Engber

1 Public Transportation: To Start Improving Our Future Now Abstract This paper addresses the current issues that make public

transportation improvements vital to American society. Several suggestions are made as to correcting these problems and build upon them so as to better the American public. It suggests implementation of high-speed mass transit, creating bicycle related infrastructure, increasing gas taxation, expanding mass transit systems, broadening access to public transportation, and promoting hybrid cars. The paper outlines the suggested policies, providing evidence of the numerous advantages of improvements in public transportation through their demonstrated success in many countries. The implementation of these policies will increase physical activity, reduce car emissions, and increase elderly mobility. The public transit system of a country illustrates not only its attention to its

citizens needs, but also plays an integral role in the nations economy, environment, and pubic health. Unfortunately, the United States lags behind many other countries in the area of public transportation. Robert Cervero assesses American public transportation: public infrastructure has been a necessary, though not sufficient, catalyst of economic growth and expansion. The U.S. is not utilizing public transit for economic expansion, allowing cars to gradually take over as the primary mode of transportation. Reliance upon cars has led to the neglect of public transportation,

Engber 2 causing economic, social, and environmental deterioration (Judge). This is merely one example of one of the many flaws within the American public transportation system. Public transportation should implement policies of reform in order to decrease the carbon footprint, revitalize the economy, and decrease economic segregation in America. However, some argue that steps are already being taken to improve public

transportation. The government has allotted money to the implementation of various public transportation and infrastructure development. The National Tax Journal describes the U.S. stimulus package, where nearly one-quarter of the $787 billion in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 has been devoted to spending and tax credits for infrastructure investments,(Hanak). This money funds further transportation infrastructure such as the construction of more highway lanes and bridges to increase highway capacity,(Brown). Some would argue that American public transportation is given enough money and does not require more initiatives to be taken. Needs Cars continue to be responsible for numerous fatalities and injuries. Car

collisions and pedestrian accidents have become a common cause of death and injury. The Journal of Transportation Law, Logistics, and Policy exposes that 60,000,000 crashes are reported in the U.S. each year, out of which more than 40,000 people die and 2.5 others are injured, (McDonald). Traffic fatalities have been attributed the number-one killer of people ages two to 34, (Kissinger). Pediatric published a study that found teenagers twice as likely than other drivers to

Engber 3 be in a car crash due to high rates of risky behavior. Furthermore, the study concluded that teen accident rates, and accident rates in general, are high because the United States has extensive rural and suburban areas with few transportation alternatives to private vehicles (Garcia-Espana et al.). The lack of reliable and accessible public transportation forces people to drive, increasing the probability of car accident related injuries and fatalities. People must be given an alternative transportation option to decrease car related fatalities. High amounts of dangerous car emissions contribute to global warming.

Global warming, climate change caused by increased concentration of greenhouse- gasses, is hazardous to the environment and society. Cars emit greenhouse-gasses such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxide (Cools et al.). This is significant, given the prominence of cars in todays society. The high rate of modern car consumption is exemplified by the 123% increase of privately owned cars in Ireland from 1990-2006 (Gallachoir et al.). Car emissions are detrimental, as this sector [transportation] accounts for 23% of world energy-related C02 emissions, with 74% coming from road vehicles,(Machado-Filho). These emissions cause environmental and cultural harm. The predicted reduction in water availability by 21% in the West Bank illustrates the potential agricultural and societal damage global warming can cause (Mizyed). The high usage of cars deteriorates the environment and contributes to harmful greenhouse-gases. A lack of mobility and unequal access to public transportation causes socio- economic segregation. Access to public transit differs between different socio- economic groups, widening the cultural and social divide. A study found that low-

Engber 4 income minority neighborhoods are more likely to walk, use public transit or bike, than rural Caucasian neighborhoods. Furthermore, the study found that residence of these neighborhoods traveled roughly one-third the distance to work than the suburban wealthy did, but for 30% longer time which points to poor mobility and accessibility for the low-income minorities,(Lin and Long). A study examining immigrant segregation attributes racial and economic isolation to unequal access of public transportation. It explains that immigrants tend to depend upon public transportation and as the nation has gravitated towards suburban developments and largely abandoned public transit, immigrants have been left behind, (Cutler, Glaeser and Vigdor Is the Melting Pot). The Journal of Urban Economics explains that high levels of public transit in low-income neighborhoods may assist immigrants in the short run, but the difficulty of expanding beyond the networks could cause harm in the long run,(Cutler, Glaeser and Vigdor When are the Ghettos). Unequal access to public transportation in different neighborhoods contributes to segregation. Limited transportation decreases elderly mobility. Older people lose their basic senses as they age, and are unable to drive, leaving them stranded in a car reliant society. A study found that quality of life is typically diminished among older adults who experience restrictions in independence, where independence refers to limited mobility. The study found further evidence that the age group consisting of people ages 75 and older to have a predicted probability of experiencing mobility disability, or inability to drive, that increases by 47% each year,(Clarke, Ailshire and Lantz). This forces older generations to drive unsafely, rely upon others or seek

Engber 5 public transportation. The Journal of American Public Health estimates that 40% of older adults in rural areas have no access to public transportation services and another 25% have negligible access (Freeman et al.). Older adults are unsafe to drive and require a dependable and accessible alternative to driving. High car reliance causes obesity. Cars decrease physical activity and promote sedentary lifestyle, causing weight gain. Peter Freund and George Martin explain that: the rise of auto-mobility fostered the development of fast food, decreasing physical activity while providing calorically dense food. They link this emergence of cars and fast food to obesity, explaining that: the socio-spatial link between lack of walking (and cycling) and obesity is motorized urban sprawl in which automobiles are the only viable means of daily transportation. The European Journal of Public Health found that increased rates of obesity are due to social trends such as spending more time in a car, walking less and not having access to a car all the time,(Rabin, Boehmer and Brown). Weight gain and decreased physical activity pose a serious issue, given the numerous health risks linked to obesity such as: diabetes, hypertension, fatty liver, sleep apnea, arthritis, and depression,(Kuo et al.). The emergence of cars as a primary mode of transportation has caused and contributed to American obesity. Dependence on foreign oil makes the U.S. economy unstable and vulnerable. Most modern transportation, notably cars, is fueled through oil, much of which is imported from foreign countries. These risky behaviors make the American economy susceptible to foreign economic decisions. According to the Air Force Journal of Logistics: America imports nearly 66 percent of its petroleum needs

Engber 6 every day. Furthermore, it explains that: energy prices have a direct impact on the consumer price index, making the U.S. economy vulnerable because the trade imbalance provides oil supplying countries potential leverage over U.S. capital markets,(Puckett). This leverage puts the American public in danger. The journal Foreign Policy suggests that instability and terrorism in the Middle East endanger oil-dependant nations largely reliant upon fuel-consuming cars such as the United States and France (El-Gamal et al.). Patrick M. Morgan explains that beyond economic danger, reliance upon foreign oil tends to have political implications that cause havok domestically and militarily as well. This is because foreign economic control and leverage aggrivate conflict, therefore having political consequences. Transportation in America is largely dependant upon foreign oil, endangering the economy and society. Policy High-speed trains provide an efficient mode of transportation that will

advance America technologically. High-speed rails will decrease the carbon footprint and allow for America remain industrially competitive with other countries. Jeremy F. Plant illustrates the advantages of high-speed trains, explaining that they relieve air pollution, reinvigorate deteriorating urban centers, and will advance the United States technologically. He goes on to explain that many of the developed nations and a number of rapidly developing countries, including the United Kingdom, South Korea, and many others, have made or are planning major investments in high-speed rail systems. Japan exhibits the successful

Engber 7 implementation of the high-speed rail. The Japanese created the Shinkansen, the first high-speed rail, which travels 130 miles per hour and defines the high speed world standard,(Reuffer). High-speed rails symbolize the technological advancement and innovation that America should strive to achieve. High-speed rails would advance America technologically so as to keep the U.S. up to date globally. Implementing a higher gas tax will reduce harmful greenhouse-gas emissions

and slow down global warming. Raising taxes on gas will give the public incentive to use public transportation and other modes of transit and decrease car usage. The Alternatives Journal explains that increasing gas taxes combined with improvements in public transportation, such as implemented by Boulder Colorado, would eliminate the opportunity to choose harmful behavior, referring to excessive car use (Bird). The article went on to explain how Colorado now has a community- based transit system consisting of small buses with more frequent service, comfortable seating and large windows, increasing incentive to utilize public transportation because of the comparative comfort and affordability to cars. Similarly, a study aimed at decreasing car use found the implementation of fuel taxes to be extremely effective when combined with a subsidy for mass transit,(Tanishita, Kashima and Hayes). By decreasing car usage and increasing public transportation use, emissions from cars will pose less of a threat to the environment and decrease the imminence of global warming. Introducing more bike infrastructure will decrease sedentary lifestyle and

car use. The implementation of bike lanes would encourage a more physical means of transportation and reduce car traffic. The Journal of Public Health Policy calls for

Engber 8 a network of bicycle-specific infrastructure to promote physical activity among adults (Dill). This conclusion was based upon a study of biking activity in Portland, one of the most bicycle friendly cities in America, which found Portlands bike lanes and built-environment to increase biking-levels substantially. Decreasing car usage will increase levels of physical activity. An article in the Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior demands creation of environments in which physical activity becomes a routine part of the day,(Fenton). In order to do this, the article went on to suggest a comprehensive network of pathways, trails, bike lanes, and mass transit. Promotion of a more active form of public transportation such as biking will increase physical activity levels. Expansion of mass-transit systems will encourage economic growth. The

deteriorated economy needs revitalizing, and widening the range of public transportation will stimulate economic progress. According to a journal article published in the Montana Business Quarterly: a healthy economy demands a strong transportation infrastructure because prosperity is derived from trade which requires access to markets, workers and suppliers,(Albert and Chaudhari). The article suggests that economic progress can made through implementation of advanced technologies such as mass public-transit systems. Such systems have successfully encouraged economic growth in many major cities such as Boston, New York and London. Boston, one of the most vibrant cities in America, has economically advanced over time due to its subway system that has set the standard for other large cities in the country,(Hansen). Mass transit should be implemented in order to revitalize the currently struggling economy.

Engber 9 Broadening rural access to public transportation will increase elderly

mobility. Public transit systems such as trains and busses should be expanded into more rural communities so as to provide elderly generations who are unable to drive a convenient and safe means of transportation. Elizabeth Aleciandre and Susan T. Chrysler suggest implementing appropriate policies and programs to improve the safety and mobility of an aging population based upon successful implementation in Australia and Japan. They explain further that both countries experienced a remarkable reduction in traffic fatalities as a result of their innovative techniques such as using church and school busses as transportation for the elderly as well as expanding their train systems. The University of Michigan Transport Institute Research Review also encourages developing programs to enhance elderly mobility,(Elders on the Move). This assessment was based upon extensive research done upon successful implementation of advanced technology, roadway design, and alternative transportation in numerous cities around the globe. Expanding train and bus access to more rural communities will provide the elderly with a safe and convenient means of transportation. Incentives to promote hybrid-vehicles should be implemented in order to

decrease foreign-oil dependence. Initiating policy such as a carbon-tax and tax-relief for investment in renewable energy will push people to invest in hybrid cars, allowing America to gradually become less reliant on foreign oil. Timothy M. Beardsley states that a carbon-tax will pressure people to seek energy alternatives and other means of transportation that will reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil. Irelands budget for 2010 illustrates global interest in lessening oil dependency,

Engber 10 including a plan to implement a carbon tax combined with a tax relief for those who investment in renewable energy (Verde and Tol). An article in the journal Energy Policy explains that economic plans such as this have been initiated to address increasing concerns regarding high oil prices, oil dependency, and climate changes,(Shiau et al.). The article continues to explain that widespread promotion of hybrid cars combined with these tax initiatives will stabilize the economy. The U.S. must push the public towards hybrid-vehicles and transportation that does not rely so heavily upon oil so as to decrease foreign oil dependency. Benefits Physical activity will increase. People will use cars less, increasing physical

activity while decreasing the prevalence of obesity and improving overall quality of life within the community. The Journal of Public Health explains that increases in physical activity have been linked to improvements in mental and physical health, which decrease susceptibility to disease (Blank et al.). Steven K. Galson assesses that increasing physical activity gives people self-confidence they did not have before, as many Americans underestimate their personal ability to incorporate physical activity into their daily lives. Peoples mental and physical health benefits from physical activity. Car emissions will decrease. A decrease in greenhouse-gas emissions will

improve public health and decrease the imminence of global warming. The Journal of Environmental Health explains that decreasing emissions will prevent climate related diseases that are considered by a majority of health directors to pose a serious threat (First Nationwide Climate Change Survey of Public Health

Engber 11 Departments). Decreasing greenhouse-gasses and will reduce the danger of global warming. Reduction of gas-emissions will result in the decrease of rising sea levels, lessen the extremity of weather conditions, and the prevent risks to marine ecosystems (Fussel). The lessening of global warming will decrease immediate risk to public health and the environment. Older people will have increased mobility. By improving their mobility, the

elderly will extend their lifespan as well as their quality of life. The Journal of Applied Gerontology states that: for the elderly, mobility is constitutive and essential element of their quality of life,(Kaiser). Not only will the quality of life improve, but mobility has also been known to lengthen their lives. The Journal of Gerontology published another article, explaining that the physical and emotional quality of life of older people is increased and prolonged by more transportation and mobility (Dodge et al.). Elderly people will no longer have to depend upon others and have the freedom of being mobile. This will make them less reliant upon others while improving their quality and longevity of life. The neglect of American public transportation has caused deterioration of

the economy, public health and the environment. To fix this, America must discourage car use, encourage public transportation, and establish a more equal and far-reaching network of public transit. Implementation of these methods has already been proven successful by many different nations around the globe. Many vibrant cities such as London, Singapore, Stockholm, Begin and Edinburgh have been successful in implemented innovative systems of transportation (Albalate and

Engber 12 Bel). Improving public transit will have a far-reaching positive impact upon American society.

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