TECHNOLOGY

AND IT’S
BRANCHES
A PROJECT BY
NIKHIL S KHANZODE
SYMBIOSIS PRIMARY SCHOOL
STANDARD-7TH
DIV-B
ROLL NO-13
 TECHNOLOGY
Technology is a broad concept that deals with an animal species' usage and knowledge of tools
and crafts, and how it affects an animal species' ability to control and adapt to its environment.
Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη"
("craft") and "logia", "λογία" ("saying"). However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can
refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also
encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The
term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction
technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art technology".

The human race's use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple
tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of
food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their
environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone,
and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to
interact on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the
development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history,
from clubs to nuclear weapons.

Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies,
technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy)
and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-
products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its
environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new
technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of
efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the
challenge of traditional norms.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with
disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-
Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology
in the modern world, claiming that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of
ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological
progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed
that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific
studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools
and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.
I HAVE COVERED THE FOUR MAIN BRANCHES OF TECHNOLOGY IN
MY PROJECT.

THEY ARE:

 ROBOTICS

 ASTRONOMY

 D.N.A.

 NAVIGATION
 ROBOTICS:
Robotics is the science and technology of robots, and their design,
manufacture, and application. Robotics has connections to electronics,
mechanics, and software.

ORIGIN:

Stories of artificial helpers and companions and attempts to create them have
a long history, but fully autonomous machines only appeared in the 20th
century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate,
was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and
stack them. Today, commercial and industrial robots are in widespread use
performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than
humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, or
dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing,
assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery,
weaponry, laboratory research, safety, and mass production of consumer and
industrial goods.
 THE TERM ROBOT:
A robot is a virtual or mechanical artificial agent. In practice, it is usually an
electro-mechanical system which, by its appearance or movements, conveys a
sense that it has intent or agency of its own. The word robot can refer to both
physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred
to as bots. There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots, but
there is general agreement among experts and the public that robots tend to
do some or all of the following: move around, operate a mechanical limb,
sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior,
especially behavior which mimics humans or other animals.

People have a generally positive perception of the robots they actually

encounter. Domestic robots for cleaning and maintenance are increasingly
common in and around homes. There is anxiety, however, over the economic
impact of automation and the threat of robotic weaponry, anxiety which is not
helped by the depiction of many villainous, intelligent, acrobatic robots in
popular entertainment. Compared with their fictional counterparts, real
robots are still benign, dim-witted and clumsy.

EMIA, A ROBOT BY SONY TECHNOLOGIES

 ASTRONOMY:
Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον), "star", and nomos (νόμος),
"law") is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and
galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the
cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics,
chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation
and development of the universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Astronomers of early civilizations

performed methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts
have been found from much earlier periods. However, the invention of the
telescope was required before astronomy was able to develop into a modern
science. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry,
celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even
astrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be
synonymous with astrophysics. Since the 20th century, the field of professional
astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational
astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic
principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development
of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena.
The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to
explain the observational results, and observations being used to confirm
theoretical results.

Amateur astronomers have contributed to many important astronomical

discoveries, and astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can still play
an active role, especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena.

Old or even ancient astronomy is not to be confused with astrology, the belief
system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of
celestial objects. Although the two fields share a common origin and a part of their
methods (namely, the use of ephemerides), they are distinct.

2009 has been declared by the UN to be the International Year of Astronomy 2009
(IYA2009). The focus is on enhancing the public’s engagement with and
understanding of astronomy.
 HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY:
In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the
motions of objects visible to the naked eye. In some locations, such as Stonehenge,
early cultures assembled massive artifacts that likely had some astronomical
purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, these observatories could be
employed to determine the seasons, an important factor in knowing when to plant
crops, as well as in understanding the length of the year.

Before tools such as the telescope were invented early study of the stars had to be
conducted from the only vantage points available, namely tall buildings and high
ground using the bare eye.

As civilizations developed, most notably in Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt, Persia,

Maya, India, China, and the Islamic world, astronomical observatories were
assembled, and ideas on the nature of the universe began to be explored. Most of
early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and
planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early
ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun,
Moon and the Earth in the universe were explored philosophically. The Earth was
believed to be the center of the universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars
rotating around it. This is known as the geocentric model of the universe.

A few notable astronomical discoveries were made prior to the application of the
telescope. For example, the obliquity of the ecliptic was estimated as early as 1000
BC by the Chinese. The Chaldeans discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a
repeating cycle known as a saros. In the 2nd century BC, the size and distance of
the Moon were estimated by Hipparchus.

During the Middle Ages, observational astronomy was mostly stagnant in medieval
Europe, at least until the 13th century. However, observational astronomy
flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the world. Some of the prominent
Arab astronomers who made significant contributions to the science were Al-
Battani and Thebit. Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names
that are now used for individual stars. It is also believed that the ruins at Great
Zimbabwe and Timbuktu may have housed an astronomy observatory.Europeans
had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in pre-
colonial Middle Ages Africa outside of Nubia and Kush but modern discoveries
show otherwise.
 SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION:
During the Renaissance, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar
system. His work was defended, expanded upon, and corrected by Galileo Galilei and
Johannes Kepler. Galileo innovated by using telescopes to enhance his observations.

Kepler was the first to devise a system that described correctly the details of the motion of
the planets with the Sun at the center. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a
theory behind the laws he wrote down. It was left to Newton's invention of celestial
dynamics and his law of gravitation to finally explain the motions of the planets. Newton
also developed the reflecting telescope.

Further discoveries paralleled the improvements in the size and quality of the telescope.
More extensive star catalogues were produced by Lacaille. The astronomer William
Herschel made a detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters, and in 1781 discovered the
planet Uranus, the first new planet found. The distance to a star was first announced in
1838 when the parallax of 61 Cygni was measured by Friedrich Bessel.

During the nineteenth century, attention to the three body problem by Euler, Clairaut, and
D'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets.
This work was further refined by Lagrange and Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets
and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.

Significant advances in astronomy came about with the introduction of new technology,
including the spectroscope and photography. Fraunhofer discovered about 600 bands in
the spectrum of the Sun in 1814-15, which, in 1859, Kirchhoff ascribed to the presence of
different elements. Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide
range of temperatures, masses, and sizes.

The existence of the Earth's galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars, was only
proved in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after,
the expansion of the universe, seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. Modern
astronomy has also discovered many exotic objects such as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and
radio galaxies, and has used these observations to develop physical theories which describe
some of these objects in terms of equally exotic objects such as black holes and neutron
stars. Physical cosmology made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of
the Big Bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such
as the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law, and cosmological
abundances of elements.
Observational Astronomy:
In astronomy, information is mainly received from the detection and analysis of visible light or
other regions of the electromagnetic radiation. Observational astronomy may be divided
according to the observed region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Some parts of the spectrum
can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are only observable from either high
altitudes or space. Specific information on these subfields is given below.

Radio Astronomy:
Radio astronomy studies radiation with wavelengths greater than approximately one millimeter.
Radio astronomy is different from most other forms of observational astronomy in that the
observed radio waves can be treated as waves rather than as discrete photons. Hence, it is
relatively easier to measure both the amplitude and phase of radio waves, whereas this is not as
easily done at shorter wavelengths.

Though some radio waves are produced by astronomical objects in the form of thermal emission,
most of the radio emission that is observed from Earth is seen in the form of synchrotron
radiation, which is produced when electrons oscillate around magnetic fields. Additionally, a
number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas, notably the hydrogen spectral line at
21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.

A wide variety of objects are observable at radio wavelengths, including supernovae, interstellar
gas, pulsars, and active galactic nuclei.

Infrared Astronomy:
Infrared astronomy deals with the detection and analysis of infrared radiation (wavelengths
longer than red light). Except at wavelengths close to visible light, infrared radiation is heavily
absorbed by the atmosphere, and the atmosphere produces significant infrared emission.
Consequently, infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places or in space. The
infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light, such as
planets and circumstellar disks. Longer infrared wavelengths can also penetrate clouds of dust
that blocks visible light, allowing observation of young stars in molecular clouds and the cores of
galaxies. Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared, and this can be used to study chemistry
in space, as well as detecting water in comets.

Optical Astronomy:
Historically, optical astronomy, also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest form of astronomy.
Optical images were originally drawn by hand. In the late nineteenth century and most of the twentieth
century, images were made using photographic equipment. Modern images are made using digital
detectors, particularly detectors using charge-coupled devices . Although visible light itself extends from
approximately 4000 Å to 7000 Å (400 nm to 700 nm), the same equipment used at these wavelengths is
also used to observe some near-ultraviolet and near-infrared radiation.
Ultra-violet Astronomy:
Ultraviolet astronomy is generally used to refer to observations at ultraviolet wavelengths
between approximately 100 and 3200 Å (10 to 320 nm). Light at these wavelengths is absorbed
by the Earth's atmosphere, so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the
upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal
radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright in this
wave band. This includes the blue stars in other galaxies, which have been the targets of several
ultraviolet surveys. Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light include planetary
nebulae, supernova remnants, and active galactic nuclei. However, ultraviolet light is easily
absorbed by interstellar dust, and measurement of the ultraviolet light from objects need to be
corrected for extinction.

X-Ray Astronomy:
X-ray astronomy is the study of astronomical objects at X-ray wavelengths. Typically, objects
emit X-ray radiation as synchrotron emission (produced by electrons oscillating around magnetic
field lines), thermal emission from thin gases (called bremsstrahlung radiation) that is above 107
(10 million) Kelvin, and thermal emission from thick gases (called blackbody radiation) that are
above 107 Kelvin. Since X-rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, all X-ray observations
must be done from high-altitude balloons, rockets, or spacecraft. Notable X-ray sources include
X-ray binaries, pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and active
galactic nuclei.

Gamma-ray Astronomy:
Gamma ray astronomy is the study of astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov
telescopes. The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect the gamma rays directly but instead
detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's
atmosphere.

Most gamma-ray emitting sources are actually gamma-ray bursts, objects which only produce
gamma radiation for a few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before fading away. Only 10%
of gamma-ray sources are non-transient sources. These steady gamma-ray emitters include
pulsars, neutron stars, and black hole candidates such as active galactic nuclei.
 D.N.A.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of
DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of
blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other
components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this
genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are
involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

Chemically, DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with
backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. These two strands run in
opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of
four types of molecules called bases. It is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone
that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the
sequence of the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into
the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called transcription.

Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are
duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms
(animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store their DNA inside the cell nucleus, while in prokaryotes
(bacteria and archaea) it is found in the cell's cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin
proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the
interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are
transcribed.
Properties:
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. The DNA chain is 22 to
26 Ångströms wide (2.2 to 2.6 nanometres), and one nucleotide unit is 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long.
Although each individual repeating unit is very small, DNA polymers can be very large
molecules containing millions of nucleotides. For instance, the largest human chromosome,
chromosome number 1, is approximately 220 million base pairs long.

In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a tightly-
associated pair of molecules. These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape of a double
helix. The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the molecule, which
holds the chain together, and a base, which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix. In
general, a base linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or
more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. If multiple nucleotides are linked together, as in
DNA, this polymer is called a polynucleotide.

The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues. The
sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined
together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon
atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In
a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the
other strand. This arrangement of DNA strands is called antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of
DNA strands are referred to as the 5′ (five prime) and 3′ (three prime) ends, with the 5' end being
that with a terminal phosphate group and the 3' end that with a terminal hydroxyl group. One of
the major differences between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with 2-deoxyribose being replaced by
the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA.

The DNA double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases attached to the two
strands. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and
thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete
nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate.

These bases are classified into two types; adenine and guanine are fused five- and six-membered
heterocyclic compounds called purines, while cytosine and thymine are six-membered rings
called pyrimidines. A fifth pyrimidine base, called uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine
in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. Uracil is not usually
found in DNA, occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine.
STRUCTURE:
 NAVIGATION:
Navigation is the process of reading, and controlling the movement of a craft or
vehicle from one place to another. It is also the term of art used for the specialized
knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks. The word navigate is
derived from the Latin "navigare", meaning "to sail". All navigational techniques
involve locating the navigator's position compared to known locations or patterns.

A DECCA NAVIGATOR
BASIC CONCEPTS OF NAVIGATION:

Latitude:
The latitude of a place on the earth's surface is the angular distance north or
south of the [equator]. Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with
°) ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles. The
latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90° S.
Historically, mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by
sighting the North Star Polaris with a sight reduction tables to take out error
for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. Generally, the height of Polaris
in degrees of arc above the horizon is the latitude of the observer.

Longitude:
Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on the earth's surface is the angular
distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian. Longitude is
usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Greenwich
meridian to 180° east and west. Sydney, Australia, for example, has a longitude of
about 151° east. New York City has a longitude of about 74° west. For most of
history, mariners struggled to determine precise longitude. The problem was solved
with the invention of the marine chronometer. Longitude can be calculated if the
precise time sighting is known.

Modern Techniques:
Most modern navigation relies primarily on positions determined
electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other
modern techniques rely on crossing lines of position or LOP.A line of position
can refer to two different things: a line on a chart and a line between the
observer and an object in real life. A bearing is a measure of the direction to
an object. If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can
then be drawn on a nautical chart and the navigator will be on that line on
the chart.

In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects.

On the chart, a distance produces a circle or arc of position. Circles, arcs, and
hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position.

If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position. A fix is
the intersection of two or more LOPs.

If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the dead reckoning
position to establish an estimated position.
Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources:

• celestial observation (a short segment of the circle of equal altitude, but

generally represented as a line),
• terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are
observed to be in line with each other,
• compass bearing to a charted object,
• radar range to a charted object,
• On certain coastlines, a depth sounding from echo sounder or hand lead line.

There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic
range from observer to lighthouse

Methods of navigation have changed through history. Each new method has enhanced the
mariner’s ability to complete his voyage. One of the most important judgments the navigator
must make is the best method to use. Some types of navigation are depicted in the table.

THANK YOU

SOURCE: Wikipedia®