Planning in the Islamic Tradition The Case of Hijrah Expedition

Assistant Professor, Faculty of Management Sciences International Islamic University, Islamabad <binsadiq@hotmail.com> Assistant Professor, Faculty of Shrah and Law International Islamic University, Islamabad <mushtaqahmad@iiu.edu.pk>

Javed Iqbal

Muhammad Mushtaq Ahmad

A B S T R A C T
This paper describes the origin of planning as a managerial function emphasizing the contribution of Islam in this process. The term scientific management though was first floated in 1911, this paper argues that management principles existed in some form, from an Islamic point of view, since the inception of humanity as they were, in some shape, part of the knowledge of all things which Allah taught to Adam (peace be on him) and they were practiced by the Prophet Muammad (peace be on him) as well when Islam re-dawned on the soil of Arabian Peninsula. Taking Hijrah, one of the major events in the life of the Prophet Muammad (peace be on him), as an exemplar to illustrate the notion of planning and execution by the Prophet (peace be on him) as a strategy to achieve his objectives, this paper attempts to apply Weihrich and Koontzs planning model to evaluate the Prophet (peace be on him)s strategy to leave securely from Makkah and to reach Yathrib safely. The present authors contend that Hijrah expedition when studied in the light of modern Management Sciences perfectly conforms to the management model propounded in the 21st century. However, the facts remained hidden in the pages of history, which this paper attempts to unveil.
INSIGHTS 01:3 (2009) pp. 37-68

Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case of Hijrah Expedition

Introduction
The term scientific management though was first floated by Frederick Winslow Taylor (18561915) in 1911,1 the concepts and principles of management and planning initiated in some form with the inception of humanity on earth. This contention is based on the Qurnic assertion that Allah taught Adam [dam] (peace be on him) knowledge of all things before his deployment on the earth as His Vicegerent. 2 Moreover, the two persons deployed on the earth inevitably planed and managed their affairs related to their boarding, lodging, worship, security and protection from other creatures. These management concepts kept on developing with the passage of time, due to further divine guidance in the form of revelation to various later prophets 3 as well as in the form of accumulation of human experience. The Prophet Muammad (peace be on him) when established an Islamic state in 1/622 in Madnah invented and executed several modern managerial concepts such as planning, organizing, leading, controlling, span of control and others, most of which were applied at macro level (state level). In view of the present writers the affairs conducted by the Prophet (peace be on him) can be taken as a legitimate examples of the application of the scientific managerial concepts as H. Weihrich and H. Koonzt maintain that management theories and practices are applicable at all levels of organizations and in any kind of organization profitable, not-for-profit, service, manufacturing and trading.4 Since little effort has been devoted in the literature to look into the application of managerial concepts in the affairs conducted by the Prophet (peace
1. Frederick Winslow Taylors The Principles of Scientific Management was published 1911 as the first treatise on the management science. 2. See, the Qurn 2: 3035. 3. See, for example, The Qurn 12: 4376; 27: 1744. 4. See, H. Weihrich and H. Koontz, Management, Asia edn. (Singapore: McGraw Hill Education, 2005), p. 5.

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be on him) and the rightly guided caliphs and in later Islamic tradition at the micro or organizational level, this paper is an attempt to examine it. The paper contends that the Prophet (peace be on him) invented and executed several modern managerial concepts even before establishment of the Islamic state in Madnah while conducting his prophetic mission in Makkah also. Therefore, Hijrah expedition has been taken as a major event to be analyzed from the prospect of planning, a key managerial function today. The purpose of the paper is thus to dig out the roots of modern management in the pages of Islamic history. It would help managers and general readers to know the contribution of Islam in the development of administrative sciences and management practices.

Rationale of the Paper

Since Islam is a complete code of conduct and guides humans in every sphere of life it naturally provides a way of managing individual and organizational matters. Organizational matters are important because most people ought to work in some type of organization; as a sole trader, as a partner in partnership businesses, as a member in corporate bodies or governmental authority. In addition, everyone is part of a family (in Muslim societies at least) that is also a social organization. So as a member of a formal organization (business, governmental etc) or informal organization (a family), one has to perform managerial function such as planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling, and acts like a manager in some capacity. 5 A manager manages resources of an organization through making certain decisions. Most of these decisions require planning. For example, every small and large size organization needs to make annual budget that requires informed estimation (in advance) about the amount of money that will be acquired from various sources and the amount of money that will be spent on various heads in the coming year. It is a form of plan or planning.6
5. The Prophet (peace be on him) rightly said, everyone of you is responsible (manager) and everyone of you is accountable for his/her responsibility. See for full text of this adth, Muammad b. Isml al-Bukhr, a al-Bukhr, Kitb al-Jumuah, Bb al-Jumuah f l-Qur wa l-Mudun. 6. See, Weihrich and Koontz, Management, pp. 56.

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Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case of Hijrah Expedition

Muslims generally tend to ignore planning at formal or informal levels. Therefore, this article is an attempt to examine the life of the Prophet (peace be on him) in general and his Hijrah expedition in particular to demonstrate the fact that planning is the way (sunnah) of the Prophet (peace be on him) and it should be practiced as such. This paper shows that the Prophet (peace be on him) had meticulously planned his Hijrah expedition. Then with the help of Allah and his planning strategy the Hijrah became a successful venture. It may be noted that the Prophet (Peace be on him) had applied strategic planning not only at the occasion of Hijrah but also at other occasions in his life, like in Gazwahs, political pacts with other tribes and so on, utilizing available resources to carry out the individual and organizational matters through planning. Secondly, the writers on management theory and practice ignore the contribution of the Prophet (peace be on him) and the Muslims in general on the topic. For instance, C.L. Bovee, et al., examined the historical development of management thoughts since 5000 BC to date but they did not mention the name of Muammad (peace be on him) or any of the previous Prophets (peace be on them); the rightly guided caliphs (al-Khulaf al-Rshidn) or any Muslim practitioner/ scholar.7 This article is an attempt to demonstrate the contribution of Islam towards the practice of planning. Thirdly, there is lack of planning in the lives of common Muslims despite the fact that the Prophet (Peace be on him) planned at least all major matters in his life. Planning implies deciding in advance; e.g. he decided well in advance about, the battle of trench (Ghazwat al-Khandaq). The key question was where to position Muslims army to face marching allied forces of the Pagan and Jewish tribes of Arabia. The decision to build a trench around the city before the arrival of marching allied forces was adopted. Thus a unique plan was drawn to encounter allied forces of Arabia led by the Makkans.8 Thus this paper argues that the Prophet (Peace be on him) planned
7. See, C.L. Bovee, John V. Thill, M.B. Wood and G.P. Dovel, Management (New York: McGraw Hill Inc., 1993), pp. 4263. 8. Martin Lings, Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources (London: George Allen & Unwin and Islamic Text Society, 1983), pp. 215219.

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his matters, so following his life example (sunnah) Muslims also need to plan their projects and ventures.

Literature Review
Planning as an exclusive subject has rarely been discussed in literature with reference to Islam. Some hints in this respect may be found in some scholarly works, which can be categorised in three categories. One group examined some elements of planning while writing the biography of the Prophet (peace be on him) without focusing on planning as a subject of study. Such writers, Muslims and non-Muslims, are considerable in number; Martin Lings work has caught attention of many scholars in this regard, he described the life of the Prophet based on the earliest sources.9 Muammad usayn Haykals The Life of Muammad, 10 Srat al-Nab by Allmah Shibl Numn 11 and The Life of Muhammad by Abdul Hameed Siddiqui [Abd al-amd iddq]12 are considered some of the classic works on the subject. The second group in their writings focused on one of the various aspects of or key characteristics of the prophet (peace be on him) such as the work of Afzalur Rahman [Afal al-Ramn], Muhammad as a Military Leader,13 wherein he focused on leadership of the Prophet (peace be on him) as a commander-in-chief and outlined various aspects of his military leadership including military and war strategy14 in the light of associated success stories. The third group focused on study of the life of the Prophet (peace be on him) in the light of implications of fundamental Islamic teaching and produced works such as The Concept of Administrative Accountability in Islam15 and
9. See, note 8 above for the bibliographical information of this work. 10. Muammad usein Haykal, The Life of Muammad, tr. from Arabic, Ismal Rg A. Al Frq (London: Shorouk International, 1983). 11. Allama Shibli Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi [The Life of the Prophet (Peace be upon him)], tr. from Urdu, M. Tayyib Bakhsh Budayni (Lahore: Kazi Publications, 1979). 12. Abdul Hameed Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1969). 13. Afzalur Rahman, Muhammad as a Military Leader (London: The Muslim School Trust, 1980). 14 See, ibid., especially pp. 35-56. 15. Riaz Mahmood, The Concept of Administrative Accountability in Islam (Lahore: Maqbool Academy, 2001).

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Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case of Hijrah Expedition

Islam and Good Governance 16 shedding some light on some of the managerial issues. However, planning, as a distinct subject, has rarely been dealt with. This paper attempts to examine planning as a function of a manager in Islamic perspective. The purpose is to identify the roots of planning in the Islamic teachings and in the life of the Prophet (peace be on him) with special reference to the event of Hijrah, the migration of the Prophet (peace be on him) from Makkah to Yathrib, showing that though the term Scientific Management became widely in use in 1911 the Concepts of Scientific Management had been in practice since long and they were also practiced by the Prophet (peace be on him) in the Islamic state of Madnah (1st/7th century) as well as before his migration to Madnah during his prophetic mission in Makkah. Weihrich and Koontz suggested an eight step planning model which has been demonstrated in figure 1.17 This will be used to evaluate the Hijrah expedition to demonstrate that the modern management concepts had been in practice during the life time of the Prophet (peace be on him). It would negate the views of many contemporary management scholars that the practices of management were the recent developments.
Figure 1 W eirich and Knootz planning model

Awareness of opportunity

Setting objectives

Considering planning premises

Quantifying plan by making budget

Determining alternative courses

Formulating supporting plan

Choosing the most promising one

Comparing alternative courses

16. Syed Wajid Rizvi, Islam and Good Governance (Lahore: Maqbool Academy, 2005). 17. See, Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 106.

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Planning as an Islamic Heritage

Planning literally refers to decide something in advance or for the future. Planning according to Robins and DeCenzo is concerned with identifying the organizations objectives or goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive hierarchy to integrate and coordinate activities. 18 Weihrich and Koontz include eight steps in their planning model: being aware of opportunities, setting objectives or goals, considering planning premises, identifying alternatives, comparing them in light of goals, choosing one of them for action, formulating supporting plans, and quantifying plans by making budgets.19 The closest Arabic equivalent of the word plan or planning is takh, whereas the words tadbr and taqdr also contain meanings which are common with the meanings of planning in some aspects. Similarly the Arabic word makr though cannot be taken as a parallel of planning connotes the competing secret planning and strategy which approaches to scheming.20 English translators of the meanings of the Qurn, however, have usually translated the word makr as planning, in various contexts in which it has been used with reference to Allah the Almighty. This might be because of the reason that Islamic scholars of the past and the present all agree (have ijm) that makr and the similar other words with negative connotations do not befit to the majesty of Allah the Almighty Creator as He is Exalted from having negativity towards His creations and thus these words are not used and cannot be taken in their negative connotations for Him. Their use for Allah the Almighty in various yt of the Qurn, thus, is in the sense of mushkalah; i.e. using the same word twice to describe both the deed (in the first place) and its reward (in the
18. Stephen P. Robbins and David A. De Cenzo, Fundamentals of Management (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education International, 2005), p. 88. 19. See, Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 103. 20. See for various shades of meanings of these words, Muammad b. Mukarram Ibn Manr al-Ifrq, Lisn al-Arab, first edition (Beirut: Dr dir, n.d.), vol. 7, pp. 281-287, vol. 4, pp. 265-268, vol. 5, p. 75, vol. 5, p. 183; J. Milton Cowan, ed., The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Ithaca, NY: Spoken Language Services, 1976), p. 245, p. 270, pp. 745-746, p. 917.

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Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case of Hijrah Expedition

second place) or in the sense of reply (al sabl al-jawb) that your negativity and intrigues will eventually befall upon you as Allah the Almighty will protect the Prophet (peace be on him) and the believers from your negativity and intrigues, and you will eventually face the consequences of your negativity and intrigues in this world as well as in the hereafter. It implies that whenever the word makr is used with reference to Allah the Almighty it is used in its positive connotation, meaning a firm plan (al-tadbr al-mukam).21 The Qurn in this context has several times used the word makr for Allah the Almighty in contrast to the schemes of the ones who reject the message of Islam (submission to none but the Creator in all affairs) and try to curb it, stating: while they plot Allah also plan (a firm plan),22 while they perceived it not;23 and the best of planners is Allah; 24 Apparently al-Qadr (the pre-recoding of all that was and will be) 25 of Allah might be an example of planning, however, striking a simile between the attributes and works the Creator Allah and those of the creations is arguable. Therefore, leaving aside the issue of linguistic parallels as well as the notion of planning in the creation and the works of Allah, we turn to the occasions in the Qurn where Allah teaches humans to plan their affairs. A careful study of the Qurn reveals that this objective is achieved in two ways: firstly, by quoting the examples of planning from the lives of the Qurnic role models i.e. the Prophets (peace be on them) and secondly, by asking people, in various contexts
21. See for more details, al-fi Isml b. Umar Ibn Kathr al-Dimashq, Tafsr al-Qurn al-Am, ed., Ysuf Abd al-Ramn al-Marashl, 5 vols. (Beirut: Dr al-Marifah, 1409/1989), vol. 1, pp. 107108; Ab l-Fal Mamd al-ls, R al-Man f Tafsr al-Qurn al-Am wa Sab al-Mathn, 30 vols. (Beirut: Dr Iy al-Trth al-Arab, 1405 AH), vol. 3, pp. 178179. 22. See, the Qurn 3: 54; 8: 30; 27: 50. English translation of the meaning of the yt of the Qurn in this paper is mainly based on The Holy Qurn, Text, Translation and Commentary, tr. Abdullah Ysuf Al, New Revised Edition (Brentwood, MD: Amana Corporation, 1409/1989). The authors, however, for the sake of greater clarity have made some modifications. 23. See, the Qurn 27: 50. 24. See, the Qurn 3: 54. 25. See, the Qurn 6: 59; 9: 36; 10: 61; 11: 6; 17: 4, 58; 20: 52; 22: 70; 27: 57; 33: 6; 34: 3; 35: 11; 50: 4; 52: 2; 56: 78; 57: 22.

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pertaining to this as well as the next life, to plan their affairs. The best examples for the first notion in the Qurn can be seen, for instance, in the story of Ysuf (peace be on him): 1. The Qurn describes that when the king of Egypt sought the
interpretation of his dream from Ysuf (peace be on him) through his official, Ysuf (peace be on him) informed him the interpretation of the dream as well as described to him the actual plan as how to deal with the seven years of abundance and the seven years of drought, i.e. during the seven years of abundance leave the harvest that you shall reap in the ear, except a little, of which you shall eat26 to preserve it for the next seven years. him) adopted for the removal of the blame of the women from himself and for his ascendance to the ruler-ship of Egypt, in a dignified manner.27 him) worked out for a gradual reconciliation with his brothers and reunion of the family and the way he implemented it successfully.28

2. The Qurn describes the elegant plan that Ysuf (peace be on

3. The Qurn unfolds the gracious plan that Ysuf (peace be on

4. The Qurn quotes the plan that Yaqb (peace be on him)

suggested to his sons to safeguard themselves from the jealousy of the people.29

Some examples for the second notion in the Qurn can be seen, for instance, in the following injunctions:
1. The Qurn time and again asks and motivates people to plan carefully to be among the successful ones in the hereafter, the ones who will be people of Paradise, as people of Paradise and the people of the Fire are not equal. For instance the Qurn states: O you who believe! Be conscience of Allah, and let every soul be mindful of (carefully plan) what (provision) has he

26. See, the Qurn 12: 47. See also, the Qurn 4849. 27. See, the Qurn 12: 4346 and 5057. 28. See, the Qurn 12: 58100. 29. See, the Qurn 12: 6368.

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sent forth for the morrow. Yea, Be conscience of Allah: for Allah is well-acquainted with (all) that you do. And be you not like those who forgot Allah; and He made them forget their own souls! Such are the rebellious transgressors! Not equal are the Companions of the Fire and the Companions of the Garden: it is the Companions of the Garden, that will achieve Felicity.30 2. The Qurn teaches people the basics of healthy and sustainable financial planning by advising them: i) not to obliterate the wealth/property which Allah has made a means of support for them by giving it in the custody of immature or feeble minded,31 or by squandering spendings, 32 or by rib-bearing (usurious) transactions;33 ii) to keep the money in circulation in productive trading;34 iii) to gain wealth through fair trading and other just means by taking or sharing risk35 or providing services;36 iv) not to acquire wealth through theft, robbery, rib, maysir (gambling), unfair deceitful trading and other unjust means by shifting risk to others, transgression, lying or deception;37 v) to be careful and moderate in spending.38 The Qurn advises people with a practical plan for healthy and sustained economic relationships and doubt-free safe economic transactions by asking them that when you deal with each other in transactions involving future obligations, whether it be small or big, reduce them to faithfully accurate writing under supervision of witnesses, and it should be for a fixed period. The Qurn emphasizes that this method is more suitable as evidence and to prevent doubts.39

3.

30. See, the Qurn 59: 1820. 31. See, the Qurn 4: 5. 32. See, the Qurn 17: 26. 33. See, the Qurn 2: 276. 34. See, the Qurn 2: 275; 4: 29. 35. See, the Qurn 2: 275; 4: 29. 36. See, the Qurn 28: 26. 37. See, the Qurn 2: 275278; 3: 120; 4: 161; 39: 30. 38. See, the Qurn 17: 2627, 29. 39. See, the Qurn 2: 282283.

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4. The Qurn advises people with practical plan for safeguarding the political independence of the Islamic State. They are ordained by the Creator Allah to acquire and keep ready the necessary resources of war related material such as animals, weapons and training, as it will dismay and keep off the enemy.40

Once we examine the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace be o him) we see that the Prophet (peace be o him) also employed two methods to teach humans to plan their affairs: firstly, by planning his own affairs as the role model for the ummah and secondly, by asking people, in various matters of this as well as the next life, to plan their affairs. The first notion in the Sunnah can be seen in the fact that the Prophet (peace be on him) planed various military expeditions after establishment of an Islamic state in Madnah. Foremost among the features of his war planning was that he would manage the information carefully ensuring the secrecy to take the adversary by surprise. 41 Thus, many a times even those among his companions who were very near to him would not know about the exact destination.42 Sometimes, he would avoid the general route towards the destination and take a different route.43 These measures played a
40. See, the Qurn 8: 60. 41 . For example, he ordered to capture a woman carrying a letter to Makkah containing the information that Muslims were getting ready for a massive retaliation campaign against the Makkans for their breach of udaybiyyah peace treaty. See, Lings, Muhammad, pp. 292293 and 291; Haykal, The Life of Muammad, pp. 399400 and 396397. 42. Ab Dwd Sulaymn b. al-Ashath al-Sijistn, Sunan Ab Dwd, Kitb al-Jihd, Bb al-Makr f larb. For example, when the Muslim army was marching towards Makkah, many of them were not sure about the intended destination. While this was generally the practice of the Prophet (peace be on him), at times due to some other considerations he would make the destination clear. For instance, in the case of Tabk expedition he declared in explicit terms the intended destination as well as the possibility of a direct encounter with the Byzantine forces led by the Emperor himself. This proved to be a tough test for the hypocrites and they were exposed as they preferred not to participate in this expedition. The Qurn discusses this event at length in Srah al-Tawbah. 43. For instance, while on his way to Makkah with his companions to perform umrah in the sacred month in year 5 AH, he got the news that the Makkans had dispatched troops to stop them from performing umrah, he left the general route and proceeded to Makkah adopting a different route. The Makkans were taken by surprise when they came to know that the Prophet (peace be on him) had reached udaybiyyah at the outskirts of Makkah, while the Makkan forces had gone a long way on the general route. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, pp. 134-135; Lings, Muhammad, p. 248.

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vital role in achieving the arch objective of his war policy of avoiding or at least minimizing the bloodshed saving maximum lives possible providing them opportunity to choose submission to none but the Creator Allah in all affairs.44 In pursuit of the same policy he always was found willing and eager to strike peace treaties though for time being apparently they seemed more favourable to the other party.45 The planning actions of the Prophet (peace be on him) also included collection of food stuff, transportation and war trained animals, and various kinds of necessary weaponry besides administration of information and taking security measures. For example, he collected the necessities before advancing towards Tabk.46 Digging a trench at the outskirts of the city was the part of the grand plan drawn in consultation with the companions to safe guard Madnah from Allied forces of the Arab and Jewish tribes.47 Allah approved the plan made by the Prophet (peace be upon him) and his companions about the
44. For example, in the case of udaybiyyah expedition described in the above note at that critical juncture, he could have opted to takeover Makkah but he was sure that it would result in great bloodshed. Then, there was every possibility that many among the Makkans who had secretly embraced Islam would be killed in war. See, the Qurn 48: 22-26. Furthermore, there might have been a violent reaction from other Arab tribes who would be added by the Jews of Khaybar. Therefore, instead of trying to enter Makkah, he stayed back at udaybiyyah and proposed to hold talks with the Makkans. He accepted almost every condition of the Makkans for negotiating peace. Finally, it was agreed upon that Muslims would not perform umrah that year and that they would have the right to do so the following year. This condition annoyed many Muslims, but the Prophet accepted it as it suited well to the arch objective of his policy plans as the Makkans were agreeing on putting an end to war for ten years. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, p. 140-141; Lings, Muhammad, p. 253. 45 . For example, the Treaty of udaybiyyah for the time being apparently seemed to be more favourable to the Makkans though it later proved to be a great success for Muslims. The illustrious anaf jurist Ab Bakr Muammad b. Ab Sahl al-Sarakhs said that the foremost benefit of this treaty was that it broke the alliance of the pagans of Makkah with the Jews of Khaybar. The Prophet (peace be on him) immediately turned to Khaybar which was swiftly taken over because the Makkans could not come to the rescue of Khaybar. Three years later, when the Makkans violated the Treaty of udaybiyyah and the Prophet marched towards Makkah, the Jews were not there to support the Makkans. See, Ab Bakr Muammad b. Ab Sahl al-Sarakhs, al-Mabs (Cairo: Dr al-Fikr, 1970), vol. 10, p. 86. Moreover, during these three years a great number of inhabitants of Makkah and other Arab tribes had embraced Islam. These included, inter alia, some great military commanders like Khlid b. al-Wald and Amr b. al-. Hence, it facilitated peaceful takeover of Makkah without any bloodshed. 46. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, p. 236. 47. See, ibid., vol. 2, pp. 106109.

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prisoners of Badr. 48 Before the Battle of Badr, the Muslim army established its camp near the big water wells, a key source of survival and a pivotal element of psychological warfare.49 Prophet (peace be upon him) also well planned his migration journey to reach Yathrib. His migration plan was foolproof and achieved its objective as we will see below. Some examples of the Prophet (peace be on him) instructing Muslims to plan their matters can be seen, for instance, in the following injunctions:
1. Planning for the life hereafter is the fundamental belief and the trigger for action, which shows how central is the notion of planning in Islamic framework. The Prophet (peace be on him) often motivated the companions to plan and prepare for life after death.50 Family is a very crucial basic unit in an Islamic society. A happy healthy Islamic family unit contributes to the formation of a healthy, progressive and prosperous Islamic society and the state. Therefore, the Prophet (peace be on him) gave clear injunctions which motivate a Muslim to plan for securing and sustaining such a family life.51

2.

48. The Prophet (peace be on him) planed to benefit from those prisoners of Badr who knew reading and writing in having his companions to learn reading and writing. So he made teaching ten persons how to read and write as one of the forms of ransom for the release of prisoner of Badr. See, ibid., vol. 2, p. 28; Amad b. anbal, Musnad Amad, vol. 1, p. 247; Ibn Sad, abqt, p. 14. 49. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, p. 14. 50. Shaddd ibn Aws reported that the Prophet (peace be on him) said: Wise is the one who controls and masters his/her self and conduct his/her actions taking into consideration what is after death and Foolish is the one who follows his desires and builds the hopes upon Allah. See, Ab s Muammad b. s al-Tirmidh, Sunan al-Tirmidh, Kitb ifat al-Qiymah wa l-Raqiq wa l-War an Rasl Allh, Bb 25; Ab Abd Allh Muammad b. Yazd al-Qizwn, Sunan Ibn Mjah, Kitb al-Zuhd, Bb Dhikr alMawt wa l-Istiddi lah; Amad b. anbal, Musnad Amad, Kitb Awwal Musnad al-Madaniyyn, Bb adith Shaddd b. Aws. 51. The Prophet (peace be on him) further asked the Muslims to choose [carefully] the spouses to place the semen so marry the compatibles. See, Muammad b. Yazd al-Qizwn, Sunan Ibn Majah. Kitb al-Nik, Bb al-Akf; Ab Bak Amad b. al-usayn b. Al al-Bayhaq, al-Sunan al-Kubr, Kitb al-Nik, Bb Itibr al-Kafah. In another report the Prophet (peace be on him) asked the Muslims to choose [carefully] the spouses and not to place their semen except with the compatibles by marrying the compatibles. See, Ab l-asan Al b. Umar al-Draqun, Sunan al-Draqun, Kitb al-Nik. In another report the Prophet (peace be on him) asked the Muslims to choose the spouses to place the

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The above discussion clearly shows how central is the notion of planning in Islamic framework.

The Context of Hijrah Expedition

The expedition of Hijrah to Yathrib was the most significant event in his mission and in the history of Islam since it marked beginning of a new phase in his prophetic carrier with the inception of the Islamic state at the dawn of the modern era of information. It is worth noting that Hijrah expedition to Yathrib was different in many aspects from two earlier events of Hijrah to abashah (Abyssinia). When Muslims were persecuted in Makkah, some of them sought refuge in abashah, apparently at the instance of the Prophet (peace be on him)52 because the Nazarene ruler of abashah was expected to give shelter to Muslims. 53 The Hijrah to Madnah

semen because women give birth to children resembling to their brothers and sisters, so marry the compatibles. See, Ab Nam Amad b. Abd Allh al-Ibahn, Marifat al-abah, Kitb Musnad Adth al-Nis al-Musammayt min hunn wa l-Mukanniyt, Bb ishah al-iddqah bint al-iddq. The Prophet (peace be on him) described that a women are sought for marriage for four things: for her property; for her lineage; for her beauty; and for her way of life, and asked Muslims to choose the spouses on the basis of their way of life. See, Muammad b. Isml al-Bukhr, a al-Bukhr, Kitb al-Nikh, Bb al-Akf fl-Dn. The Prophet (peace be on him) has further given instruction as how to treat and deal with spouses, children, parents, relatives in different situations. See books of adth, Chapters on the Marriage, Divorce, Rights of the Parents, Upbringing of Children, and Relations with the relatives. 52. Lings, Muhammad, pp. 81-85. 53. The Qurn calls Nar to the followers of Prophet s [Jesus] (peace be on him), but at two places it refers to a group of Christians in these words, those who call themselves Nar. The Qurn 5: 14 and 5: 82. According to scholars of the Qurn, this refers to the ruler of abashah and his companions. See, Ab Jafar Muammad b. Jarr al-abar, Jmi al-Bayn (Cairo: Mabaah Muaf al-Bb, 1954), vol. 7, p. 2. Who else called themselves Nar? It has been recorded in Acts of the Apostles that the disciples of Jesus were called Nazarenes (Acts 24: 5) and it was Saint Paul who preferred the title Christians for his followers (Acts 11: 26). As opposed to the Christians, the Nazarenes were strict observers of the Law (the Torah). The Biblical sources suggest that the title Nazarenes was a reference to the village Nazareth where Jesus was born. See, The Gospel According to Matthew 2: 23. The Qurn hints that this title also had a reference to the fact that the disciples of Jesus accepted his call and offered him their support (nurah). See, the Qurn 3: 52 and 61: 14. The ruler of abashah, thus, did not believe in the Trinitarian dogma. This might further explain his friendly attitude towards Muslims. Muslim sources also testify that he embraced Islam. See, Muammad b. Isml al-Bukhr, a alBukhr, Kitb al-Manqib, Bb Mawt al-Najsh.

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was not for the purpose of seeking refuge, but for the purpose of establishing an Islamic state in that territory. The Qurn points out that Allah the Almighty always sent His Messengers in the major cities to address the ruling elites first,54 to re-establish the rligio-socio-political order based on submission to none but the Creator in all individual as well as collective affairs55 or in other words based on absolute justice.56 In the same pattern, the Prophet (peace be on him) was raised among the ruling tribe of Makkah which was the largest city as well as the cultural, business and religious centre of Arabia. After ten years of continuous struggle, when the ruling elite of Makkah did not accept the call of Islam, he turned to if, the second largest city of the Arabian Peninsula housing the second biggest shrine after Kabah. The response of the ruling elite and commoners of if was, to say the least, disappointing.57 This left him searching for an alternate place for initiation of a rligio-socio-political order based on submission to none but the Creator in all individual as well as collective affairs. Every year during the hajj (pilgrimage) season, people from every corner of the Arabian Peninsula would gather in and around Makkah. The Prophet (peace be on him) deemed it an opportunity to meet with the influential elite of the various tribes. 58 He got a positive response, in the 11th year of his prophethood, from six men from the tribal elite of Kazraj from Yathrib, all of whom accepted Islam. However, being aware of the tribal feuds there, particularly between the two main tribes of Aws and Khazraj, the Prophet (peace be on him) shared with these six noble men the wish and hope of reconciliation between the two tribes through the message of submission to none but the Creator in all affairs. The six men propagated the message in Yathrib with all enthusiasm and during
54. See, the Qurn 28: 59. See for a detailed analysis of this issue: Amn Asan Il, Dawat-i-Dn aur Us k arq-i-Kr (Lahore: Frn Foundation, 1999), pp. 48-65. 55. See, the Qurn 12: 40. 56. See, the Qurn 57: 25. 57. Lings, Muhammad, pp. 96-100. 58. Ibid., pp. 105-107.

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the next hajj season twelve men belonging to both tribes of Yathrib gave pledge allegiance to the Prophet (peace be on him), and hence, he won the support from the elite of both the tribes.59 He then sent his envoy with them to convey the message of Islam to common masses there. 60 After only one year of rigorous efforts of the Prophets envoy with the help of the elite of the two tribes brought tremendous positive response from the masses as well and there remained almost no home where Islam has not entered. The next hajj season brought seventy two men and nineteen women to meet to the Prophet (peace be on him) and ask him to migrate to their city state to head and lead the religio-socio-political order of the city state on the basis of submission to none but the Creator in all affairs. The Prophet (peace be on him) took pledge of allegiance from the leaders of the two tribes for the same.61 Now once it was settled that Yathrib had won the honour to be the hub of his prophetic mission to the mankind the Prophet (peace be on him) allowed his companions in Makkah to migrate to Yathrib. Soon the Muslim individuals and families most of them departed Makkah little by little. However, the Prophet (peace be on him) held himself back but all prepared to leave, waiting for the divine command. Once he received the Divine command he swiftly put his solid plan into execution.

Hijrah as an Organizational Activity

Let us now turn to examine Hijrah as an organizational level activity. Although the Prophet (peace be on him) had planned and executed a large number of campaigns, nevertheless, planning for the Hijrah expedition to Yathrib was the most significant event in his mission. As explained above Hijrah of the Prophet (peace be on him) marked beginning of a new phase in his prophetic carrier with inception of the Islamic state at the dawn of the modern era of information. His goal in the Hijrah plan was to leave Makkah peacefully and to reach
59. See for details, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 1, pp. 233-235. 60. See, ibid., vol. 1, p. 235. 61. See, ibid. vol. 1, pp. 235-237. See also: Muhammad Hamidullah, The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam (Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1998), pp. 115-128.

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Yathrib safely. He gathered resources and assigned responsibilities to different personnel to achieve this goal: seven personnel were involved in the venture; two camels were hired for transport and it took about two weeks to complete the journey (see Table 1 below). C.L. Bovee, et al. define organization as a group of two or more people who work together in a consciously structured setting to achieve group goals. 62 According to them there are two key concepts in the formation of an organization: a deliberate structure and group goals. Once we analyse Hijrah expedition there were initially seven persons (see Table 1 below) involved in this venture, however, when the Prophet (peace be on him) left the cave it was reduced to three persons venture: the Prophet (peace be on him), Ab Bakr [Abd Allh b. Ab Qufah (d. 13/634)] and the guide. This group or team was organized (structured) in a systematic manner. The Prophet (peace be on him) was the leader, Ab Bakr was the deputy leader and other participants were subordinates. Secondly the team had a common goal i.e. safe arrival of the Prophet (peace be on him) in Yathrb. 63 The goal of other participants (number 36 in Table 1) was to help the Prophet (peace be on him) to leave Makkah safely. This shows that there was a structured or organised group with implicit or explicit responsibilities and the team had a defined goal. Table 1 below shows list of responsibilities:
Table 1: Personnel and their functions64
S.No. 1 2 3 4 Name The Prophet (peace be on him) Ab Bakr Al b. Ab lib Abd Allh (Son of Ab Bakr) Responsibility Head of the venture Deputy Representative Information officer

62. Bovee, et al., Management, p. 7. 63. For a detailed description of Hijrah expedition, see Lings, Muhammad, pp. 118124; Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 1, pp. 239250; Haykal, The Life of Muammad, pp. 163172 and Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 147167. 64. Compiled from, Lings, Muhammad, pp. 118124.

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Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case of Hijrah Expedition 5 6 7 mir b. Fuhayrah (the shepherd) Asm (Daughter of Ab Bakr) Bedouin Removing the foot prints on the track to cave Thawr Supply Chain Manager (Food Supplier) Scout/guide

In addition, the Prophet (peace be on him) was not working for himself rather his endeavours were devoted for the education, training and development of mankind in a way that they may achieve success in this world as well as in the hereafter. Moreover, he did not migrate alone; he migrated in a group. To form the group, he left his residence and went to Ab Bakrs house in a conscience effort to form the team to accomplish the job. He had informed Ab Bakr, in advance, to get ready for this journey. Informing Ab Bakr was the part of the Hijrah plan since plan means deciding action(s) in advance. The Prophet (peace be on him) had also asked common Muslims to migrate from Makkah to Yathrib65 because he had a plan to migrate himself later on. The team of two friends, the Prophet (peace be on him) and Ab Bakr made a second unique decision when they chose to approach the cave Thawr, towards the south on the way to the Yemen, instead of north, the usual way to Yathrib, to keep the enemy in surprise and make them out of reach of a possible search. The team could have walked straight away towards Yathrib; however, they stayed three days in the cave, to ensure the safety and to evade evil pursuit of Makkans. The Makkans after three days of rigorous search came to believe that one way or the other Muammad (peace be on him) and Ab Bakr had gone out of their reach and their hopes to capture them dwindled and it was cautiously reported to the Prophet (peace be on him) by Abd Allh b. Ab Bakr (d. 11/632) who was deputed to gather news of actions and plans of Quraysh. He used to deliver information about the news and circumstances in the city to the Prophet (peace be on him) daily after the sunset. To
65. See, Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 152153.

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make the communication secrete, the information officer, was followed by the herd of sheep of mir b. Fuhayrah (d. 4/625). His journey to and from the cave Thawr was so natural with no possibility of giving any clue about the presence of the noble team there. The story has been put concisely by Nadvi:
Sayyidin Ab Bakr directed his son Sayyidn Abd Allh that every incident which took place in Makkah must be reported to him at night and also told his [freed] slave mir b. Fuhayrah that he should keep the sheep for grazing in the vicinity of Makkah and then bring the flock near the cave of Thawr. In this way the foot steps of Abd Allh were blotted out and no one could suspect their hide out.66

Meanwhile Asm bint Ab Bakr (d. 73/692) was responsible to deliver food on the daily basis. She visited the destination with Abd Allh, her brother and information officer of the expedition. Her actions were also foolproof since she travelled with Abd Allh that ruled out any special deputation towards the cave Thawr. She thus managed the supply chain proficiently as no one could find any clue of existence of the noble team in the vicinity of Makkah. The management of the supply chain was a unique venture since it did not need weapons to reinforce the army rather it required the supply of food at limited scale but secrecy was the most important element which she successfully managed. mir b. Fuhayrah, the shepherd, also looked after the herd in a manner acceptable by the Prophet (peace be on him) and coincided with the demand of the time. His purpose was to spoil the footprints of travellers to and from the cave. He grazed the sheep without any indication that the Prophet (peace be on him) is hiding nearby and that he had been deputed to undo the footprints of Abd Allh and Asm. It suggests that all the persons involved had been working cohesively as a team in order to achieve the common goal.

Evaluation of Hijrah Plan with a Contemporary Model

Weihrich and Koontzs model includes: being aware of opportunities, setting objectives or goals, considering planning
66 . See, Mawlav Mun al-Dn Nadv, Khulaf-i Rshidn (Aamgadh: Dr al-Muannifn, 1364/1925), p. 9.

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premises, identifying alternatives, comparing them in light of goals, choosing one of them for action, formulating supporting plans, and quantifying plans by making budgets.67 Evaluation of the Hijrah plan with this model would demonstrate that the current management practices had been in use since centuries and were also applied by the Prophet (peace be upon him), but were not studied from this angle.

Awareness of Opportunities
The first step in Weihrich and Koontzs model is to dig out new opportunities in the market such as expansion of operations in the existing or new markets. Contrary to the opportunities, sometimes one has to reposition oneself in the face of threats posed by the competitors or environment. For example, Netscape was a market leader with 96% share in 1996 in the Internet browsing software, but was threatened by the Microsoft (MS) when it introduced the Internet Explorer. Netscape had to reposition itself (since it could hold only 1% of the market share in 2007)68 and MS had captured a lion share of the market, 79% in 2007. 69 Similarly the needs and wants of customers are changing which create new opportunities for managers and planners, for which they have to be vigilant, for example, Vodafone, UK, had to reintroduce black and white LCD handsets when market survey showed a significant demand for them. The idea of Hijrah (migration) was initiated when in the wake of Qurayshs continuous stern opposition of the message of Islam and the ever increasing severe persecution of the believers, the Prophet (peace be on him) started searching for an alternate territory for initiation of the rligio-socio-political order based on submission to none but the Creator in all individual as well as collective affairs. The second stimulus for migration came from the invitation of the People of Yathrib to the Prophet (peace be on him) and Muslims to migrate to Yathrib to establish such a rligio-socio-political order in their city state. The third impel for migration came from the Prophets
67. See, Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 103. 68. See, Clickz, <www.clickz.com>, (2007), p. 1. 69. Ibid.

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acceptance of this invitation with the permission of Allah. The final push for Hijrah came from allowing the Muslims, with the will of Allah, to migrate from Makkah, individually or in groups, to Yathrib. The Prophet (peace be on him) himself, however, did not leave Makkah but waited for the Divine command in this regard. Meanwhile, in anticipation of receiving the Divine command to leave for Yathrib he and Ab Bakr planned for the expedition so meticulously that the Prophet (peace be on him) was able to confidentially put his plan into execution with full secrecy as soon as he received the Divine command that he should leave for Yathrib the same night.70 In business terms, the invitation from Muslims of Yathrib can be analogous to the Weihrich and Knootzs concept of what the customer want in the realm of opportunities. 71 The Muslims of Yathrib realizing the obligations of their faith, visualizing the universal scope of the mission of the last and the final Prophet and Messenger of Allah (peace be on him) and knowing the rewards of helping and serving him in his prophetic mission wanted to fulfil their obligations, support, serve and help the Prophet (peace be on him) in his mission seeking the rewards that it entails in the form of success in this world as well as in the hereafter. Their future actions proved them to be true in their intentions and promise. The Prophet (peace be on him) also praised their services when he chose to stay with them and declared Madnah to be his homeland instead of his birthplace even after Makkah fell into his lap. The people of Madnah became the nucleus of spreading the message of Islam all over the world and the city state of Madnah became the base station of it. In business terms Madnah turned out to be the global headquarter of the message of Islam from where the message (the product) was marketed at large scale in four corners of the world. It had been developed as a centre of production (the house of most of the revelation), distribution, and propagation of the sacred product in various markets of the globe. Madnah drew into a silicon valley of
70. See, ibid., 154155. 71. Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 104.

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Islam for rest of the time. The customer, the Muslims of Madnah, demanded the right product at the right time. And the Hijrah plan was instrumental in converting Yathrib into Madnat al-Nab or alMadnah al-Munawwarah, global hub of the light of Islam dispensing it to the whole world dispelling the darkness of jhiliyyah day by day.

Setting Objectives
The second step in Weihrich and Knootz model is setting the objectives for the entire organization as well as each of its subunits. Objectives specify the expected results; indicate the end points to be arrived at, the focus area and what deliverable is to be accomplished. 72 Research shows setting objectives increases performance. 73 Given that the objectives for the entire Hijrah expedition as well as each of its episodes/steps were set clearly by the Prophet (peace be on him) in consultation with the other participants wherever consultation was necessary. In the contemporary language as Robin and DeCenzo argue the objectives are decomposed into divisional, departmental and cost centre levels. 74 The Prophet (peace be on him) had divided the overall objective into many sub-goals. The grand objective was to safely reach Yathrib as it was all ready to become the hub for fulfilment of the prophetic mission. The journey had been divided into three stages (sub-objectives): leaving Makkah and reaching the cave Thawr, staying in the cave until proceeding to Yathrib becomes safe, and setting out for final destination. The Prophet (peace be on him) set these three sub-objectives carefully and accomplish them successfully. He reached the cave with Ab Bakr secretly and stayed in the cave three days until the enemy perceived that somehow the team had gone out of their reach as it was reported to the Prophet (peace be on him) by his information officer Abd Allh b. Ab Bakr
72. See, ibid., p. 8 and 105. 73. See, E.A. Locke, E. A. Towards a theory of task motivation and incentives, Organisational Behaviour and Human Performance, vol. 3 (1968), pp. 15789. 74. See, S.P. Robins, and D. A. DeCenzo, Fundamental of Management (New Jersey: Pearson Education International, 2005), p. 95.

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that most of the searchers had given up their efforts to catch the migrants. Finally, the team left the cave and set out for the final destination carefully adopting an unusual route. The objective of reaching Yathrib safely was thus achieved successfully.

Considering Planning Premises

According to Weihrich and Knootz planning premises are assumptions about the environment in which the plan is to be carried out,75 such as markets, sales volume, prices, cost, technical developments and political and social environment.76 The last two are directly applicable in the context of the Hijrah plan. The sociopolitical and security conditions were such that the hostile adversaries were trying their utmost to take the life of the Prophet (peace be on him) and to fail the plan. It seems similar to a situation that when a new player enters into a business; existing and the established organizations try to kill it. They do so by launching a price war, hostile promotion campaign and exploitation of new comers weaknesses. The people of Makkah viewed Muhammad (peace be on him) a threat to their religion (their business, in terms of management), culture, life style and the political system. They tried many strategies against the Prophet (peace be on him) and his followers to stop them from spreading the word of Islam (i.e. the message of submission to none but the Creator Allah in all affairs). They applied the psychological tactics, false propaganda, monetary restrictions and incentives, and physical torture to name a few, in order to keep people away from the message of Islam but none of their efforts became successful in the marketplace, i.e. to stop people from entering into the fold of Islam. Making the Hijrah plan fail and to take the life of the Prophet (peace be on him) was their last resort to protect their religion, customs and the way of life, an out of date product. The Makkans were trying to keep their out of date product in the market by virtually destroying the proponent of a
75. Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 105. 76. See, ibid. pp.105106.

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better product that was getting popular in the indigenous as well as in the international markets. Putting the Prophet (peace be on him) under the sword was the best solution that could end the campaign against their organization/way of life. The Prophet (peace be on him)s premises of the plan were that the success of the Hijrah plan will ensure the security of his life as well as beginning of a new phase in the fulfilment of his prophetic mission and vice versa. Allah had a similar plan i.e. to protect the Prophet (peace be on him) by making the Hijrah plan successful so that competitors could be defeated and His (Allahs) gifted product (the purified message of Islam and updated version of Sharah in the shape of the Qurn and Sunnah) could prevail in the world. The Prophet (peace be on him)s assumptions were based on the premise that the external environment was extremely hostile to the plan especially the security situation was so risky that the migrants could lose their lives during the implementation process. The Prophet (peace be on him) had a firm belief in the success of the plan. He handed over all the safe keepings of the people to Al and advised him to return them to their owners and than reach to Yathrib. He also encouraged Ab Bakr in the cave when he was worried about the possibility of entrance of enemy inside the cave; do not worry Allah is with us.77

Determining Alternative Courses

Weihrich and Knootz say the fourth step in planning is to search and examine alternative courses of action, especially those not immediately apparent.78 It is the job of a planner to identify what is the most promising alternative to accomplishing the objectives. 79 Prudent managers search economically viable, manageable and profitable alternatives. Rationality plays a vital role in searching and selecting them. However, sometimes the given socio-political
77. The Qurn 9: 40. See for details, Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 157158. 78. Weihrich and Knootz, Management, p. 105. 79. Ibid., p.104.

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environment may put the apparently rational option at the back and the intricate reasoning may take the lead. At times availability of crucial information may lead to refine and revise the rational decisions and assumptions made prior to planning. The Prophet (peace be on him) had two possible alternatives: (i) leave Makkah and travel towards Yathrib straight away and (ii) leave the city and stay at a nearby destination or hiding place, wait until a possible search dies out, and then start the journey towards Yathrib. Prose and cons of both options are discussed in the next step.

Comparing Alternatives
The fifth step in Weihrich and Knootzs model involves examining weak and strong points of each alternative and weighing them in light of premises and goals. Cash outlay, risk, profitability and payback period are common criteria for evaluation of alternatives.80 Cash outlay was not a big deal as detailed above, profitability and payback period were not applicable since the organization was operating as not-for-profit basis. Security risk (security of the personnel) was the key factor in comparing the alternatives. The second option was more secure than the first one as shown later on. The journey required about two weeks time and the team was riding on the slow moving camels due to the nature of the track and probably due to the weather conditions. The first alternative could not offer the security because leaving straightaway to Yathrib means all the warriors who besieged the residence of the Prophet (peace be on him) could follow them. The enemy was riding on the horses which were faster than the camels, thus there was a possibility of encounter with the enemy. The encounter could turn into a fight; the Prophet (peace be on him) intended to avoid it. Since the primary concern was to avoid an encounter with the enemy, the second alternative was promising maximum probability of it. There was a good chance of encounter had the migrants
80. See, ibid., p. 106.

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travelled towards Yathrib straight away. Staying in the cave reduced this possibility. The cave Thawr was chosen because the cave ir, the other available cave which was the initial place of Prophet (peace be on him)s worship, was known as such in Makkah. It could be the hot spot for searchers; therefore, the Prophet (peace be on him) did not prefer it. Three days in the Thawr enabled the migrants to receive information about the movements of Quraysh, their plans etc. The purpose of the stay was to wait until the search efforts died out. The competitors had accepted the reality that the Prophet (peace be on him) had left the city mysteriously and was out of their reach. That was the reason they had given up the search operation. The number of the searchers is not known but it could be estimated that their number was quite large including, inter alia, those who surrounded the house of the Prophet (peace be on him). They were motivated religiously as well as economically by the huge prize of 100 camels. Given to the huge number of the ones who had gone out for search there had been many groups besides the individuals. It is reported that a party of five or six men reached the Thawr in pursuits of the two migrants. They stood near the mouth of the cave, assessed the circumstances and then they spoke decisively, all in agreement that there was no need to enter the cave, since no one could possibly be there.81 This was the help of Allah as He always helped His prophets in the same way. Ibrahm (peace be on him) had been saved under the flames of fire, Isml (peace be on him) under the knife blade and Ms (peace be on him) in the palace of Firawn [Pharaoh]. The Prophet Muammad (peace be on him) when saw Ab Bakr worried about the safety of the Prophet (peace be on him) due to possible entrance of enemy inside the cave has reminded him of this help, O Ab Bakr what do you think of the two with whom the third is Allah? The Qurn has also alluded to this important scene and the help of Allah corresponding it.82
81. See, Lings, Muhammad, pp.118119. 82. The Qurn 9: 40. See for details, Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 157158.

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The strategy of delaying the main journey achieved its objectives. As a result only one searcher (Surqah b. Mlik [d. 24/645]) could reach the team on the way to Yathrib. Allahs help again saved the travellers from him.83 The team travelled through an unusual way that might be another reason for very low level of search. The second option also coincided with the premise of the plan that the security was unsatisfactory and that the team would be followed by the enemy. Thus it promised the maximum security at various stages of journey: from home to the cave and from there to Yathrib.

Choosing the Most Promising Alternative

The sixth step in Weihrich and Knootzs model involves choosing the most promising alternative. The evaluation of the available alternative options in the previous step has shown that merits of the second option were more promising in terms of assumptions and achieving objectives than the first alternative. So the planner (the Prophet peace be on him) did not hesitate to choose the better one.

Formulating the Supporting Plans

The seventh step in Weihrich and Knootzs model requires formulating the supporting plans. The proponents of this planning model state that it should include plan for buying necessary equipment, material, hire and train workers etc. In business organizations, a plan may need an additional plant and machinery, delivery vans, computers or other electronic devices and new type of raw material/components. Existing employees may need new skills to operate new equipment. Sometimes new employees may be hired to put the plan into operation. Additional supply of resources may be required to ensure smooth flow of raw material and components. Supporting plans are prepared for each of these elements.84

83. See, ibid., p. 159160. 84. Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 106.

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The Prophet (peace be on him) was executing a life saving plan. He used two camels (the delivery transport), six persons (five of them were volunteers and only one was hired) and a handful of food stuff to implement the plan. Ab Bakr arranged the animals on the instruction of the Prophet (peace be upon him) who bought one from him. Besides that three supporting plans were made: a plan to remove foot prints of the noble team, a plan to ensure supply of food in the cave, and a plan to gather and deliver the crucial information. The details of these plans have been discussed earlier in this paper.

Quantifying Plan by Making Budgets

According to Weihrich and Koontz, planning includes capital expenditure and any other expenses involved. 85 In business enterprises, capital expenditure encompasses acquisition cost of plant and machinery or anything that increases the earning capacity. These are instrumental to convert a paper plan into reality i.e. to accomplish something, to produce a product or render a service or achieve an objective. The Hijrah plan was implemented with the cost of two camels; shared by the migrants, and hiring of a trustworthy expert of the desert paths as a guide. All other resources and services were voluntary. It cost the planners few hundred dnrs, the legal tender of the time. Other important aspects of the plan can not be quantified such as physical difficulties, hardships of the journey, and possibility of encounter with the enemy. In the given religio-sociopolitical circumstances these elements were inevitable leaving no possibility of avoiding them or turning them into figures. Moreover, though all plans are implemented with a motivational spirit this plan was executed with exceptional courage and spiritual power which descended upon the noble team from the Divine treasures. Table 2 provides a summary of application of Weihrich and Koontzs model with Hijrah expedition.
85. Ibid.

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Table 2 Application of planning model in Hijrah

Element of the model 1. Awareness of opportunities Example from Hijrah 1. Searching new territory that can become the hub of Islamic way of life; 2. People of Yathrib invited the Prophet (peace be on him); 3. Allah commanded to migrate. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. Determining the alternatives 1. 2. To obey Allah; To leave Makkah peacefully; To reach Yathirb safely; To establish an Islamic State; To propagate Islam. The environment was hostile and the security situation was risky; Competition was tough, the enemy was trying to fail the plan; Avoid encounter with the enemy. The first alternative was to leave Makkah and travel towards for Yathrib straightway; The second alternative was to stay in the suburb of Makkah for few days until a possible search dies out and than start journey towards Yathrib.

2. Setting the objectives

3.

Planning premises (assumptions)

5. 6. 7.

Comparing alternatives Choosing the most promising alternative Formulating supporting plans

The second alternative was more promising in terms of assumptions and objectives. The second alternative was chosen. Three supporting plans were drawn and implemented: a) Gathering and delivering of information about enemy; b) Supply of food; c) Removing foot prints of travellers, information officer and food supplier. 1. 2. The Prophet (peace be on him) bought a she camel on credit for few hundred dnrs (the legal tender of the time). Other services were voluntary except some payment was made to the desert guide.

8. Quantifying plan

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Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case of Hijrah Expedition

Comparison of Traditional Planning with the Islamic Approach

The contemporary planning is based upon experience, statistical data and requirements of an organization. Alternative courses of action are chosen rationally or for political reasons. A Muslim manager plans to follow the command of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace be on him). 86 Thus, the act of planning in itself is an end besides being a means to an end. In the contemporary business matters, a business manager plans to achieve organizational objectives whereas a Muslim manager plans to please Allah as well as to achieve business objectives. Secondly, a Muslim manager meticulously applies rationality, experience and the available technology in his planning while seeking guidance and help from his Creator,87 and then leaves its outcome to Allah. It does not mean that a Muslims belief in destiny (qadr) paralyzes him. Rather, it leads him to act and plan. A Muslim is under an obligation to use his reason and to plan. However, he does not solely rely on his skills and powers. Rather, if he gets the intended results, he is not overpowered by a sense of pride,88 instead, he thanks his Beneficent Creator for allowing him to achieve the intended results.89 On the other hand, if he does not achieve the intended results, he does not lose heart, but he rigorously reviews his planning premises and the goals. Along with seeking guidance and help from his Creator, he makes renewed attempts till all possible alternatives are exhausted. If all these efforts fail in bringing the intended results, his belief in the
86. Planning for future is commanded by the Almighty as has been referred to in this paper on pp. 45 47 above. 87. The Prophet (peace be on him) also taught his companions a special prayer for this purpose called alt-al-jah. See, Ab s Muammad b. s al-Tirmidh, Sunan al-Tirmidh, Kitb al-alh, Bb M J f alt al-jah. 88. Qrn took pride in his skills for accumulating extraordinary amount and variety of wealth. The Qurn explicitly declares that this was one of the reasons why the wrath of Allah befell upon him. See, the Qurn 28: 76-82. 89. The Qurn cites the example of Prophet Sulaymn [Solomon] (peace be on him) to show how a believer ascribes every success to his Creator and Sustainer and how he thanks Him. See, for instance, the Qurn 27: 40.

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..Javed Iqbal and Muhammad Mushtaq Ahmad

Infallible Wisdom of Creator tells him that it was better for him not to achieve those results. 90 Furthermore, because of his belief in resurrection and the Day of Judgment, he knows that both the worldly successes as well as failures are of the nature of tests and that the ultimate success and failure is to be decided in the hereafter.91 This is after he has exhausted all the possible alternatives. Thirdly, a Muslim manager evaluates alternative courses of action by applying scientific tools and techniques along with seeking guidance from Allah through alt al-Istikhrah, keeping in view the legitimacy of the alternatives as well as the goals from the Shrah perspective. A Muslim manager can only indulge and strive for legitimate (all) means, alternatives and goals because he is forbidden from indulging or strive for illegitimate (arm) means, alternatives and goals. 92 A Muslim manager, thus, does gather resources as ordained by his Creator and practiced by the Prophet (peace be on him). Having chosen a legitimate (all) course of action, he trusts in Allah and hopes the goodness from Him leaving the outcome to Him. Thus, there exists a unique relation between a Muslim manager and his Creator, Sustainer and Cherisher, a rare commodity in the world of traditional management.

Concluding Remarks
The article traces out the origins of planning in the Islamic literature. The Qurn clearly mentions the concept and value of planning in
90. We earlier referred to the advice of the Prophet Yaqub [Jacob] (peace be on him) to his sons to take measures against the expected evils of others. He tells his sons that they must not think that these measures could save them from what Allah had decided. See, the Qurn 12: 63-68. 91. The Qurn 3: 185-86; 28: 60-61 92. Istikhrah literally means seeking guidance to the right choice. The Prophet (peace be on him) recommended this prayer to his companions in every matter big or small. See, Muammad b. Isml al-Bukhr, a al-Bukhr, Kitb al-Daawt, Bb al-Du ind al-Istikhrah. The Muslim jurists have a consensus that alt al-Istikhrah cannot be performed for choosing between a lawful and an unlawful option. Rather the choice has to be between lawful options. If alt al-Istikhrah is performed with the right intention, the right option becomes clear. It is not necessary that one should see a dream in this regard. See, for further details, al-Mawsah al-Fiqhiyyah, 45 vols. (Kuwait: Ministry of Religious Affairs, 1983), 3: 241-247.

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Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case of Hijrah Expedition

the human endeavours. It teaches planning by striking the examples of the Prophets (peace be on them) as well as by giving such commands. The Prophets were sent primarily to invite mankind towards submission to none but the Creator Allah (Islam). They well planned their missions and chalked out their strategy to achieve the goal. The last and final Prophet/Messenger (peace be on him) was no exception. One of his vital projects, the Hijrah, has been studied here in the light of modern management principles to demonstrate that the Hijrah plan of the Prophet (peace be on him) to achieve the goal of leaving Makkah peacefully and reaching Yathrib safely perfectly conforms to modern scientific planning models. The Prophet (peace be on him) took all the rational steps to achieve his objectives logically which resulted in establishing an Islamic state in Madnah, and eventually in spreading the message of Islam all over the world. Thus the term scientific management though was floated in twentieth century the concepts and principles of management and planning initiated in some form with the inception of humanity which kept on developing with the passage of time, due to further divine guidance in the form of revelation to various later prophets (peace be on them) as well as in the form of accumulation of human experience. The Prophet Muammad (peace be on him) also invented and executed several modern managerial concepts such as planning, organizing, leading, controlling, span of control and others, most of which were applied at macro level (state level). He set the example so that people can follow it in every walk of life and plan their matter carefully and objectively to achieve their envisioned goals. Such planning in no way contradicts the faith and trust in Allah. Rather, it is the logical and natural result of faith.*

* The authors wish to acknowledge the input of anonymous referees of the Insights for their valuable comments on an earlier version of this article. The authors also wish to record their debt of gratitude to the editor Insights for his intriguing questions and editorial suggestions which helped improve the content of this paper.

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