COMPRESSOR AND BOT SECTION FOOLING IN GAS TURBINES - CAUSES AND EPFECTS

CYRUS B. MEHER-HOMJI
Manager, Advanced Technology
Boyce Engineering International, Inc.
Houston, Texas
ABSTRACT
The fouling of axial flow compressors and
turbines is a serious operating problem in
gas turbine eng ines. These prime movers
are being increasingly used in cogeneration
applications and with the large air mass
flow rate (e.g. 633 Lbs/Sec for a 80 MWe
gas turbine) foul ants even in the ppm range
can cause deposits on the blading resulting
in severe performance decrements. This is
a common operating problem experienced by
almost all operators of gas turbines.
The effect of compressor fouling is a drop
in airflow and a drop in compressor
isentropic efficiency. Fouling of the
axial compressor results in a drop in
output and thermal eff ic iency of the
system. In some cases, fouling can also
result in surge problems as its effect is
to move the compressor surge line to the
right i.e. towards the operating line.
This paper discusses the mechanism of
fouling and the aerodynamic and
thermodynamic effects. This paper also
discusses types of foulants commonly
experienced, detection methods and
filtration techniques. A brief discussion
of turbine fouling, which is particularly
relevant when heavy fuels are utilized, is
also discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Gas turbines being air breathing machines,
ingest large quantities of air. The solids
or condensing particles in the air and in
the combustion 9asses can precipitate on
the rotating and stationary blading causing
changes in aerodynamic profile, dropping
the compressor mass flow rate and affecting
the turbine flow coefficient and effi
ciency. This has an adverse effect on the
unit's performance. The output of a gas
turbine can drop by as much as 10%.
Moreover, the contaminated air can cause a
host of problems that include erosion,
fouling, corrosion and in some cases
plugging of the hot section cooling
passages.
CAUSES OF FOULING
Experience has shown that axial compressors
will foul in most operating environments,
be they industrial, rural or marine. There
are a wide range of industrial pollutants
and a wide range of envi ronmental condi
t ions (fog rain, etc.) that also play a
part in the fouling process.
Compressor fouling can be caused by the
following factors. This is not an exhaus
tive list.
1. Airborne Salt.
2. Industrial Pollution - fly ash, hydro
carbons, smog, etc. This causes a
grimey coating on the early stages and
can get baked on in the latter stages
(especially wi th high pressure ratio
compressors).
3. Ingestion of Gas Turbine Exhaust.
4. Mineral Deposits.
5. Airborne Materials - soils, dust and
sand, chemical fertilizers, insecti
cides, insects, and plant matter.
6. Internal Gas Turbine Oil Leaks - axial
compressor front bearing is the common
culprit. Oil leaks combined with dirt
ingestion cause heavy fouling prob
lems.
7. Impure water from Evaporative Coolers.
8. Coal, Dust, and Spray Paint that is
ingested.
The fouling rate that a compressor will
experience will be a function of the envi
ronment, the climatic conditions and the
filtration system.
It is important to note that with high air
ingestion rates of 33 lbs/Kw/Hr, even pol
lutants in the ppm range will account Eor
several pounds of pollutant being ingested
in 24 hours. For example, a 75 MW unit
located in an industrial air loading of 10
ppm will result in 594 lbs. of particulates
being ingested in a day.
Some typical ai r load ings, as reported by
Upton [1] are:
Country 0.01 - 0.1 ppm by weight
Coastal 0.01 - 0.1 ppm by weight
Industrial 0.1 - 10 ppm by weight
Desert 0.1 - 700 ppm by weight
Table 1 provides a tabulation showing envi
ronmental factors [2].
Even aero-engines operating at "clean"
cruise altitudes of 40,000 ft. have
incurred flame-outs as a result of volcanic
261
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Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987
NVIROtIo4ENl COUNTRY SIDE
LARGE: CITIES lHOUSTRIAL OESERTS MTIC MOOllE
(P'OWirS'lifT'Qn,) AREAS (SanT"'S'TCi7iiis) ltlSTALLAT 10145
(Chemical (St..1 iliOJ"ku <Dulty Groundl
Plants) (P.tro-Ct,elllJca I)
(Mining)
.
Types of Oust Erosive Ory-Nor'l [rOilY. Sooty.Qlly. May Sooty.Qlly ory-Erosl .... In
but S"lt Par- be [rosl ... e. also Erosive. Nay be 18nd stor- ..
tlcles. Corrosl..... Corroll ... e. ar.8S. Fine
CorroslY. Mist. In
"reos of non
sand storlllS bJt
dusty g-ound.
,.
Non-Eros I.". Non-Eros I .... I ... e
"'ay caus. Sooty-ally
fouling Corrosl ... e
ust Concentration

0,01 - 0.1 0.0\ - 0.1 0.1
-
100 0.01 0.25 0.1 -
10 0.01 0.2S 0.01
-
700 0.0' - '0
0.004 - O.O<l}6 0.004 - 0.<1)6 0.004 0.10 0.004 - 0.10 0.04
-
300 0.01 - 0.1' 0.04' - 4.'5 - 300
0,01 - , 0.1 , 0.1
- '0 0.1 - I - (5001
2
0.1 - 10 0.1
- '0 0.1 lSOOI
S"lt
Effect Ion on G. T. /ollnlmal Corros Ion Fooling Erosion Erosion Foollnq Fouling Plugqlng of
SOl'll8flrnes PlugQT'filOf"
,,,
In'el(e Erosion
roslon and roslon and 101,11 1 lIter .. Ith CorrOSIon syst'!m with
1ng. I n9. Insect swarfllS. snow and Ice.
1.fI'()8ra t ur.
Renge 'C -20 to + JO -}() tn +45 -20 fo +25 -50 to +45 to +5 50 to 45 -20 to .'5 -20 to .'5
Weather Condiflon5 Dry and sunny Dry and sunny
Rain Rain, Ina.. , sea
S'OW ",1st.
FOQ Fn'llzlnq fog In
wlnt.r.
Dry and sunny 1Iry and sunny Long dry sunny
Rain I-laln sp.lls.
snow SIIOW High .. Inds
Hell ston.s H.,II stone, S"nd end dusf
Smog StnOq stOl'"lIl5.
SI)IIII8 r"ln.
All pOssible
tropical r.,ln
High humldl')' lieavy SnOw
HIQh ... Inds con
Insect and Icing condl dit Ions
IIIOSQuifo 'Ions.
$"'8rlllS. Insect swarms
In surnr'llfrtl ....
In /lire"!;.
'KJ1ES: I.
- 2.
,.
In "n.. ,,"eas of chimney.
Du"l ng severe sand storms
At track 1..... 1 and durl n9 d,jo;t storm!\.
Table I: Environmental Factors [2]
ash, although this is a rare occurrence. EFFECTS OF FOULING
Similarly, certain g round attack aircraft
gas turbines have experienced severe
fouling due to ingestion of gun exhaust!
HUMIDITY EFFECTS ON THE FOULING OF AXIAL
COMPRESSORS
Several operators have noted that humidity
plays an important part in fouling. An
excellent series of investigations has been
conducted by Zaba and is reported in Refer
ences [3] and [4]. The humidity
examined below.
As the ai r passes through the
filtration system, it proceeds
low velocity. However, as it
effect is
intake and
at a very
approaches
the compressor face itself, the air has
been accelerated to a high velocity, for
example,.5 .8 Mach Number. Thus, the
air might be at a velocity of approximately
200 M/Sec. This results in a static tem
perature reduction of about 20C. It is
this effect that causes icing problems even
when ambient temperatures are above
freezing. Now the saturation air temper
ature also drops. If the relative humidity
is high enough, it is possible that the
static air temperature falls below the
saturation air temperature. This will
cause condensation of the water vapor.
Dust particles then form nuclei for the
water droplets and start to deposit
(adhere) to the blading. As the air pro
gresses to the rear stages, it gets hotter
and drier and so typically the latter
stages are fouled less. Figure 1 depicts
the process.
For this discussion, single shaft gas tur
bines typically used for power generation
and in cogeneration applications will be
addressed. The observable effect of com
pressor fouling is a drop in thermal
efficiency (increase in heat rate) and a
drop in output. The axial flow compressor
is a sensitive component that is difficult
to design and requires close manufacturing
tolerances on all aerodynamic surEaces.
Fouling causes an alteration in the shape
of the blading and this then aEfects the
air flow rate, pressure ratio and com
pressor efficiency.
STATIe TMPER ATURE 10110 PRESSURE DROPS
STATIC TEMPERATURE
..
J:
..
...
SATUR ATlOII AIR TMP
AT A GIYEII RElATlYE
HUMIDITY
COIlOEIISATIOII Of "'ATR
YAPOR OCCURS; OUST PARTICLES ACT AS ""CUI
fOR COIIOEIISATlOII 10110 BECOME DAMP.
Fig. Humidity EEfect at Compressor Inlet
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The power developed by a turbine is given
by:
1(
Power m
1 1 )
'Y - 1
( : ~ ) ~
Where,
m Mass Flow Rate Through Turbine
m + m
a f
C = Specific Heat
p
T = Firing Temp. (Turbine Inlet Temp.)
3
p
3
Expansion Ratio
p
4
C
--E...
C
v
The pressure P3 entering the turbine is
the compressor discharge pressure less the
pressure drop in the combustion system. As
the mass flow drops and the discharge
pressure f rom the compressor drops, (i. e.
P3 drops as P3 P2 - 6P), the work
from the turbine drops. This drop in power
will be masked by the control system in
creasing Turbine Inlet Temperature (T3).
As much of 60-70% of the power developed in
the turbine goes into driving the com
pressor, leaving 40-30% for useful shaft
output. As the compressor efficiency
drops, it will consume even more power,
thus further lowering the gas turbine's
output. The firing temperature T3 can
be increased only upto a 1 imi t because of
hot section life reduction considerations.
This process is schematically shown in
Figure 2.
An axial compressor is a machine where the
aerodynamic performance of each stage
depends on the earlier stages. Thus, when
fouling occurs in the inlet guide vanes and
the first few stages, there may be a
dramatic drop in compressor performance.
This can often occur when oil and indus
trial smogs or pollen are present and form
an adhesive wetting agent. The early
stages are often the worst fouled stages.
If the rear stages foul, this seems to
have a smaller impact on performance, but
due to the higher temperatures, the
deposits can get baked on and become
difficult to clean. This baking effect is
more severe on the high pressure ratio
compressor, e.g., 18 to 30:1 pressure ratio
of aeroderivative machines as opposed to
the typical 10: 1 or 12: 1 pressure ratios
found on the heavy duty industrial
machines.
~ E S F O ~
~
me drops
!
Wturblne =Wcompr + Wop
Wturblne =hhe+mf] CplT3-T4J
P3/P 4 91# P2/P l' Neglecting comb. AP
Pr ROlli Drops .'. Pz Drops ,', P3/P" Drops Ability to
extract AT drops. T4 (Ie. EOT) Increases.
'\c drops
\(
TlT[T3] Incr8DS8s till red IIne-; then Outpul [WopJ drops.
n th drops =>- fuel costs Increase.
Fig. 2
An important effect of fouling, especially
noticed on split shaft (mechanical drive)
machines is that fouling can cause a move
ment oE the compressor surge line. The
effect of fouling is to move the surge line
to the right where it can interfere with
the operating line. This is shown in
Figure 3. There have been cases with
single shaft turbines in constant speed
operation that have had disastrous surge
problems [5]. Severe erosion can also
shorten the blade tip chord which reduces
blade tip solidity which effects stage
stability.
Figure 4 shows a diagram developed by Zaba
[3] where the change in output and specific
heat consumption of a gas turbine was
examined as a function of compressor volume
flow rate and efficiency (of compressor and
turbine). The reference is highly
recommended Eor anyone wishing to study
this phenomenon further.
EFFECTS ON BLADING INTEGRITY
Blading Eailures in gas turbines relate to
about 42% of the damage causes. While
fouling cannot be said to he a major cause
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Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987
FIRST Ror
ROTAfiNCBlADES
PRESSURE
RATIO
UNIT

LINE
CONSTANT
FLO'
Fig. 3 Movement of the Surge Line
:t.
f' = Power Output
Specific Heat Consumption
Change in Compressor Volume
Flow Rate
7le =
Change in Compressor Efficiency
"7e.
'1/.
Change in Turbine Efficiency
'7,. =
Reference Value
" =
fr
'7V. , 'rIeI
Tl

Fig. 4 Parametric Analysis [3)
of blading failure, it contributes to some
blading problems as indicated below:
By promoting surge or rotating stall
which might have a dangerous effect on
blades.
2. In some unusual cases, blading natural
frequencies can be affected by the
increase in mass due to dirt buildup
on the airfoil (fn ={K7Mi. A well
known case of this occurrence was on
a very early Avon turbine where
extensive fouling (1/8" deposits)
pulled the blade's first natural
frequency down into the running
range [6].
3. Blading roughness, and therefore
efficiency and performance, can be
adversely affected by corrosion and
erosion, as a result of deposits.
4. Excessive dirt on the blades can cause
unbalance, and therefore an increase
in running speed vibration. In some
cases dirt can get between the bearing
surfaces of the blade root causing the
blades to operate in a non-normal
position which would add to the
stresses. If the root const raint is
changed due to buildup in the fir tree
region, this results in natural
frequency (as the bounda ry cond it ion
changes).
5. A buildup of foulants on the com
pressor blading can lead to a serious
corrosion problem, especially when
humidity is high (galvanic action can
be set up). Pitting of the blading
can lead to local stressing which
reduces the blade's fatigue life.
Some airborne salt may be in
size. This problem will occur if salt
water or salt particles are ingested
in the compressor. The dry salt or
brine will absorb moisture during high
humidity operation or during water
washing.
6. Particles causing erosion are normally
or greater. represents the
transition zone between fouling and
erosion. (Note: = 1/15 diameter
of human hair!)
7. On a relatively small gas turbine, a
.1 mm coating applied to the blading
can cause a flow reduction of 10% and
a reduction of compressor efficiency
of 5% [4].
8. Foulants and contaminants in the air
stream can cause a buildup of deposits
in the air cooling passage. The
cooling air of hot section nozzles and
blades is bled from the compressor.
With a dropping off in cooling, the
heat transfer at the nozzle and blades
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Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987
will degrade, causing blade damage.
Cement dust, coal dust and fly ash can
be responsible for this problem.
Plu99 ing of cooling holes can be a
slow process and may go undetected
until major overhauls.
Figure 5 shows a fouling that
occurs in a large gas turtine engine. This
graph shows the changes in compressor effi
ciency and heat rate over time.
COMPRESSOR ADIABATIC EFFICIENCY VS TIME
0.855
0.850
0.845
0.840
0.835
0.830
0.825
0.820
0.815
HEAT RATE DROP OVER TIME
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
Fig. 5 Effects of Fouling on a Gas Turbine
ECONOMIC OF COMPRESSOR FOULING
Fouling causes dlverse concerns to
different operators. example, the
prime concern of the Airforce or Navy is
the loss of performance of the gas turbine
of the aircraft or ship which would impair
the mission. To some petrochemical users,
the loss of output is of conce rn as it
results in less throughput. For pipeline
operators and cogeneration plants, there
are two economic areas of concern:
1 Loss of The rmal Ef fie iency (i.e.
higher fuel costs).
0.8104-..,.-'T'""'"-r-r-r-r---1,...,---,.---r-..--r---.---r--r--r-.--....-..,
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38

2. Loss in Throughput/Output (i.e. less
gas pumped or lower MW's generated).
The economic impact can best be judged by
the following findings:
1. The largest cost during the life cycle
of a turbomachine is the fuel cost. A
80MW
e
gas turbine, for example, may
consume $23 million in fuel in a year.
Based on 1986 estimates in the gas
distribution industry, on a 12 MW
aeroder ivative gas turbine, the fuel
cost is $870/fired hour compared to an
overhaul/maintenance cost of $20/fired
hour (i.e. fuel costs are approx
40t overhaul cost) [7].
Because of this, and the fact that the
gas pipeline is a major consumer of
fuel itself, the incentive for main
taining high thermal efficiency is of
paramount importance.
2. Operating with dirty compressors can
increase fuel consumption by up to 5%.
A 2% loss in compressor efficiency can
increase fuel consumption by 3%.
3. A fouled compressor might easily
result in an output drop of 10%. A
study conducted by Zaba [3], indicated
that foul ing, which resulted in a 5%
drop in airflow capacity, will also
yield a 2.5% reductiol1 in compressor
efficiency, a reduction of 10% in gas
turbine power output and a reduction
of gas turbine efficiency of about 5%.
DETECTION OF FOULING
Gas turbine manufacturers and operators
typically develop some guidelines as to
when deterioration due to fouling calls for
corrective action. This is usually based on
a combination of load and exhaust gas tem
peratures (EGT).
It is the opinion of some operators that
the only way to detect a fouled compressor
is by visual inspection. With turbine
designs, however, this means shutting the
unit down, removing the inlet plenum hatch
and visually inspecting the compressor
inlet, bellmouth inlet guide vane (IGV' s)
and visible early stage blading.
The real problem is not how to detect
fouling, but how to detect it at an approp
riate time before a significant power drop
has occurred and a higher fuel penalty cost
has been paid. Several philosophies are in
use. Some operators believe in periodic
washing of the machine while others base
washes on conditions (i.e. some 8et of per
formance parameters) The phi losophy
utilized is a function of normally expected
fouling leIs and its severity.
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Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987
The periodic washing approach can maintain
a reasonable state of cleanliness, but
actual operating performance, seasonal
based fouling and other factors are
obviously not accounted for.
With the advent of on-line monitoring
systems [8], the capability now exists for
obtaining a good picture of how turbine
performance is being affected by fouling.
The following factors can be used as
indicators of fouling:
1. Drop in compressor mass flow rate on
fixed geometry engines.
2. Drop in compressor efficiency and
pressure ratio.
The most sensitive parameter of the above
factors is the mass flow rate. Refer
ence [9] covers a technique for performance
computations for the airflow rate when it
is not being measured. This technique
utilizes thermodynamic heat balance
methods.
Scott [7] and [10] has conducted extensive
studies into fouling detection methods.
His technique of measurement of air-intake
depression 1S a practical and economical
method. This technique involves looking at
intake depression as an analog of airflow
rate. In this approach, the gas turbine
inlet bellmouth is utilized as a flowmeter.
The layout is shown in Figure 6.
EXHAUST
BEll HOUTH
PlENUH
-
-
-
TURBINE
GENERATOR
fiLTER : INTAI(E DEPRESSION
\ 'HANOHETER
HiCJh i1r... .
low Ar". As .irfloY rilt. drops, .. drops rI
------4) th.r.for. shltic pr.ssur. drops.
AIR VElOCITY INCREASES
ST ATIC PRESSURE DROPS
Fig. 6 Intake Depression Measurement
Method
By monitoring the intake air depression, a
good indicator of fouling can be attained.
This technique has been applied to several
Avon engines with good results. A para
metric analysis performed by Scott reported
that as the fouled, the largest
effect was on intake (lepression
to in airflow and changes in com
pressor efficiency.
CONTROL OF FOULING
Fouling is best controlled by a combination
of two methods. The first line of defense
is to employ a high quality air filtration
system. If fouling occurs (and it usually
will), then the compressor can be cleaned
by either abrasive materials or solvents.
FILTRATION
There are several types of filters that can
be broken into the following groups:
Inertial Filters. The objective here
is to make the ai r change direction
rapidly causing separation of dust
particles. These filters are
permanently fixed and require minimal
maintenance. Inertial filters
typically operate at face velocities
of 20 ft/second.
2. Prefilters. These are medium effi
ciency filters made of cotton fabric
or spun fiberglass. They are rela
tively inexpensive and serve as "pro
tection" for high efficiency filters.
3. Coalescers. These are constructed by
the use of wire mesh which acts as an
agglomerate r. The mist in the inlet
air is agglomerated and the moisture
is thus removed.
4. Louvers and Vanes. These are
typically used in the first stages
along with coalescer filters to
remove water droplets.
5. Hith Efficiency Filters. These
fi ters remove smaller particles of.
dirt. They are typically barrier or
bag type filters.
6. Self-Cleaning Filters. These consist
of a bank of high efficiency media
filters. Air is drawn through the
media at a low velocity. At a pre
determined pressure drop (about 2-3"
Water Gauge) a reverse blast of air is
used to remove dust buildup. These
filters are made by several manu
facturers and are very successful.
Figure 7 shows the efficiencies of filters
on different particle sizes [11].
A very important point is that air tight
ness is a must for any gas turbine inlet
system as--e-ven the most efficient
filtration system will be useless if
unfiltered airflow leaks in and enters the
compressor. Some common causes of leakage
are:
1. Bypass door leakage.
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Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987
PARTICLE SIZE'IIICROIIS
CORROSION
FOILING
EIIOSIllN
f-
.v
-
."..,

......

./
/
/
V
/ V
/ /
IME

RE-

V
I'- rlAL IEJI
V
.4.11.1 .11 1.0 2 3 4 5 III 20 30 40
1010
10
li 110
15 70
!:
I::
10
o .2 3
Fig. 7 Efficiencies of Filters [11]
2. Poor gaskets and seals. at flanged
points.
3. Modifications made on the inlet
ducting. Over the years, personnel
may add structures or devices to the
inlet system which might cause
problems.
Corrosion in carbon steel inlet ducts has
also been a source of problems. At times
the corrosion can be severe enough to cause
a loss of integrity. Because of this,
several users are now using stainless steel
for the filter houses and inlet ducts. The
effectiveness of the filtration system is
impacted by its design, installation and
maintenance.
COMPRESSOR CLEANING
Two approaches to compressor cleaning are
abrasion and solvent cleaning. The choice
as to which technique should be used is
dependent on the nature of the deposits and
the manufacturer's recommendations.
Common abrasives used are nut shells, rice
or spent catalyst. The abrasives should
have sufficient mass to achieve the
momentum required to dislodge the dirt. As
they are ingested, they are hit by the
leading edge of the airfoils and therefore
the trailing edges are not abraded. The
abrasives must be sufficiently durable to
resist breakage.
Abrasive cleaning seems to work well with
hard dry deposits and may be carried out at
operating load and speed. If the fou1ant
is oil, salt, (or a combination of both)
then solvent washing is preferable. Often
some operators may elect to use both a dry
and a wet wilsh in order to fUlly restore
performance.
Water washing (with or without detergents)
cleans by water impact and by removing the
water soluble salts. It is most important
that the manufacturer's recommendations be
followed with respect to water wash
quality, detergent/water ratio and other
operating procedures. Typically, wheel
space temperatures must be below 200"F to
avoid thermal shock and the water wash is
done with the machine on crank.
Water washing using a water-soap mixture is
the most efficient method of cleaning.
This cleaning is most effective when
carried out in several steps which involve
the application of a soap and water
solution, followed by several rinse cycles.
Each rinse cycle involves the acceleration
of the machine to approximately 50 percent
of the starting speed, after which the
machine is allowed to coast to a stop. A
soaking period follows during which the
soapy water solution may work on dissolving
the salt. If the machine is cleaned under
full operating conditions using rice, wal
nut shells or some other solid material
injected into the inlet, the foulants and
corrosive elements deposited within the
compressor are removed rapidly and flushed
through the turbine.
If the machine is running at substantial
load and the gas temperatures are in the
region where the salt can be fused, it will
have the opportunity of combining with the
sulphur (which is present in the fuel), and
form sodium sulphate. The sodium sulphate
may then fuse, become sticky and deposit
itself on the hot parts of the turbine
causing severe and rapid attack, which is
Characteristic of hot corrosion (sulphi
dation).
The method recommended for determining
whether or not the foulants have a sub
stantial salt base is to soap wash the tur
bine and collect the water from all drain
age ports available. Oissolved salts in
the water can then be analyzed.
water washing a machine under power must be
closely monitored to prevent the possi
bility of liquid water impinging upon hot
turbine parts. A carefully controlled
water flow using turbine operating para
meters as control functions can produce
efficient cleaning with minimal or no
damage to the mach i ne , and wi th a ve ry
short period of reduced power output
AXIAL COMPRESSOR BLADE COATINGS
While hot section coatings have been
popular for several years, an increasing
of users
pressor coatings to help enhance durability
and performance. There are several users
that cover axial blading with coatings in
order to:
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Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987
1. Reduce blade friction, thus improving
aerodynamics, thereby increasing effi
ciency and performance.
2. Reduce wear.
While coatings do not necessarily prevent
foul ing, they enable a more eff icient and
durable operation of a compressor.
TURBINE SECTION FOULING
Contaminants that cause turbine fouling can
enter the gas turbine by:
1. Inlet Air.
2. Fuel (may contain Na and V).
3. Fuel Additives.
4. NO
x
Control Injection Fluid.
In the hot turbine section, and in the
presence of hot gases, low melting point
ashes, metals and unburned hydrocarbons can
be deposited in the form of scale. As hot
combustion products pass through the first
stage nozzle, they experience a drop in
static temperature and some ashes may be
deposited on the nozzle blades. As the
throat area of the nozzle controls the
compressor-turbine matching, a reduction in
throat area causes a movement away from the
design match point. This then causes a
loss in performance. Deposits will also
form on the rotating blades causing a
further loss in performance. Blade and
disc cooling can also be impaired by
foulants causing a reduction in component
life or even failure.
The problem of hot corrosion or sulfidation
can occur with the Nickel and Cobalt based
superalloys used in gas tut"bines. SIJlfi
dation is the rapid and destructive re
action that occurs when extensive quan
tities of alkali salts (Na, to and Vanadium
at"e present in the combustion products
along with SUlphur. These may be found in
fuel, water or steam (L1sed for NO
x
con
trol) or more importantly in inlet ait".
As the fuel flow t"ate is typically about 2%
of the ai r mass flow rate, 1 ppm Na en
tering from the fuel would have the same
effect as just 20 ppb airborne salt en
tering the airflow. This is a signlflcant
requirement considering that most manu
facturers call for not more than 1 ppm of
Na.
Normally with liquid fuels (especially
heavy fuels), fuel treatment calls for the
removal of sodium by water washing. If
Vanadium (V) is present in the fuel, then
its effect is inhibited by the addition of
Epsom Salts (MgS04). This additive causes
sevet"e turbine section fouling. As the
magnesium is added in a 3:1 weight t"atio to
268
the Vanadium, fuels high in Vanadium cause
frequent fouling of the turbine. The
frequency of turbine washes required
depends on the ash content, turbine inlet
temperature and operating cycle (i.e. Base
Load Vs. Cyclic Operation). Peaking units
opet"ated on heavy fuels (high Vanadium) do
not require washing since the thermal
cycling removes the deposits.
Modern gas turbines operate at a tut"bine
inlet tempet"ature of between laOO'F and
2200'F which makes them highly sensitive to
corrosion pt"oblems. This calls for cat"e to
be taken with respect to air filtt"ation and
compressor washing. Even with good filtra
tion, salt can collect in the compressot"
section. OUt"ing the collection process of
both salt and othet" foulants, an equi
librium condition is quickly t"eached, after
which t"eingestion of lat"ge pat"ticles
occurs. This reingestion has to be pt"e
vented by the removal of salt ft"om the
compressot" priot" to saturation. The rate
at which saturation occut"s is highly
dependent on filtet" quality. In general,
salts can safely pass through the turbine
when gas and metal temperatut"es are less
than lOOOF. Aggressive attacks will occur
if the temperatures are much higher.
Out"ing cleaning, the actual instantaneous
t"ates of salt passage are very high,
together with gt"eatly increased particle
size.
Even with good air filtration, salt
deposits will occur in the compressor. As
the air moves tht"ough the compressot" towat"d
the combustion section, it is heated and
compressed, causing removal of the
remaining moistut"e from the ai rbot"ne salt
pat"ticles. These particles at"e tieposited
heavily in the first few stages, sometimes
going back as far as half way through the
compt"essot". In general, the condensation
nuclei that pass through the compressor
without being entrapped can also pass
tht"ough the turbine without depositing
themselves or adhering to the hot pat"ts. A
difficulty arises, howevet", when the salt
that has been collected within the com
pt"essor stages becomes so thick that large
flakes are t"eingested into the engine.
When this occut"s, the local concentt"ation
of salt in the ait" immediately surt"ounding
these large flakes is extt"emely high.
These salt flakes actually have sufficient
mass to stick firmly to the turbine hot
parts and are t"esponsible for many gas
tut"bines suffering from hot corrosion
damage. Saturation of the c01npt"essor with
salts still remains a problem and must be
dealt with.
CONCLUSIONS
The fouling of axial flow compressors and
turbines in gas turbine engines is a common
~ .
ESL-IE-87-09-43
Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987
operating problem. Understanding the
causes and effects helps operators combat
this problem. References [12] through [19]
provide additional sources of information
on gas turbine fouling. The influences of
fouling can be detected by performance
monitoring allowing corrective action to be
taken. The first line of defense, however,
is a good air filtration system and
appropriate fuel preparation and treatment
in order to minimize the effects of com
pressor and turbine fouling.
REFERENCES
1. Upton, A.W.J., ~ A x i a l Flow Compressor and
Turbine Blade Fouling, Some Causes, Effects and
Cleaning Methods", Proceedings of the 1st Gas
Turbine Operations and Maintenance Symposium, Na
tional Research Council, Canada, October, 1974.
2. Allen, H.L., "Bas Turbine Operation in
the Real World" ASME Paper No. 84-GT-l.
3. Zaba, T., "Losses in Gas Turbines Due to
Deposits on the Blading", Brown Boveri Review 12-8.
4. Zaba, T. and Lombardi, P., "Experience in
the Operation of Air Filters in Gas Turbine Insta
llations", ASME Paper No. 84-GT-39.
5. Dundas, R.E., "A Study of the Effect of
Deterioration on Compressor Surge Margin in Con
stant Speed, Single Shaft Gas Turbine Engines",
1986 ASME Gas Turbine Conference.
6. "History of a Gas Turbine in the Rolls
Royce Avon", Turbomachinery International, March,
1985.
7. Scott, J.H., "Reduced Turbomachinery Op
erating Costs with Regular Performance Testing",
ASME Paper No. 86-GT-173.
8. Boyce M.P., Meher-Homji, C.B., and Mani,
G., "The Development and Implementation of Advanced
On-line Monitoring and Diagnostic Systems for Gas
Turbines", Toyko International Gas Trubine Confer
~ , October, 1983, Paper No. 83-Toyko-IGTC-94.
9. Meher-Homji, C.B., "Aerothermodynamic Gas
Path Analysis for Health Diagnostics of Combustion
Gas Turbines", Proceedings of the 36th Meeting of
the Mechanical Failures Prevention Group. Cambridge
University Press, 1983.
10. Scott, J.H., "Axial Compressor Monitoring
by Measuring Intake Air Depression", National Re
search Council of Canada Symposium, 1979.
11. Lages, F. P., "Air Fil tration and Sound
Control Systems for Gas Turbines-The State of the
Art", Proceedings of the 8th Turbomachinery Sympo
sium, Texas A&M University.
269
12. Lakshminarasimha, A.N., and Saravana
mutto, H.I.H., "Prediction of Fouled Compressor
Performance Using Stage Stacking Techniques", 4th
ASME Fluid Mechanics Conference, Turbomachinery
Performance Deterioration, May 12-15, 1986.
13. Saravanamutto, H.I.H., and Laksminarasimha,
A.N., "A Preliminary Assessment of Compressor
Fouling", ASME Paper NO. 85-GT-153.
14. Matthews, T., "Field Performance Testing
to Improve compressor Reliability",Proceedings
of the 10th Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M
University.
15. Tatge, R.B., "Gas Turbine Inlet Air
Treatment", G.E. Publication GER-3419.
16. Pulimood, M.K., "Field Experience with
GAs Turbine Inlet Air Filtration", ASME Paper No.
81-GT-193.
17. Becker, B., and Bohn, D., "Operating
Experience with Compressors of Large Heavy Duty
Gas Turbines", ASME Paper No. 84-GT-133.
18. "Causes and Cures for Sulfication Corro
sion, Erosion and Fouling", Gas Turbine World,
March, 1975.
19. Bagshaw, K.W., "Maintaining Cleanliness
in Axial Flow Compressors", 1st Gas Turbine Opera
tions and Maintenance Symposium, National Research
Council Canada, October, 1974.
ESL-IE-87-09-43
Proceedings from the Ninth Annual Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, September 16-18, 1987