Chapter 12 Individual, Interpersonal, and Group Process Approaches Coaching - involves working with organizational members; a skill that

t an OD practitioner or manager an develop, can be seen as specialized form of OD, one that is focused on using the principles of applied behavioral science to increase the capacity and effectiveness of individuals as opposed to groups or organizations. Goals of coaching: 1. Assisting an executive to a more effectively execute some transitions, such as merger integration or downsizing. 2. Addressing a performance problem 3. Developing new behavioral skills as part of a leadership development program. Application stages: 1. Establish the principles of the relationship 2. Conduct an assessment 3. Debrief the results 4. Develop an action plan 5. Implement the action plan 6. Assess the results Results of coaching- improved personal productivity, quality, working relationships and job satisfaction. Improved productivity and employee satisfaction and identified specific financial benefits. Training and Development the oldest strategies for organizational change. Focused on training interventions ( classroom methods, simulations, action learning, computer based online training, case studies. It is a large practice area with growing importance in organizations. Goals of TND 1. Development of workforce 2. Development of organization management 3. Executive talent Application stages: 1. Perform a needs assessment determines what training, if any is necessary. It involves gathering data on the organization, the work, and the individual. 2. Develop the objectives and design of the training first establishes outcome objectives for the training and development intervention. 3. Deliver the training implementation of training and development. 4. Evaluate the training assesses the training to determine whether it met its objectives. Results of the training most of the evaluation research consist of only reactions, the weakest measure of effectiveness. There are few published 1

studies on the effectiveness of leadership development programs, and their increased use warrants further research. Process Consultation is a general framework for carrying out helping relationships, sometime defined as the creation of a relationship that permits the client to perceive, understand, and act on the process events that occur in his/her internal and external environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the client. 10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. principles to guide the process consultants actions: Always try to be helpful Always stay in touch with the current reality Access your ignorance Everything you do is an intervention The client owns the problem and the solution Go with the flow Timing is crucial Be constructively opportunistic with confrontive interventions Everything is information; errors will always occur and are the prime source for learning 10.When in doubt, share the problem Group Process Communications the process of transmitting/receiving thoughts, facts and feelings. The functional roles of group members the process consultant must be keenly aware of the different roles individual members take on in a group. Group problem solving and decision making to be effective, a group must be able to identify problems, examine alternatives, and make decisions. Group norms if a group of people works together over a period of time, it develops group norms or standards of behavior. The use of leadership and authority a process consultant needs to understand processes of leadership and how different leadership styles can help or hinder a groups functioning. Basic Process Interventions Individual interventions designed primarily to help people be more effective in their communication with others. The following are guidelines for effective feedback: 1. The giver and receiver must have consensus on the receivers goals 2. The giver should emphasize description and appreciation 3. The giver should be concrete and specific 4. Both giver and receiver must have constructive motives 5. The giver should not withhold negative feedback if it is relevant 6. The giver should own his or her observations, feelings, and judgments 7. Feedback should be timed to when the giver and receiver are ready. 2

Group interventions aimed t the processes, content, or structure of the group. Process interventions sensitize the group to its own internal processes and generate interest in analyzing them.

Content interventions (p225) Results of Process Consultation Third party Interventions Episodic Model of Conflict Facilitating the Conflict Resolution Conflict Team Building Team-building activities Activities relevant to one or more individuals Activities oriented to the groups Operation and Behavior Activities affecting the Groups relationship with the rest of the organization

The Managers Role in Team-building The results of Team building Chapter 13: Organization Process Approach Organization confrontation meeting Confrontation meeting is a intervention designed to mobilize the resources of the entire organization to identify problems, set priorities and action targets, and begin working on identified problems. Application Stages: 1. A group meeting is scheduled in appropriate place. 2. Groups are appointed representing all departments of the organization 3. The point is stressed that the groups are to be open and honest and to work hard at identifying problems in the organization 4. The groups are given an hour or two to identify organization problems 5. The groups then reconvene in a central meeting place. 6. Either then or later, the master list of problems is broken down into categories. 7. Following problem categorization, participants are divided into problem solving groups. 8. Each group ranks the problem, develop a tactical action plan, and determines appropriate timetable for completing this phase of the process. 9. Each group then periodically reports its list of priorities and tactical plans of action to management 10. Schedules of periodic follow up meetings are established. Results of Confrontation Meetings 3

The organization confrontation meeting is a classical approach for mobilizing organizational problem solving especially in times of low performance. Intergroup Relations Interventions 1. Groups often must work with and through other groups to accomplish their goals. 2. Groups within the organization often create problems and place demands on each other 3. The quality of the relationships between groups can affect the degree of organizational effectiveness. 2 OD interventions 1. Microcosm Groups Application Stages a. Identify an issue b. Convene the group c. Provide group training d. Address the issue e. Dissolve the group 2. Intergroup Conflict Application Stages a. A consultant external to the two groups obtain their agreement to work directly on improving intergroup relationship b. A time is set for the two groups to meet preferably away from their normal work situations. c. The consultant, together with the managers of the two groups, describes the purpose and objectives of the meeting: to develop mutual relationships, explore the perceptions the group have of each other, and formulate plans for improving the relationship. d. The two groups are assigned to separate rooms and asked to write their answers to the three questions. e. After completing their lists, the two groups reconvene. f. When it is clear that the two groups thoroughly understand the content of the list, they separate again. g. The task of the two groups is to analyze and review the reasons for the discrepancies. h. When two groups have worked through the discrepancies as well as the areas of agreement, they meet to share both the identified their discrepancies and their problem-solving discrepancies. i. The two groups are asked to develop specific plans of action for solving specific problems and for improving their relationships j. When the two groups have gone as far as possible in formulating action plans, at least one follow-up meeting is scheduled so that the groups can report on actions that have been implemented, identify any further problems that have emerged, and, where necessary, formulate additional action plans. 4

Large Group Interventions the third systemwide process Changing the organizations vision, structure, strategy, or work requires the deliberate, face-to-face coordination of these groups. Four key assumptions underlie this approach: 1. Organization members perceptions play a major role in environmental relations. 2. Organization members must share a common view of the environment to permit coordinated action toward it. 3. Organization members perceptions must accurately reflect the condition of the environment if organizational responses are to be effective. 4. Organizations cannot only adapt to their environment; they must create it proactively. Application stages Preparing for the Large-Group Meeting 1. Compelling meeting theme-more powerful reasons for large-group efforts include managing impending mergers or reorganizations, responding to environmental threats and opportunities, or proposing radical organization changes. 2. Appropriate participants-inviting as many people as possible who have a stake in the conference theme and who are energized and committed to conceiving and initiating change. 3. Relevant tasks to address the conference theme-these tasks are typically assigned to several subgroups responsible for examining the theme and drawing conclusions for action. Conducting the meeting Open-Systems Method 1. Map the current environment surrounding the organization- the different domains of parts of the environment are identified and prioritized. 2. Assess the organizations responses to environmental expectations ask the participants to describe how the organization currently addresses the environmental expectations. 3. Identify the core mission of the organization identify the underlying purpose or core mission of the organization, as derived from how it responds to external demands. 4. Create a realistic future scenario of environmental expectations and organizational responses ask members to project the organization and its environment into the near future, assuming no real changes in the organization. 5. Create an ideal future scenario of environmental expectations and organizational responses members are asked to create alternative, desirable futures. 5

6. Compare the present with the ideal future and prepare an action plan for reducing the discrepancy identify specific actions that will move both the environment and the organization toward the desired future. Open Space Method 1. Set the conditions for self-organizing OD practitioner or manager sets the stage by announcing the theme of the session and the norms that will govern it. 2. Create the agenda n- develop a road map for the remainder of the conference. Ask the participants to describe a topic related to the conference them that they have passion for and interest in discussing. 3. Coordinate activity through information there are two ways to coordinate activities. a. Each morning and evening a community meeting is held to announce new topics that have emerged for which meeting dates and times have been assigned, or to share observations and learning. b. As the different meeting occurs, the conveners produce 1-page summaries of what happened, who attended, what subjects were discussed, and what recommendations or actions were proposed. Chapter 14 Restructuring Organizations Organization structure describes how the overall work of the organization is divided into subunits and how these subunits are coordinated for task completion. The Functional Structure Organization is usually divided into functional units, such as marketing, operations, research and development, human resources, and finance. This structure is based on early management theories regarding specialization, line and staff relations, span of control, authority, and responsibility. The major functional units are staffed by specialists from such disciplines as engineering and accounting. It is considered easier to manage specialists if they are grouped together under the same head and if the head of the department has training and experience in that particular discipline. The Divisional Structure Represents a fundamental different way of organizing, Known also as a product or self-contained-unit and structure, it was developed at about the same time by General Motors, Sears, Standard Oil of New Jersey (ExxonMobil) and DuPont. Matrix Structure OD practitioners have focused on maximizing the strengths and minimizing the weaknesses of both the functional and the divisional structures, and this effort has resulted in the matrix structure. It superimposes a lateral structure that focuses on product or project coordination on a vertical functional structure. Matrix organizational designs originally evolved in the aerospace industry where changing customer demands and technological conditions have caused managers to focus on lateral relationships between functions to develop a flexible and adaptable system 6

of resources and procedures, and to achieve a series of project objectives. Matrix structures now are widely used in manufacturing, service, nonprofit, governmental, and professional organizations. The Process Structure A radically new logic for structuring organizations is to form multidisciplinary teams around core processes, such as product development, order fulfillment, sales generation, and customer support. Process-based structures emphasize lateral rather than vertical relationships. All functions necessary to produce a product or service are placed in a common unit usually managed by a role labeled a process owner. Its features of this new form of organizing are: 1. Process drive structure organized around the three to five key processes that define the work of the organization. 2. Work adds value to increase efficiency, process-based structures simplify and enrich work processes. Work is simplified by eliminating nonessential tasks and reducing layers of management. 3. Teams are fundamental teams are the key organizing feature. 4. Customers define performance the primary goal of any team in a processbased structure is customer satisfaction. 5. Teams are rewarded for performance appraisal system focus on measuring team performance against customer satisfaction and other goals, and then provide real recognition for achievement. Team-based rewards are given as much, if not more, weight than is individual recognition. 6. Teams are highly linked to suppliers and customers through designated members, teams have timely and direct relationships with vendors and customers to understand and response to emerging concerns. 7. Team members are well informed and trained successful implementation of a process-based structure requires team members who can work with a broad range of information, including customer and market data, financial information, and personnel and policy matters. The Network Structure Network structure manages diverse, complex, and dynamic relationship among multiple organizations or units, each specializing in a particular business function or task. Less formally, they have been described as pizza structures, spiderwebs, starbursts, and cluster organizations. Some of this conclusion over the definition of a network was clarified by a typology describing four basic types of networks. 1. An internal market network exists when a single organization establishes each subunit as an independent profit center that is allowed to buy and sell services and resources from each other as well as from the external market. 2. A vertical market network is composed of a multiple organizations linked to a focal organization that coordinates the movement of resources from raw materials to end consumer. 3. An intermarket network represents alliances among a variety of organizations in different markets and is exemplified by the Japanese keiretsu, the Korean chaebol, and the Mexican grupos. 7

Network structures typically have the following characteristics: 1. Vertical disaggregation this refers to the breaking of the organizations business functions, such as production, marketing, and distribution, into separate organizations performing specialized work. 2. Brokers networks often are managed by broker organizations or process orchestrators that locate and assemble member organizations. 3. Coordinating mechanisms network organizations generally are not controlled by hierarchical arrangements or plans. Downsizing It refers to interventions aimed at reducing the size of the organization. This typically is accomplished by decreasing the number of employees through layoffs, attrition, redeployment, or early retirement or by reducing the number of organizational units or managerial levels through divestiture, outsourcing, reorganization, or delayering. Application Stages Successful downsizing interventions tend to proceed by the following steps: 1. Clarify the organizations strategy as a first step, organization leaders specify corporate and business strategy and communicate clearly how downsizing relates to it. They seek to inform members that downsizing is not a goal in itself, but a restructuring process for achieving strategic objectives. 2. Assess downsizing options and make relevant choice once the strategy is clear, the full range methods a. Workforce reduction aimed at reducing the number of employees, usually in a relatively short timeframe. It can include attrition, retirement incentives, outplacement services and layoffs. b. Organization redesign restructuring the firm to prepare it for the next stage of growth. c. Systemic change longer term option aimed at changing the culture and strategic orientation of the organization. 3. Implement the changes this stage involves implementing methods for reducing the size of the organization. Several practices characterize successful implementation: a. It is best controlled from the top down. b. Identify and target specific areas of inefficiency and high cost. c. Link specific actions to the organizations strategy. d. Communicate frequently using a variety of media. 4. Address the needs of survivors and those who leave downsizing eventually involves reduction in the size of the workforce, and it is important to support not only employees who remain with the organization but also those who leave 5. Follow through with growth plans this final stage of downsizing involves implementing an organization renewal and growth process.

Reengineering The final restructuring intervention is reengineering the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in performance. Application Stages 1. Prepare the organization reengineering begins with clarification and assessment of the organizations context, including its competitive environment, strategy, and objectives. 2. Specify Organization Strategy and Objectives the business strategy determines the focus of reengineering and guides decisions about the business processes that are essential for strategic success. 3. Fundamentally Rethink the Way Work Gets Done this step lies at the heart of reengineering and involves these activities: identifying and analyzing core business processes, defining their key performance objectives, and designing new processes. a. Identify and analyze core business processes core processes are considered essential for strategic success. b. Define performance objectives challenging performance goals are set in this step. The highest possible level of performance for any particular process is identified, and dramatic goals are set for speed, quality, and cost of other measures of performance. c. Design new processes the last task in this third step of reengineering is to redesign current business processes to achieve breakthrough goals. These essential processes are then designed according to the following guidelines: Begin and end the process with the needs and wants of the customer Simplify the current process by combining and eliminating steps Use the best of what is in the current process. Attend to both technical and social aspects of the process. Do not be constrained by past practice. Identify the critical information required at each step in the process. Perform activities in their most natural order. Assume the work gets done right the first time. Listen to people who do the work. 1. Restructure the Organization around the New Business Process this last step in reengineering involves changing the organizations structure to support the new business processes. Reengineered organizations typically have the following characteristics: Work units change from functional departments to process teams. Jobs change from simple tasks to multidimensional work. Peoples roles change from controlled to empower. The focus of performance measures and compensation shifts from activities to results. Organization structures change from hierarchical to flat . Managers change from supervisors to coaches; executive change from storekeepers to leaders. 9

Chapter 15 Employee involvement Four elements that can promote meaningful involvement in the workplace decisions: a. Power b. Information c. Knowledge and skills d. Rewards Employee involvement is the current label used to describe a set of practices and philosophies that started with the quality-of-work involvement in the late 1950s. Quality of work life was used to stress the prevailing poor quality of life at the workplace. Employee Involvement sees to increase members input into decisions that affect organization performance and employee well-being. It can be described in terms of four key elements that promote worker involvement: 1. Power includes providing people with enough authority to make workrelated decisions covering various issues such as work methods, ask assignments, performance outcomes, and customer service and employee selection. 2. Information timely access to relevant information is vital to making effective decisions. Organizations can promote EI by ensuring that the necessary information flows freely to those with decision authority. 3. Knowledge and skills employee involvement contributes to organizational effectiveness only to the extent that employees have requisite skills and knowledge to make good decisions. 4. Rewards because people generally do those things for which they are recognized, rewards can have a powerful effect on getting people involved in the organization. How Employee Involvement Affects Productivity a. EI interventions can improve communication and coordination among employees and organizational departments, and help integrate the different jobs or departments that contribute to an overall task. b. EI interventions can improve employee motivation, particularly when they satisfy important individual needs. Motivation is translated into improved performance when people have the necessary skills and knowledge to perform well and when the technology and work situation allow people to affect productivity. c. EI practices can improve the capabilities of employees, thus enabling them to perform better. Employee Involvement Applications Parallel Structures involve members in resolving ill-defined, complex problems and build adaptability into bureaucratic organizations. Also known as collateral 10

structures, dualistic structures, or shadow structures, parallel structures operate in conjunction with the formal organization. Application Stages Cooperative union-management and quality circle programs typically are implemented in the following steps: a. Define the Purpose and Scope involves defining the purpose for the parallel structure and initial expectation about how it will function. b. Form a Steering Committee parallel structures typically use a steering committee composed of acknowledged leaders of the various functions and constituencies within the formal organization. This committee performs the following tasks: Refining the scope and purpose of the parallel structure Developing a vision for the effort Guiding the creation and implementation of the structure Establishing the linkage mechanisms between the parallel structure and the formal organization Creating problem-solving groups and activities Ensuring the support of senior management c. Communicate with organization members the effectiveness of parallel structure depends on a high level of involvement from organization members d. Form employee problem-solving groups these groups are the primary means of accomplishing the purpose of the parallel learning structure. e. Address the problem and issues generally, groups in parallel structures solve problems by using an action research process. f. Implement and evaluate the changes this step involves implementing appropriate organizational changes and assessing the results. High-Involved Organizations Features of High-Involvement Organizations: 1. Flat, lean organization structures contribute to involvement by pushing the scheduling, planning, and controlling functions typically performed by management and staff groups toward the shop floor. 2. Job designs provide employees with high levels of discretion, task variety, and meaningful feedback can enhance involvement. 3. Open information systems tied to jobs or work teams provide the necessary information for employees to participate meaningfully in decision making. 4. Career systems provide different tracks for advancement and counseling to help people choose appropriate paths can help employees plan and prepare for long-term development in the organization. 5. Selection employees for high involvement organizations can be improved through a realistic job preview providing information about what it will be like to work in such situations. 11

6. Training employees for necessary knowledge and skills to participate effectively in decision making is a heavy commitment in HIOs. 7. Reward Systems can contribute to employee involvement when information about them is open and the rewards are based on acquiring new skills, as well as sharing gains from improved performance. 8. Personal policies that are participatively set and encourage stability of employment provide employees with a strong sense of commitment to the organization. 9. Physical layouts or organizations also can enhance employee involvement. Application Factors Results of High-Involvement Organizations Total Quality Management the most recent and, along with high-involvement organizations, the most comprehensive approach to employee involvement. Also known as continuous process improvement, continuous quality, and six sigma, TQM grew out of a manufacturing emphasis on quality control and represents a long-term effort to orient all of an organizations activities around the concept of quality. Application Stages- TQM is typically implemented in five major steps, with the exception of gaining senior management commitment, most of the steps can occur somewhat concomitantly. 1. Gain Long-term Management Commitment this stage involves helping senior executives understand the importance of long-term commitment to TQM. 2. Train members in Quality Methods TQM implementation require extensive training in the principles and tools of quality improvement. 3. Start Quality Improvement Projects in this phase of TQM implementation, individuals and work groups apply the quality methods to identify the few projects that hold promise for the largest improvements in organizational processes. 4. Measure Progress this stage of TQM implementation involves measuring organizational processes against quality standards. 5. Rewarding accomplishments in his final stage of TQM implementation, the organization links rewards to improvements in quality. Chapter 16 - Work Design Creating jobs and work groups that generate high levels of employee fulfillment and productivity. This chapter examines three approaches to work design. The engineering approach focuses on efficiency and simplification. Motivational theories attempt to enrich the work experience. Sociotechnical systems a method seeks to optimize both the social and the technical aspects of work systems. The Engineering Approach The oldest and most prevalent approach to designing work is based on engineering concepts and methods. 12

The Motivational Approach Views the effectiveness of organizational activities primarily as a function of member needs and satisfaction, and seeks to improve employee performance and satisfaction by enriching jobs. The Core Dimension of Jobs 1. Skill variety refers to the number and types of skills used to perform a particular task. 2. Task identity describes the extent to which an individual performs a whole piece of work. For example, an employee who completes an entire wheel assembly for an airplane, including tire, chassis, brakes, and electrical and hydraulic systems, has more task identity and will perceive the work as a more meaningful than someone who only assembles the braking subsystem. 3. Job Enlargement, another form of job enrichment that combines increases in skill variety with task identity, blends several narrow jobs into one large, expanded job. 4. Task significance represents the impact that the work has on others. In jobs with high task significance, such as nursing, consulting, or manufacturing something like sensitive parts for the space shuttle, the importance of successful task completion creates meaningfulness for the worker. Autonomy Refers to the amount of independence, freedom, and discretion that the employee has to schedule and perform tasks. Feedback from the Work itself This core dimension represents the information that workers receive about the effectiveness of their work. Individual differences Application stages Making a thorough diagnosis an important output of JDS is the motivating potential score, which is a function of the three psychological states experienced meaningfulness, autonomy and feedback Forming natural work units increases two of the core dimensions task Identity and ask significance Combining tasks combining tasks increases task identity and allows a worker to use a greater variety of skills. Establishing Client Relationships three steps needed to create client relationships: a. The client must be identified b. The contact between the client and the worker needs to be established as directly as possible. 13

c. Criteria and procedures are needed by which the client can judge the quality of the product or services received and relay those judgments back to the worker. Vertical Loading The intent of vertical loading is to decrease the gap between doing the job and controlling the job. Opening Feedback Channels In almost all jobs, approaches exist to open feedback channels and help people learn whether their performance is remaining at a constant level, improving or deteriorating. Barriers of Job Enrichment 1. The technical system- the technology of an organization can limit job enrichment number constraining the number of ways job s can be change. 2. The personnel system can constrain job enrichment by creating formalize job description 3. The control system control systems such as budgets, production reports, and accounting practices, can limit the complexity and challenge of jobs within the system. 4. The supervisory system - determine to a large extent the amount of autonomy and feedback that subordinates can experience. To the extent that supervisors use autocratic methods and control work-related feedbacks, jobs will be difficult, if not impossible, to enrich. Results Job Enrichment Reviews of the job enrichment research report positive effects. An analysis of 28 studies the concluded that job characteristics are positively related to job satisfaction , particularly for people with high growth needs. The Sociotechnical Systems Approach Currently the most extensive body of scientific and applied work underlying employee involvement and innovative work designs. Conceptual Background Developed originally at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in London and has spread to most industrialized nations in a little more than 50 years. Sociotechnical System- the first assumption suggests that whenever human beings are organized to perform tasks, a joint system is operating a sociotechnical system. This system consist of two independent but related parts: a social part including the people performing the task and the relationships among them, and the technical part-the tools, techniques, and methods for task performance. Environmental Relationship systems are open to their environments. The environment provides the STS with the necessary inputs of energy, raw materials, and information, and the STS provides the environment with products and services. 14

Self-Managed Work Teams The most prevalent application of the STS approach is self-managed work teams. Alternatively referred to as self-directed, self-regulating, or highperformance work teams, these work designs consist of members performing interrelated tasks. Team Task Design Task designs generally follows from the teams mission and goals that define the major purpose of the team and provide direction for task achievement. Team Process Intervention Team process interventions, such as process consultation and team building, can resolve such problems by helping members address process problems and moving the team to a more mature stage of development. Organization Support Systems The extent to which the larger organization is designed to support selfmanaged work teams. 1. Recruitment and Selection selecting team leaders with a balanced mixture of technical and social skills. 2. Training aimed at giving leaders concepts for understanding their roles, as well as hands-on experience in team building, process consultation, and third-party intervention. 3. Evaluation and Reward Systems- leaders prepare developmental plans for individual workers and the team as a whole, and set measurable benchmarks for progress. 4. Leadership support systems team leaders can meet off-site to share experiences and to address issues of personal and general concern. 5. Use of Freed-Up Time a team leader has more time when the team has matured and taken on many managerial functions. Application Stages 1. Sanctioning the Design Effort workers receive necessary protection and support to diagnose to their work system and to create an appropriate work design. 2. Diagnosing the work system includes analyzing the work system to discover how it is opening . 3. Generating appropriate designs based on diagnosis, the work system is redesigned to fit the situation. 4. Specifying support system organized support systems may have to be changed to support new work designs. 5. Implementing and evaluating the work designs involves the necessary changes to implement the work design and evaluating the results. 6. Continual change and improvement STS designing never is complete but rather continues as new things are learned and new conditions are encountered. Results of Self-Managed Teams 15

The studies concluded that unless self-managed teams are implemented and managed properly, individual members autonomy and motivation can be constrained inadvertently. Designing Work for Technical and Personal Needs The engineering approach produces traditional jobs and work groups and focuses on efficient performance. It downplays employee needs and emphasizes economic outcomes. The motivational approach of designs jobs that are stimulating and demanding and highlights the importance of employee need satisfaction. Technical Factors The degree of technical interdependence Technical uncertainty Personal need factorsSocial needs Growth needs Meeting both technical and personal needs the strategy of designing work to bring technology and people more into line with each other and is preferable to the compromise work design strategy.

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