ABSTRACT

SUBRAMANIAM, KAMALA. Radio Resource Management in UMTS-WCDMA Systems. (Under the direction of Professor Arne A. Nilsson). Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a Third Generation (3G) cellular technology representing an evolution of a heterogenous mix of services and increased data speeds from todays second generation mobile networks. UMTS uses Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) as its radio air interface. The implementation of WCDMA is a technical challenge because of its complexity and versatility. Billions of dollars have been spent procuring these air interfaces. To exploit the exibility of the air interface, development of Radio Resource Management (RRM) schemes are imperative. RRM is comprised of power control, handover control, load control and resource allocation algorithms. These ensure optimum network coverage, maximize the system throughput and , guarantee Quality of Service (QoS) requirements to users having dierent requirements. This research investigates mainly the resource allocation and power control algorithms with which the load control and handover control are intertwined. The state of the art is studied and their pros and cons are discussed, which lays the foundation for the need for more ecient RRM schemes that are eventually presented in this research. The two main schemes considered here are:1)Adaptive Call Admission Control (ACAC) scheme for resource allocation where the system is mathematically modeled as a multi-rate system with priority. Further, a tier based analytical model pertaining to the hierarchical hexagonal cell structure is analyzed and mobility is given importance. 2) Adaptive Uplink Power Control (AUPC) scheme for power control is analyzed where Monte Carlo simulations are used to ne-tune WCDMA link budget parameters. Finally, Location Update (LU) procedures in cellular networks using Bloom Filters is studied where bandwidth gain is given importance. Various performance metrics are observed and two key metrics are given the most importance: the Call Blocking and Call Dropping probabilities. Simulation results are compared to the existing schemes and further strengthened by comparing them to analytical results which validate the entirety of this research.

RADIO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN UMTS-WCDMA SYSTEMS by Kamala Subramaniam A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Computer Engineering Raleigh, NC 2005

Approved By:

Dr. George Rouskas

Dr. Wenye Wang

Dr. Arne A. Nilsson Chair of Advisory Committee

Dr. Ioannis Viniotis

ii

For Piyush......whose existence is testimony to lifes goodness

iii Biography Kamala Subramaniam was born to Gauri (mother) and Mani (father) in India on seventeenth February, 1977. She spent the rst ten years of her life in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), the nancial capital of India and the next twelve in Bangalore, the silicon valley of India. After her high school, she joined Vishweshwariah Techological University for her Bachelors in Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering where she graduated summa cum laude in 1998. She then enrolled for a Masters at North Carolina State University in the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering majoring in Computer Networking. What she learnt here coupled with the height of the telecom bubble, whet her curiosity and sealed the deal with the world of telecommunications. She went to work at Nortel Networks (NTL) at Research Triangle Park as a VoIP software developer for a year. Working with the nest people in the area, she realized the need to hone her skills and joined the Doctoral program at North Carolina State University in the same department. Also, wireless networking was taking o in a huge way. The next four years, her most fruitful professionally, she developed algorithms for cellular networks. She also interned with Catapult Communications (CATT) a third generation solutions provider. In the interim, she was the President of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Graduate Student Association (ECEGSA) where she introduced the seminar series, semester picnics and more faculty-student interaction socials. She also served as the Vice-President of the Indian Graduate Students Association. She was honored to be accepted as a member of Eta Kappa Nu, the Electrical Engineering Honors Society and Society of Women Engineers. She hopes to continue to work in research areas involving cellular networks, performance modeling, queuing theory and random processes.

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Acknowledgements
This dissertation would not have been possible but for Dr. Arne Nilsson. I am grateful to him for being a mentor rst and then an advisor. He has helped me rise for every fall I have had both professionally and personally. The vast knowledge he granted me will carry me through the rest of this life with much panache. I am grateful to Dr. Trussell (the Director of Graduate of Programs) and his ecient department, for helping me with the day to day saga of being an international graduate student. I thank Dr. Viniotis, Dr. Rouskas and Dr. Wang for their guidance and I am honored to have them on my committee. I am grateful to my mother, Gauri, for making me the ghter I am today and to my sister, Priya, for her unwavering condence in and love for me. This would be incomplete without my friends. Ramki, who helped me with my last minute, late night coding issues and his unconditional friendship. Reshmi and Sreekanth, who gave me tremendous moral support. And Piyush, for always being there.

Contents
List of Figures List of Tables 1 Introduction 1.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Specic Contribution . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Background and Motivation . . . . . 1.4 Research Questions and Limitations viii x 1 2 3 5 6 9 9 12 14 16 18 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 25 27 31 32 32 34 35

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2 Background 2.1 Architecture of the UMTS system . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) 2.3 UMTS QoS Bearer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Rationale behind CAC schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Terminology used in CAC schemes . . . . . . . . . . . 3 State of the Art 3.1 Before 3G and WCDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 On the capacity of CDMA and WCDMA systems 3.3 On WCDMA and UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Dimitriou et. al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Capone et. al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Stol et. al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Victor O.K. Li et. al . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5 Schultz et. al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Methodology and Model Design 4.1 Wideband Power Based Admission Control Scheme 4.1.1 Uplink Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Downlink Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Throughput Based Admission Control Scheme . .

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vi 4.2.1 Uplink Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Downlink Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proposed Adaptive Call Admission Control Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 35 36 38 38 40 40 43 43 43 44 45 45 48 49 50 51 53 53 54 57 59 59 60 61 63 64 64 65 66 67 67 71 72 74 74 75 75 76 77 77

4.3

5 Simulation Modeling 5.1 Node-B Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Radio Network Controller Call Admission Control Simulation Parameters 5.3 WCDMA Link Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Voice Users Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Video Users Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 FTP Users Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Mobility Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Analytical Modeling 6.1 Multi-rate Erlang-B Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Single rate prioritized system using conservation law . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Proposed Analytical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Model 1: Multi-rate Erlang-B with priority . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Model 2: Multi-rate Erlang-B with priority and tier analysis 7 Power Control 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Previous Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Step Size Evaluation of Eb /No . . . . . . . 7.4.1 In Outer Loop Power Control . . . 7.4.2 In Adaptive Uplink Power Control 7.5 Spectral Eciency of a WCDMA cell . . . 7.6 Adaptive Calculation of Pj . . . . . . . . 7.7 Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8 Results and Discussions 8.1 Call Admission Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Single Run Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Condence Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 Comparison of analytical and simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.4 Comparison of Simulation and Analytical Results with Tier Analysis 8.2 Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Average (Eb /No )j 8.2.2 Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Total U L . . . . 8.2.3 Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Noise Rise . . . . 8.2.4 Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to (Eb /No )j . . . . . 8.2.5 Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Lj . . . . . . . . . 8.2.6 Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Transmit Power Pj

vii 8.2.7 Comparison of Voice and Data Blocking Probabilities with and without Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79 80 80 81 81 83 84 86 86 88 90 90 91 91 92 93 96 97 100 108

9 Location Updates of Cellular Networks Using Bloom Filters 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1 Bloom Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.2 Variations of Bloom Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.3 Applications of Bloom Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Location Updates and Bloom Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Analytical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Optimization of Hash Functions (OBF) . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 Cumulative Bloom Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.3 Performance Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Simulation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 Without Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.2 With Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.3 With Optimization and Cumulative Bloom Filters . . . 9.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Conclusions and Future Work Bibliography A Acronyms

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viii

List of Figures
1.1 2.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 Research Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UMTS Network Architecure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shows Load curve and the, due to a new call, increase in Interference . . . . Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multi-rate Erlang-B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1: Analytical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2: Analytical Modeling with tiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Near Far Eect in WCDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outer Loop Power Control in WCDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Data, Voice and Total Blocking Probabilities of 3 schemes . Comparison of Data, Voice and Total Blocking Probabilities of 3 schemes . Comparison of Data, Voice and Total Dropping Probabilities of 3 schemes . Comparison of Analytical and Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Data Blocking with and without Tier Analysis . . . . . . . . Comparison of Voice Blocking with and without Tier Analysis . . . . . . . . OLPC and AUPC with respect to Average (Eb /No )j . . . . . . . . . . . . . OLPC and AUPC with respect to Total U L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OLPC and AUPC with respect to Noise Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OLPC and AUPC with respect to (Eb /No )j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OLPC and AUPC with respect to Lj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OLPC and AUPC with respect to Pj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Voice and Data Blocking Probabilities with and without Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location Request and Location Update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optimization of Bloom Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cumulative Bloom Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 10 32 39 46 50 52 55 57 68 70 70 71 73 73 74 75 76 77 78 78 79 85 87 90

9.1 9.2 9.3

ix 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 False Positives without Optimization . . . . . . Gain without Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . False Positives without Optimization . . . . . . Comparison of Analytical and Simulation Results False Positives with Optimization and CBF . . . Gain with Optimization and CBF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 93 94 94 95 96

List of Tables
2.1 5.1 8.1 8.2 UMTS QoS Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WCDMA Link Budget of 30 kbps Voice Service . . . . . . . . . . . . Confidence Interval for Total Blocking Probability . . . . . . . Confidence Interval for Total Dropping Probability . . . . . . . 16 41 69 69

Chapter 1

Introduction
The future telecommunications networks, such as the third-generation (3G) wireless networks, aim to provide integrated services such as voice, data, and multimedia via inexpensive low-powered mobile computing devices over wireless infrastructures [1]. Today, consumers use the Internet to access information. The next logical step should be to enable users to do the same on the move. That is providing mobility. European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) within the International Telecommunication Unions (ITUs) International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) 2000 framework has developed Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS) as a solution to the future broadband multimedia wireless networks in association with 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project). UMTS provides data up to 2 Mbps making portable videophones a reality. UMTS seeks to build on and extend the capability of todays mobile, cordless and satellite technologies by providing high capacity, data capability and a far greater range of services using an innovative radio access scheme and an enhanced, evolving core network. UMTS allows us to be connected all the time so there is no time wasted with dialing up and logging on, instead we automatically receive email and application data while online. UMTS speeds up the convergence between telecommunications, IT, media and content industries. It provides low-cost, high-capacity mobile communications with global roaming capabilities. Billions of dollars have been spent in procuring the UMTS licenses. It is thereby important to ensure that these resources are used eciently. To support maximum number of users per unit resource, Radio Resource Management (RRM) schemes has been a widely

2 researched topic. RRM algorithms are responsible for ecient utilization of the air interface resources. RRM is need to guarantee QoS, to maintain the planned coverage area and to oer high capacity. The family of RRM algorithms can be divided into handover control, power control, admission control, load control and packet scheduling functionalities. RRM schemes has been a wide area of research to support increasing demands of consumers to want information in all forms, i.e., voice, video, pictures, music, and text etc in these heterogeneous UMTS networks while providing Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees. This chapter denes the problem studied, investigated and analyzed in this research study. The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 1.1 states the research problem under investigation. The specic contribution in this research in mentioned in Section 1.2. A brief background and the motivation are presented in Section 1.3. The questions posed for this research study and their limitations and drawbacks are presented in Section 1.4.

1.1

Problem Statement
In UMTS systems, the coverage area is divided into hexagonal cells. Each cell has

a limited set of resources provided by the air interface it uses such as CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), WCDMA (Wide-band CDMA), EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) Evolution) etc. These resources are shared by a number of users running dierent applications such as voice, video, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol). Listed below in order of importance and focus of research; the problem statement is dened. Before admitting a new mobile, call admission control needs to check that the admittance will not sacrice the planned coverage area or the QoS of the existing connections. Admission control should allocate resources eectively by accepting and rejecting calls as appropriate. The admission control algorithm estimates the load increase that the acceptance of the call would cause in the radio network. This has to estimated separately for the uplink and the downlink directions. The requesting call can be admitted only if both the uplink and downlink requirements are met. This bi-directional call admission control

3 or resource allocation algorithms are important. Mainly two types of calls are sharing these resources or channels. The new calls and the calls in progress. Clearly, from the users point of view, it is more annoying for a call being forced to terminate rather than it being blocked at start. Hence calls in progress needs to be given higher priority then new calls. In heterogenous systems, service requirements are dierent and can also be negotiated. For example, voice users require low bit-rates but have very low tolerance to delay and data users require higher bit-rates but may have a higher tolerance to delay. Thus, QoS needs to be guaranteed to each trac class of calls in terms of either bandwidth, delay, end user throughput, blocking and dropping probabilities etc. To top it all mobility poses severe complications. Handovers are needed in cellular systems to handle movement of mobiles across cell boundaries. This inuences the resources not only in the cell under consideration, but also in the neighboring cells. Power Control is needed to reduce near-far eects where one mobile that is close to the base station transmitting at a high power can eectively block out all the other mobiles in the same cells by increasing the interference in the system to unacceptable limits. By controlling the emitting powers of each mobile and that of the base-station, interference can be reduced and hence capacity increased. It is evident now that good resource management schemes is a must in 3G systems.

1.2

Specic Contribution
The specic contribution of this research is to identify Radio Resource Management

as a combination of algorithms. Existing algorithms are built upon and improved in addition to innovating and implementing new techniques. The study also shows how a culmination of these new algorithms in each area presented in this research work together to form an ecient overall RRM scheme. Specically, this research is divided into two RRM algorithms. Chapters 4, 5 and 6 deal with Resource Allocation or Call Admission Control which forms a major portion of this research. Chapter 7 deals with Power Control.

4 This research proposes an Adaptive Call Admission Control (ACAC) scheme that augments the existing prevalent CAC schemes to perform much better than any that is currently deployed. The performance was judged based on two important QoS parameters: New Call Blocking Probability and Hando Call Dropping Probability. For the simulation model, the Radio Network Controller (RNC) from the OPNETT M model library was augmented to add and improve functionalities related to radio resource management. A lot of work has been done by analyzing multi-rate systems running heterogeneous trac as in UMTS. However, considering priority has been a very complex problem. Work has also been done on single-rate systems with priority. For the analysis, we model this UMTS network as a multi-rate system with priority. In addition to modeling this as a multi-rate system with priority, we also analyze the tier-based cellular structure of UMTS systems and the eects of hando from the neighboring tier to the cell under consideration. In the power control area, it was identied that a number of WCDMA air interface parameters can inuence the performance of this algorithm. This research introduces the concept of ne-tuning certain Power Control parameters and then adaptively choosing the transmit power of the UE to increase the spectral eciency of the WCDMA system, which is an expensive air interface. The advantage of such a scheme is the simplicity of ne-tuning and Monte Carlo simulations. The contribution in the power control area is the introduction of Adaptive Uplink Power Control (AUPC) scheme which adheres to 3GPP specications. Eventually, this research introduces the concept of Bloom Filters and their various applications, specically those in cellular networks. The FCC mandated that carriers using handset-based wireless location systems must provide the location of 911 calls to appropriate Public Safety Answer Points (PSAPs) and be accurate to within 50 meters 67 percent of the time and to within 150 meters 95 percent of the time. This research identied that though not much work has been done in this area, there is a good potential for the same and applied hash paging using Bloom Filters to observe the improvement in bandwidth gain. The goal of this research, which was to see an exponential improvement in bandwidth while keeping the false positives to a realistic minimum, was obtained by applying the optimization and

5 cumulative bloom lter schemes.

1.3

Background and Motivation

The early cellular networks were systems where resources were nite. For example,

time slots in TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) systems and frequency slots in FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) systems. In such cases capacity planning was not a very cumbersome task because the number of available channels per sector or cell was xed. Call admission control schemes in such systems involved the management of these hard limited number of channels. Channels were allotted by fair allocation by assessing the system from the present cell and its neighboring cells. Priority was mostly given by allotting a fraction of channels to higher priority trac classes. This was popularly called the guard-channel scheme [2], [3], [4]. In the case where the air interface is WCDMA, there is no absolute hard upper limit on the number of users that can be supported per sector or cell. This is because CDMA systems have a frequency reuse factor of one. CDMA systems are interference limited with soft capacity. In addition to capacity, the Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR) forms the basis for call admission control that has been studied for years. The 3GPP has classied bearer services of UMTS into four dierent QoS trac classes according to dierent QoS requirements of bandwidth, delay etc. How to implement CAC schemes to UMTS systems having these bearer classes has been a topic of much interest. The motivation behind this work was achieved by studying the prevalent CAC schemes that exist in UMTS systems. It was observed that these schemes were preferential in their treatment to certain QoS trac classes. The need for a CAC scheme that would eliminate or minimize this preferential treatment was recognized and is the drive behind this research study. After ecient CAC schemes were developed, in the upper layers of the WCDMA protocol stack, the need for ecient power control algorithms in the lower layers that would work in conjunction with the resource allocation was identied.

1.4

Research Questions and Limitations

The following research questions were asked to question this study. Why choose Radio Resource Management as a research study? The radio resource management is one of the most important engineering issues

in wireless and mobile communication systems since the radio resource spectrum is a very limited resource. UMTS networks are only recently gaining popularity in the United States. At this point call admission control is an important problem and will continue to do as the number of users grow. Why do we need more CAC schemes? Even though many CAC schemes are present in literature and a few already deployed, the conditions under which these CAC schemes were designed are continuously changing. It is imperative to upgrade capacity planning issues and CAC schemes to meet these ever changing conditions. Why do we need Power Control algorithms? CAC schemes are good for resource allocation and have no control over the other important aspect of RRM schemes: power control and interference limitations. Why do we need Hash Based Paging? Paging is done at periodical intervals and depending on the number of mobiles in a cell, this utilizes a lot of expensive bandwidth. If gain in bandwidth can be improved by clever paging algorithms, the bandwidth gained can be used to serve users for other applications. The following are the research limitations in this study. Simulation Model limitations: The management of CAC schemes involves the WCDMA Link Budget. This includes all aspects ranging from the physical layer / air interface, the MAC (Medium Access Control) layer, the RLC (Radio Link Control) layer and the RRC (Radio Resource Control) algorithms in the network layer. Focus was limited to the RRC algorithms. Furthermore, the entire UMTS architecture ranging from the UENode-B RNCCN Internet; play an important part in call processing. The standard OPNETT M libraries were used for most of the nodes which proved to be compre-

7 hensive enough for the simulation needs. Only the values of their attributes were changed to observe network performance. The RNC library was, however, changed and augmented to improve RRC functionality. The Core Network (CN) including the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) and the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) were used to complete the architecture. For simplicity purpose the CAC problem was based on availability of Radio Access Bearer (RAB) at the RNC only. That is, the CAC is call based as opposed to packet based. In addition to this, blocked calls cleared (Erlang-B) concept is used as opposed to blocked calls queued (Erlang-C). In the Power Control algorithm, only one WCDMA link budget parameter was ne-tuned due to time limitations. There are many parameters that can be ne-tuned but there will be a tradeo between convergence time and the performance. Intuitively, the more parameters analyzed, the better the performance but the algorithm may take a longer time to converge. Also, the power control is developed only for the uplink because the motivation is dierent: on the downlink there is no near-far problem due to the one-tomany scenario. All the signals within one-cell originate from the one Node-B to all mobiles. This can be compensated for by providing a marginal amount of additional power to mobile stations at the cell edge, as they suer from increased other-cell interference. Also, on the downlink a method of enhancing weak signals caused by Rayleigh fading with additional power is needed at low speeds when other error-correcting methods based on interleaving and error-correcting codes do not yet work eectively. Analytical Model limitations: The UMTS network is a huge network serving many km2 of area with many hexagonal cells forming an exponential tier architecture. To limit complexity, only a seven cell architecture was evaluated which consisted of the center cell and six neighboring cells that comprised of the rst tier neighborhood. The study of the hierarchical tier-based structure after the rst tier has been relegated to future work. The combination of resource allocation and power control work in dierent layers. The analytical computations involving both these algorithms are dealt with individually and not as a whole. Results limitations: Though there are many QoS parameters such as delay, throughput, etc., that are important in analyzing the network; the focus in CAC was

Figure 1.1: Research Model

limited to the two main QoS parameters - Blocking and Dropping probabilities. The rest of this dissertation is organized as follows and gure 1.1 gives us a visual idea: Chapter 2 talks about background of UMTS and WCDMA. Chapter 3 talks about the state of the art that exists in resource allocation and call admission control. Chapter 4 introduces the methodology and model design behind resource allocation. Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the simulation and analytical models used for call admission control. This is the rst part of the research which is shown as CAC (Call Admission Control). The second part of the research has Chapter 7 which introduces the literature survey, model design and methodology of the power control aspect of RRM. Chapter 8 presents the results and discussions of RRM schemes including both call admission control and power control. Part three is comprised of Location updates in cellular networks using bloom lters and is introduced and its results are presented in chapter 9.

Chapter 2

Background
This chapter provides a basic theoretical background of the UMTS architecture and the WCDMA air interface that is required to address the topic of this research eort. In addition to this, a little background is given about CAC and RRM schemes and terminology is introduced to better understand the ensuing chapters. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2.1 gives a brief overview of the UMTS architecture. Since the air interface for the UMTS system is WCDMA, Section 2.2 talks about the important features of WCDMA, its improvement over CDMA and its benets. To better understand what makes UMTS a heterogenous system that guarantees QoS to all trac classes, Section 2.3 gives a description of the four bearer classes. The rationale behind CAC schemes and the terminology in given in Sections 2.4 and 2.5.

2.1

Architecture of the UMTS system

A UMTS network consists of three interacting domains as shown in gure 2.1: User

Equipment (UE), UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) and Core Network (CN). The UE is a mobile that communicates with UTRAN via the air-interface. UTRAN provides the air interface access method for the UE. CN provides switching, routing and transit for user trac. It also stores databases and provides network management functions. From the specication and standardization point of view, both UE and UTRAN consist of completely new protocols, the design of which is based on the needs of the new WCDMA radio technology. On the contrary, the denition of CN is adopted from GSM network.

10

Figure 2.1: UMTS Network Architecure

This gives the system with new radio technology a global base of known and rugged CN technology that accelerates and facilitates its introduction, and enables such competitive advantages as global roaming. User Equipment (UE): A UE consists of two parts: The Mobile Equipment (ME) or Mobile Terminal (MT) is a radio terminal used for communicating over the Uu interface (air-interface). The Uu interface is the air interface between the UE and the UTRAN. The UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) is a smart-card that stores subscribers identity and encryption keys, performs authentication algorithms, and supports subscription information for the ME. UMTS Terrestrial RadioAccess Network (UTRAN): A UTRAN consists of two distincts elements: Node-B and Radio Network Controller (RNC). The main functions of the UTRAN architecture is to: Support soft hando and WCDMA specic radio resource management, share and reuse voice and packet data interfaces, share and reuse GSM infrastructure and use ATM as the main transport mechanism within UTRAN. The interface of the UTRAN to the Circuit Switched (CS) domain of the Core Network is the Iu-CS interface and the Iu-PS interface is the interface to the Packet Switched (PS) domain. Node B: A Node B (logically corresponds to the GSM Base Station) converts data

11 ow between the Iub and Uu interfaces. The Iub is the Node-B to the RNC interface. Its main duty is to perform the physical layer processing, e.g. modulation, coding, interleaving, rate adaptation, spreading, etc. Radio Network Controller (RNC): An RNC (logically corresponds to the GSM Base Station Controller) controls the radio resources in its domain. RNC is the service access point for all services UTRAN provides to the Core Network. It also terminates the Radio Resource Control Protocol (RRC) that denes messages and procedures between UE and UTRAN. A UTRAN may consist of one or more Radio Network Sub-Systems (RNS). RNS is a sub-network within UTRAN that consists of one RNC and one or more Node Bs. RNCs which belongs dierent RNS can be connected to each other via the Iur interface. The Iur interface is the RNC to RNC interface. The logical function of an RNC is further divided into controlling, serving, and drift. The controlling RNC administers the Node B for load and congestion control. It also executes admission control and channel code allocation for new radio links to be established by the Node B. Serving RNC: The serving RNC is the RNC that terminates both the Iu-CS, Iu-PS and Iub links from the core network and user equipment respectively. It performs MAC layer processing of data to/from the radio interface. Mobility management functions such as power control, hando decision, etc. are also handled by the serving RNC. Note that one UE connected to the UTRAN has one and only one SRNC. The drift RNC (DRNC) compliments the serving RNC by providing diversity when the UE is in the state of interRNC soft hando (which requires two RNCs). During the hando, the drift RNC does not perform layer 2 or MAC processing; rather it routes data transparently between the Iub and Iur interfaces. Core Network (CN): UMTS CN is divided into Circuit Switched (CS) and Packet Switched (PS) domains. ATM is the transport mechanism to be used in the UMTS core. In particular, ATM AAL (ATM Adaptation Later) 2 handles circuit and packet switched signalling while AAL5 is designed for data delivery. The core network consists of the following elements inherited from the incumbent GSM network. Home Location Register(HLR): An HLR is a database located in the users home system that stores the users service prole. A service prole is created when a new

12 user subscribes to the system and remains as long as the subscription is active. It consists of information such as user service type and roaming permission etc. Mobile Switching Center and Vistor Location Register (MSC/VLR): The co-located MSC/VLR serves as both the switch and database for the circuit switch service. The MSC is used to switch the circuit switch data while the VLR function temporarily hold copies of the visiting users service prole. Gateway MSC (GMSC): It is the gateway that connects the UMTS Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) with the external circuit switch networks. All incoming and outgoing circuit switch connections go through the GMSC Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): SGSN has the similar functionality as MSC/VLR except it handles packet switch connections. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): GGSN has the same functionality as that of GMSC except it handles the packet switch connection.

2.2

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA)

UMTS uses WCDMA as its air interface. This section discusses the main system

design parameters of WCDMA [5]. WCDMA is a wideband Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) system, i.e. user information bits are spread over a wide bandwidth by multiplying the user data with quasi-random bits (called chips) derived from CDMA spreading codes. In order to support very high bit rates (up to 2 Mbps), the use of a variable spreading factor and multicode connections are supported. The chip rate of 3.84 Mcps used leads to a carrier bandwidth of approximately 5 MHz. DS-CDMA systems with a bandwidth of about 1 MHz, such as IS-95, are commonly referred to as narrowband CDMA systems. The inherently wide carrier bandwidth of WCDMA supports high user data rates and also has certain performance benets, such as increased multipath diversity. Subject to his operating license, the network

13 operator can deploy multiple such 5 MHz carriers to increase capacity, possibly in the form of hierarchical cell layers. WCDMA supports highly variable user data rates, in other words the concept of obtaining Bandwidth on Demand (BoD) is well supported. Each user is allocated frames of 10 ms duration, during which the user data rate is kept constant. However, the data capacity among the users can change from frame to frame. WDCMA supports two basic modes of operation: Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD). In the FDD mode, separate 5 MHz carrier frequencies are used for the uplink and downlink respectively, whereas in the TDD mode only one 5 MHz is time-shared between uplink and downlink. Uplink is the connection from the mobile to the base station, and downlink is that from the base station to the mobile. The TDD mode is based heavily on FDD mode concepts and was added in order to leverage the basic WCDMA system also for the unpaired spectrum allocations of the ITU for the IMT-2000 systems. WCDMA supports the operation of asynchronous base stations, so that unlike in synchronous IS-95 system there is no need for a global time reference, such as a GPS. Deployment of indoor and micro base stations is easier when no GPS signal needs to be received. WCDMA employs coherent detection on uplink and downlink based on the use of pilot symbols or common pilot. While already used on the downlink in IS-95, the use of coherent detection on the uplink is new for public CDMA systems and will result in an overall increase of coverage and capacity on the uplink. The WCDMA air interface has been crafted in such a way that advanced CDMA receiver concepts, such as multi-user detection and smart adaptive antennas can be deployed by the network operator as a system option to increase capacity and/or coverage. In most second generation systems no provision has been made for such receiver concepts and as a result they are either not applicable or can be applied only under severe constraints with limited increase in performance.

14 WCDMA is designed to be deployed in conjunction with GSM. Therefore, handovers between GSM and WCDMA are supported in order to be able to leverage the GSM coverage for the introduction of WCDMA.

2.3

UMTS QoS Bearer Classes

To support various integrated services with a certain Quality of Service (QoS)

requirement in these wireless networks, resource provisioning is a major issue [6], [7], [8]. 3GPP classied bearer services of UMTS and identied them into four QoS classes, which are mainly distinguished by their delay sensitiveness: Conversational Class, Streaming Class, Interactive Class, Background Class. Particularly the QoS classes in UMTS are dened through trac parameters such as transmission rate, delay and information loss. The four classes are described in detail below [5]. Conversational Class: The best known application of this class is speech service over circuit-switched bearers. With internet and multimedia, a number of new applications will require this type, for example voice over IP and video telephony. Real time conversation is always performed between peers (or groups) of live (human) end-users. This is the only type of the four where the required characteristics are strictly imposed by human perception. Real time conversation is characterized by the fact that the end-to-end delay is low and the trac is symmetric or nearly symmetric. The maximum end-to-end delay is given by the human perception of video and audio conversation: subjective evaluations have shown that the end-to-end delay has to be less than 400 ms. Therefore the limit for acceptance delay is strict, as failure to provide suciently low delay will result in unacceptable quality. Streaming Class: Multimedia streaming is a technique for transferring data such that it can be processed as a steady and continuous stream. Streaming technologies are becoming increasingly important with the growth of the internet because most users do not have fast enough access to download large multimedia les quickly. With streaming, the client browser or plug-in can start displaying the data before the entire le has been transmitted. For streaming to work, the client side receiving the data must be able to collect

15 the data and send it as a steady stream to the application that is processing the data and converting it to sound or pictures. Streaming applications are very asymmetric and therefore typically withstand more delay than more symmetric conversational services. This also means that they tolerate more jitter in transmission. Jitter can be easily smoothed out by buering. Interactive Class: When the end-user, either a machine or a human is online requesting data from remote equipment (e.g. a server), this class applies. Examples of human interaction with the remote equipment are Web Browsing, database retrieval, and server access. Examples of machine interaction with remote equipment are polling for measurement records and automatic database enquiries. Interactive trac is the other classical data communication scheme that is broadly characterized by the request response pattern of the end-user. At the message destination there is an entity expecting the message (response) with a certain time. Round-trip delay time is therefore one of the key attributes. Another characteristic is that the content of the packets must be transparently transferred (with low bit error rate). Background Class: Data trac of applications such as e-mail delivery, SMS, downloading of databases and reception of measurement records can be delivered background since such applications do not require immediate action. The delay may be seconds, tens of seconds or even minutes. Background trac is one of the classical data communication schemes that is broadly characterized by the fact that the destination is not expecting the data within a certain time. It is thus more or less insensitive to delivery time. Another characteristic is that the content of the packets does not need to be transparently transferred. Data to be transmitted has to be received error-free. The main distinguishing factor between these classes is how delay-sensitive the trac is: the conversational class is meant for very delay-sensitive trac, while the background class is the most delay-insensitive. The UMTS QoS classes are summarized in table 2.1 [9]. Note that the delay constraints for real time services, especially in the conversational class, with is Voice Over IP (VoIP), are very critical. Obviously there is a need for good CAC algorithms, which will guarantee QoS and eciently use the networks resources. The delay values of the other classes, represented by Web-Browsing (WWW), le transfer

16 Table 2.1: UMTS QoS Classes

Class Conversational Streaming Interactive Background Average Bit Rate 12.2 64, 144, 3842 64, 144, 384 NA Delay 150 400ms < 10s < 10s < 10s Eb /No 6.7 3.1, 3.7 3.1, 3.7 NA Delay Variation < 1ms < 1ms NA NA Example Voice Video HTTP FTP

(FTP) and streaming, are not so critical and thus there is a greater exibility for the QoS algorithms.

2.4

Rationale behind CAC schemes

The design of modern wireless networks is based on a cellular architecture that

allows ecient use of the available spectrum. The cellular architecture consists of a backbone network with xed base stations interconnected through a xed network (usually wired) and of mobile units that communicate with the base stations via wireless links. The geographic area within which mobile units can communicate with a particular base station is referred to as a cell [10]. These cells are hexagonal shaped so that there are no loopholes in coverage area. This ensures the continuity of communications when the users move from one cell to another. Call Admission Control is a strategy to admit calls selectively into the system such that network congestion and call dropping and call blocking is minimized while at the same time guaranteeing QoS. Typical QoS parameters are blocking probabilities, transmission rates, delay or reliability. In packet radio communications several issues, however, make this task especially dicult to achieve: packet generation from many dierent sources that must be, multiplexed within a limited set of shared resources, variable propagation characteristics etc. [11]. The number of available channels per cell is xed in a system whose resource is nite and specied in time slots like Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) or frequency slots for Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Therefore, the CAC schemes in such systems involve management of these hard limited channels and their fair allocation to users

17 accessing the system from within the cell and from the adjacent cell. However, UMTS is based on Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), which has no absolute limits on the number of users that it can support in a cell. CDMA utilizes unit frequency reuse and thus its resources are not upper-bounded by a hard resource limit. Therefore, CDMA based systems are described as soft capacity systems. In this section we list out the reasons for the development of good radio resource management algorithms in UMTS systems with WDCMA as its air interface. We focus on three important factors: Interference, Power control and Mobility. Interference: The transmission limit in CDMA is caused by the interference generated at the base station by all the active mobile users in the same and neighboring cells and by the propagation channel conditions in the coverage area. The increased number of concurrent calls in a UMTS system can bring the interference level to an unacceptable level. One of the main goals of a CAC scheme in UMTS is to limit the interference in the system. Power Control: An important feature of CDMA mobile users is the power control, which is not altogether accurate. The acceptance of a new connection depends on the SIR (signal-to-interference ratio) values achievable by each existing connection once the new one is activated. These values are functions of the emitted powers, which due to power control mechanisms depend on the mobile user positions. Since the power available at each base station (BS) is limited, the number of users that can be served is large if the former are close to the BS and small if they are far away. Power control inaccuracies result in the user terminal performing power adjustments, that may achieve a QoS (Bit Error Rate) better or worse than the target QoS but in the same time generates excessive interference that degrades the QoS of the other users and in the second case, the achieved QoS is lower than that required for the user of interest and may lead to the call being in outage [4]. Ideally, call admission control should be able to accept a call only if a new equilibrium of the power control can be reached and to reject it otherwise. Mobility : The other very important aspect to be considered while designing CAC schemes in UMTS systems is that of mobility. Users mobility causes more complications in wireless networks than in high-speed networks such as asynchronous transfer mode networks [6]. An accepted call that has not been completed in the current cell may have to be handed

18 o to another cell. During the process, the call may not be able to gain a channel in the new cell due to either limited resources or interference problems in the new cell. This leads to call dropping which is a very important QoS parameter in UMTS systems.

2.5

Terminology used in CAC schemes

New Call: When a mobile user wants to communicate with another user or a base station, it must rst obtain a channel or code from one of the Base Station that it hears best. If a channel is available the user is granted that channel. This originating call is called a new call. The user releases the channel when one of the two happens: (1) The user completes the call and (2) The user moves to another cell. New Call Blocking Probability (or simply blocking probability): If all the channels are busy, then the user is not granted the channel and is blocked. This is called blocking probability. Hando Call: The procedure of moving from one cell to another, while a call is in progress, is called hando. While performing hando, the mobile unit requires that the base station in the cell that it moves to will allocate a channel. If the channel is allocated then it is called a Hando Call. Hando Call Dropping Probability (or simply dropping probability): When the user is denied a channel in the cell it moves to the call is dropped and this is called the dropping probability. Priority: From the users point of view, forced termination of an ongoing call is clearly less desirable than blocking of a new calling attempt. It is important for a good CAC scheme to avoid this annoying eect at the same time making sure that new calls do not starve. Balance between the call blocking and call dropping is important in order to provide the desired QoS requirements [12], [13], [14], [15]. Cell Dwell Time: After a user enters a cell it is more likely to request a hando in the far future than in the near future, which implies that the hando probability (is

19 a function of time elapsed after a call enters a cell [2]. After dwelling in a cell or the same length of time, a high-speed (vehicular) user is more likely to request a hando than a low-speed (pedestrian) user is; which implies that the hando probability is also related to the speed class of the user [2]. Uplink or Reverse Channel: The radio channel from a Mobile Terminal (MT) to its serving Base Station (BS). Downlink or Forward Channel: The radio channel from the BS to the MSs.

20

Chapter 3

State of the Art

This chapter gives the literature review of work that is related to call admission control policies. The works of the authors listed in this chapter give a brief overview from wireless networks of TDMA (Section 3.1) systems to the capacity planning of CDMA systems (Section 3.2). In Section 3.3 The CAC and RRM policies related to WCDMA and UMTS are mentioned in detail.

3.1

Before 3G and WCDMA

Papers [2], [16], [17], [6], [10], [18], [1], [8], [11], [12] talk about call admission

control policies and QoS guarantees in wireless networks such as TDMA where there is a nite number of resources. Most of these papers have two classes of calls: new calls and hando calls and priority is given to hando calls by reserving a portion of the bandwidth for only hando calls, popularly known as the Guard Channel Reservation Scheme. Authors J. Hou and Y. Fang in [2] talk about the potential impact an ongoing call may have on the resource usage of its neighboring cells. They introduce the concept of inuence curves and propose a new call bounding scheme that limits the number of new calls being accepted in a cell. Their reasoning is that it is better to accept fewer calls than drop ongoing calls in the future. Authors M-H. Chiu and M. A. Bassiouni in [16] propose a predictive scheme for hando prioritization. This scheme works by sending reservation requests to neighboring cells based on extrapolating the motion of mobile stations. In [17], I. C. Panoutsopoulos

21 and S. Kotsopoulos, enhance the fractional guard channel policy by allowing new calls to be queued. They further make use of a cost function to justify their theory. Authors Y. Fang and Y. Zhang in [6] point out that the average channel holding times for new calls and hando calls are signicantly dierent and propose a two-dimensional Markov chain model to solve the fractional guard scheme policy with queuing. Y. Zhang and D. Liu develop an adaptive algorithm for CAC built upon the concept of guard channels and they use an adaptive algorithm to search automatically the optimal number of guard channels to be reserved at each base station [10]. H. Chen., S. Kumar and C.-C. J. Kuo in [18] propose a dynamic CAC that selects the resource access threshold according to the estimated number of incoming call requests of dierent QoS classes. In [12], C. Chang, C-Ju Chang and K-R Lo analyze a hierarchical cellular system with nite queues for new and hando calls.

3.2

On the capacity of CDMA and WCDMA systems

In [19], A.J. Viterbi et. al. show that for terrestrial cellular telephony, the inter-

ference suppression feature of CDMA can result in a many-fold increase in capacity over competing digital techniques. G. Karmani and K. N. Sivarajan nd bounds and approximations for the capacity of mobile cellular communication networks based on CDMA. They develop ecient analytic techniques for capacity calculations of CDMA celluar networks [20]. In [21], a detailed description of the physical layer of ETSI WCDMA is given together with an overview of the highe rlayers of the WCDMA air - interface. The WCDMA performance based on results from the ETSI evaluation of UMTS radio-interface candidates is presented. Book [22] talks about the principles of spread sprectrum communications in CDMA.

22

3.3
3.3.1

On WCDMA and UMTS

Dimitriou et. al.
In [4], N. Dimitriou and R. Tafazolli present issues concerning RRM and CAC for

multimedia WCDMA systems. The aggregation of dierent services with dierent characteristics like bit rate, circuit/packet switching and QoS requirements such as Bit Error Rate (BER) and delay were analyzed. The CAC scheme was based on the maximum transmitted power by the mobile terminal which attempts to mitigate propagation channel impairments. They talk about how the user position within the cell aects the capacity of the home and neighboring cells. If the user is close to home base station, then the transmitted power will be less than the power the same user should transmit from a position near the cell boundary. As the user gets closer to the cell boundary, the probability of reaching the maximum allowable transmitted power increases, leading to an increased outage probability. Also, the interference experienced by the adjacent base station can be higher and this may lead to outage conditions for some of the existing connections in that cell. They also discuss power control issues and how they cannot be completely accurate. Power control inaccuracies result in the user terminal performing power adjustments, that may achieve a QoS of BER better or worse than the the target QoS. In the rst case, the user achieves a better QoS but at that same time generates excessive interference that degrades the QoS of the other users and in the second case, the achieved QoS is lower than the required for the user of interest and may lead to the call being in outage. They mention that the CAC criteria for the reverse link is based on the received SIR at the base station. Assuming that the desired powers at the base stations by n users within the cell are S1 , S2 , ...., Sn , their CAC criteria is as follows: SIRk =
n i=1 Si

Sk SIRthreshold + Ioc + N

(3.1)

where SIRk is the total received power at the base station, SIRthreshold is the desired SIR and the base station, Ioc is the other cell interference and N is the thermal noise density. The aggregation of three multimedia UMTS services, Speech, Video and WWW was studied and the criteria for conducting resource allocation were analyzed. However,

23 not much information was given on capacity planning or link budgets the adaptive nature of calls in the system. Neither was an uplink criterion given. Uplink and downlink propagation parameters are uncorrelated, hence each of the bi-directional links require separate admission criteria.

3.3.2

Capone et. al.

[23] talks about the Power Control mechanism adopted by UMTS controls the

power emitted on each channel in order to keep the SIR at the receiver at a target value. In normal conditions, an equilibrium point is reached after some algorithm iterations and all channels achieve the SIR target. The acceptance of a new call can create two possible situations: the new call is safely activated since a new equilibrium can be reached, or the new call is erroneously admitted since a new equilibrium can not be reached due to the interference levels and the power constraints. Ideally, call admission control should be able to accept a call only if a new equilibrium of the power control can be reached and to reject it otherwise. This ideal behavior can be obtained with a complete knowledge of the propagation conditions or allowing the new call to enter the system for a trial period. More practical schemes implemented with a distributed control must cope with a partial knowledge of the system status and may erroneously accept or reject a call.
1 They calculate the received power as Pr = Pt 2 10 10 L , where L is the path loss, 10

is the shadowing factor, Pt is the transmitted power.

is the normal variate with zero

mean and 2 variance and 2 is the gain with an exponential distribution of unit mean, due to fast fading. The cell radius in their simulation is 300m. They calculate the path loss for a distance of r (UE to Node-B) as: 10logL = 128.1 + 37.6logr(dB ) They adopted a trac model where each voice user generates a single call and arrives to the system as a Poisson process of intensity . The call length is exponentially distributed as 180s. The SIR is calculated as in (3.1). Their power control model is an iteration that is executed every 100ms and they evaluate the new power level as follows:

24

Pnew = Pold

SIRtar SIR

(3.2)

This Pnew has to be less than the maximum power Pmax that can be transmitted by the base station. Clearly this model does not talk about the heterogenous nature of UMTS systems though it gives a CAC criteria from the base station point of view.

3.3.3

Stol et. al.

Frank Yong Li and Norvald Stol in [24] talk about a priority oriented CAC

paradigm with QoS renegotiation for multimedia services in UMTS. Their CAC criterion is: uplink threshold They use the well known capacity calculation formula under the assumption that the background thermal noise is negligible compared to the interference level and that there is perfect power control. i = (Eb /No )i .i .(1 + f ) W/Ri (3.3)

where i denotes the individual load of service i, (Eb /No )i is the bit energy to noise ratio required for desired BER of service i, W is the UMTS chip rate of 3.84 Mcps, Ri is the bearer bitrate of service i, i is the activity factor of service i, f is the interference factor from adjacent cells. The Node-B now calculates the sum of all loads for N users, uplink as: uplink =
N i=1 i

The threshold is calculated as: threshold = 1 M.stdload + marginhandover where is a parameter controlled by uplink load control, M is a selectable parameter like 5, stdload is standard deviation of the changes caused by the uncontrolled calls in the load and marginhandover reserves certain amount of capacity. Their renegotiation is based on the fact that is a service i asking bitrate Ri cannot be permitted into the system, the user has a choice to either refuse the connection or lower its bit-rate and seek re-admission into the system.

25 Though the concept of QoS renegotiation was introduces here, many of the parameters used in the CAC criterion were not explained or derived analytically.

3.3.4

Victor O.K. Li et. al

Authors Zhuge and Li discuss an example of an adaptive call admission control

in [25]. This scheme is adaptive because at every instance of call admission, real time trac is taken into consideration with respect to the number of users and the capacity they use in each own cell as well as their neighboring cell. Also, this scheme is dierent as compared to the other schemes discussed above because it takes into consideration multilevel service classes. In their approach, the limit on the acceptable interference level in a cell is translated into a constraint on the number of users of each service class in the local and neighboring cells. Most of the existing work on CDMA is on supporting nonhomogeneous mix of trac, especially voice and data [26],[27],[28],[29],[30],[31]. The focus is on the tradeo between the number of voice and data users according to their blocking or outage probability requirements [25]. The parameter to determine the acceptable interference level in a CDMA system is the bit-energy to interference-density ratio (disregarding imperfect power control, shadowing), calculated as: (Eb )k Sk .W = (k = 1......L) Io I.Rk

k =

(3.4)

where k is the k th service class, L is the number of service classes in the cell, Sk is the received user signal power at the base station, I is the total interference power received at the Base Station, W is the system bandwidth, Rk is the data rate of the application, (Eb )k = Sk /R is the bit energy in the received signal, and Io = I/W is the received interference density. For good communication quality for the k th service class, k must be greater than a threshold value k*. Assuming perfect power control, k = k*, the total interference plus noise received at the base station is approximately:

26

I=
k=1

Nk Sk + Sout + no W

(3.5)

This approximation is valid when the signal power from any signal user is small compared to the total interference power. Nk is the number of users from the k th service class in the local cell, Sout is the total interference power received from the neighboring cells, and no is the power density of thermal noise. Eqn. 3.4 Also means Sk /(Rk k ) = I/W . From eqn. 3.5

I=
k=1

Nk Rk k

Sk + Sout + no W = ( Rk k
L

Nk Rk k )
k=1

I + Sout + no W W

(3.6)

we now get, Nk Rk k = W (1
k=1

Sout + no W ) I

(3.7)

Due to dynamic range limitation on the multiple access receiver of Bandwidth W , there exists an upper bound on the total received interference power, expressed as the noise-density to interference-density ratio. This will guarantee system stability [32]. no no W > > Io I

(3.8)

where < 1 is dependent on the system design ( is typically chosen between 0.1 and 0.25 in the IS-95 system [29]). This is corresponding to power ratios Io /no = 6dB to 10dB [32]. Adding this constraint, eqn. 3.7 now becomes: we now get,
L

Nk Rk k < W (1
k=1

Sout ) I

(3.9)

Now [25] relates Sout /I to the number of users in the neighboring cells. Only the rst tier of cells are considered here. Sout is the total signal power from all users of all service classes in the six neighboring cells received by the base station in the local cell, i.e. we now get,
6 Lc Nic

Sout =
c=1 k=1 i=1

kic Skc

(3.10)

27 where Skc is the power of class k user received by the base station c, Nkc is the number of class users in cell c, Lc is the number of service classes in cell c, kic is the path loss ratio for user i of class k in cell c. Assuming interference power is approximately the same in each cell. The authors of [25] stress that homogeneous interference does not necessarily mean homogeneous trac conditions in a cell. Now we get: Sout = I
6 Lc Nic

kic
c=1 k=1 i=1

Skc 1 = I W

Lc Nic

kic Rkc kc
c=1 k=1 i=1

(3.11)

Applying eqn. 3.10 in eqn. 3.11, they obtain the constraint on the number of users under this static model of perfect power control and no shadowing.
Lo 6 Lc Nic

Nko Rko ko +
k=1 c=1 k=1 i=1

kic Rkc kc < W (1 )

(3.12)

the subscript 0 indicates cell 0. Rk k can be regarded as the fraction of system bandwidth W eectively utilized by a user of service class k . Hence the left side of eqn. 3.9 is an index of system bandwidth utilized, dened by a parameter C ;
Lo 6 Lc Nic

C=
k=1

Nko Rko ko +
c=1 k=1 i=1

kic Rkc kc

(3.13)

In addition since Rk k is proportional to Sk /I , C is also a good estimate of the relative interference level in the cell. The outage probability for this system is dened as the probability of event P [C W ] < , where is dependent on the system design. Hence, it is required that: P [C W ] < (3.14)

3.3.5

Schultz et. al.

The authors in [9] mention three CAC algorithms. Two of which are widely popular

and are currently deployed in UMTS systems and form the framework for this research study. There are the Wideband Power Based and the Throughput Based CAC schemes and they are covered in detail in the following chapter. The third scheme dened is the CAC based on signal-to-noise-plus-interference ratio and is mentioned in detail here.

28 This admission control algorithm aims at preserving the quality of the connections measured in terms of the signal-to-noise-plus-interference ratio. They distinguish the operation on the uplink and downlink directions. Uplink Criterion: The total power that a given base station (BS) antenna receives is compiled by the background noise, denoted by N , and the signals from Mobile Terminals (MTs) connected to the considered or nearby cells, denoted by I (interference). Let Ci and Ri be respectively the power and bit rate of the signal received from the ith MT connected to the base station. We will assume just one active connection per MT at the same time, although results can be easily extended to consider several connections with dierent QoS requirements. The bit energy to noise plus interference density ratio is given by: Eb Ci /Ri Ci P Gi = = No (N + I + Ci )/W N + Ii

(3.15)

where W is the chip rate of the system, P Gi is the so-called processing gain and Ii = I Ci is the interference experimented by the user i. Upon a new MT connection request with a specic QoS demand, Node-B will estimate the power to be received from the user to comply with the QoS error constraint, usually given in terms of Bit Error Rate (BER) or Frame Error Rate (FER). A previous step is to derive a target Eb /No that guarantees the error ratio required by the user. Among others, factors such as modulation parameters, error correction techniques, geographical location and MT movement pattern are used to map BER or FER specications into the target Eb/N o. Assuming M 1 users currently connected to the BS, the requesting user is the potential M th connected user. From eqn. 3.15, the minimum estimated required power for the new user is: (Eb /No )target,M (IM + N ) C M = P GM

(3.16)

IM is the interference the new user would see if accepted, so IM + N is the whole i = 1 i M 1, be the minimum new received power that the BS is receiving. Let C

29 power predicted for the ith MT which is required to meet its target Eb /No with the eect of the requesting terminal taken into account. Under the assumption that the requested i > Ci ; where Ci is the current received signal power from terminal is in the system C the ith terminal. As the number of newly admitted mobile terminal increases, so should the received power of the previously admitted ones, so that their required Eb /No can be i = 1 i M 1, increases, the total interference that the guaranteed. In turn, if C requesting terminal will experience also increases; hence CM needs to be increased. The rise of CM will further increase the required Ci value. As a result, the predicted values need to be updated recursively based on the current interference seen by each user. After a few iterations, the estimations will converge with a reasonable accuracy if solution indeed exists. If the solutions diverge after a few iterations, it means that the system does not have enough capacity to accommodate the requesting MT. 1+N 1 + (P Gi /(Eb /No )i (1 + N )i 1 + (P Gi /(Eb /No )i

Ci =

(3.17)

an equivalent equation for the downlink is given by: Ci = (3.18)

Now, Ci is the power with which the ith user channel is received at ith M T , and (I + N )i is the sum of total interference (Ci included) and background noise received at ith MT. Thus, when the M th connection is requested, the estimation of its needed received power is: (1 + N )M 1 + (P GM /(Eb /No )target,M )

C M =

(3.19)

Downlink Criterion: The downlink is limited by power availability rather than by interference. In UMTS, the downlink becomes the capacity bottleneck of the system. In the same way it was done for the uplink, error requirements are mapped into a target Eb /No to be achieved at the MT, which we will relate this time to the power to be transmitted by the base station. Starting from eqn. 3.15 a new equation for the received power at BS from user i can be derived: Ci = (I + N )i 1 + (P Gi /(Eb /No )i ) (3.20)

30 Where Ci is the power with which the ith user channel is received at the ith MT, and (I + N )i is the sum of the total interference (Ci included) and background noise received at the ith MT. Thus, when the M th connection is requested, the estimation of its needed received power is: C M = (I + N )M 1 + (P GM /(Eb /No )target,M ) (3.21)

To be admitted, the interference generated in every neighboring cell must not exceed its current resource margin. Therefore, the target cell should transmit connection requirements to its neighboring cells and receive permission from them. Another factor to take into account is the fact that a connection request can be a new connection but it can also come from a hando. The latter case should be prioritized because, in general, interrupting a service in an active connection is more annoying to users than rejecting a new connection. A fraction of the total resources can be reserved in a target cell for future hando connections coming from nearby cells. The optimum fraction should depend on the hando probability, which can be estimated from the trac load in nearby cells, as well as measurements on the position, movement direction and mobility pattern of neighboring MTs [9].

31

Chapter 4

Methodology and Model Design

This chapter denes the methodology used and discusses the design of the simulation model. The purpose of this research study was to investigate the radio resource management schemes or call admission control schemes that are currently available in literature and those that are being deployed. The two most popular schemes are the Wideband Power Based (WPB) scheme and the Throughput Based (TB) scheme. After sucient investigation of these schemes and their performance over dierent network consistencies, a new CAC scheme called Adaptive Call Admission Control (ACAC) scheme is proposed here. Section 4.1 and Section 4.2 discuss the WPB and the TB schemes respectively. Section 4.3 presents the new ACAC scheme. The simulation model is described in detail in Section ??. Any CAC scheme in a cellular environment involves a duplex or bi-directional link. The uplink direction is when the mobile user is talking to the Node-B. A typical instance maybe to seek admission for service. The downlink direction is when the Node-B is talking to the mobile user to send beacon signals, to poll the UE or for the FCC regulated E-911 updates which are commonly called the location update procedures. It is necessary that all the QoS parameters involved in both the uplink and downlink are satised every time a new user is involved so as not to compromise the quality of the existing calls. Also, we must keep in mind that the bi-directional links are asymmetric. Hence the following CAC schemes have two criterions: the Uplink Criterion and the Downlink Criterion.

32

Figure 4.1: Shows Load curve and the, due to a new call, increase in Interference

4.1
4.1.1

Wideband Power Based Admission Control Scheme

Uplink Criterion
Every time a new user seeks admission into the system, it adds a certain amount of

interference to the system. The criterion for the uplink admission of the connection is based on the comparison of the interference the new user would add to the system, if admitted, to an interference threshold value Ithreshold . This is shown in g. 4.1. This value should not be exceeded by the admission of a new user. If the existing interference in the system is Itotal , and the interference the new user would bring to the system is I , then the uplink criterion is [9], [5]: Itotal + I Ithreshold (4.1)

This I can be calculated in two ways. The rst case is by dierentiation of the load curve. The second case is to integrate from the old value of load factor to the new value of load factor. Dierentiation of the load curve: This is the procedure followed in this research study. Dierentiation of the load curve is done in the following manner: I = Itotal L (1 U L ) (4.2)

where Itotal is the total estimated interference level after admission of the new user. U L is the uplink load factor in the cell serving N users and L is the increase in the load factor

33 due to admission of the new user. The noise rise can be written as: N oiseRise = Itotal = Itotal 1 = PN 1 PN (1 ) (4.3) (4.4) (4.5)

dItotal PN = d (1 )2

Integration of the load curve: Integrate from the old value of the load factor (old = ) to the new value of the load factor (new = + L).
Itotal +L

I =
Itotal +L

dItotal

(4.6)

I =

PN d (1 )2

(4.7)

I =

PN PN 1 L 1 L PN . 1 L 1 Itotal .L 1 L

(4.8)

I =

(4.9)

I = where L is given by:

(4.10)

L =

1 1+
W .Eb /No .R

(4.11)

The power increase can be considered to be the derivative of the old uplink interference power with respect to the uplink load factor, multiplied by the load factor of the new UE, L: dItotal I L d dItotal L d PN I = L (1 )2 I = (4.12) (4.13) (4.14)

34 Itotal L (1 )

I U L is given by the following equation:

(4.15)

U L = (1 + i)
j =1

1 1+
W (Eb /No )i Ri i

(4.16)

where i= othercellinterf erence owncellinterf erence (4.17)

where W is the chip rate, Rj is the bitrate of the j th user and L is given by the relation: L = 1 1+
W i (Eb No )i Ri

(4.18)

R, the bitrate depends on the type of service asked. (Eb /No ) is the signal energy per bit divided by the noise spectral density and needs to meet a predetermined QoS. The noise includes both thermal noise and interference. The activity factor of the user i can be considered 0.67 for speech and 1.0 for data.

4.1.2

Downlink Criterion
Considering the downlink direction, the user is admitted if the new total downlink

transmission power does not exceed a predened target value set by the network operator: Ptotalo ld + Ptotal > Pthreshold (4.19)

The load increase in the downlink can be estimated on the base of the initial power, which depends on the distance from the base station. The load increase depends on the distance of the mobile from the base station. The minimum required transmission power for each user is determined by the average attenuation between the base station , and the mobile receiver sensitivity, in the absence transmitter and mobile receiver, that is L of multiple access interference. Then the eect of noise rise due to interference is added to this minimum power and the total represents the transmission power required for a user at an average location in the cell. The total base station power can be expressed by the following equation [5]: BST x P = Nrf W L
(Eb /No )j N j =1 j (W/Rj )

1 DL

(4.20)

35 where Nrf is the noise spectral density of the mobile receiver front-end. The value of Nrf can be obtained from: Nrf = k.T + N F (4.21)

where k is the Boltzmann constant of 1.381 1023 J/K, T is the temperature in Kelvin and NF is the mobile station receiver noise gure with typical values of 5-9 dB.

4.2
4.2.1

Throughput Based Admission Control Scheme

Uplink Criterion
In the uplink, a new user is admitted only if the sum of the existing uplink load

factor U L and the increase in the load factor L does not exceed a predetermined threshold limit U Lthreshold [5], [9]. U L + L U Lthreshold where U L is given by (4.16) and L by (4.20). (4.22)

4.2.2

Downlink Criterion
The criterion in the downlink is similar to that of the uplink [5], [9]: DL + L DLthreshold (4.23)

where L is given by (12) and DL is given by the following equation:

N

DL =
j =1

Rj

j (Eb /No )j [(1 av ) + iav ] W

(4.24)

where av is the average orthogonality of the cell. In an ideal single cell CDMA system, downlink channels are perfectly code multiplexed, i.e., codes have a degree of orthogonality between them. So there is no problem de/modulating while resources are available. However in a real CDMA system, the set of codes is modulated by the multipaths channel. As a result codes arrive at the users with a lesser degree of orthogonality. This produces downlink interference, which is modeled as a downlink orthogonality factor.

36

4.3

Proposed Adaptive Call Admission Control Scheme

Based on certain preliminary results, we observed that the Wideband Power Based

scheme works better on a network with prevalent voice users whereas the Throughput Based scheme works better where data users are prevalent. The most plausible explanation for this could be because since the WPB is more power limited in the downlink, voice users require lower power to be served than data users. Hence the downlink forms a bottleneck for the data users in WPB. For the TB scheme the uplink is capacity limited and data users are fewer in number at any point of time than voice users. Hence the uplink forms a bottleneck for voice users in TB. To prove the theory that WPB works better in the case where there are many voice users and that the TB works better when there are many data users, the simulation was stress-tested on a wide variety of heterogeneous UMTS networks comprising of various percentages of voice and data users. Satised with the results, the need for another CAC scheme that will altogether eliminate or at the most minimize the preferential treatment shown by both the WPB and the TB schemes was identied. This forms the basis for the proposed ACAC. The theory behind the Adaptive Call Admission Control [25] scheme is that it switches between the Wideband Power Based and the Throughput Based scheme depending on the number of each type of user present in the system at the end of a previous epoch and the number of each type of user estimated arrival in the next epoch. Updates are done at periodic intervals called . Predicting the number of users at a given time depends on two criteria. The rst one being which is the parameter used to inuence the number of predictions in the up and coming epoch and is given by (4.25) for voice and (4.26) for data calls. P redictionvoice1 = V oicen + (1 ) V oicen P redictiondata1 = Datan + (1 ) Datan (4.25) (4.26)

where V oicen and Datan are the number of voice and data calls that originated in the previous epoch to the current one being predicted and similarly V oicen and Datan are the number of voice and data calls predicted.

37

P redictionvoice2 = totalnumberof voicecalls P redictiondata2 = totalnumberof datacalls

(4.27) (4.28)

The second criterion in (4.27) for voice and (4.28) for data inuences the total number of calls that have originated in the system since start-up. Since video and FTP calls tend to persist in the system causing self-similarity, having makes the prediction better. and vary between 0 and 1. The prediction is now done in the following way for voice and data calls: V oicen+1 = P redictionvoice1 + P redictionvoice2 Datan+1 = P redictiondata1 + P redictiondata2 (4.29) (4.30)

The prediction for , and are clearly very critical. They can be found either adaptively or statistically. In this research study, adaptive (trial and error) methods through many simulation runs are used, leaving the analytical calculations for future work.

38

Chapter 5

Simulation Modeling
Fig. 5.1 shows the simulation model. It consists of seven cells that form the UMTS network. The radius of each cell is 1km. A Node-B serves each cell. All the seven cells are served by the Radio Network Controller (RNC). The call admission control intelligence lies in the RNC. Each cell has voice, video and FTP users. Voice and video users talk to each other and the FTP users talk to the FTP server. In our simulation model we have two types of classes: voice and data. Video and FTP users together constitute the data class. The mobiles users have trajectories that are user-dened. The mobiles can only move within the seven cells. Boundary conditions are strictly enforced.

5.1

Node-B Simulation Parameters

The path loss model is a urban city Okumura Hata model with a shadow fading

standard deviation of 8dB. Shadowing: Shadowing is caused due to reection and diraction of the transmitted signal due to terrain conditions and large objects [22]. Modeled as a Lognormal random variable with parameters (0, 2 ), where = 8dB is a typical value . Ln(0, 2 ).

Or equivalently the decibel value of 10log10 has a Gaussian distribution with mean 0 and variance 2 . This factor is independent of the path loss ratio. This factor is assumed independent of each user because they vary with respect to user locations. Path Loss Ratio (): The exact value of the path loss ratio is unpredictable because it is related to the user positions which cannot be determined for each user. Hence

39

Figure 5.1: Simulation Model

an approximation is used and this has been veried in simulations in [33], [34]. E [] = 0.0474 and V ar[] = 0.0121. Here, we calculate the path loss ratio by the Okumura-Hata model or the WalshIkegami model. As an example we can take the Okumura-Hata propagation model for an urban macro cell with base station antenna height of 30m, mobile antenna height of 1.5m and carrier frequency of 1950 Mhz:

L = 137.4 + 35.2log10 (R)

(5.1)

where L is the path loss in dB and R is the range in km. For suburban areas, we assume an additional area correction factor of 8 dB and obtain the path loss as:

L = 129.4 + 35.2log10 (R)

(5.2)

The path loss ratio is accurately calculated using the WCDMA Link Budget in Section 5.3.

40

5.2

Radio Network Controller Call Admission Control Simulation Parameters

While the basic call admission control varies from Wideband Power Based, Through-

put Based to the proposed Adaptive Call Admission Control scheme, the other CAC parameters listed below remain the same. Uplink power control eciency factor = 0.85. Measures the increase in interference power due to imperfection in power control. Uplink Loading Factor = 0.75. The loading point in the uplink that is used as a threshold to decide whether the new user may be admitted into the system. I.e.; the increased load that will result if a new user is admitted is compared to this threshold to decide whether to admit or reject this user. This permits one to study the eects of oversubscription. Orthogonality Factor = 0.06 (type Pedestrian). Orthogonality factor ranges between 0 and 1. If 0, there is perfect orthogonality. Downlink Other-cell Interference Factor = 1.78. Downlink Other-Cell Interference Factor computed at edge of cell. Downlink Loading Factor = 0.75. The loading point in the downlink (usually < 1.0) that is used as a threshold to decide whether the new user may be admitted into the system. I.e.; the increased load that will result if a new user is admitted is compared to this threshold to decide whether to admit or reject this user. Values greater than 1 are valid. This permits one to study the eects of oversubscription. Thermal Noise Power Spectral Density (dBm) = 174. Thermal noise power spectral density in dBm/Hz.

5.3

WCDMA Link Budget

The WCDMA radio network dimensioning is a process through which possible

congurations and amount of network equipment are estimated, based on the operators requirements and are related to the following [5]:

41 Table 5.1: WCDMA Link Budget of 30 kbps Voice Service

Parameter Transmitter (Mobile) Max Mobile Transmission Power [Watts] As above in dBm Mobile Antenna Gain [dBi] Body Loss [dB] Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power EIRP [dBm] Receiver (Base Station) Thermal Noise Density [dBm/Hz] Base Station Receiver Noise Figure [dB] Receiver Noise Density [dBm/Hz] Receiver Noise Power [dBm] Interference Margin Total Eective Noise + Interference [dBm] Processing Gain [dB] Required Eb /No [dB] Receiver Sensitivity [dBm] Base Station Antenna Gain [dBi] Cable Loss in Base Station [dB] Fast Fading Margin [dB] Max path loss [dB] Log Normal fading margin [dB] Soft handover gain [dB], multicell In car loss [dB] Allowed propagation loss for cell range [dB] Value 0.5 27.0 0.0 3.0 24.0 174.0 5.0 169.0 103.2 3.0 100.2 21.0 5.0 116.2 18.0 2.0 3.0 153.2 7.3 3.0 8.0 140.9 Variables

a b c d=a+bc e f g =e+f h = g + 10log (3840000) i j =h+i k = 10log (3840000/30000) l m=lk+j n o p q =dm+nop r s t u=qr+st

Coverage: Coverage Regions, area type information, propagation conditions. Capacity: spectrum available, subscriber growth forecast, trac density information. Quality of Service: area location probability or location probability, blocking and dropping probability, end user throughput. These dimensioning activities include the WCDMA Link Budget which covers all possible attributes used in planning the air interface. We need to design a WDCMA Link Budget based on our network dimensions and QoS requirements. The WCDMA Link Budget for this research study is calculated in table 5.1. Since voice users are more prevalent, the Link Budget is limited to voice users calculations. Most of the parameters in the WCDMA Link Budget table have been dened

42 before. Following are the denitions for more of the parameters: Interference Margin: It is needed in the link budget because the loading of the cell, the load factor, aects the coverage. The more loading allowed in the system, the larger the interference margin needed in the uplink, and the smaller the coverage area. Typical values for the interference margin are 1.0 3.0 dB. Fast Fading Margin: Variations of positions of mobile users due to speed induces a fast fading eect. Some headroom is needed in the mobile station transmission power for maintaining adequate closed loop fast power control. This applies especially to slow-moving pedestrain mobiles where fast power control is able to eectively compensate the fast fading. Typical values for the fast fading are 2.0 5.0 dB for slow moving mobiles. Soft Handover Gain: Soft and hard handovers give a gain against slow fading by reducing the required log-normal fading margin. This is because the slow fading is partly uncorrelated between the base stations, and by making handover the mobile can select a better base station. Soft handover gives an additional macro-diversity gain against fast fading by reducing the required Eb /No relative to a single radio link. The total soft handover gain is typically between 2.0 3.0 dB. Eb /No : The Eb /No requirement depends on the bit-rate, service, multi-path prole, mobile speed, receiver algorithms and base station antenna structure. For low mobile speeds, the Eb /No requirement is low but, on the other hand, a fast fading margin is required. From the link budget shown in table 5.1, the cell range R can be readily calculated for a known propagation model, for example the Okumura-Hata model or the WalshIkegami model. For more on propagation in that environment, and it converts the maximum allowed propagation in that environment, and it converts the maximum cell range in kilometres. We can take the Okumura-Hata propagation model for an urban macro cell with base station antenna height of 30m, mobile antenna height of 1.5m and carrier frequency of 1950 Mhz:

L = 137.4 + 35.2log10 (R) where L is the path loss in dB and R is the range in km.

(5.3)

43 According to (5.1), L = u from table 5.1: 140.9 = 137.4 + 35.2log10 R (5.4)

Thus, R 1 km. We choose the radius of hexagonal cells in our simulation model as 1 km.

5.4

Voice Users Simulation Parameters

Voice users use application of type Voice over IP (GSM quality), which produces

a load of approximately 1600 bytes/sec (13 kbps), with silence length exponentially distributed with mean 0.65 seconds and talk spurt length exponentially distributed with mean 0.352 seconds. Their Type of Service (ToS) is Interactive Voice with the highest priority. Having a ToS helps to prioritize the calls since priority can be considered to be another type of QoS [24]. The start time oset is the time between the end of one application to the start of the next. This is uniformly distributed between 5 and 10 minutes. The duration of each voice call is uniformly distributed between 3 and 5 minutes.

5.5

Video Users Simulation Parameters

Video users use application of type Video Conferencing (Light), at a rate of 64

kbps with the frame size in bytes being Pareto distributed with shape parameter 42.5 and location parameter 3. The ToS is Streaming Multimedia with priority as medium. The start time oset here is also uniformly distributed between 5 and 10 minutes and the duration of each video call is uniformly distributed between 15 and 30 minutes.

5.6

FTP Users Simulation Parameters

FTP users use application of type File Transfer (Light), at a rate of 64 kbps with

the frame size in bytes being Pareto distributed with shape parameter 60 and location parameter 1.2. The ToS is Best Eort with priority as low. The start time oset here is also uniformly distributed between 5 and 10 minutes and the duration of each FTP call is

44 till the end of simulation time. The pareto distributions are used to provide self-similarity in data calls.

5.7

Mobility Simulation Parameters

All mobile users move with a velocity of approximately 40 km/hr only within cells

that are dened for the network. In other words, boundary conditions are strictly enforced.

45

Chapter 6

Analytical Modeling
In this section we analyze, as an approximation, the loss probabilities of a UMTSWCDMA system by modeling it as a multi-rate class based system with priority. Multi-rate systems are those that have dierent classes of calls with dierent arrival rates and dierent service rates. They also have dierent requirements or demands from the channels/servers based on the Type of Service. Much work has been done on multirate systems [35], [36], [37], [38], [39]. However, the problem of assigning priorities to these classes of calls has not been investigated. Papers [40], [41], [42], [43], provide priority in a single-rate system. A single rate system is one where all calls have the same number of demands with dierent arrival and service rates. This section marks the investigation of multi-rate systems with priority. The multi-rate Erlang-B loss probabilities and their derivatives for a multi-rate system have been derived in [35] and the loss probabilities in a single-rate M/M/n/n system with priority is given in [40].

6.1

Multi-rate Erlang-B Computation

The single rate Erlang-B model is and has been a cornerstone of numerous trac

engineering applications that involve the calculation and optimization of blocking probabilities. However, with the emerging integrated multimedia networks, one single trac type is often inadequate [35]. Due to this reason the authors in [35], demonstrated stable recursions that have complexity of the order O(n) for both the blocking probabilities and their

46

Figure 6.1: Multi-rate Erlang-B

derivatives. This section talks about multi-rate Erlang-B computations. The components of a multi-rate Erlang-B system are: R - Number of classes br - number of demands needed for each connection of class r r - arrival rate of a Poisson process for class r nr - the number of active class r calls n - number of servers in the system 1/r - mean service time for each class r Ar = r /r - oered Erlangs for class r The classes have been dened such that b1 b2 ...... bR The joint steady state probabilities for having a certain number of classes r customers in the system has a product form solution [36], [37], [38], [39]:
nr 1 1 Ar R G(n) r=0 nr !

p(n0 , n1 , n2 , n3 , ........, nR1 ) = where 0

R 1 r =0 nr br

(6.1)

G(n) is the normalizing constant that will be determined such that the probabilities add up to one.

47

p(n0 , n1 , n2 , ...., nR1 ) = 1

R1 r =0

(6.2)

nr br n

In [37], the function q (m) is dened as q (m) =

1 R r=0 nr br =m

R1 r =0

r An r nr !

(6.3)

The blocking probabilities for each class r, Br is given as Br = where 0 r R 1. In [37] and [38] show that the basic recursive formula for the q (m) function is valid 1 q (m) = m
R 1 n j =nbr +1 q (j ) n j =0 q (j )

(6.4)

Ar br q (m br )
r =0

(6.5)

From this approach of the recursive Erlang B formulae, the authors of [35] are inspired to nd formulae for the multi-class, multi-rate case. Their goal was to compute numerically stable recursions for computing the Br s. First they dene a function (m, k ) which is the probabilistic interpretation that the probability of having m-k servers busy in a system with m servers is: q (m k ) when0 k m m i=0 q (i)

(m, k ) = For k > 0

(6.6)

(m, k ) =

q (m 1 (k 1)) m1 i=0 q (i) + q (m)

(6.7)

The right hand side is now divided upstairs and downstairs with the sum in the denominator. This operation together with the use of the Kaufman and Roberts recursion leads to: (m 1, k 1) 1+
1 m R 1 r=0 Ar br (m

(m, k ) =

1, br 1)

(6.8)

48 When k = 0, using the basic Kaufman and Roberts recursion, (m, k ) is given as: (m, 0) =
1 m R 1 r=0 Ar br (m 1, br 1) R 1 1 r =0 Ar br (m 1, br 1) m

1+

(6.9)

The above set of recursive equations gives the probability (m, k ) for m k servers being busy. This computation is stable because at each step in the computation, any existing error will be reduced. The blocking probabilities are computed from the following equation
br 1

Br =
j =0

(n, j )

(6.10)

We only need to know the values of the (n, j ) for j = 0 to bR 1. The implication of this is that the computational complexity is of the order O(n).

6.2

Single rate prioritized system using conservation law

We have R classes in this system with R 1 having the highest priority and

class 0 the lowest (i = R 1, R 2, .....0 in order of priority). We now determine the loss probability in a prioritized UMTS-WCDMA system having multi-rate trac. The loss probability of highest priority class R 1 is determined using the following Erlangss loss formula (M/M/n/n) as: pbR1 = (n, R1 ) =
n rm m=0 m! rn n!

(6.11)

where r = R1 .n and R1 = R1 /(R1 .n). We assume that the conservation law holds [40]. Loss conservation law states that the expected change of a state function is zero over any nite period picked at a random interval of a steady state. The conservation law is an approximation and simulation results in [40] have veried that this assumption is valid when the trac intensity is high. Let R1,i be the sum of the trac intensity from class (R 1) through class i, i.e., R1,i =
R 1 j = i j .

Trac from the lower priority classes (class i 1 through 0) does not aect the loss probability of the higher priority classes (class i through R 1) due to class isolation. For classes i = R 1, R 2, ....., 0, it is assumed that class i is completely isolated from class (i 1). From the conservation law we know that overall performance (i.e., loss probability

49 and throughput averaged over all classes) of the network stays the same regardless of the number of classes and the degree of isolations Hence we can apply (6.11) to obtain pbR1,i = (n, R1,i ). Let ci = i / be the ratio of the trac intensity in class i over the total trac intensity. We can now represent, the average loss probabilities using a weighted sum of loss probability of each class as pbR1,i = have
R 1 R 1 j =i cj .pbj .

According to conservation law, we now

(n, R1,i ) =
j =i

cj .pbj

(6.12)

We can now obtain each pbi by starting with the highest priority class (i.e., R 1). Since class R 1 has the highest priority, and is completely isolated from any other classes, pbR1 = (n, R1 ) as given in (6.11). For class R 2, we have; pbR1,R2 = (n, R1,R2 ) which is similar to: pbR1,R2 =
R 1 j =R2 cj .pbj

according to (6.12). By equating the two, we obtain: pbR2 =

(n,R1,R2 )cR1 .pbR1 cR2

This procedure can be applied repeatedly. In general for class i, where 0 i R 2: (n, R1,i ) ci
R 1 j =i+1 cj .pbj

pbi =

(6.13)

6.3

Proposed Analytical Models

The previous two sections saw the implementation of multi-rate Erlang-B system

without priority and a single rate prioritized M/M/n/n system. In this section a mathematical model for a multi-rate system with priority is proposed in two parts. In the rst part, tier analysis or soft capacity modeling is not introduced. In the second part the modeling is done keeping in mind that the WCDMA air-interface allows soft-capacity and hence the

50

Figure 6.2: Part 1: Analytical Modeling

hando rate from the surrounding cells is considered. This is called tier analysis or soft capacity analysis.

6.3.1

Model 1: Multi-rate Erlang-B with priority

The system model consists of three types of trac following our simulation model:

Voice, Data and Hando. Each have dierent requirements. Hando calls have the highest priority, then voice and data calls have the lowest priority. The WCDMA bandwidth of 3.84 Mbps is divided into n = 640 channels, each of 6 kpbs bandwidth. Voice trac needs 30 kpbs and hence there are given 5 channels each. Data calls need 64 kpbs and hence are given 10 channels. Hando calls are very important and hence are given 10 channels. Data Erlangs are constant in the system at 300 Erlangs and Hando rates are constant in the system at 20 Erlangs. The hando rate is an approximation from our simulation results. The gure depicting this system is shown in g. 6.2. Hando is of class 2, voice calls are class 1 and data calls are class 0. We have A0 = 300, A1 = 180 to 260 and A2 = 20 Erlangs and b0 = 10, b1 = 5 and b2 = 10.

51 We derive (n, R1,i ) from the multi-rate system as (n, R1,i ) =

R 1 j =i Aj bj Bj cj R 1 j = i Aj b j

(6.14)

The cj s are introduced here to balance the trac intensity which is a part of the conservation law into the multi-rate Erlang-B analysis. Since we are inheriting probabilities from the multi-rate system where there are multiple demands into a single rate M/M/n/n system, we weight the pb si with a fudge factor: bi /
R 1 i=0 bi .

As in (6.14), this fudge factor is introduced into the conservation loss

probabilities due to the reason that now the conservation loss is serving as an approximation for not a single rate system but in fact the multi-rate system. The loss probabilities for classes R 2 to 0 can be now determined in the following manner:

P P
pbi = where R 1 < i < 0.

R 1 j =i Aj bj cj Bj R1 j =i Aj bj

R 1 j =i+1 cj

bj R1 j =i+1 bj

pbj (6.15)

ci

6.3.2

Model 2: Multi-rate Erlang-B with priority and tier analysis

As shown in gure 6.3, the cellular network is comprised of the center cell and

6 neighboring cells surrounding it referred to as the rst-tier neighborhood. In model 1, the hando rate is given as a constant. Here, we adapt the hando rate depending on the number of voice and data calls that exist in the rst-tier neighborhood. We concentrate on the number of handos from the rst-tier neighborhood to the center cell. It is assumed that the mobile stations move randomly and spread all over a cellular coverage area. The rst-tier neighborhood has six times the number of calls that exist in the center cell. Depending on the number of active voice and data calls in the rst-tier neighborhood, we can calculate the number of channels used or the number of active calls of each class in the rst-tier neighborhood. Channels used by class data(0) calls in center cell, ch0 = (1 B0 )b0 A0 Channels used by class voice(1) calls in center cell, ch1 = (1 B1 )b1 A1

52

Figure 6.3: Part 2: Analytical Modeling with tiers

where, B0 and B1 are the blocking probabilities from the multi-rate Erlang-B model. A0 and A1 are the trac Erlangs of data and voice calls. b0 and b1 are the demands of each class in the multi-rate Erlang-B system. Number of active calls in the center cell 6 = Number of active calls in the rst-tier neighborhood Number of active calls in the center cell, m = ch0 + ch1 Number of active calls in the rst-tier neighborhood, n = 6 (ch0 + ch1 ) Hando rate from the rst-tier neighborhood into center cell=
1 6

n 2

Now that we know the hando rate statistically, we can apply it to multi-rate system with conservation law.

53

Chapter 7

Power Control
7.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters we have seen the importance of resource allocation, the state of the art that exists in the eld, the extensions and improvements to these presented in this research. Previous chapters have been devoted to resource allocation from a trac point of view. The input to the system was the Erlangs that each class provides to the system and the output was observed as the two main QoS parameters; the Blocking and Dropping Probabilities. The work was mainly concentrated in the upper layers. Mainly, is used here, because though the air interface parameters were used for calculations for resource control in the upper layers, none of the parameters, were ever tweaked, ne-tuned, adapted or studied to see how they can perform in conjunction with resource allocation to improve Radio Resource Management. This chapter concentrates on Power Control. Broadly Radio Resource Management in UMTS-WCDMA systems can be classied in a two-fold manner: 1. Resource Allocation :Ecient Call Admission Control algorithms in the upper layers 2. Power Control : Ecient Power Control algorithms in the lower layers A good RRM scheme takes into consideration power control and resource allocation. Resource allocation resides in the higher layers and deals with the problem of call admission after ensuring that adequate requirements of Signal to Interference (SIR) ratios are met by the power control algorithms. Between these two main categories, a multitude

54 of algorithms like Admission Control, Power Control, Handover Control, Load Control and other packet scheduling functionalities [5] are covered. Power Control is important because a UMTS system has heterogeneous trac scenarios with dierent transmission rates and dierent QoS requirements. The acceptance of a new connection depends on the SIR (signal-to-interference ratio) values achievable by each existing connection once the new one is activated. These values are functions of the emitted powers, which due to power control mechanisms depend on the mobile user positions. Power control inaccuracies result in the user terminal performing power adjustments, that may achieve a QoS better or worse than the target QoS but in the same time generates excessive interference that degrades the QoS of the other users and in the second case, the achieved QoS is lower than that required for the user of interest and may lead to the call being in outage [4]. An indication of a QoS requirement is the Energy per Bit to Noise Ratio given by Eb /No and often times the SIR and Eb /No are used interchangeably. Ideally, call admission control should be able to accept a call only if a new equilibrium of the power control can be reached and to reject it otherwise.

7.2

Problem Description
In real-time CDMA systems, all the active wireless stations transmit simultane-

ously to the Node-B that they are assigned to in the uplink (reverse link). Every wireless user introduces noise in the form interference to every other wireless stations uplink communications within the cell. The higher a wireless stations transmitting power, the better throughput that user gets for its connection, but the higher interference it causes for the other wireless stations in the meantime. Therefore there is a dynamic trade-o between each individual users throughput and the total throughput of the system [44]. In gure 7.1, mobile Stations A and B operate within the same frequency, separable at the Node-B only by their respectable spreading codes. It may happen that B at the cell edge suers a path loss, say of 70dB above that of A which is near the Node-B. If there were no mechanism for A and B to be power-controlled to the same level at the Node-B, A could easily overshout B and thus block a large part of the cell, giving rise to the so-called

55

Figure 7.1: Near Far Eect in WCDMA

near-far problem of CDMA. The optimum strategy in the sense of maximizing capacity is to equalize the received powers RA and RB of all the mobile users at all times. The main power control schemes in WCDMA are open-loop, fast closed-loop and outer loop power control. These are used to solve the problem of near-far eect of CDMA [5]. While one can conceive open-loop power control mechanisms that attempt to make a rough estimate of path loss by means of a downlink beacon signal, such a method would be far too inaccurate. The prime reason for this is that the fast fading is essentially uncorrelated between uplink and downlink, due to the large frequency separation of uplink and downlink band of the WCDMA FDD mode. Open-loop power control is used to provide a coarse initial setting of the UE at the beginning of a connection. The solution to power control in WCDMA is fast closed-loop power control. In closed-loop power control, the Node-B performs frequent estimates of SNR and compares it to a target SNR in the uplink. If the measured SNR is higher than the target SNR, the Node-B commands the UE to lower the power; if it is too low it will command the UE to

56 increase its power. This measure-command-react cycle is executed at the rate of 1500 times per second (1.5kHz ) for each UE and thus operates faster than any signicant change in path loss and this is even faster than the speed of fast Rayleigh fading for low to moderate UE speeds. Thus closed-loop power control will prevent any power imbalance among all the uplink signals received at the Node-B. The same closed-loop power control is also used on the downlink, though here the motivation is dierent: on the downlink there is no near-far problem due to the one-to-many scenario. All the signals within one-cell originate from the one Node-B to all mobiles. It is, however, desirable to provide a marginal amount of additional power to mobile stations at the cell edge, as they suer from increased other-cell interference. Also, on the downlink a method of enhancing weak signals caused by Rayleigh fading with additional power is needed at low speeds when other error-correcting methods based on interleaving and errorcorrecting codes do not yet work eectively. Closed-loop power control works on a fading channel at low speed. Closed-loop power control commands the mobile station to use a transmit power proportional to the inverse of the received power (or SIR). Provided the mobile station has enough headroom to ramp the power up, only very little residual fading is left and the channel becomes an essentially non-fading channel as seen from the base station receiver. While this fading removal is highly desirable from the receiver point of view, it comes at the expense of increased average transmit power at the transmitting end. This means that a mobile station in a deep fade using large transmission power, will cause increased interference to other cells. Outer-loop power control adjusts the target SIR according to the needs of the individual radio link and aims at maintaining a constant quality of parameters. Usually these are Bit Error Rate (BER), Block Error Rate (BLER) or Eb /No . This is useful in that the required SIR depends on the UE speed and its multi-path prole which are dierent for dierent UEs. Setting the target SIR for the worst case would lead to wastage of capacity. Thus the best strategy is to let the target SIR oat around the minimum value that just fullls the required target quality. The target SIR set-point, as shown in gure 7.2, will change over time as the speed and propagation characteristics change. Outer loop power

57

Figure 7.2: Outer Loop Power Control in WCDMA

control is implemented by having the Node-B tag each uplink user data frame with a frame reliability indicator. This Power Control resides in the RNC because this function should be performed after a possible soft handover combining[5].

7.3

Previous Work
Previous work in [45], [46] and [47] was focussed on Radio Resource Control (RRC)

in a UMTS-WCDMA system. This work identied the need for power control schemes to work in conjunction with resource allocation for ecient RRM. Typically power control can be broken down as Centralized or Distributed with the air interface being CDMA or WDCMA. Some research works on all the mobiles having imperfect and unequal received powers and some on perfect and equal. Some papers assume that the mobiles can move within its own cell and others give mobility its deserved importance. Grades of service are also important to consider. While some assume that all the users have the same grade or quality of service, others are more realistic in assuming heterogenous quality of users. Many papers have introduced several dierent concepts for adaptive or dynamic

58 changes of dierent QoS parameters [25], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52]. The focus of most of these papers were to obtain equal received powers in the uplink. This is not realistic since in the uplink each UE is subject to varying multi-path propagation characteristics and their distance from the Node-B varies. Some of the papers developed algorithms where there is a centralized approach (example RNC) [?], [?]. This requires the central controller to have all the knowledge about the signal strengths of all the active radio links. While the eciency is good, a centralized control adds infrastructure, latency and increases the network complexity and are more complicated. This is mainly due to the required detailed knowledge of radio channel centrally which is not readily available in real time as far as multi-cell mobile networks are concerned [50]. Distributed control is described in [?]. Some of these papers also assume that once a UE is admitted in a cell, its stays so for the entire call duration. Mobility is not given importance. This research is dierent in that, it starts with adaptively ne-tuning the QoS parameters by using Monte Carlo simulations and extending it to adapt the nal power required by each UE to transmit in a fashion that adheres to resource management rules. Adaptive Uplink Power Control (AUPC) is introduced in this paper. The results of Adaptive Uplink Power Control (AUPC) are compared with the Outer Loop Power Control (OLPC) and they show that this algorithm possesses fast convergence properties, ensures limited interference in the system and provides ecient utilization of the WCDMA spectrum. The rest of this chapter is organized as follows: Section 7.4 takes a power control parameter and dynamically updates the step size by using Monte Carlo Simulations. It discusses the way both OLPC and AUPC perform under the given simulation model. Section 7.5 gives the calculations required to analytically predict the spectral eciency of a WCDMA cell and 7.6 using the results obtained to adapt the transmission power of the UE. The simulation model is given is 7.7. Results and conclusions follow.

59

7.4
7.4.1

Step Size Evaluation of Eb /No

In Outer Loop Power Control
Dierent QoS requirements can be used to perform calculations in the OLPC.

They can be the Bit Error Rate (BER), Block Error Rate (BLER), Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) or the Energy per bit to Noise ratio (Eb /No ). There is a unique mapping from the BER requirement of an uplink connection to the required Eb /No value at the NodeB. This mapping depends on factors such as modulation scheme, interleaving method and error-correction scheme [44]. Keeping this in mind, Eb /No is used as the parameter under consideration. OLPC adjusts the target Eb /No according to the needs of the individual radio link and aims at maintaining a constant quality of parameters. In this section we analyze by how much this Eb /No target needs to be adjusted which, due to the UE speed, changes the multi-path propagation environment. This is useful in that the required SIR depends on the individual UE speed because of which its multi-path prole are dierent for dierent UEs. Setting the target Eb /No for the worst case would lead to wastage of capacity [5]. The algorithm for the OLPC is as follows: 1. Start with an initial random value of (Eb /No )j for each user and a target value of (Eb /No )target 2. Compare Eb /No and (Eb /No )target 3. While ((Eb /No )j = (Eb /No )target ) If (Eb /No )j (Eb /No )target ; Eb /No = Eb /No + 1.0 Else If Eb /No > (Eb /No )target ; Eb /No = Eb /No 1.0 The step-size here is value of 1.0 in dB . Clearly, there are many disadvantages to this scheme. Firstly, this algorithm assumes a constant step size of 1.0 dB . UEs are widely spread across the cell, each having its own multi-path propagation characteristics

60 and dierent mobile velocities, leading dierences in time-varying characteristics of their Eb /No values. Secondly, we know that the according to WCDMA Link Budget calculations the average Eb /No requirements for voice users are from 3 to 5 dB and for data from 1 to 3 dB [5]. Having a step size of 1.0 dB (between 20 and 100 percent) will lead to convergence issues and thus to instability in the system. In the following section, the paper describes the actions it takes to combat these issues.

7.4.2

In Adaptive Uplink Power Control

This section introduces an algorithm to ne-tune the step size change in individual

Eb /No values. Papers [50], [52] show dierent variations of dynamically changing the stepsize. In this paper, the step-size is dynamically changed keeping in mind the eects of the interference caused by the other users in the cell and using a linear prediction algorithm that considers the averaging eects of the other users. We rst give the algorithm required to adaptively update the step-size for tuning the Eb /No parameter. 1. Start with an initial random value of Eb /No and a target value of Eb /No 2. Set stepT imesU Pj and stepT imesDNj to 0 for all users 3. Compare (Eb /No )j and (Eb /No )target 4. While ((Eb /No )j = (Eb /No )target ) If (Eb /No )j (Eb /No )target ; stepT imesU Pj = stepT imesU Pj + 1; (Eb /No )j = (Eb /No )j + ( stepT imesU Pj /N ) Else If Eb /No > (Eb /No )target ; stepT imesDNj = stepT imesDNj 1; (Eb /No )j = (Eb /No )j ( stepT imesDNj /N ) where stepT imesU Pj and stepT imesDNj is the count of how many times (Eb /No )j has been increased or decreased for a particular UE. is our linear prediction adaptive

61 parameter. This can be found heuristically or statistically. Here it has a value of 1.0 and is found adaptively. Analytical calculations of has been left for future work. N is the total number of users in the system. Initial simulation results showed that averaging the values over N , ne-tuned the step-size further. The probable explanation for this is the fact that mobiles in each others vicinity, may have the same multi-path propagation characteristics. The following section discusses how the (Eb /No )j for each UE calculated is used to calculate the powers need by each UE to transmit and eventually to discuss the eects of this on the spectral eciency of the WCDMA cell. This is understandably because the nal aim for power control is to minimize the power required for the UE so as to just meet the criteria for transmission. Doing this, will ensure less interference and since WCDMA is an interference limited system, this will lead to decrease in the outage probability. Here outage is dened as the condition where the interference has reached an undesired limit and the system is unstable.

7.5

Spectral Eciency of a WCDMA cell

The theoretical spectral eciency of a WCDMA cell can be calculated as shown

below. Eb /No , is dened as the ratio of the energy per user bit to the noise spectral density: (Eb /No )j = P Gj Signalof userj (T otalreceivedpower OwnP ower) (7.1)

where P Gj is the processing gain of user j . P Gj = (Eb /No )j = W Rj (7.2)

Pj W j Rj Itotal Pj

(7.3)

where W = 3.84 106 is the WCDMA chip rate, Pj is the received signal power from user j and Itotal is the total received wide-band power including thermal noise power in the base station. Pj thus becomes: Pj = 1 1+
W (Eb /No )j .Rj .j

Itotal

(7.4)

62 (Eb /No )j is calculated from section 7.4, Rj is the Bit Rate of user j , which is taken as 32kbps for voice users and 64kbps for data users. j is the activity factor of user j which is taken as 0.67 for voice users and 1.0 for data users. We know that Pj = Lj Itotal , where: Lj = 1 1+
W (Eb /No )j .Rj .j

(7.5)

The total received interference, excluding the thermal noise PN , can be written as the sum of the received powers from all N users in the same cell
N N

Itotal PN =
j =1

Pj =
j =1

Lj .Itotal

(7.6)

The load factor, U L , is dened as the total load the number of users in the system is oering the system and is given by:
N

U L =
j =1

Lj

(7.7)

where, N is the total number of users in a cell. We must also take into consideration the interference from the other cells which is the ratio os the other cell to own cell interference, i = 0.55 (assuming macro cell with omnidirectional antennas). U L now becomes:
N N

U L = (i + 1)
j =1

Lj = (i + 1)
j =1

1 1+
W (Eb /No )j .Rj .j

(7.8)

Eqn. 7.9 is called the load equation and can be used as a semi-analytical prediction of the average capacity of a WCDMA cell. We know that, Itotal PN = U L Itotal , Itotal now becomes: Itotal = PN 1 U L (7.9)

where PN is the thermal noise power which is 174 dBm. From equation 7.4, we can calculate the individual powers needed by the UE to transmit.

63

7.6

Adaptive Calculation of Pj
Once we know the Eb /No and Lj , we can calculate the new power as the product

of the interference and Lj . Pj = Lj Itotal (7.10)

Under ideal circumstances of an innite capacity, this would be the power that a UE will need to transmit in the uplink and will be granted the capacity it needs without causing signicant interference in the system or compromising the QoS of the other UEs in the vicinity. But, this is not the case mostly. This power may exceed the limitations set by the WCDMA link budget and the UE may be refused admission. For this reason, this paper introduces a predicted value of the power to adapt in its next cycle. Let Pj be the power required for the UE to transmit. The maximum power that the UE can transmit is taken as Pmax = 0.5 W atts. If Pj exceeds the maximum power a UE is able to transmit, the following adjustments are made:

Pj = Pj + 106

(7.11)

When the requested power makes the total power exceed the limit, we still grant the UE 1 micro Watts [51]. We now need to adjust the target Eb /No since the requested transmission power was not granted.
(Eb /No )j 10.0

(Eb /No )j = 10.0 log10 (10.0

) Pj

(7.12)

We also need to make sure that the we dont lower the target (Eb /No )j more than 1.0. If (Eb /No )j is less than 1.0, then make (Eb /No )j = 1.0. Alternatively, (Eb /No )j could have been recalculated by feeding the values into 7.4.2 and recalculating the Pj . The stability of the model with the recursive procedure was suspected and this is out of the scope of this paper.

64

7.7

Simulation Model
In our simulation model we have one WCDMA cell with a total of N = 300 mobile

users. The rst 100 are voice users with a bit rate of 32 kbps and a voice activity factor of 0.67. The remaining 200 users are video and FTP users, collectively called data users. They have a bit rate of 64 kbps and a voice activity factor of 1.0. The target Eb /No values for voice and data are respectively 5.0 and 3.0 dB. This is according to specications in [51] and the WCDMA Link Budget [5].The initial values of Eb /No are taken from a random distribution between 1 and 8 dB. the reasoning being that having a wide range values show the eect of convergence better. The following assumptions are further made and dedicated to future work: Handover Control is not taken into consideration and Power Control is only considered in the Uplink. All simulations are carried out in MATLAB v6.5.1.

7.8

Summary
In most of the world third generation UMTS with WCDMA as its radio access

interface is already a reality. Using WCDMA as the air interface as its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages being extended coverage and higher capacity and ability to support previous generation systems. The disadvantages being the expensive radio spectrum in itself. To make ecient use of the radio spectrum, many radio resource management schemes need to be implemented. This chapter introduced the concept of ne-tuning certain Power Control parameters and then adaptively choosing the transmit power of the UE to increase the spectral eciency of the WCDMA system, which is an expensive air interface. The advantage of such a scheme is the simplicity of ne-tuning and Monte Carlo simulations. Adapting other parameters other than the one chosen is an interesting topic if research. Further, exploration of forming a closed-loop feedback system between ne-tuning the QoS parameter under consideration and adapting the UE power to observe the eects of convergence and stability is an interesting exploratory avenue.

65

Chapter 8

Results and Discussions

This chapter presents the results collected in this research study. The results are broadly classied into three categories: Call Admission Control Power Control Hash Based Paging Section 8.1 presents results from the Call Admission Control part of this research. These include comparison of the Call Blocking and Dropping of the three CAC schemes studied extensively: Wideband Power Based, Throughput Based, Adaptive Call Admission Control. These results are compared with the multi-rate, prioritized analytical model and then with the tier-based analytical model. Results from mobility control are then compared. At each stage of the results in this section, it will be observed that analyzing the call admission control with respect to various aspects is a progressive improvement in performance. Section 8.2 presents results from the second part of this research study, i.e. Power Control. The results presented will show how ne-tuning the WCDMA link budget attributes; improves performance by observing various parameters. Eventually we will see how the combination of call admission control and power control will improve performance of the Call Blocking and Call Dropping Probabilities.

66

8.1

Call Admission Control

The network paramters are U L = 0.75, the maximum base station power = 37dB .

The rest of the parameters are the same as the WCDMA Link Budget presented in Chapter 4. The ACAC parameters are: = 0.3, = 0.9 and = 100seconds. These were set adaptively by many trial and error simulation runs. In order to study the three schemes it was imperative to have an heterogenous UMTS system. Hence the following user parameters were set. Voice users run an application called Voice Over IP GSM quality. The silence length and the talk spurt length are exponentially distributed with means 0.65 and 0.354 seconds respectively. The ToS was set to Interactive Voice which has the highest priority. The voice users start simultaneously and uniformly between 100 and 110 seconds after simulation start time. Each user runs for a duration that is uniformly distributed between 3 and 5 minutes and their inter-repetition time is serial and is exponentially distributed with a mean of 300 seconds until end of simulation. Video users use application of type Video Conferencing (Light), at a rate of 64 kbps with the frame size in bytes being Pareto distributed with shape parameter 42.5 and location parameter 3. The ToS is Streaming Multimedia with priority as medium. The start time oset here is also uniformly distributed between 100 and 110 seconds and the duration of each video call is uniformly distributed between 15 and 30 minutes with an inter-repetition time of 300 seconds until end of simulation. FTP users use application of type File Tranfer (Light), at a rate of 64 kbps with the frame size in bytes being Pareto distributed with shape parameter 60 and location parameter 1.2. The ToS is Best Eort with priority as low. The start time oset here is also uniformly distributed between 100 and 110 seconds and the duration of each FTP call is till the end of simulation time. The pareto distributions are used to provide self-similarity in data calls.

67

8.1.1

Single Run Scenario

The single run was conducted to study and compare how the Wideband Power

Based, Throughput Based and Adaptive Call Admission Control schemes perform under similar network conditions. This study forms the basis of future results. Fig.8.1 compares the Data, Voice and Total Blocking Probabilities (pbdata , pbvoice and pbtotal ) across the three schemes: the Wideband Power Based, Throughput Based and Adaptive Call Admission Control. pbvoice indicates the blocking probability of the voice calls only. pbdata is the blocking probability of video and FTP calls combined. pbtotal indicates the blocking for both voice and data calls combined. The x-axis shows the simulation run time which is 10, 000 seconds and the y-axis shows the percentage of blocking probabilities. The time between 100 and 1500 seconds is designated as the warm-up period since all users start uniformly between 100 and 110 seconds which increases the bandwidth demand on the system and hence the blocking probabilities. After the system has reached steady state, we observe that the Throughput Based scheme works better than the Wideband Power Based scheme in reducing pbdata and the Wideband Power Based works better than Throughput Based in minimizing the pbvoice . The ACAC scheme proposed here minimizes the preferential treatment and both the pbdata and pbvoice and hence the overall pbtotal . Wideband Power Based and Throughput Based give preferential treatment depending on the Type of Service. We observe that the ACAC minimizes this preference and hence, we deduce from these results that in a heterogenous UMTS system the ACAC works best. In order to validate the results in this section, condence intervals (C.I.) for Total Blocking Probability (pbtotal ) and Total Dropping Probability (pbdropping )were collected which are presented in the following section.

8.1.2

Condence Intervals
A single run scenario though eective in pointing out the premise of a problem

is not very ecient in validation. In order to conrm the basis of the premise, condence intervals need to be calculated for a measure of treatment eect that shows a range within

68

Figure 8.1: Comparison of Data, Voice and Total Blocking Probabilities of 3 schemes

69 Table 8.1: Confidence Interval for Total Blocking Probability

Scheme Wideband Power Throughput ACAC Total Blocking Probability 37.5 7.5 51.2 12.5 3.1 0.05

Table 8.2: Confidence Interval for Total Dropping Probability

Scheme Wideband Power Throughput ACAC Total Dropping Probability 13.1 2.3 15.65 3.25 5.2 0.08

which the true treatment eect is likely to lie. This section presents the condence intervals of the comparison of the two schemes. Figures 8.2 and 8.3 show the C.I. for pbtotal and pbdropping for the Throughput Based, Wideband Power Based and ACAC schemes respectively. These C.I. are obtained from 80 runs of 10, 000 seconds each. The y-axes show the percentage of blocking and dropping plotted against uplink loading factor (U L ) values 0.7, 0.75 and 0.8 in the x-axes. We observe that the ACAC has the lowest values. In addition to this we also observe that the C.I. for the pbtotal and pbdropping values of the ACAC are statistically dierent from the Wideband Power Based and the Throughput Based. i.e., neither do the intervals overlap with either the Wideband Power Based values or the Throughput Based values nor do they include 0. This statistical dierence in the analysis is important to any determination of condence intervals. The results in gures 8.2 and 8.3 are documented in tables 8.1 and 8.2 for easier reading. In this section, we conclude that ACAC works best in a heterogeneous environment by minimizing the preferential treatment that is shown by both the Wideband Power Based and the Throughput Based schemes.

70

Figure 8.2: Comparison of Data, Voice and Total Blocking Probabilities of 3 schemes

Figure 8.3: Comparison of Data, Voice and Total Dropping Probabilities of 3 schemes

71

Figure 8.4: Comparison of Analytical and Simulation Results

8.1.3

Comparison of analytical and simulation results

In this section we compare the simulation results of the ACAC scheme with our

multi-rate, prioritized model. Hando, voice and data are the three classes of service with hando having the highest priority and data the lowest. The WCDMA bandwidth of 3.84 Mcps is broken down to 640 channels of bandwidth 6kbps each. Each voice and data users require 5 and 10 channels respectively. A uniform distribution is used to dierentiate between voice hando calls and data hando calls. This can be used in future work when the hando calls are further divided into two classes: the voice handos and the data handos. The user parameters while remaining the same as the previous two sections, the rate at which the calls are generated changes by giving xed values to each class. Data and hando provide constant trac to the system at 300 and 20 Erlangs respectively and voice trac is varied from 260 to 180 Erlangs as shown in g. 8.4. The x-axis shows the variation in voice Erlangs and the y-axis shows

72 the percentage of blocking and dropping. This gure compares the blocking probabilities of data and voice and hando calls with their C.I. means obtained from simulation. C.I. are obtained for the ACAC scheme from 80 runs of 10, 000 seconds each. The C.I. do not overlap with each other or include zero, thus giving us statistical dierence. The simulation and analytical results follow the same trend. Data blocking has the largest value because the data class has the lowest priority. We observe that for the hando class, both the analytical values and the C.I. mean are zero. This is because hando class has the highest priority that is treated as a M/M/n/n system and its Blocking Probability is determined using the Erlang loss formula. For higher voice Erlangs, the analytical values of both data and voice blocking probability, lie well within their respective C.I., and the dierence in their values are smaller and more accurate. This happens because the conservation law approximation works better at high trac intensities. The simulation is modeled with a number of attributes and the soft capacity of the WCDMA. Hence the results have a lower value than the analytical model which does not include soft capacity modeling.

8.1.4

Comparison of Simulation and Analytical Results with Tier Analysis

Figures 8.5 and 8.6 compare the condence interval means, the analytical results

from section 6.3.1 and the analytical results from section 6.3.2 of Data Blocking and Voice Blocking respectively. Section 6.3.1 deals with the multi-rate system with conservation law without tier analysis where as section 6.3.2 deals with tier analysis. We observe from the gure that the results from section 6.3.2 are closer and more accurate with the condence interval means from the simulation as compared with section 6.3.1. This is due to the fact that the hando rate is not a constant but it is calculated adaptively depending on the number of voice and data calls in the neighboring cells. Also observed, but not shown here, the Hando or Dropping Probabilities of the C.I. mean and the analytical results are zero since they have the highest priority in the M/M/n/n system.

73

Figure 8.5: Comparison of Data Blocking with and without Tier Analysis

Figure 8.6: Comparison of Voice Blocking with and without Tier Analysis

74

Figure 8.7: OLPC and AUPC with respect to Average (Eb /No )j

8.2

Power Control
The important results that are collected and observed are (Eb /No )j , Lj , U L , Pj

and N oiseRise. The implications of these results as we shall see, lead to a semi-analytical predication model for the following factors in a WCDMA system: Interference, Noise Margin, Pole Capacity, Spectral Eciency and Load Factors.

8.2.1

Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Average (Eb /No )j

This section compares the average values of (Eb /No )j , which is the average of

(Eb /No )j values of users in the system; (

N j =1 (Eb /No )j )/N .

Figure 8.7 tells us that the

AUPC scheme is not only more stable but converges more gradually to a lower value. The x-axis is the number of Monte Carlo simulations and the y-axis shows the average values of (Eb /No )j .

75

Figure 8.8: OLPC and AUPC with respect to Total U L

8.2.2

Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Total U L

This section compares the average values of the total U L that exists in the system;

N j =1 Lj

of the OLPC and AUPC. As in the case of average (Eb /No )j , the total U L is more

stable and converges to a lower minimum value. The implications of these results is that the AUPC keeps the noise to a more minimum value than the OLPC. By keeping this to a minimum, it reduces the total U L oered to the system. This is the indication of the pole capacity in the system. The pole capacity is directly related to the Noise Rise as shown in the following section.

8.2.3

Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Noise Rise

Since N oiseRise =
1 1 U L ,

as U L 1, N oiseRise . Thus minimizing U L

prevents the pole capacity from reaching . Noise Rise is a good indication of when the system reaches pole capacity; i.e., the interference has reached its maximum and if the

76

Figure 8.9: OLPC and AUPC with respect to Noise Rise

system is in outage. From gure 8.9, we observe that the AUPC works better keeping the Noise Rise to a minimum value than the OLPC. The y-axis shows the Noise Rise in the system in dB and the x-axis shows the number of Monte Carlo iterations.

8.2.4

Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to (Eb /No )j

Figures 8.10 compares the individual values of (Eb /No )j each mobile. The x-axis

shows the number of mobile. Mobile numbers 1 100 are voice users and 101 200 are video users and 201 300 are FTP users. We see that the AUPC values are lower for (Eb /No )j . Most importantly, we notice that the for the rst 100 voice users, the values converge around 5.0 dB and for the data users they are 3.0 dB which are the target values desired in our simulation.

77

Figure 8.10: OLPC and AUPC with respect to (Eb /No )j

8.2.5

Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Lj

In gure 8.11, we observe that the individual load the AUPC oers the system is

lower that the OLPC, indicating that this will maintain the noise rise in the system to a better minimum than OLPC. the y-axis shows the values of Lj = x-axis shows the number of Monte Carlo iterations.
1 1+ (E
W b /No )j .Rj .j

and the

8.2.6

Comparison of OLPC and AUPC with respect to Transmit Power Pj

Here we compare the individual powers granted to the UEs for transmission. The

x-axis shows the individual values after 100 Monte Carlo simulations of the UEs and the y-axis shows the power in Watts. We again observe that the AUPC converges to a lower minimum that the OLPC. The relevance of this is that by keeping the individual values of Pj to a minimum, the interference is limited as a result of which the spectral capacity of the WCDMA system increases.

78

Figure 8.11: OLPC and AUPC with respect to Lj

Figure 8.12: OLPC and AUPC with respect to Pj

79

Figure 8.13: Comparison of Voice and Data Blocking Probabilities with and without Power Control

8.2.7

Comparison of Voice and Data Blocking Probabilities with and without Power Control
Figure 8.13 compares the voice and data blocking probabilities with and without

power control. Results from the Call Admission Control are compared to the results with Call Admission Control and Power Control. The y-axis shows the percentage of voice and data blocking and the x-axis shows the variation of voice erlangs. We observe that an ecient radio resource management scheme that has a combination of resource control in the upper layers and power control in the lower layers work best in minimizing the call blocking and dropping probabilities.

80

Chapter 9

Location Updates of Cellular Networks Using Bloom Filters

Location Updates (LU) are e911 procedures mandated by the FCC for cellular networks today; helping locate mobiles within 100 meters of their vicinity. This requires paging all mobiles within a vicinity regularly thereby leading to an increased use of bandwidth. This chapter analyzes the existing schemes of hash based paging in LU procedures using Bloom Filters (BF) and introduces two new schemes to improve performance: Optimization of Bloom Filters (OBF) and Cumulative Bloom Filters (CBF). An identier eld in the paging message is coded by applying hashing functions to create a BF and this is used to page a number of mobiles concurrently. False LU are the mobiles that may not belong to a particular paging area but still respond with LU updates. We observe that these false probabilities are very small and can be traded-o with the bandwidth gain. The results obtained compare the analytical and simulation results and their observation leads us to the goal of this research: to obtain a multi-fold increase in bandwidth gain at the cost of keeping the false positives to a realistic minimum.

9.1

Introduction
In this section we introduce the concept of Bloom Filters, their simplicity in im-

plementation, the associated tradeos, its variations, their varied range of applications and the basis for the union between cellular networks and BF.

81

9.1.1

Bloom Filters
In 1970 Burton Bloom in [53] considered the problem of testing a series of messages

one-by-one for membership in a given set of messages. The idea is to allocate a vector v of m bits, initially all set to 0, and then choose k independent hash functions, h1 ,h2 ,....,hk , each with range 1,.....,m . For each element a A , the bits at positions h1 (a), h2 (a), ..., hk (a) in v are set to 1. Given a query for b, we check the bits at positions h1 (b), h2 (b), ..., hk (b). If any of them is 0, then certainly b is not in the set A. Otherwise we conjecture that b is in the set although there is a certain probability that we are wrong. This is called a false positive or a false drop. The parameters k and m should be chosen such that the probability of a false positive is acceptable. False positives are possible, but false negatives are not. Elements can be added to the set, but not removed unless the issue is addressed by a counting lter [54]. The more elements that are added to the set, the larger the probability of false positives. Assuming that the hash functions are perfectly random, the probability of a false positive for an element not in the set, or the false positive rate, can be calculated in a straightforward fashion. The probability that one bit is set is given by Pset = 1/m and that of it being unset is given by Punset = 1 1/m. For k transformations, Pk.unset = (1 1/m)k and for n records Pnk.unset = (1 1/m)nk . After all n elements of A are hashed into the Bloom lter, the probability that a specic bit is still 0 is given by: (1 1 kn ) ekn/m m (9.1)

If p = ekn/m , the probability of a false positive becomes: (1 (1 1 kn k ) ) (1 ekn/m )k = (1 p)k m (9.2)

Let f = (1 ekn/m )k = (1 p)k . p and f are asymptotic approximations to represent the probability a bit in the BF is 0 and the probability of a false positive respectively[55].

9.1.2

Variations of Bloom Filters

The main variations of BF are Counting BF, Compressed BF, Breadth BF and

Depth BF. These exist in literature today and their pros and cons are listed. This helps us

82 in understanding the reason why none of these variations can be used in LU and identies the need for the CBF which is introduced in this research. Counting BF : Suppose that we have a set that is changing over time, with elements being inserted and deleted. Inserting elements into a BF is easy; hash the element k times and set the bits to 1. Unfortunately, one cannot perform a deletion by reversing the process. If we hash the element to be deleted and set the corresponding bits to 0, we may be setting a location to 0 that is hashed to by some other element in the set. In this case, the BF no longer correctly reects all elements in the set. To avoid this problem, introduces the idea of a counting BF. In a counting BF, each entry in the BF is not a single bit but instead a small counter. When an item is inserted, the corresponding counters are incremented; when an item is deleted, the corresponding counters are decremented. To avoid counter over ow, we choose suciently large counters. The disadvantage of counting BF is the additional storage required to store these counters [54]. Compressed BF : If we choose the optimal value for k to minimize the false probability as calculated above, then p = 1/2 . Under our assumption of good random hash functions, the bit array is essentially a random string of m 0s and 1s, with each entry being 0 or 1 with probability 1/2. It would therefore seem that compression cannot gain when sending BF. Mitzenmacher in [55] demonstrates the aw in this reasoning. The problem is that we have optimized the false positive rate of the BF under the constraint that there are m bits in and n elements represented by the BF. Suppose instead that we optimize the false positive rate of the BF under the constraint that the number of bits to be sent after compression is z , but the size m of the array in its uncompressed form can be larger. It turns out that by using a larger, but sparser, BF can yield improved false positive rates with a smaller number of transmitted bits [55]. Breadth BF : If there is a tree T with j levels then the level of the root is level 1. The Breadth Bloom Filter (BBF) for a tree T with j levels is a set of Bloom lters BBF 0, BBF 1, BBF 2,..., BBF i, where i j . There is one Bloom lter, denoted BBF i, for each level i of the tree. In each BBFi, we insert the labels (attributes) of all nodes at level i. Note that the BBF is are not necessarily of the same size. In particular, since the number of nodes and thus keys that are inserted in each BBF i (i > 0) increases at each

83 level of the tree, we analogously increase the size of each BBF i. Let |BBF i| denote the size of BBF i. BBF 0, the nal resulting lter is the logical OR of all BBF is. The look-up procedure that checks whether a BBF matches with a path query distinguishes between two kinds of path queries: path queries starting from the root level and partial path expressions. In both cases, rst the algorithm checks whether all attributes in the path expression appear in BBF 0. Only if we have a match for all the attributes will the algorithm proceed to examine the structure of the path. Using BBF s in LU procedures will lead to high amount of false positives and will also increase the computational overhead [56]. Depth BF : Depth BF are similar to BBF and are mentioned in [56]. The look-up procedure, that checks whether a DBF matches with a path query, rst checks whether all attributes in the path expression appear in DBF 0. If this is the case, then the algorithm continues treating both root-paths and partial paths the same. For a query of length p, every sub-path of the query from length 2 to p is checked in the corresponding level according to its length. If any of the sub-paths does not exist then the algorithm returns a miss.

9.1.3

Applications of Bloom Filters

The classical example of a BF is its use in dictionaries. For example, one might

use a Bloom lter to do spell-checking in a space-ecient way. A Bloom lter to which a dictionary of correct words have been added will accept all words in the dictionary and reject almost all words which are not, which is good enough in some cases. Depending on the false positive rate, the resulting data structure can require as little as a byte per dictionary word. One peculiar attribute of this spell-checker is that it is not possible to extract the list of correct words from it at best, one can extract a list containing the correct words plus a signicant number of false positives. In this research, the focus in on applications in wireless networks and the following references tells us the state of the art that exists in this area. It is widely used in many applications which take advantage of its ability to compactly represent a set and lter out eectively any element that does not belong to the set, with small error probability [57]. In [57], the authors introduce the Spectral BF (SBF), an

84 extension of the original BF to multi-sets, allowing the ltering of elements whose multiplicities are below a threshold given at query time. In [58] the use of BF in peer-to-peer networks, resource routing, packet routing and measurement infrastructures is discussed. The authors in [59] use BF to manage address cache management in wireless ad-hoc networks. [60] talks about collaborating web caches using BF as compact representations for the local set of cached les. [61], [62] and [63] discuss how bloom lters are used in query ltering and routing.

9.2

Location Updates and Bloom Filters

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated that carriers using

handset-based wireless location systems must provide the location of 911 calls to appropriate public safety answer points (PSAPs) and be accurate to within 50 meters 67 percent of the time and to within 150 meters 95 percent of the time. The network will page all the mobiles within its boundary with a paging message occasionally with a Location Request (LR) message and the mobiles will reply with a LU message. Mobiles must update the network with their current location in order to have access. In addition to this some mobiles not in the paging area will receive the message and reply with a location update message leading to wastage of bandwidth. To cope with this, ideas are emerging that indicate the use BF at the mobile side wherein the mobile on receipt of the paging message will detect if it is being paged by using hash functions and checking the corresponding bit positions. Figure 9.1 demonstrates location update procedures. The Base Station sends a location request message to mobiles A and B . Mobile A resides within the paging vicinity of the cell and mobile B is being served by another paging area. On receipt of the LR message, the mobiles check the BF stored with the corresponding hash functions. If its identier bit is set to 1, it replies back with a LU message, else it does not acknowledge the LR message. There is a lot of bandwidth needed to page areas that are huge or have a large population of mobile users. Many mobile users reside on the edges of adjoining paging areas. Applying BF to this technology leads to bandwidth gain which is a very important and expensive resource in cellular networks.

85

Figure 9.1: Location Request and Location Update

Very little work has been done in the area of using BF in LU or for other cellular applications. This is an emerging idea and the coming years should see more use of BF in cellular networks as BF applications are already inundating their contemporary network, namely wireless ad-hoc networks. This section discusses in detail the one paper that exists in this area and its pros and cons. The rest of the papers that do not add much value are referenced. In [64], the authors discuss how hash paged paging is used in location updates. They have hash functions as described in 9.1.1 and set A = id1 , id2,....., idn which are the mobile IDs in a paging area. A false positive in this case leads to a false location update, but the authors claim that the space-eciency of BF is achieved at a small cost of a small false positive probability. The strengths of this research is that they further take the analysis shown above to relate it to the gain that is achieved in term of bandwidth utilization which is important because the air-interface is a very expensive resource. In addition to this, they analyze it in terms of queuing delays in the network. However, the drawbacks of this paper is that is assumes the Mobile ids and IPv6 addresses of 128-bits which is promising for tomorrows networks but many of todays networks have smaller identier sizes like 32-bit or 64-bit ids.

86 Further, the population density of the area in terms of mobiles per paging area used are very small and they do not in any means represent the real-world scenario, where we may have hundreds to thousands of mobile users per paging area. [65] talks about probabilistic location from a peer-to-peer standpoint. [66] talks about a hybrid BF for LU but from a more contention access point. The idea in [64] is the foundation of this research. Based on this, this research extends the idea into analytical and simulation modeling. The analytical modeling is comprised of Optimization of available BF parameters (OBF) and introduces the concept of Cumulative Bloom Filters (CBF).

9.3

Analytical Modeling
In this section, we look at mathematically modeling a cellular network from a BF

point of view. The analytical computations consists of two parts: 1) Optimizing the number of hash functions and 2) Using Cumulative Bloom Filters.

9.3.1

Optimization of Hash Functions (OBF)

From the above equations we observe that there are three important performance

metrics for Bloom lters that can be traded o: 1. computation time; based on the number of hash functions k 2. memory; based the size of the array m 3. probability of false positive f Between these three parameters, optimization is useful and often exploited to suit purposes depending on the application. Suppose we are given m and n and we wish to optimize the number of hash functions k to minimize the false positive rate f. There are two competing forces: using more hash functions gives us more chances to nd a 0 bit for an element that is not a member of A, but using fewer hash functions increases the fraction of 0 bits in the array. The optimal number of hash functions that minimizes f as

87

Figure 9.2: Optimization of Bloom Filter

a function of k is easily found by taking the derivative. From equation 9.2 we know that f = exp(k.ln(1 ekn/m )). If g = k.ln(1 ekn/m ), minimizing the false positive rate f can be found by taking the derivative of g with respect to k . dg kn ekn/m = ln(1 ekn/m ) + dk m 1 ekn/m

(9.3)

It is easy to check that the derivative is 0 when k = (ln2)(m/n); further eorts reveal that this is a global minimum. k can now be minimized to: kopt = (ln2) m n (9.4)

In this case the false positive rate can be minimized to is F = (0.6185)m/n . k must be an integer, and smaller k might be preferred since they reduce the amount of computation overhead. Hence we have a tradeo between the computation speed and the false positives. In this research, computation speed is given importance and hence k is optimized. Figure 9.2 shows how Bloom lters are optimized to get a m bit BF for n elements from k hash functions. In this section of optimization, we have made two main assumptions: 1) All mobiles are in the same cell and 2) All mobiles have the same service. But in the real world this is not

88 the case. We can exploit Bloom Filters for specic paging requirements. For example if all the mobiles are divided into 7 paging areas or cells and further divided by service,i.e., voice, video, FTP, HTTP. The following section tells us how BF are exploited in this research to, for example, page all voice users in cell number 3.

9.3.2

Cumulative Bloom Filters

Cumulative Bloom Filter (CBF) borrows its ideas from multi-level BF introduced

in [56]. Multi-level BFs are used as Breadth Bloom Filters (BBF) or Depth Bloom Filters (DBF). In BBF, there are dierent levels of lters which may or maybe not be of the same length and the nal resulting lter is got by bitwise ORing all the bits of the lters. While these lters are useful in many applications, as we shall see, the cumulative Bloom Filter is a better approach for location updates in cellular networks. In gure 9.3 there are 3 lters used. The rst lter CBF 1 is used for the cell. The minimum number of bits required for this lter is the number of cells being simulated. The second lter CBF 2 is used for the classes of mobile service. The third lter is used as a regular BF for the mobile IDs which are 32 bit integers. The word minimum is used here, because depending on the number of mobiles in the paging area, all bits may be set to one rendering the CBF for a worst case performance as in the previous section. For best performances, each of these CBF x should be further optimized. From the results, a pattern is observed and curve-tting procedures are used to come up with a simple computational formula to optimize these CBF xs. Intuitively, we can see that as the number of CBF lters used increases, the false positives decreases. As we will see from the results, this follows the pattern of an exponential decay. The decaying is done at a rate proportional to the number of CBF lters and the number of hash functions used in these lters. A quantity is said to be subject to exponential decay if it decreases at a rate proportional to its value. Symbolically, this can be expressed as the following dierential equation, where N is the quantity and is a positive number called the decay constant: dN = N dt

(9.5)

89 The solution to this equation is: N = Cet (9.6)

This is the form of equation that is most commonly used to describe exponential decay. The constant of integration C is often written N0 since it denotes the original quantity. From equation 9.6, we get: dN = dt N Integrating 9.7, we get: lnN = t + D lnN = Cet where C = eD If we have c number of CBF s in our design (CBF1 , CBF2 ,....,CBFc ) each having kc hash functions and nCBFc bits, and if we have n number of mobiles in the paging area, the rate of decay of the percentage of false positives can be given by: (9.8) (9.9) (9.7)

f ne( where, nCBFc1

c 1 i=1 ki

c i=1

ki +

c1 i=1

nCBFi ) c 1 i=1 nCBFi

(9.10) = nCBF1 + nCBF2 + ... +

= k1 + k2 + ... + kc1 and

The last CBF is CBFc with kc hash functions and nCBFc bits, which is the lter we have used in the optimization part of this research. The results of the CBF lter will be as worst as the optimized BF. It is for this reason that in equation 9.10, the last CBF lter which is based on the mobile identication bits is left out. This exponential decay represents an estimation and/or prediction as to how varying the number of CBF and its corresponding bits will have an eect on the false positives. This is an analytical computation to be used for estimation/prediction purposes only while designing CBFs for applications. For future work, a good exploratory avenue would be one where Monte Carlo simulations are used. The percentage of false positives can be xed and at the end of each Monte Carlo iteration, the number of bits required for each CBF can be found until the desired false positive is reached.

90

Figure 9.3: Cumulative Bloom Filter

9.3.3

Performance Metrics
As we have seen so far, the major performance metrics in the use of BF is the

tradeo between memory size, false positives and computation overhead. Since we have kept the computational overhead to a simplistic minimum by optimizing the number of hash functions, the focus will be on the array size m of the BF, the percentage of false positives F , and the bandwidth gain G . Using the standard paging procedure, the paging cost in each cell of a paging area is one paging message per incoming call. In hash-based paging, the paging cost in each cell is one paging message and several false location update messages per n incoming calls. If d is the terminal density, i.e., the number of terminals per cell, then the paging cost in each cell is 1 + d.F per n incoming calls. The bandwidth gain is then given by: G= n 1 + d.F (9.11)

The density d depends on the cell size or paging area. d varies from small to large depending on choice of pico, micro or macro cells which are dierentiated by the size in paging area.

9.4

Simulation Modeling
In the case of optimization of BF, our simulation model consists of a single paging

area or a single cell, serving 10, 000 mobile users. Here, there is no distinction whatsoever

91 between the mobiles or their paging areas. To observe the changes in performance of gain, G, the density d = 200 in all our simulations. In the case of CBF, our simulation model consists of a center cell and 6 surrounding hexagonal cells,i.e, a total of 7 cells. The service distribution of the mobiles are categorized into 4 categories. This follows the Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS) which is a popular third generation (3G) system has 4 service categories: Streaming (ex. Video), Conversational (ex. voice), Background (ex. FTP) and Interactive (ex. HTTP). Thus the CBF lters will have a minimum of 7 + 4 + 32 bits and should be optimized further for best results.

9.5

Results and Discussions

In this section, the results based on the performance metrics identied in this

research are presented. The performance metrics of the BF size m, the percentage of false positives f and the gain G are compared with the three schemes: Location updates in Cellular networks using BF without optimization, with optimization and with optimization and Cumulative Bloom Filters.

9.5.1

Without Optimization
Figure 9.4 shows the variation of the percentage of false positives with the size

of the BF m on the x-axis. Here n = 10, 000 and m is varied as x n. The rst subplot shows the entire range of values and the second subplot shows the values at a lower range to observe the results of the number of hash functions more clearly. As mentioned in theory above, we know that increasing the number of hash functions should lead to a decrease of the percentage of false positives. But we see that this is not the case here. The values at k = 4, show a smaller value of f as compared to the values at k = 6. Clearly, even though the values do not dier by much, this is a disadvantage. Having more hash functions will lead to a computational overhead. These results show a need for optimization of the design when using BF. Figure 9.5, shows the variation of gain, G, with the size of BF, m. As in the case

92

Figure 9.4: False Positives without Optimization

with false positives, we observe a better performance for k = 4 than k = 6 and hence this further identies the need for optimization. It must be mentioned here that the results for both the false positives and the gain are obtained from simulations. As in the case with every simulation, we are granting a degree of randomness in the system. To minimize this randomness and to argue about the strength of these results, condence intervals were obtained. The results shown here are 95percent condence interval means.

9.5.2

With Optimization
Having identied the need to optimize the BF depending on the number of hash

functions k and the number of mobiles n, this section presents results of hash based paging with optimization of BF. Here m, the size of the BF is optimized since we know k and n; m = k n/log (2). In gure 9.6, the y-axis shows the variation of percentage of false positives and the gain for two cases: d = 20 and d = 200. The x-axis shows the variation of hash functions k and the corresponding values of m. We observe from these results that the false

93

Figure 9.5: Gain without Optimization

positives decreases with increase in hash functions and the size of the BF. It is also observed that the gain in both cases, when the density is 20 and 200 increase with increase in k and m. It is interesting to note here that using BF for hash-based paging is more attractive as cell sizes get smaller which is the case for many big cities and downtown areas. Figure 9.7 shows three subplots, each comparing the analytical and simulation values of false positives with varying m for when k = 2, k = 4 and k = 6. We observe from these results that with increase in m, the simulations results match the analytical results. However, when m is small there are variations in f . The entire range of results are plotted here to make an overall statement. Due to this the values appear to be zero when they actually are not.

9.5.3

With Optimization and Cumulative Bloom Filters

In this section we look at further improvement in performance of hash based paging

using Bloom Filters by comparing the results with optimization to those using Cumulative

94

Figure 9.6: False Positives without Optimization

Figure 9.7: Comparison of Analytical and Simulation Results

95

Figure 9.8: False Positives with Optimization and CBF

Bloom Filters with optimization. Figure 9.8 compares the percentage of false positives with varying number of hash functions for the two schemes. We observe an increase in performance when using CBF. The percentage of false positives decreases further when we use CBF with optimization. These results are simulation results obtained from 95percent condence intervals. Figure 9.9 shows the increase in gain got by applying the concept of CBF to optimization. We see a huge improvement in performance. This is the performance metric that is of utmost importance in this research. This improvement in performance is very cost eective for cellular providers. The bandwidth gain obtained from using hash based paging can be used to increase revenue by increasing the number of subscribers.

96

Figure 9.9: Gain with Optimization and CBF

9.6

Summary
This chapter has introduced the concept of BF and their various applications,

specically those in cellular networks. The FCC mandated that carriers using handsetbased wireless location systems must provide the location of 911 calls to appropriate public safety answer points (PSAPs) and be accurate to within 50 meters 67 percent of the time and to within 150 meters 95 percent of the time. We have seen that though not much work has been done in this area, there is a good potential for the same. We applied hash paging using Bloom Filters to observe the improvement in bandwidth gain. The goal of this research, which was to see an exponential improvement in bandwidth while keeping the false positives to a realistic minimum, was obtained by applying the optimization and cumulative bloom lter schemes. To strengthen the results presented in this chapter, condence interval means of simulation results were compared with analytical results.

97

Chapter 10

Conclusions and Future Work

In most of Europe and parts of the United States, third generation mobile in terms of UMTS with WCDMA as its radio access interface is already a reality. For customers already enjoying voice and data services via 2G and 2.5G, UMTS/WCDMA delivers faster, more ecient cellular networks and with new possibilities. For many of the 1.2 billion customers of second generation networks, UMTS is Third Generation mobile. Using WCDMA as the air interface as its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages being extended coverage and higher capacity and ability to support previous generation systems. The disadvantages being the expensive radio spectrum in itself. To make ecient use of the radio spectrum, many radio resource management schemes are need to be implemented to make it worth the while to the cellular providers. The research was mainly divided into three parts: 1. Resource Allocation / Call Admission Control 2. Power Control 3. Location Updates for Cellular Networks Chapter 1 discusses the motivation behind this research study, its questions and its limitations. The background on the UMTS architecture and the WCDMA air interface required to fully understand the research study is presented in chapter 2. The existing radio resource management schemes, its limitations and the need for more ecient algorithms is presented in chapter 3. Chapter 4 denes the methodology and the design implemented in this research study. Chapters 5 and 6 dene the simulation and the analytical models used. In chapter 7, the results are presented and analyzed.

98 The simulation study was conducted in OPNET. OPNET was used in this study because of the availability of the UMTS stack, propagation models and a very good design of the air interface and mobility. Functionality changes were made in the Radio Network Controller in order to implement algorithms of choice. A seven cell UMTS system was studied. In order to limit complexity, only the rst tier was evaluated. We see in this research study, an attempt to study a multi-rate system with priority. Most cellular systems have dierent classes of calls with varying arrival rates, varying service rates and varying number of demands on the system. Each call has to be treated dierently in order to provide Quality of Service. This is what sets the dierence between cellular and ad-hoc networks. In addition to intense cellular coverage planning, ecient ways to handle priority in a system is a must. The topic of multi-rate system with priority was identied as a research problem, analyzed and solved. The observation of results show us that this problem has been analyzed eciently. In addition to analyzing the system as a multi-rate system with priority, tier analysis of the hierarchical cellular structure was analyzed. Where mobility is the most important factor to be considered, the eect of handos and in turn the eect of ongoing calls in a particular cell on its neighboring cells is an important issue that needs to be dealt with. This was dealt with in this research study and the results show that the accuracy was improved with this addition. This comprised of part one of the research. Chapter 7 introduced the concept of ne-tuning certain Power Control parameters and then adaptively choosing the transmit power of the UE to increase the spectral eciency of the WCDMA system, which is an expensive air interface. The advantage of such a scheme is the simplicity of ne-tuning and Monte Carlo simulations. Adapting other parameters other than the one chosen or adapting multiple parameters is an interesting topic of research. Results showed that the Adaptive Uplink Power Control (AUPC) worked better in keeping the power required for the UE to transmit lower than the existing schemes of Outer Loop Power Control (OLPC). We saw that the Noise Rise and the load was also kept to a lower minimum and hence we can conclude that using AUPC, we can keep outage to a lower minimum. This comprised part two of the research. Most importantly, we have seen that Call Admission Control (Part One) and Power

99 Control (Part Two) have worked in conjunction to further reduce the two most important performance metrics in this research: the call blocking and call dropping probabilities. Chapter 9 comprised part three of the research. It introduced the concept of BF and their various applications, specically those in cellular networks. The FCC has mandated that carriers using handset-based wireless location systems must provide the location of 911 calls to appropriate public safety answer points (PSAPs) and be accurate to within 50 meters 67 percent of the time and to within 150 meters 95 percent of the time. We have seen that though not much work has been done in this area, there is a good potential for the same. We applied hash paging using Bloom Filters to observe the improvement in bandwidth gain. The goal of this research, which was to see an exponential improvement in bandwidth while keeping the false positives to a realistic minimum, was obtained by applying the optimization and cumulative bloom lter schemes. This research specically introduced a new data structure called Cumulative Bloom Filters and further introduced an idea to Optimize Bloom Filters. Working together, we from the results presented in this chapter that the condence interval means of simulation results were compared with analytical results and the existing algorithms which showed an increase in bandwidth gain while keeping false positives low and to a realistic minimum.

100

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108

Appendix A

Acronyms
3G 3GPP ACAC AAL ATM AUPC BBF BER BLER BF BoD BS BER BLER CAC Third Generation Third Generation Partnership Program Adaptive Call Admission Control ATM Adaptation Layer Asynchronous Transfer Mode Adaptive Uplink Power Control Breadth Bloom Filter Bit Error Rate Block Error Rate Bloom Filters Bandwidth on Demand Base Station Bit Error Rate BLock Error Rate Call Admission Control

109 CBF CDMA CI CN CS DBF DRNC Cumulative Bloom Filters Code Division Multiple Access Condence Interval Core Network Circuit Switched Depth Bloom Filter Drift Radio Network Controller

DS-CDMA Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access Eb /No EDGE ETSI FCC FDD FER FDMA FTP GGSN GMSC GPRS GPS GSM Energy Per bit to Noise Ratio Enhanced Data-rates for GSM Evolution European Telecommunications Standards Institute Federal Communications Commission Frequency Division Duplex Frame Error Rate Frequency Division Multiple Access File Transfer Protocol Gateway GPRS Support Node Gateway Mobile Switching Center Global Personal Recovery System Global Positioning System Global System Mobile communications

110 HLR HTTP IMT ITU MAC Home Location Register Hyper Text Transfer Protocol International Mobile Telecommunication International Telecommunication Union Medium Access Control

ME/MT/MS Mobile Entity/Terminal/Station MSC LU LR Node-B NF OLPC OPNET PLMN PS PSAPs QoS RAB RLC RNC RRC Mobile Switching Center Location Update Location Request Node Base Station Noise Figure Outer Loop Power Control OPtimum NETwork Public Land Mobile Network Packet Switched Public Safety Access Points Quality of Service Radio Access Bearer Radio Link Control Radio Network Controller Radio Resource Control

111 RRM SBF Radio Resource Management Spectral Bloom Filters

SIR/SNR Signal-to-Noise Interference Ratio SGSN SRNC TB TDD TDMA ToS UE UMTS USIM UTRAN VoIP VLR Serving GPRS Support Node Serving Radio Network Controller Throughput Based Time Division Duplex Time Division Multiple Access Type of Service Universal Edge Universal Mobile Telecommunications System Universal Subscriber Identity Module Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network Voice over IP Visitor Location Register

WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access WPB Wideband Power Based