Chapter 5

UNDERGROUND MINED TYPE LPG STORAGE

by D. F. McCarthy, President

McCarthy

Engineering Tulsa,

& Construction, Oklahoma

Inc.

INTRODUCTION Mined underground chambers specifically designed for the purpose of storing liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) at ambient temperatures have been in use for over thirty years. The first caverns were developed by Warren Petroleum of Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1948, for its plants in Texas. The basic concept of an LPG-storage cavern is to create a space in an impervious formation at a depth sufficiently below the water table so that if any movement of fluid occurs the ground water will enter rather than the gas escape from the cavern. In the past, the primary reason for LPG storage underground has been its attractive cost advantages over steel storage on the surface. At current prices the cost of storing 7.949 ML (50,000 barrels) would be equivalent, whether stored on the surface or underground; whereas 79.494 ML (500,000 barrels) of storage underground costs only one-fifth of surface storage. It is usually uneconomical to excavate less than 79.494 m m (50,000 barrels) of storage space. The fixed costs - engineering, mainshaft and ventilation shaft - are a substantial part of the total cost, whereas the incremental costs for excavating additional storage are relatively low. Recent concern over the hazards posed by the handling and storage of LPG and liquefied natural gas (LNG) has led to a new interest in the underground storage of these gases, Underground storage offers the following advantages: safety, security, low initial cost, low maintenance cost, operating,cost, minimum land require86

UNDERGROUND

MINEDTYPE

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87

ments, aesthetic value, efficient operation, and constant operating temperature. Part of the above predicates lower insurance rates.

SITE INVESTIGATION

In the design of mined storage caverns, the primary concerns are the geological conditions that might adversely affect personnel safety and increased costs during the construction period, or limit the life of the completed facility. A feasibility study, including core drilling, is conducted to determine the suitability of a proposed site. The information gathered from the cores is the most useful means of obtaining data about the qualities of a rock mass essential to the design and construction of the underground excavation.
The contractor gathers information that defines the site topography, means of ingress and egress, availability of drilling water, potential lost circulation zones, and the types of formations to be cored. The more information available, the more realistic will be the bids for the core drilling program. Other helpful information includes source and availability of power, the number of available local subcontractors, suppliers, and restrictions on noise, and welding and cutting which are unique to each particular project. There is no substitute for meaningful data related to local geological and engineering conditions.

CORING
The majority of all LPG-storage caverns have been constructed at depths of less than 152 m (500 feet); therefore a 0.08 m (3 inch) diameter core hole is ample. A portable drill rig is adaptable to drill a 0.08 m (3 inch) hole and extract an NQ core in lengths up to 6.1 m (20 feet). An NQ diamond coring bit, which is satisfactory for conducting the necessary laboratory tests, cuts a hole 0.08m (3 inches) in diameter and obtains a core 0.05m (1,87 inches) in diameter. ~~e drilling program should include at least one hole that is cored from the surface to its total depth. The remaining holes should be cored a minimum of 6.1 m (20 feet) above and below the proposed cavern interval. The recoverable core indicates the character of the intact rock, and the number and character of the natural discontinuities. One method of quantifying the in-place rock mass quality is to record the fractures observed in the core. A rockmassof good qualitY will have a Jow fracture frequency (approximately one fracture per 0.30 m (1 foot) or less and therefore will have an in-place modu-

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1981 RETC PROCEEDINGS VOLUME 1

lus of deformation that will approach the modulus of the intact specimen. High fracture frequencies indicate a poorer quality rock. As a means of obtaining a quantitative index for describing rock quality from the coring program, we have..used the RQD (rock quality designation) method developed by Deere in 1964. The RQD is a method of cataloging core recovery in which all the pieces of sound core over 0.10 m (4 inches) in length are counted as recovery. (The smaller pieces are attributed to shearing, jointing, fracturing, or weathering in the rock mass and are not counted). The RQD provides a preliminary estimate of the variation of the in-place rock mass properties of the sound portion of the rock core. An ROD approaching 100% denoted excellent quality rock mass as indicated by the scale: RQD O-25 25 - 50 50 - 75 75 - 90 90 - 100 Description of rock quality Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent

By using the RQD, the geologist quantifies his interpretation of the rock quality, which is useful when comparing rock quality from previous projects and core analyses by different geologists. The geologists ability to carefully supervise the drilling program minimizes fresh breaks in the core not related to the quality of rock mass, which might occur during the drilling and handling of the core. The expertise of the driller will affect the amount of breakage and the core loss that will occur. Poor drilling techniques and incompetent supervision will penalize the rock mass by lowering its apparent quality. Distinguishing between drilling breaks and natural fractures that reflect the quality of the rock mass is difficult. A geologist present during the pulling of cores can minimize improper logging. The geologist assigned to logging the cores should give special attention to the shale cores. They should be cleaned with a brine solution, logged, and placed into plastic bags. In addition, good practice dictates the taking of close-up colored pictures of the entire length of the core. After removal from the core barrel, the cores should be baked and placed in dry, safe storage area. Drilling with air or clean water is desirable to obtain the most accurate results.

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MINED TYPE LPG STORAGE FIELD TESTING

89

Immediately after each hole is drilled, the formation should be tested hydrostatically to determine the in-place permeability. This is done by applying a constant fluid pressure on an isolated zone in the formation, and measuring the rate at which fluid can be injected into the rock strata. The core holes are tested using straddle packers spaced approximately 7.01 M (23 feet) apart with a constant 517.11 kPa (75 psi) applied pressure. An empirical guide that I developed some twenty-five years ago has been used in site selecting for almost all LPG mined type caverns. Formation Pressure Test Water Loss u m3/s (gph) (0 - 0.6) (0.6- 1.8) (1.8 - 3.0) 3.0) ( Classification Excellent Good Fair Poor

o- 0.63 0.63 - 1.89 1.89- 3.15 3.15

Of the 87 LPG caverns constructed there have been three caverns that were aborted immediately for reasons associated with fractures and/or ground water problems. Two of the three caverns were completed, but failed to pass the final air test conducted on the cavern. One cavern was terminated as the water inflow reached 2.21 m cu m per sec. (35 gpm). The drilled holes should not be cemented until the drilling program is complete. The holes should be cemented from the bottom back to the surface with neat cement.

LABORATORY TESTING Introduction Laboratory tests are performed on cores to determine additional rock properties than can be determined through field testing. Routine analysis are performed to determine: (1) formation permeability; (2) porosity; (3) bulk density; and (4) unconfined compressive strength, Water vapor exposure and propane immersion tests may also be valuable. A brief description of the individual testing procedures follows.

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1981 RETC PROCEEDINGS VOLUME 1

Permeability is the rock property that indicates the ability of fluid to pass through the rock. It is a property of the rock itself, and is not dependent upon the type of fluid flowing through it, except when chemical reaction occurs between the flowing fluid and the rock. Routine permeability measurements are usually made by flowing air or inert gas through a sample of rock of known, regular dimensions. The normal procedure is to cut a perm plug from a larger core and dress the faces of the plug to a smooth surface normal to the axis of the plug. The plug is then placed in a holder that seals the perimeter, and forces gas through the plug while measuring the rate and pressure. Even though permeability is a unique property of each rock sample, when it is being measured with a gas the indicated permeability will vary with the pressure utilized to force the gas through the specimen. The permeability constant is predicated on viscous flow through the sample, and elevated pressures create turbulent flow within the sample and thus distorts the permeability constant. To correct for this effect, a plot of the indicated permeability constant can be made against the reciprocal of the median pressure within the sample. Extrapolation of this plot to infinite pressure or the value zero (0) of the reciprocal of pressure then will give a permeability constant which can be duplicated by flowing fluids through the sample which are non-reactive with the sample being tested. The recommended practices developed by the American Petroleum Institute, as set out in RP27 and RP40, are fol?owed throughout the permeability determinations. Nitrogen gas is used as the test fluid, Porosity Porosity is that portion of a rock unoccupied by solid minerals, The pore space will always be occupied by a fluid of some description. There are two types of porosity: intergranular porosity, or the void spaces between discrete grains of the rock; and secondary porosity, which has developed subsequent to the formation of the rock, taking the form of vugs OF solution channels in carbonate rocks. Normal laboratory measurements determine only the primary or intergranular porosity. Porosity determinations are usually performed on the specimen perm plugs. Fluids are extracted from the specimen by drying it to a constant weight of 105C. The specimen is weighed on analytical balance and then placed in a Kolb-type porosimeter, utilizing the Boyles law method of porosity determination, according

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to the techniques outlined in API RP40. In this technique, an extracted sample is subjected to an elevated pressure with a gas. The change of gas volume is measured with the increase in pressure, which is representative of the total gas volume of the pore space within the sample and the containing vessel, The actual pore space is computed from the known volume of the containing vessel and the bulk volume of the rock sample. Specific Gravity The determination of specific gravity of the rocks penetrated during the coring has its primary utilization during the design of the cavern openings and pillar supports. It is used also to indicate the weight of material that must be handled during mining operations. Unconfined Compressive Strength Another parameter used to design a stable mine opening is the Unconfined Compressive Strength of the rock. Although it is simple measurement in which a core specimen is loaded to collapse in a press, careful attention to details in the preparation of samples for a compressive test is important to ensure consistent results. Recommended testing procedures are outlined inASTM D2938-71a. Each specimen is prepared by sawing its ends with a diamond saw, and measuring the diameter and height to insure that the ends are parallel to each other and at right angles to the longitudinal axis. Until tested, the specimens are wrapped in plastic to preserve their moisture conditions. Water Vapor Exposure Test To determine the effect of high humidity on the shales during mining operations, a test was contrived that consists of placing specimens in an oven for six days. The oven temperature is set at 40C and the specimens are subjected to alternating cycles of low and high humidity as follows: The specimens are accurately measured to determine their length, diameter, and bulk density before being placed in the oven to dry for a 24-hour period. At the end of this period, they are removed from the oven, remeasured and reweighed. They are then returned to the oven, along wf,tha pan of water that evaporates and raises the relative humidity in the oven atmosphere. At the end of this 24hour period, the water and samples are removed from the oven, and the samples are remeasured and reweighed a second time. The dry and wet cycles are repeated three times each to end the testing period. The effects on the samples at the end of the six cycles

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are noted, and the results tabulated. Propane Immersion Test

For this test, samples are taken from each core hole located in the proposed cavern interval. The samples are placed in a steel vessel, which is then filled with liquid propane. At the end of five days, the propane is vented from the vessel, the samples are removed and examined, and the results tabulated.

CAVERN DESIGN The size of the cavern openings are predicated upon maintaining maximum structural support during the construction period. Permeability to air and propane tests are conducted on core samples taken from the region within 9.1 m (20 feet) above and below the proposed cavern interval. These tests indicate whether the rock mass is impervious to the transmissibility of the stored product. To be considered an ideal site, the measured permeability should be less than 0.01 millidarcy. Careful judgment should be made when examining small samples, as these tend to give a higher permeability value than the in-place results. The apparent porosity test is conducted to arrive at an estimate of the probable loss of product during the initial filling. These losses have been as high as 2%. The drying out and surface fracturing of the formation will cause a loss of 1% while the other 1% is due to irregularities in the drainage and mining patterns plus the liquid that is not recoverable in the sumps. Losses during subsequent fillings have been negligible. The results obtained from the water vapor exposure test are useful in determining the type of rock anchors used for supporting the roof and walls. The rate of deterioration (air slacking) of the rock due to moisture is reflected in the design of the ventilation equipment, additional support in conjunction with the rock bolts, and the method of sealing off any inflow of water into a cavern. The most reliable method of supporting the rock openings is to use rock bolts, which are installed in the roof as near to the work~ng face as possible. The depths and spacing of the bolts are predicated upon the strength of the rock and the size of the opening. In soft shales, the length of the bolts should never be less than one-third of the roof span. The majority of rock bolts installed in the past used a mechanical anchor. When subjected to air slacking (deterioration as the humidity changes), resin bolts or split sets give better support. Since the completed cavern operates at approximately 0.60 MPa (100 psig) and the propane is inert to the rock, the supports have to be effective only during the

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MINED TYPE LPG STORAGE

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A list of the LPG mined type caverns constructed in the United States is shown in Table I.

COMPRESSED AIR STORAGE The first phase of construction for an LPG cavern is the drilling of the main shaft. The drill hole is usually a 1.9304m (76 inches) to 2.1336m (84 inches) diameter hole and cased with a 60 inch diameter casing. After the casing is cemented, bailed and a very small cavity created directly beneath the 1.524 m (60 inch) cased hole, the shaft is closed in and the formation is air tested. This formation test doesnt give any more data than what is obtained from the straddle test conducted on the core holes, but it does reconfirm the initial data. For compressed air storage or reverse pump back storage where the depths and the excavations are much larger, I would reconnnend that an access shaft be drilled as part of the testing program. At this time an extensive rock mechanic investigation could be undertaken. This small diameter shaft could be incorporated into the final design and used to expedite the underground construction.

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1981RETC PROCEEDINGS VOLUME 1

TABLE I. LPG "Mined Type" Caverns Constructed in United States

s
2
a -

5
'ype of Cavern Rock

REMnRKS

Locations
-

Alabama, Demapolls Alaska Ari.?O"e Arkansas California Colorado CO"". Delaware Florida Georgia, Milner Hawaii Idaho Illnois, Aurora Crossville Farmlngton Kankakee Lemont Lick Creek Monee Morris

Yrst drilled nine shaft for .PG.

_ 1

_
1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 53 53 65 53 68 74 72 71 Deepest cavern 1820'. ethane later 1 flow s/SC35 gpm 2.21 "&I 50 To Shallow To Shallow '

Morris

1 2

Tuscola

Wood River

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MINED TYPE LPG STORAGE

95

s
az -

5
x

REI.V\RKS

Locations Uood River

Liquid bulkhead separates pro';:;: from propy62 67 Would only hold 0.552 Pa!80 psi)

Wood River Indiana, Griffith

1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 x 50

x x

Griffith Huntington

70
Y

66

Small water inflow

Oakland Cit Seymour SeyllhYUr Iowa, Des Moines Des Moines Des Moines

61 50 50 76 78 67 x 67 70 63 80 67 Partial Ref. 2.76 Pa (400 lb) e-p mix First cthan Cav.

50 x

x x
20

rowa city Iowa city

Ka!lS.%

Kentucky, Calvert city Constance Siloam Louisiana Maine !~aryland,Baltimore Mass. Michigan

2 1 2 50

x x

$3 I j7

One Cavern held propylene

Some

oil blends Dut of sandstone

stingers

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1981RETC PROCEEDINGS VOLUME 1

Locations Mlnn., Mississippf Missouri, Florissant Jasper Mt. Vernon 72 67 64 ome water conin, nsumps Ersklne

Montana Nebraska, Greenhuod Omaha Omaha Gmaha Nevada New Hampshfre >l.J., Gibbstown Esso NW Mexico ,nhydrous ainwnii

Naw York North Dakota Ohio, Cincinnati Lima Middletow Middletow Middletow Toledo 64 later caused extensive roof fal! 62 69 59 63 74

Oklahcma,

Drumright

Ponca Cit.

61

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REPARKS

Locations SEilli"Ole Tulsa Oregon PA, f!drcus HOC Marcus Hoc Marcus HO< Marcus HOC Marcus HOC Greensbur< Greensbuy Rhode Island s. c.. York York 1 1 5f 6t 61 6i 7! 6i 7:

.argest Cavern
N;";'

km(1.35 M4

South

Dakota

Tennessee Texas, Greckenridge 2

Utah Vermont VA., Falls Church 1 62

Washington W. VA., Wisconsin Wyoming, Rawlins 1 Couldn't pass sir test Huntington 1 X

T - Terminated at C - Collapsed

coi le'

during

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1981 RETC PROCEEDINGS VOLUME 1

BIBLIOGRAPHY Cobbs, James H., 1975, Study of Mined Storage Caverns, June, Cavern Catalogue, pp. 47-160.

Portions of this paper have been excerpted from a longer article published in Underground Space, Pergamon Press, London.