TP 2288

Transactions of The Indian Institute of Metals

Vol. 62, Issues 4-5, August-October 2009, pp. 321-325

Castability of aluminium alloys

Marisa Di Sabatino1 and Lars Arnberg2
1 2 SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, N-7465 Trondheim, Norway Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway

Email:marisa.di.sabatino@sintef.no
Received 31 July 2009 Revised 09 October 2009 Accepted 12 October 2009 Online at www.springerlink.com 2009 TIIM, India

Keywords: castability; fluidity; hot tearing; porosity; macrosegregation; aluminium alloys

Abstract
Castability is the ability of an alloy to be cast without formation of defects such as cracks, segregations, pores or misruns. Alloy dependent phenomena that determine castability are fluidity, macrosegregation, hot tearing and porosity. These phenomena have been known for a long time but have only recently become well understood and work is underway to develop predictive castability models. These models require input of physical properties, such as solidification path, dendrite coherency, solidification shrinkage and interdendritic permeability. Some of these properties are difficult to determine experimentally but new experimental techniques are being developed to extract such data. This paper will review the phenomena that limit castability of aluminium alloys. The influence of alloy composition on fluidity, macrosegregation, hot tearing and porosity will be described. Models for castability prediction will be briefly reviewed and data on coherency, fluidity, permeability and shrinkage will be presented.

1. Introduction
Castability is the ability of an alloy to be cast to a given shape with a given process without formation of casting defects [1]. Alloy dependent phenomena that determine castability are fluidity, macrosegregation, hot tearing and porosity. Concerning alloy dependence, it is well known that some common alloying elements affect the castability of aluminium alloys profoundly. Extensive reviews are given in [2-4] and more recently in [5]. The most frequently used alloying element in aluminium, silicon, actually owes some of its popularity due to improvements in castability. Silicon has a maximum solubility of about 1.5wt% in aluminium and since concentrations in aluminium foundry alloys exceeds that concentrations by far (typical concentrations range between 5 and 17wt% in the 300 and 400 series alloys), silicon is normally present in its elemental form. The heat of fusion of silicon is about five times that of aluminium, therefore, improves fluidity significantly. Moreover, silicon expands on solidification and counteracts the solidification shrinkage of aluminium; pure aluminium shrinks by 6.7% which is reduced to about 4.5% in a eutectic Al-Si alloy with 12wt% of silicon [6]. This, in addition to the moderate freezing ranges, characteristic for the 300- and particularly 400 series alloys, makes these alloys easy to feed and offer resistance to hot tearing. Copper and magnesium, which are the basis of the 200- and 500 series, respectively, are added to aluminium foundry alloys in concentrations of typically 4 to 8 wt%. These additions result in large freezing ranges which make the alloys vulnerable to hot tearing. Without the beneficial influence of silicon, the castability of type 200 and 500 alloys is generally regarded as poor. The 700 type of alloys, which are based on the aluminium-zinc system, have relatively narrow freezing ranges and moderate castability.

This paper will shortly review fluidity, macrosegregation, hot tearing and porosity formation in casting, and the current status of their research.

2. Phenomena
2.1 Fluidity In the foundry, it is used to indicate the distance a molten metal can flow in a mould of constant cross-sectional area before it solidifies [7]. Fluidity is a complex technological property and it depends upon many factors [8] which can be categorized as follows: Metal variables: Chemical composition Solidification range Viscosity Heat of fusion Mould and mould/metal variables: Heat transfer coefficient (coating) Mould and metal thermal conductivity Mould and metal mass density Specific heat Surface tension Test variables: Applied metal head Channel diameter Casting temperature (superheat) Oxide/particle content

Reliable fluidity data for both pure and commercial aluminium foundry alloys are not readily available. However,

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such data are important in the optimization of mould filling calculations during solidification [9]. Fluidity testing can be carried out in different ways. Since the first fluidity test in 1902 [10], several equipments for fluidity testing have been developed and modified [11,12]. Currently, the most popular fluidity tests are the spiral-shaped mould test and the vacuum fluidity test. The first method measures the length the metal flows inside a spiral-shaped mould. The second method measures the length the metal flows inside a narrow channel when sucked from a crucible by using a vacuum pump. Traditionally, the spiral test has been extensively used because it is compact and portable, and hence can be used easily in the foundry. Comprehensive reviews of the fluidity tests currently available have been recently presented [13,14]. The authors [13,14] also report on the accuracy of these methods and compare both laboratory- and commercially available tests. Casting temperature and alloy chemistry are the major parameters affecting fluidity. Figure 1 shows the variation of fluidity with the silicon level and alloy system [8,9]. Increasing the silicon content of the alloy will increase its fluidity with a maximum at around 17-18wt%Si. Among the minor alloying elements, magnesium was found to decrease fluidity of the A356 alloys [15] whilst there was no significant influence of iron and titanium-boron grain refiner [16]. The modelling tools currently available do not have modules for fluidity prediction/calculation. However, some attempts in this direction were recently carried out [17]. Stoppage criteria were based on dendrite coherency determinations. In this work the experimental data from fluidity measurements by spiral-shaped sand moulds were used to determine some key parameters for modelling, e.g., heat transfer coefficient and optimal mesh-size [17].

2.2 Macrosegregation Macrosegregation is the spatial variation in composition that occurs in castings and can range from several millimetres to centimetres or even meters [18]. The cause of macrosegregation is the relative movement of segregated liquid or solid during solidification. There are several causes of liquid flow and solid movement in casting processes [18]. Among those are:
z z

Flow that feeds solidification shrinkage Buoyancy-induced flow due to thermal and solutal gradients Flow due to capillary forces Flow induced by gas bubbles Forced flows due to applied electromagnetic fields, stirring, rotation and/or vibration

z z z

Fig. 1 : Fluidity measurements as a function of a) silicon level [9] and b) alloy system [8].

In order to prevent macrosegregation, liquid flow and solid movement must be controlled aiming at a uniform and dense solid distribution. A comprehensive literature review on macrosegregation in DC casting of aluminium alloys has been reported by Nadella et al. [19]. They reviewed the main parameters affecting macrosegregation. Among these parameters, the effect of grain refining remains still unclear. Yu and Granger reported negative centreline segregation of Cu and Mg in grain-refined Al-Cu-Mg alloys [20]. Contrary to these results, other authors have reported on positive centreline segregation induced by grain-refining. Finn et al. [21] reported that grain refining with Al5Ti0.2B produced positive centreline segregation in billets of an Al-4.5wt%Cu alloy. Eskin et al. [22] showed that grain refinement does not significantly change the macrosegregation profile and the extent of chemical inhomogeneity. The role of grain refining seems to be depended on several factors, e.g., the alloy type and the type of grain refiner. Moreover, the contribution of free-floating grains is the most controversial issue in the theory of macrosegregation [22]. Some researchers have reported that coarse-cell dendrites are solute-poor [20,23] while others have reported that fine-cell dendrites are solutepoor and responsible for the negative centreline segregation [24]. Eskin et al. [22] showed that the minimum concentrations of solute elements in coarse-cells do not depend on the casting conditions and grain refining, whereas in fine-cells this increases with casting speed and structure refinement. Recently, the influence of the most important process parameters on macrosegregation in Al-Cu alloys DC cast billets was studied by performing numerical simulations [25]. It was shown that the process parameters affect macrosegregation through their direct impact on thermosolutal flow in the liquid pool and mushy zone. The main factors were the depth of the liquid pool and the temperature gradient that drives the thermal natural convection in the pool [25]. Modelling work aimed at quantitative prediction of the occurrence and severity of macrosegregation still needs further development. Although the basic mechanisms have been recognised, the challenge is currently in determining the magnitude in which these mechanisms are affecting the macrosegregation. Both experimental and theoretical work is needed to fully understand the effects of the movement of equiaxed grains, their morphology and the permeability of the mushy zone [19].

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2.3 Hot tearing The solidification shrinkage and thermal contraction can cause significant stresses. The casting may, therefore, tear in regions where the strength is still low. Those regions are not completely solidified and hot spots occur [7]. The formation of hot tears is due to a lack of feeding in the mushy zone. If the casting is well fed and the permeability in the mushy zone is high, the liquid can flow between the dendrites and heal the incipient tears. Hot tearing is highly alloy dependent and it is commonly believed that hot tears start developing in the mushy zone at solid fractions close to 1 [1]. In order for a hot tear to develop, the following conditions must apply [1]:
z z z

Casting restrained from contracting Coherent network must be established Liquid must still be present on the dendrides or grain boundaries Significant temperature decrease must occur after coherency Solid network must be sufficiently dense to prevent feeding of liquid into the tears/Low permeability and momentum in the mushy zone in a dilating network have been developed and combined with various hot tearing criteria. The challenge with all these models is to formulate a hot tearing criterion that accurately differentiate the susceptibility for different choices of materials- and process parameters. 2.4 Porosity Porosity in a casting is attributed to both solidification shrinkage and high gas content. The inability of the liquid metal to feed through the interdendritic regions to compensate for the volume shrinkage during solidification causes porosity. The rejection of hydrogen gas from solution during solidification can also cause porosity. It is recognized that homogenous pore nucleation is not possible. Nonmetallic inclusions and oxide films entrained in the liquid state influence porosity formation and mechanical properties in aluminium and its alloys [28,29]. Understanding the mechanisms of porosity formation requires reproducible laboratory experiments where key parameters such as hydrogen levels and melt quality can be carefully controlled. Recently an investigation was made where the effect on porosity of two hydrogen levels (low and medium) were investigated on a step-mould die [30]. Also the effect of degassing and upgassing procedures on porosity levels was investigated. It was shown that the presence of oxides/ inclusions, hence melt quality, plays a more significant effect on mechanical properties and porosity than the hydrogen content [30]. The reproducibility of this experimental approach was assessed by repeating a series of two casting experiments under identical conditions on two different days. The relative reproducibility was measured to vary in the range 5-10% [31]. A quantitative prediction of porosity requires the consideration of several effects on porosity formation, such as hydrogen content, pores number and size, permeability etc. An extensive review of the research progress on porosity modelling can be found in reference [32] . The same authors [32] developed a volume-average model for predicting shrinkage and gas porosity formation during solidification of aluminium alloys. This model accounted for the effects of feeding flow, melt pressure variations and finite-rate diffusion
Fig. 2 : Temperature dependence of solidification of Al-1wt% Cu (dashed curve) and Al-20wt%Cu (solid curve). Al-1wt%Cu will hot tear whereas Al-20wt%Cu will not.

Bridges between the dendrites must be established in order to withstand the tensile stress build-up. In aluminium alloys, it has been found that bridging between dendrites is established at liquid fractions of approximately 0.1 where typically 90% of the grain boundaries are still covered by thin liquid films [26]. At this stage the permeability of the dendrite network is so low that feeding into the dilating network is prevented. On the other hand, if the network is bridged to a large degree and a low fraction of the grain boundaries is covered by liquid, the network will deform plastically without a tear. A hot tear will start as a pore. Nucleation will occur under conditions similar to a pore, most likely at an inclusion. The alloy dependence of hot tearing can be understood from the segregation behaviour of the alloying elements. If the alloying content is relatively low compared to the eutectic concentration in systems with a deep eutectic, such as the Al-Cu or Al-Mg systems, the alloy segregation will be moderate in the beginning and solidification will proceed at a relatively constant temperature. Towards the end of solidification, however, severe microsegregation will result in a sharp temperature drop and extensive thermal contraction will stress the casting when it is vulnerable to tearing. Such a situation is shown in Fig. 2. Even lower alloy concentrations will result in castings that are already coherent towards the end of solidification and will, therefore, deform plastically. Several tests have been designed for measuring the hot tearing tendency of aluminium alloys. Most of these are based on castings in a mould that restrains the metal from contracting. High temperature tensile testing has been used to assess the stress development of alloys close to their solidus temperature and it is expected that results from these tests will be important for the further understanding and quantification of hot tearing phenomena. Attempts to model hot tearing have been described and reviewed by Eskin et al. [27]. Such models are based on simultaneously describing feeding/porosity formation and excessive deformation. More sophisticated models based on volume-averaged two-phase conservation equations for mass

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of dissolved hydrogen in the liquid toward the pores. It was shown that shrinkage-driven porosity becomes important for high cooling rates and low temperature gradients [32]. However, the authors addressed the need for (i) a more accurate measure of the hydrogen solubility in the eutectic, (ii) an improved model for the pore number density variations, and (ii) a better accuracy of the local finite-rate hydrogen diffusion sub-model. Currently, a model for porosity formation and growth based on micro-/macro-scale gas diffusion/transport in the melt, coupled with a model for feeding flows and pressures during solidification, is under development and the simulation results are validated by accurate experimental data [31]. This modelling approach is intended to be valid for both gravityand low pressure die castings. Experimental validation is essential for assisting and further developing the modelling tools. One of the major challenges to formulate a porosity criterion is to take into account the permeability in the interdendritic regions. Extensive investigations have been carried out at SINTEF/ NTNU in order to measure permeability and elaborate a model to account for the variations in permeability with solid fraction and microstructure [33-35]. Boeira et al. [36] calculated the local composition along the length of Al-Cu castings by a macrosegregation model and used it as an input parameter for simulation of microporosity. They found that a decrease on alloy solute content and an increase on metal/mould heat transfer caused lower porosity levels at regions close to the casting surface.

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Arnberg L, Mo A, Castability-fluidity and hot tearing, Metals Handbook, ASM (2008) 375. Arnberg L, Bckerud L and Chai G, Solidification Characteristics of Aluminium Alloys. AFS Trans, (1996) 3. Bckerud L, Chai G and Tamminen J, Solidification Characteristics of Aluminium Alloys, AFS Trans, (1990) 2. Jorstad J and Rasmusen W M, Aluminium Casting Technology, AFS Trans., (1993). Major F J, Aluminium and aluminium alloy castings. Metals Handbook, ASM (2008) 1059. Magnusson T and Arnberg L, Met. Trans., 32A (2001) 2605. Flemings M C, Solidification Processing, (1974) McGraw Hill. Di Sabatino M, Fluidity of aluminium alloys. PhD Thesis at NTNU, (2005). Loper Jr, C R, AFS Trans, (1992) 533. West T D, Metallurgy of cast iron. Cleveland, OH, (1902). Saito D, Hayashi K, Memoires of the College of Engineering, Kyoto Imperial University, 2 (1919) 83. Krynitsky A I, AFS Trans., 61 (1953) 399. Di Sabatino M, Syvertsen F, Arnberg L and Nordmark A, An improved method for fluidity measurement by gravity casting of spirals in sand moulds. Int. J. Cast Met. Res., 18 (2005) 59. Di Sabatino M, Arnberg L, Brusethaug S, Apelian D, Fluidity evaluation methods for Al-Mg-Si alloys. Int. J. Cast Met. Res., 19 (2006) 94. Di Sabatino M, Shankar S, Apelian D, Arnberg L, Influence of temperature and alloying elements on fluidity of Al-Si alloys. in TMS-Shape Casting Symposium. (2005) 193. Di Sabatino M, Arnberg L, Effect of grain refinement and dissolved hydrogen on the fluidity of A356 alloy. Int. J. Cast Met. Res., 18 (2005) 181. Di Sabatino, M., Arnberg, L., Bonollo, F., Simulation of fluidity in Al-Si alloys. Met Sc and Tech, Ed by Teksid (2006). Beckermann C, Macrosegregation. Metals Handbook. 2008: ASM. 348. Nadella R, Eskin D G and Du Q, Katgerman L, Macrosegregation in direct-chill casting of aluminium alloys, Prog. Mater. Sci., 53 (2008) 421. Yu H and Granger D A, Internation conference on aluminium alloys-their physical and mechanical properties, (1986) Warley, UK. Finn T L, Chu M G and Bennon W D, Micro/Macro scale phenomena in solidification, ed. C. Beckermann, New York: ASME (1992) 17. Eskin D G, Nadella R and Katgerman L, Effect of different grain structures in centreline macrosegregation during direct-chill casting. Acta Mat, 56 (2008) 1358. Glenn A M R, Paterson S P, P.J. K., Metall Mat Trans A, 384 (2003) 232. Chu M G, Jacoby J E, Light Metals, (1990) 925. Zaloznik M, Sarler B, Mat. Sci and Eng. A, 413-414 (2005) 85. Ju Y, Arnberg L, Int. J. Cast Met. Res., 16 (2003) 522. Eskin D, Suyinto G, Katgerman L, Prog. Mater. Sci., 49 (2004) 629. Monroe R, Porosity in castings. AFS Trans, 5 (2005) 10. Rooy E L, Preventing porosity in aluminum castings, Part 2. Modern Casting, 82 (1992) 32.

14.

15.

16.

3. Concluding remarks
Significant progress has been made in the last decade in the understanding of castability of aluminium alloys. This understanding is being systematized in predictive models. Such models are still under development and can not yet quantitatively predict fluid length, macrosegregation, hot tearing and porosity. Continued research must focus on:
z

17. 18. 19.

Improvements of the physical description of castability phenomena in order to improve the sophistication of the models Measurements of physiochemical and thermodynamic data, particularly mushy zone properties such as permeability and mechanical properties of semisolid metals Critical reproducible experiments to validate the models

20.

21.
z

22.

23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Acknowledgements
The European Project Nadia (New Automotive components Designed for and manufactured by Intelligent processing of light Alloys) contract nr 026563-2 is gratefully acknowledged for financial support. The authors thank Shahid Akhtar (NTNU) and Derya Dispinar (SINTEF) for scientific discussions.

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30.

31.

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34. Ellingsen K, MHamdi M, Mo A, Nielsen , Quantification of the mushy zone permeability in industrial aluminium alloys. in EUROMAT. 2007. Nurnberg. 35. Nielsen , Mushy zone permeability and grain morphology in equiaxed aluminium-copper alloys. PhD Thesis, 2000, NTNU. 36. Boeira A P, Ferreira I L, Garcia A, Alloy composition and metal/ mold heat transfer efficiency affecting inverse segregation and porosity of as-cast Al-Cu alloys. Materials and Design, 30 (2009) 2090.