
technological advancement. ETAP's designers
are professional electrical engineers who are
X" = 22.85 X subtransient reactance a t f u l l - l o a d dedicated to researching and implementing new
= 21.80 a t locked-rotor ( = Xlr ) methods as well as developing new applica-
XOC = 357.73 X Open-circuit reactance
tions which will enhance the productivity and
capability of ETAP users.
X/R = 15.22 X/R r a t i o (X"/Rs) a t f u l l - l o a d
= 13.81 a t locked-rotor Today's electrical engineer is limited
Tdo' = 0.634 Rotor open-circuit time constant (sec.) a t f u l l - l o a d only by the software available to him. ETAP
= 0.601 a t locked-rotor is a technically accurate, user-friendly
Kr = 0.053 Rotor resistance cage factor [ Rr = ( 1 + S*Kr)'Rr,s=o I
software package designed with the working
engineer in mind. From the common data base
WX -0.093 Rotor reactance cage factor t Xr = (1 + S*Kx)*Xr,s=o I input editors, to the clearly structured
output reports, ETAP has pushed forward the
(a) frontier of desktop power system analysis
software.

"1"1 References
1. Glenn W. Stagg and Ahmed H. El-Abiad,
Computer Methods in Power System Analysis,
McGraw-Hill, 1968.
1 - x
1 C - 2. J. Arrillaga, C.P. Arnold, and B.J.
0 U Harker, Computer Modelling of Electrical
R - R - Power Systems, John Wiley & Sons, 1983.
P R
U E-
E - N 3. ANSIfIEEE C37.010-1979, IEEE Application
1 - Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.
4. ANSIfIEEE C37.50-1979, Guide for
Calculation of Fault Currents for Application
of AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on
a Total Current Basis.
5. ANSIfIEEE C37.13-1981, IEEE Standard for
Low-Voltage AC Power circuit Breakers Used in
Figure 11. ETAP-PE example output report. Enclosures.
6. Walter C. Huening, Jr. , "Calculating
Ground Grid Design short-circuit currents with contributions
from Induction Motorsa1,IEEE Trans. Ind. App.
When a short-circuit occurs, large currents Vol. IA-18, No. 2, MarfApr 1982.
must be passed to the earth without endanger-
ing personnel in the vicinity. Based on 7. Edward Wilson Kimbark, Power system
ANSIfIEEE Std 80-1986 [14], the Ground Grid Stability: Synchronous Machines, Dover
program, ETAP-GRD, calculates the required Publications, 1956.
number of parallel ground conductors and
ground rods for safety during a ground fault 8. IEEE committee report on computer
in the system. For a given grid configuration modelling of excitation systems, "Excitation
with a specified number of conductors and system models for power system stability
rods, the program calculates and reports the analysisIng IEEE Trans. Power App. Sys., Vol.
step and touch potentials and flags unsafe PAS-100, No. 2, Feb. 1981.
conditions.

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO. Downloaded on March 9, 2009 at 20:20 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 9. IEEE committee report for governors and
turbines, "Dynamic models for steam and hydro
turbines in power system studies," IEEE
Trans. Power App. Sys., Vol. PAS-92, pp.
1904-15, Jul/Dec 1973.
10. National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA
70-1990.
11. J.H. Neher and M.H. McGrath, "The
calculation of the temperature rise and load
capability of cable systems, AIEE Trans.
Power App. Sys. (pt. 111), Vol. 76, pp.
752-72, Oct. 1957.
12. Farrokh Shokooh and Harold M. Knutson,
"Ampacity derating for underground cables,'*
IEEE I K P S Conference in Baltimore, Maryland,
May 1988.
13. Somchai Ansuj, Farrokh Shokooh, and
Roland Shinzinger, "Parameter estimation for,
induction machines based on sensitivity
analysis," IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol.
IAS-25, pp. 1035-40, Nov/Dec 1989.
14. ANSI/IEEE Std 80-1986, IEEE Guide for
Safety in AC Substation Grounding.

1941

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