Distributed Generation Technologies: An Approach towards Future Energy

Pavan Khetrapal; Tripta Thakur; Mandeep Singh

Abstract - In todays scenario, energy technologies have a vital role in socio-economic development at all scales, from household and society to regional, national and international. Without it neither the industrial nor the cultural levels achieved by human race would be possible. Among its welfare impacts on human civilization, the energy is closely linked to environmental pollution and degradation, quality of living, and nations economic development. Furthermore, community awareness of environmental impact caused by large traditional power generation units is growing, together with a greater interest in distributedgeneration (DG) technologies. This paper reviews the various distributed generation (DG) technologies that mainly include fuel cell, micro turbines, photovoltaic cell etc. A comparative study between the various technologies is also presented in terms of most important technological characteristics of each DG technology. Keywords- Distributed Generation, DG definitions, Internal Combustion Engines, Diesel Engines, Fuel Cells, Microturbines, Environment Impact.

liberalized power system of today, the market players are not easily convinced to take investment decision in multibillion power generation and transmission projects because of very long pay-back period. These serious concerns and the decentralization of power system and the liberalization of electricity supply industry, along with drastically growing end consumers demand worldwide triggers DG to gain a considerable interest among various entities involved in the liberalized electricity market such as power producers, public utility companies, customers, regulators and researchers [1]. II. DEFINITIONS OF DG The term Distributed Generation is commonly perceived as small-scale electrical power generation technology that supplies electric power at or near the load site. However, there is no co census on how the distributed generation should be exactly defined as the concept involves a wide range of technologies and applications in various different environments. Some countries defined Distributed Generation as incorporating some basic features (for example, using renewables, cogeneration, being non-dispatchable, etc). Other countries define distributed generation on the voltage level basis, while some begin from the principle that distributed generation is connected to circuits that directly feeds the consumer load. Many industrial organizations at international level come up with new definition of DG used in different countries and situations. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) defines the DG as electricity generation by facilities sufficiently smaller than central plants, usually 10 MW or less, so as to allow interconnection at nearly any point in the power system [2]. The International Council on Large Electricity System (CIGRE) outlined distributed generation as all generation units with a maximum capacity of 50 MW to 100 MW, that are usually connected to the distribution network and that are neither centrally planned nor dispatched [3]. International Energy Agency (IEA) sees the distributed generation as units producing power on a customers site or within local distribution utilities, and supplying power directly to the local distribution network [4]. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) treats small generation units form a few kW up to 50 MW and/or energy storage devices typically sited near customers loads or distribution and sub-transmission substations as distributed energy resources [5].

I. INTRODUCTION The electric power sector throughout the world is currently facing different challenges due to various energy-related concerns- environmental sustainability, competitiveness, security of supply - within context of growing consumer demand. The present policies of building large centralized generation and transmission expansion to meet the growing electricity demand is mainly hindered by environmental and socio-economic constraints. These barriers may then contribute to the idea of local generation for local consumption traditionally known as Distributed Generation. A trend is showing up globally where more and more energy conversion units are located close to the consumers end and large units are partially replaced by more efficient, eco-friendly and small-size generating units. The situation in California is the best learning experience for distributed power generation. Additionally, in the

Pavan Khetrapal is with Truba College of Science and Technology, Bhopal (India) and working as Asstt. Prof. in Electical and Electronics Engg. Deptt, (tel: 0120-3291277, e-mail: pavan.jsj@gmail.com). Tripta Thakur is with Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal (India) and working as Associate Professor in Electical Engg. Deptt, (tel: 0755-5206006, e-mail: tripta_thakur@yahoo.co.in). Mandeep Singh is with Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghazibad, (India) and working as Asstt. Prof. in Electical and Electronics Engg. Deptt, (tel: 120-2762841, e-mail: cheema16@gmail.com)

The US Department of Energy (DOE) defines Distributed Generation as modular electric generation or storage located near the point of consumption. The DOE considers distributed power system to typically range from less than a kilowatt to tons of megawatts (MW) in size as DG unit [6]. [7] defined distributed generation as a small source of electric power generation or storage (commonly ranging from less than a kW to tens of MW) that is not a part of large centralized power system and is situated near to the customer load. From the foregoing discussion, it is obvious that capacity specification for DG units is not uniquely defined worldwide. II. DG POTENTIAL IN INDIA The power situation in Indian scenario is not untouched to other nations. In 2006, India among various other countries had the fifth highest primary energy consumption in the world [8] and 3.5% of global commercial energy consumption. Further, the annual energy consumption by end customers is growing at a steady rate of 6% per year. It is estimated that the total installed capacity of the centralized electric power generation units was about to 167278.36 MW as on 29 October 2010, of which thermal units accounted for nearly 64.6%, hydro plants for 24.7% and around 2.91% by nuclear power plants. It has also to be remarked that Renewable Energy Sources (RES) constituted 7.67% of installed generating potential [9]. Different studies reveal that the world demand for oil and natural gas is increasing significantly each year and the major share of this increase is currently accounted by India and China where the industrial revolution and consumer demand is escalating at an enormous pace. The IEA forecasts that the energy demand by 2013 will be 60% more than it is now. In India, the demand supply gap of energy and power is increasing significantly. Currently, this gap is 8% of average load and 12% of peak demand at current prices [10]. In order to bridge the demandsupply energy gap and meet the anticipated future growth in the country, India plans to double the present capacity by installing an additional generation capacity of 150,000 MW by 2012. A major bottleneck in the generation expansion in the existing power system is the scarcity of financial resources lying with utilities which can be attributed to lack of sufficient revenues and state subsidies for supply to rural subscribers. The country has a separate Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES), Government of India, which frames the overall guidelines to promote renewable based energy supply. Most of the energy available from the renewable sources is grid integrated. The major sources contributing to renewable sources are small hydro, wind and biomass (cogeneration, combustion and gasification) units. By 2012, the Ministry has future vision to meet 10% of total power requirements from renewables. The energy statistics reported that the installed capacity of Distributed Generation in India is about 12,000 MW (10,000 MW Diesel, 2000 MW renewables). The installed capacity figures as on 30.06.2010 in respect of RES from Ministry of Renewable Energy (MNRE) is indicated about 17174.60 MW.

Fig. 1 shows the total installed generation capacity in Indian scenario. [ ]

Installed Generation Capacity as on 30.10.2010
RES 8% Nuclear 3% Hydro 25% Oil 1% Gas 11% Coal 52%

Fig. 1. Total installed generation capacity in India [

III. TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS IN DISTRIBUTED GENERATION It is well known that the combustion of fossil fuels, which accounts for 68% of electricity generation, results in the release of stream of gases into the atmosphere and is a major source of polluting the environmental air. DG technologies provide truly green power and significantly mitigate one or more pollutants often associated with central coal-fired plants, thus benefiting the global environment. The various generation sources for distributed generation system are: emerging technologies (fuel cells or micro turbines or energy storage devices), conventional technologies (diesel or natural gas engines), and renewable technologies (small wind turbine or solar/photovoltaic or small hydro-turbines). A detailed study of various promising DG technologies is presented in the following discussion. A. Internal Combustion Engines: Among distributed power generation technologies, the internal combustion engines (ICEs) driving the electric generators are the most mature prime movers. Internal combustion engines (ICEs) in most cases runs as backup generators for sensitive loads, since continuous energy supply failures would have serious consequences on the performance of such load. The main advantages include comparatively high shaft efficiency, suitability for intermittent duty, low installation cost, high part load efficiency, high-temperature exhaust stream for combined heat and power. Additionally, in many sectors of the economy the ICEs have gained widespread acceptance. Internal combustion engine generation capacity currently available from various manufacturers in all distributed generation sizes ranges from a few kilowatts to over 30 MW. A commonly subset of ICE technologies including rotary engine also is given by reciprocating engines [11]. These engines being the first fossil-fuel driven DG technologies are still widely used and were invented more than 100 years ago. Based on either Diesel Cycle (compression ignition) or Otto Cycle (spark ignition), reciprocating engines are most commonly used four stroke engines in which piston move back and forth in cylinders. The fuels primarily available for former type are diesel and biodiesel while for the latter; the feasible fuels are natural gas, gasoline and also biogas from sewage works. The earlier

designed ICEs have relatively low efficiency at around 30%, but current technology has improved these old values so that modern, efficient engines approach 40% to 50% efficiency [ ]. Most internal combustion engines are usually coupled to the alternator and runs at synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is decided by the frequency of the electric grid in the country involved (usually 60 Hz (US) or 50 Hz (India)). The 2pole synchronous generators driven by small engines generally operate at 3600 rpm (60Hz) or 3000 rpm (50Hz) whereas medium sized engines operate at 1800 rpm (60Hz) and 1500 rpm (50Hz) with 4-pole generators. ICEs quickly responds to changing load conditions and particularly have low star up time. The power factor can be adjusted with in permissible limits. In United States, about 76% of engine sets range between 15 kW to 200 kW and large number are under 1 MW capacity. The status of distributed generation is different in other parts of the world, for instance in UK, Indonesia and Japan, internal combustion engine accounts for more than 20% of the total power generation. The combustion process of ICEs produces highest NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) emissions among DG technologies (gas-fired: .3-1.2 kg/MWh, diesel-fired: 12 kg/MWh); high CO and CO2 (Carbon monoxide and Carbon dioxide) emissions (diesel-fired: 650 kg/MWh, and gas-fired: 450-600 kg/MWh) and these emissions are the major concerns which makes other technologies competitive with ICEs. The Advanced Reciprocating Gas Engine Technology (TARGET), launched in 1997 and Advanced Reciprocating Engine System, started in 2001, are the two research programs in US, which aims to produce a commercially viable gas engine delivering 50% engine shaft efficiency and NOx emissions of less than . 1kg/MWh by 2010 [12]. Fig. 2 shows a diesel-fuelled ICE with the coupled generator .

efficiencies of aero derivative turbines; low installation cost per MW output; increasing availability of natural gas for low fixedprice contracts and most important the ability to site and install units from 2 to 45 MW (and larger) in weeks to months, not long years. Basic gas-fired combustion turbines consists of a compressor in which air is compressed and a gaseous or liquid fuel ignited in combustor and the resulting combustion products expanded directly through the turbine blades thus converting rotational energy into electrical power output. The efficiency of simple cycle turbines is as high as 30% while the efficiency ranges between 16 to 18% for generation capacities less than 100kW. The full load efficiency of gas-fired combustion turbines is high as compared to its part load efficiency and their consumption and power output declines in higher altitude regions [12]. In combustion turbines, combustion takes place outside the circumference of prime mover whereas in the reciprocating engines it occurs inside the periphery of prime mover. This permits greater flexibility in reducing NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) emissions (04-0.6 kg/MWh), although CO2 emissions of gas turbines are nearly same as ICEs (585-685 kg/MWh). Fig. 3 shows a combustion turbine scheme. The installation cost of a typical gas-fired combustion turbine with exhaust heat recuperation ranges between 680-650 US $/kW and along with heat recovery units the cost typically ranges from 1200-1300 US $/kW. Average maintenance costs for gas-fired turbines are estimated around .005-.009 US $/kWh. [ ]

Fig. 3. Combustion turbine scheme [ ]

Fig. 2. A diesel-fuelled ICE with the coupled generator [ ]

B. Combustion Turbines: The most widely used prime movers for future power generation worldwide are Natural gas-fired turbines; in the year 2003, over 4600 units were sold or ordered by various entities or utilities[ ]. Advantages include comparatively higher electrical

C. Microturbines: Microturbines are essentially one of the best short-term distributed power generation choices which were originally developed or designed for transportation purposes and now-a days have found a place in the power generation sector. These are turbo-generator sets driven directly by high speed turbines (50000-120000 turns per minute) of capacity lower than 1 MW .[ ] The individual units ranges from 25-100 kW but a system of multiple units can readily be obtained by combining several individual units. Most microturbines are capable of burning a wide range of fuels at different pressure levels, including natural gas; flare gas; landfill gas; bio-gas or propane. They are generally used for cogeneration units; meeting base load power; serves as stand-by power and sometimes well suited to supply commercial buildings. Without a recuperator the gas turbines of micro type are limited to efficiencies of 15-17 %, whereas with

an 87% effective recuperator the efficiency as high as up to 33% can be achieved. The startup time as required for commercial turbines has been claimed to be up to 110 sec [13]. Microturbine DG units have reported a remarkable feature that they have significantly low air pollution emissions, particularly NOx emissions ( .1kg/MWh, or about 1/100th of the NOx emission level of diesel-fired internal combustion engines); although CO2 (Carbon dioxide) emissions of MT are occasionally more than ICEs (730 kg/MWh) [ ]. Fig. 4 shows a microturbine turbine scheme The capital cost of a microturbine on per installed kW basis is estimated to be between 600 and 800 US $/kW which is several times more than that of ICE. The maintenance costs for microturbines are estimated between .006 and .017 US $/kW [14]. Microturbine units have significantly shorter equipment lifetime in comparison to ICEs and since the technology has been commercialized in the market, it is offered by a small number of suppliers and has fewer support services. Nevertheless, MT sales has markedly improved in the last decade, driven by environmental issues and niche applications, such as burning flare gas at remote locations or landfill sites [ ]. According to a study carried out by the Gas Research Institute, microturbines could supply around 8% of the supplementary power of 1 million MW expected by 2010 in the world.

other benefits include modularity, low noise and variable generation of electricity and heat. Fig. 5 shows the schematic diagram of fuel cell . Five principle types of fuel cells are currently the focus of intensive research and development. These five fuel cell types significantly differ from each other in various aspects; however, the key distinguishing feature is the electrolyte material and operating temperature, which is generally used to identify each of the five fuel cell types [15]: Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC); Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC); Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC); Solid Oxide fuel cell (SOFC); Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) The last category was specially designed for domains related to space. Table I gives a summary of the characteristics of different fuel cells.[ ]
TABLE I Comparative study of different fuel cells [ Fuel Cell Systems & Electrolyte Polymer Electrolyte Membrane [PEMFC], immobalized, acidic Alkaline Fuel Cell System [AFC], circulating liguid or Matrix Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell [PAFC], concentrated acid gel Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell [MCFC], Li/Na - carbonate melt Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Systems [SOFC], ceramic Zr/Y-oxides Temp. Range Fuel Supply

]
Application

Room Temp. to 80 deg. C

Hydrogen or Converter

Small Units, up to automobiles

Room Temp. to 80 deg. C

Hydrogen or NH

Small Units, up to automobiles

210 to 220 deg. C

Hydrogen or Converter

Power Plants 50 to 200 kW

Fig. 4.

Microturbine scheme

620 to 600 deg. C

Selected fuel or Converter

Power Plants up to Mega-W

D. Fuel Cells: Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy or fuels to electricity at very high efficiencies without combustion, compared with conventional power generation technologies. In the 1960s, the state-of-art of fuel cells were initially developed for space applications and more recently the transportation sector is found to be the major potential market for fuel cells [ ]. These cells produce electricity at efficiencies of 55-60% and because of their high efficiency levels; fuel cells are particularly well suited to the distributed power generation market as well as offer several good opportunities in terms of CHP and environmental impact. Moreover, fuel cells operate so quietly that they are now widely used in residential community or neighborhoods [ ]. Emissions from fuel cells have been shown to be near zero for most pollutants of concern (e.g. NO X, SOX, CO and hydrocarbons) because fuel cell is an electrochemical design and power conversion process is based on electrochemical principle rather than combustion one [ ]. The

800 to 1000 deg. C

All Fuels, direct feed

Small to Large Power Plants

Net efficiencies of about 80% are theoretically possible [ ]. In the most traditional form of utilization, the PAFC has produced an efficiency of 40% at atmospheric pressure and 45% for systems under pressure. It should be noted that the fuel cells have a low consumption when not in operation. New storage applications envisage using fuel cells in the power range varying from 5 MW to 550 MW for a duration ranging from a fraction of a second to 13 hours or more [16].

Fig. 5. Fuel cell scheme [

E. Photovoltaic Systems: In photovoltaic (PV) systems, the conversion of sunlight into electrical power output takes place directly, without requiring intervening heat engine or without rotating or moving parts. Photovoltaic devices are semiconductor devices; thus, they are rugged and simple in design and has very little operation costs and maintenance. Furthermore, PV systems can be constructed as either grid-connected or stand-alone to produce microwatts output to megawatts range. PV technology has been used as power sources for electronic calculators, watches, communications, satellites and space vehicles, remote buildings, as well as megawatt-scale power plants [17]. Since they are comparatively lightweight, compact in size, and do not require a gaseous or liquid fuel supply, PV systems are widely used in developing countries and considered to be the best DG technology for small commercial applications and serving rural area community that have no other options or choices to access basic energy services. Fig. 6 shows a schematic diagram of PV array located adjacent to commercial building. Now-a-days commercial PV systems are available in rooftop sizes (less than 12 kW), medium sized units (15-100kW) and large systems above 110 kW connected to distribution utility feeders. The first large sized (1.5MW) grid-interactive photovoltaic plant was set up in Lugo, in California, USA. In India, the largest operating grid-interactive photovoltaic plant had been recently installed at village Khatkarkalan, District Nawanshahr of Punjab, and so far in the country, a t o t a l o f 1 7 9 5 kW stand-alone solar photo voltaic systems have been set up [ ].

Fig. 6.

PV array scheme

F. Stirling Engines: Stirling engines probably represent the power production technology for electricity generation in domestic CHP (microCHP) systems. The operation of these Engines is based on closed thermodynamic cycle (the Stirling cycle) where the temperature differential is converted in to usable electrical power output. A high temperature external heat is supplied to the engine heater head, and thermodynamic waste heat is rejected to ambient temperature. An internal displacer piston physically shuttles the helium working fluid between the hot and cold regions, thus, creating a varying pressure level, which reciprocates the power piston. The reciprocating movement can be employed to generate electrical power directly using a coupled linear alternator. Since Stirling Engines are external combustion heat engines, they do not require a specific fuel source. Practical Stirling Cycle Engines operate well using propane, natural gas, gasoline, diesel, radioisotopes, solar energy, and even wood or other biomass. The choice of fuel type, operating temperatures, and mechanical design of the engine greatly affects the efficiency of a Stirling generator system [ ]. Fig. 7 shows a 55 kW Stirling Engine. Stirling Engines currently available in the market have generator efficiencies ranging from nearly 35% to around 45%. In USA, Stirling Technology Company (STC) and Sun Power Inc. are the leading suppliers of free-piston Stirling Cycle

Engine Generators with capacities ranging from 12 W to 6 kW [18].

Fig. 7. 55 kW Stirling Engine

[]

Table II summarizes a comparative study of various DG Technologies [ ]

V. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF DG UNITS The major concern for the global environment due to electricity production is the effect on atmospheric air quality from pollutants of NOx, Green house gases and particularly carbon dioxide. To date, the traditional electricity industry is the main source of environment air pollution, and thus, the main environmental concern is closely associated with non renewable energy technologies such as traditional coal-fired power plants. Among various emerging DG technologies, diesel-fired ICEs are most polluting and have the highest NOx emissions. Because of their highest emission level, diesel engines in most regions of the world remain in operation only for a limited time (usually 160 hours per year in most states in USA) [ ]. In regions with a large share of coalfired steam generators, DG units installations such as ICEs and gas turbines, microturbines and fuel cells etc significantly reduces the amount of harmful NOx pollutants. However, the emissions rate from existing DG units (except PAFC and PV) tends to be higher than the best available central generating unit. : A combined cycle gas turbine equipped with Advanced Selective Catalytic Reduction Control Technology.

TABLE II Comparative study of various DG technologies Operation and Maintenance Costs (US$/MWh) 6-17 4-12 5-16 Capital and Installation Costs (US$/kW) 650-1000 325-500 500-1300 Electric Efficiency 35-45% 30-50% 20-30% 25-40% (simple) 40-60% combined 40-70% NOx kg/MWh (Approx.) 0.3-1 10 0.2 CO2 kg/MWh (Approx.) 430-620 580-760 580-870 Start Up Time 5s-1min 10s-1min 30s-2min Technology Level Mature Mature Established, but not consolidated Well established Established, but not consolidated Established

Technologies

Size A few kW to 30 MW 0.05-5 MW 0.025-. 25 MW 3-200 MW 5-250 kW A few kW to more than 115 kW .001-.1 MW

Energy Source Gaseous Hydrocarbons Liquid Hydrocarbons Gaseous (and also liquid) hydrocarbons, hydrogen Gaseous Hydrocarbons Gaseous hydrocarbons

Ref.

ICE Gas-fired Diesel ICEs Microturbines

Industrial Gas Turbines PAFCss

3-6

700-900 > 3000 (4000-5500)

0.3-0.6 0.0060.01

480-1080

2-10min

4-10 1% of first investment annually 4-5

430-520

50min-4h

Photovoltaics

5500-10500

12-18%

Zero

Zero

0s-1min

Solar irradiation Hydrocarbon fuels, hydrogen, biomass

Stirling Engine

> 1000

30-40%

0.25

670

60s

Still Under development

VI. CONCLUSION

The wide range of potential applications for distributed generation, restructuring of power system, incentive based government policies for CHP and the trend to use renewable energy sources in developed regions ensure a major market share for DG technologies in the future power generation. In this paper we presented various DG technologies that are being

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