Drilling Fluids W181

W181 Preparation for the Wellsite
Drilling Fluids
CONTENTS
Page Objectives Resum 1.1 Introduction General The anatomy of a drilling fluid Drilling fluid planning Economics Density and pressure gradients Introduction Units Formation stress and pressure Formation fracture gradient Impact on drilling operations Drilling fluid density Rheology Introduction Terminology Drilling fluid viscosity model Rheological model Model description Conclusion Hydraulics Introduction Optimisation theory Optimising process Routine monitoring Borehole instability Introduction Hole erosion Swelling shale Spalling shale Sloughing shale Salt formations Clay Chemistry Inhibition Inhibiting chemicals Inhibiting polymers Inhibitive systems 3 5 6 6 7 7 8 10 10 10 10 12 13 13 15 15 15 16 18 20 21 23 23 23 25 26 27 27 27 28 28 29 30 31 35 35 36 37
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6 1.7
WEDLP Edition 10 : S6P1 Drilling fluids February 2001
Drilling Fluids
Page 1.8 Invert oil emulsion systems Introduction Theory Engineering Monitoring Contaminants Introduction Chemical contaminants Treatment Treatment chemistry Temperature Drilled Solids Introduction Effect Prevention Monitoring and evaluation Drilling problems Bit balling Torque and drag Differentially stuck pipe Lost circulation Corrosion Well Control Cementing Drill-in, completion and well intervention fluids Introduction Productivity impairment Well bore fluid design Well bore fluid preparation Lost circulation 41 41 41 41 43 44 44 45 45 47 48 50 50 50 51 53 54 54 54 54 55 57 58 60 62 62 62 62 65 66 68
1.9
1.10 1.11
1.12
1.13 1.14 1.15
Appendix 1 : Terminology and symbols
Drilling Fluids
OBJE CTIVES
After studying this Part, consulting other relevant documents and, if necessary, discussions with your mentor, you will be able to: list the primary functions of a drilling fluid describe the process of designing a drilling fluid list the components that may be used in a drilling fluid list the constraints on the choice of drilling fluid product explain how the economic performance of a drilling fluid system is measured name the characteristics of a product (other than price) which have an effect on its economic performance name all the various units used for measuring the density of a drilling fluid and give the corresponding values for fresh water name the various salts used in drilling fluids for increasing the density give the maximum densities achievable with the above-mentioned salts give the grain densities of the solids commonly found, or used, in drilling fluids explain what are viscosityand shear rate describe the different kinds of viscosity behaviour found in fluids define (in simple terms) laminar and turbulent flow and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each describe the rheological behaviour which is considered ideal for a drilling fluid, and explain why calculate the values of rheological parameters from measurements made explain the concept of equivalent circulating density explain what factors determine the upper and lower limits of circulating rate in a drilling fluid system explain the methods available to the drilling fluid engineer for controlling unstable shales name the types of encapsulating polymer, and explain why they are used list the common contaminants of water based drilling fluids, and give their possible sources explain the effect of the above contaminants on the various components of a drilling fluid explain how to treat drilling fluid which has been contaminated by calcium list the maximum temperatures at which common drilling fluid products can be used explain why drilled solids should be removed from a drilling fluid describe how undesirable solids can be removed from drilling fluid describe how the drilling fluid can be a factor in causing and/or curing common mechanical drilling problems explain why small volumes ( pills or slugs ) of high density drilling fluid may be required, and give a typical composition
Drilling Fluids
explain why the drilling fluid may affect the success of a cement job explain why the drilling fluid may have to be replaced before drilling into the objective hydrocarbon reservoir list the primary causes of production impairment explain the effect of temperature on brine systems explain why bridging materials may be deliberately added to a drilling-in or work-over fluid, and name the three options explain why oxygen corrosion is not normally a problem in completion fluids
Drilling Fluids
RESUM
The purpose of this Part is to explain the logic behind selecting, preparing, running and modifying both drilling fluids and drilling-in, completion and well intervention fluids. The objective is to provide an awareness of the role of these fluids in well construction, so that the Well Engineer can convey a clear specification to the contractor and he in turn can provide, and maintain, a fit-for-purposeproduct. It is not a recipe book of formulations and remedies for all occasions (these don t exist), or a theoretical dissertation on the physico-chemical properties of drilling fluids (these already exist).
Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.1 INTROD UCTION

1.1.1 GENERAL
Man has been excavating the ground to recover the earth s resources since before recorded history. The drilling industry has long been a part of this occupation. It has come a long way since the Chinese and Egyptians first started using boring machines. Today our industry is capable of drilling to over 20 km depths drilling 10m diameter shafts drilling 8 km horizontally at 3 km depth, and turning at right angles. extracting geothermal energy at 400C drilling in 5 km water depths drilling square holes
Truly remarkable feats. One of the controlling factors in this development has been the corresponding strides made in drilling fluid technology. Today we can formulate fluids to: withstand over 200C transport pipeline debris over 192 km carry 5kg pieces of metal vertically from depths over 1,000m transport gold ore vertically from 4,000m
but regrettably there is often a large discrepancy between what we can have and what we often use. The name Mud Doctorhas been used for many years as a humorous title for the drilling fluids engineer. Although quite funny, it is not that far from the truth for the drilling fluid can be viewed as the life blood of the drilling operation. It cleanses the system, delivers energy and carries antibodies to combat system problems. Without it drilling cannot operate at peak performance. The drilling fluid engineer s role is to ensure that the drilling operation remains fit and healthy. To do this effectively he must be knowledgeable of the anatomy of the body (formation and well) and diagnose for genetic defects (downhole problems) and the blood disorders (contaminants). He must then specify remedial treatments to ensure the correct physico-chemical balance is maintained to maximise performance. However, in some respects, the name has also developed somewhat from Witch Doctor. The mud industry has historically been secretive about how to plan and run a drilling fluid. Expressions such as experience , in-house expertiseand trade secretshave often been bandied about to limit the spread of knowledge. Sometimes it can almost appear to be Black Magic, with the old Mud Doctor throwing in a secret ingredient or two and getting dramatic effects. This secrecy has often blinded the drilling fluids industry to the needs of their customers if the latter don t know how it is done they may not want to challenge what is recommended for fear of appearing ignorant. One reason given for this restriction of information has been the protection of R&D and training investment. No company can afford to give away its technical and commercial advantage. Equally we cannot afford to have inefficient and expensive drilling fluids; that compromises our technical and commercial advantage. The ultimate goal, for all, is the well being of our operations. The responsibility for resolving any potential conflict lies with both sides. Understanding and properly using drilling fluids does produce successful wells, ignorance can, and often does, have the opposite effect.
Drilling Fluids
1.1.2
THE ANATOMY OF A DRILLING FLUID
What is the difference between Mud and a Drilling Fluid? Mud is a mixture of dirt and water whereas a Drilling Fluid can be: a Tool to Maximise Results and Minimise Costs What are the Functions of a Drilling Fluid? Classically these have been listed as being to: deliver sufficient energy to the bit to assist drilling. clean the drilling face of newly made cuttings. cool, clean and lubricate the bit. drive any downhole motor or turbine. transport the cuttings out of the hole. suspend the cuttings during periods without circulation. stabilise the sides of the borehole. maintain an impermeable barrier on the borehole wall opposite porous and permeable formations provide hydrostatic head to avoid the influx of formation fluids into the borehole. release the carried cuttings before recirculating into the hole. to transmit data to surface . This list of functions does not however accurately portray the true role of the fluid in the drilling operation nor does it indicate the potential impact upon the business. Like a doctor, or scientist, the fluids engineer needs all of the facts and must evaluate the whole picture before formulating an effective solution. Putting the key functions from above into context against where in the system they are required, as illustrated in Figure 6.1.1, a clearer picture starts to emerge, not only of what the fluid is supposed to do, but where, how and under what conditions. By analysing the functions of the drilling fluid in the context of the operation we can build up a better understanding of the way it must perform, and under what influencing conditions. Thus we are able to prescribe the optimum specification for the job to be done, monitor the performance and carry out remedial treatments to rectify any short fallings.
1.1.3
DRILLING FLUID PLANNING
All of a drilling fluid s functions are important, however the specific goals of a particular drilling operation will place Figure 6.1.1 : Functions of a drilling fluid different emphasis on them; for example, drilling through a water sensitive shale will place more emphasis on the borehole stability aspect than would drilling through a competent
Drilling Fluids
limestone. The key to efficient drilling fluid design, and well planning, is using a logical, structured approach to programming. Such an approach encompasses: specifying and ranking the goals and expectations of the operation. recognising the system requirements to achieve the goals. identifying the drilling fluid functions within the system requirements. matching the drilling fluid properties with the functions. profiling the performance under the varying condition for optimum additive selection.
Throughout it is essential that the planning engineer liaise with all interested parties involved with the well. Firstly a ranked set of objectives has to be defined and agreed. For example: Is it an exploration well? Then petrophysical logging may be important to monitor progress against prognosis. Thus a near gauge hole with minimum fluid invasion would be a key requirement. What type of logs are required? Some are sensitive to salt, others are sensitive to oil. Secondly, the specific fluid properties required to achieve the goals should be listed in a planning table. Each property should then be examined specifically as to the requirements throughout the circulating system. Having defined this model of optimum performance, components can then be selected. Where variance from the ideal occurs the design should be re-examined, with respect to the prioritised objectives, to gauge the impact that less than maximum performance may have. As well as satisfying the operational objectives materials chosen must meet a number of common requirementssuch as HSE, compatibility with the make-up water and compatibility with other additives. Once the potential components have been identified, on a performance basis, then, and only then, should the economics be reviewed. The costs examined should be on an overall well basis. A balance must be always be sought between combating foreseeable problems and overkilling all possible eventualities.
1.1.4
ECONOMICS
One of the major, and perhaps the most influential, planning and operating parameters is cost . Cost controland expense reductionhave developed as everyday catch phrases within our industry, and rightly so. We have finite resources of funds with which to find, develop and produce hydrocarbons. Our goal is to reduce the cost of the whole operation. We must be careful not to just focus on the price on individual products or elements. We can all calculate that saving 20% on a US$1,000 item is not equal to a consequential loss of 1% on a US$40,000 operation due to using a sub-optimal drilling fluid. The key objective is to minimise the cost of well construction and maximise productivity. For example, compare a reasonably quality bentonite based drilling fluid, costing approximately US$50/m3, versus a more expensive polymer based fluid, costing around $88/m3. Initially it would appear that the bentonite based fluid offer significant savings over the polymer fluid. However, consider the implications when drilling through the reservoir section of a well to be completed barefoot. If the damaging nature of the bentonite filter cake, which is chemically inert, reduces the production from an estimated 1,000 m3 per day to 900 m3 . A remedial stimulation treatment to remove the damage could cost upward of $50,000. It is easy to see that it would not take too long to lose any advantage gained from the cheaper drilling fluid. This is not to say that more expensive is better. The essential factor is getting a fit-for-purpose product. Drilling fluid planning must consider the overall effect and economics on the operation, particularly the cost per barrel of production; this is the ultimate goal. Cutting corners in one
Drilling Fluids
area may not necessarily result in a cost saving in the overall project. Maximising the results is as important as, if not more so than, reducing the cost. The result from a properly structured planning process will be the optimum fluid for achieving the specified goals with the minimum overall operational cost, and thus give: Maximum Return on Investment
Drilling Fluids
TO PIC 1.2 D EN SITY & PR ESSU R E GR A D IEN TS

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of laying down the various formations and the subsequent actions on the ground by movements within the earth s crust create abnormal conditions in the rocks through which the operation will drill. These create specific problems that the drilling fluid must overcome. Uncontrolled production of formation fluids and gases can be a safety risk, hazardous to the environment and a loss of revenue for the Company and the asset holder. The drilling fluid is the first line of defence against such occurrences. The second defence mechanism is containment within the well. The optimum density of the drilling fluid is a balance between exerting enough downhole force to overbalance the pressure within the formation whilst not compromising the integrity of the wellbore.
1.2.2
UNITS
Table 6.1.1 : Units of pressure, "fluid gradient" and density
Specific Gravity (S.G.) is the dimensionless ratio of a material s density to that of a standard solution of fresh water at sea level.
Oilfield SI Pressure Gradient kPa kPa/m

3
Value for fresh water
Other Oilfield Units psi
Value for fresh water
9.81
psi/ft S.G.
0.433 1 8.33 62.4
Density
Kg/m
1000
p.p.g lbs/cu.ft.
1.2.3 FORMATION STRESS & PRESSURE

SEDIMENTARY ROCK FORMATION
Generally, in oilfield drilling the formations penetrated have been built up by the deposition of sediments. As this process continues the underlying material is subjected to increasing force. Interstitial water is gradually squeezed out and the minerals are compacted into sedimentary rocks.
STRESSES
The stresses acting on the rock in the subsurface can be resolved into three orthogonal components. These are called the principal stresses (n). Normally both the vertical and horizontal principal stresses will increase with depth. The two are related by the fact that the rock is laterally constrained by the neighbouring rock. However regional tectonics may cause other effects. If the stresses are of different magnitude then the convention is: 1 > 2 > 3.
Figure 6.1.2 : Principal Rock Stresses
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Drilling Fluids
The vertical, or overburden, stress is generally expressed as a gradient; S/z. This can be derived by integrating the formation density log. As a rule of thumb: Overburden Gradient 226 kPa/m (1 psi/ft) Each principal stress is composed of two elements: the stress exerted on the rock (f ) and that exerted on the pore fluids (pf ).
NORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE.

The initial sediments are laid down with about 60 - 70%v water. This material is gradually buried deeper and deeper under the slow process of deposition. At a burial depth of approximately 1000 m (3,000 ft) grain to grain contact occurs for the majority of the minerals and the material is regarded as a rock. At this stage it contains about 26 - 30%v water. In the mudstone/claystone /shale formations the water is held as layers between the clay platelets by forces other than purely physical confinement (bound water). As the pressure increases from more overlying sediments, and the temperature rises with burial, more water is stripped from between the layers of clay particles. At around 2,000m (7,000 ft) sufficient energy has built up in the system to have fully dislodged one layer of bound water from the clay structure. Further layers are removed by approximately 5,000 m (16,500 ft), 10,000 m (33,000 ft) and 20,000 m (65,000 ft). Mixing with generated hydrocarbons, the released water slowly migrates through the very low permeability environment of the clays until it finds a more permeable formation, such as a sand. The excess fluid bleeds through this zone back towards the surface. With geological time the pressure in the shale is relieved back to the equivalent of a column of water to that depth. The pressure in the pore spaces is therefore equal to the hydrostatic column of the water. The remainder of the overburden stress is supported by the rock matrix. This is termed a normally pressured formation. The water escaping from the compacting clay formations leaves behind some of the originally dissolved salts. With increasing depth the pore water has an increasing salinity resulting in a higher fluid density. Thus the pressure exerted increases with depth. This can be determined by integrating the resistivity log. As a rule of thumb: A normalpressure gradient of 105 kPa/m (0465 psi/ft) can be used to depths down to 3,000m.
ABNORMAL PRESSURE
If at any time the shale, or the permeable formation, is isolated then the excess pore fluid cannot bleed off. Then the increasing overburden will be born by the incompressible pore fluid. Thus it will be overpressured by the added mass of the formations from the depth where it was isolated to its current depth. Rapid deposition, or regional tectonic movement, can create additional stress on the rock. This can accelerate the release of bound water beyond the bleed off rate of the low permeability shale. An uplifted, isolated, formation will retain the original internal pressure. Leaks along a fault, or through a bad cement job, can connect a lower, higher pressured formation with a higher zone. These formations will have a higher than normal pressure gradient. Any one of the above phenomena raises the pressure of the fluid in the pore spaces higher than normal. This is termed an abnormallypressured formation. Multiple overpressure situations are sometimes termed supernormallypressured formations.
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Drilling Fluids
SUBNORMAL PRESSURE
The opposite effect can occur when two faults drop a centre block, graben faulting. A normally pressured zone is suddenly (in geological terms) at a depth greater than its equivalent column of water pressure. A reservoir, produced for some time, may be depleted to below the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient.
1.2.4
FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT
Subsurface formations have a limited capacity to withstand an imposed wellbore pressure before they fail. Below 1,000 m failure will usually be a fracture in the vertical plane perpendicular to the least principal stress. Normally the formations become more resistant to failure the more compacted (buried) they are, thus the weakest rock exposed in the wellbore during drilling is usually at the last casing seat.
MINIMUM FRACTURE INITIATION PRESSURE

The minimum pressure at which a formation will breakdown or fracture is denoted by the expression: Pi = Pf + 3 + T Where: Pi Pf 3 T = = = = Fracture , formation breakdownor leak-offpressure Formationor porepressure. Minimum rock stress Tensile rock strength (= 0 for uncemented formations).
TECTONICALLY STRESSED AREAS

Different horizontal stresses must be taken into account when calculating the fracture gradient.
DEVIATED WELLS
Well deviation means that the overburden stress is no longer parallel to the well. Therefore it must be included in the calculation. The software package STABOR gives estimates of the fracture gradient as a function of tectonic stresses and wellbore deviation.
OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS
Figure 6.1.3 : Fracture gradient v. deviation In onshore applications all stresses are effective from the surface. When drilling offshore the overburden and fracture gradients are only effective below the sea floor, see Figures 6.1.4a & 4b. In deep water operations this can have a significant impact on maximum fluid gradients and casing setting
Figure 6.1.4a : Pressure-depth plot onshore
Figure 6.1.4b : Pressure-depth plot offshore
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Drilling Fluids
depths.
ABNORMALLY PRESSURED FORMATIONS

The strength of the rock is proportional to the rock matrix stress. Abnormally pressured pore fluids are supporting more of the principal stress and the rock matrix stress is lower. Therefore the gap between the formation pressure and the fracture gradient will be lower.
FLUID LEAK OFF TEST

A direct measurement of Pi is sometimes carried out by pressurising the formation until it fails. This is known as a leak-offor micro-fractest. In drilling operations the result is often expressed as the Equivalent Maximum Mud Gradient: EMMG = Current Mud Gradient + Pi /D f
1.2.5
IMPACT ON DRILLING OPERATIONS
Pore fluids in an isolated porous formation within a shale will also be over pressured. However, unlike the shale, the contents will be mobile and can bled into a lower pressure region very quickly; resulting in a kick. The overpressured shale will want to relieve the pressure into the hole if the drilling fluid pressure gradient is lower. However the extremely low permeability of the shale will not let the pore fluid flow easily so the force exerts itself on the rock in the vicinity of the borehole. If the shale is plastic (generally high water content, 10% to 30%; rapid burial cause) it will deform and squeeze into the borehole (swelling shale). If the shale is firm and brittle (generally low water content - < 7%; sealed venting of pressure cause) it will spall off in pieces (sloughing shale). Drilling into a subnormally pressured formation with a higher drilling fluid pressure gradient can result in higher rates of leak-off. This can lead to differential sticking of the pipe and reservoir impairment. If the overbalance is higher than the strength of the formation then it will fracture resulting in loss of circulation.
1.2.6
DRILLING FLUID DENSITY
For well control of subsurface pressures the drilling fluid pressure gradient must be equal to or greater than that of the pore fluid. However it must not be so high as to exceed the fracture gradient of the weakest zone.
WEIGHTING MATERIALS Salts & Brines

The liquid phase of the drilling fluid will have a specific density or gravity. The common base fluids are water and oil (SG ~0.8). The density of water can be increased with salts. Brine densities are reduced at higher temperatures, due to thermal expansion, but are increased at higher pressures following compression. For both effects corrections have to be applied during the design and operation of a brine see Table 6.1.3. Temperature correction : 2 = 1 () where = / correction (kg/m3/C) Pressure correction : 2 = 1 + (P)
Table 6.1.2 : SG of saturated brine for common salt systems
Salt KCl NaBr NaFormate K2CO 3
S.G 1.16 1.50 1.4 1.5
Salt NaCl CaBr2 KFormate
S.G 1.19 1.72 1.5
Salt CaCl2 ZnBr2 CsFormate
S.G 1.39 2.31 2.6
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Drilling Fluids
where = /P correction (kg/m3/100kPa)

Table 6.1.3 : Temperature and pressure corrections for common brines
Brine NaCl CaCl2 NaBr CaBr2 ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCl2 ZnBr2/CaBr2
Maximum Density kg/m3 1,190 1,390 1,500 1,720 1,920 2,310
kg/m3/oC 0.24 0.54 0.71 0.71 0.78 1.04
kg/m3/100kPa 0.0331 0.0296 0.0365 0.0383 0.0383 0.0540
Solids
Insoluble material may be suspended in the drilling fluid to raise its bulk density to increase the effective hydrostatic pressure.
Table 6.1.4 : Grain SG for common weighting materials
Material Sand Barite
S.G Material 2.6 4.2 Clay Hematite
S.G Material
S.G
2.4 Limestone 2.7 5.0 Galena 6.5
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.3 RHEOL OG Y

1.3.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most influential properties of the drilling fluid is its viscosity. Understanding the role of viscosity in drilling, and other operations, and being able to match viscosity requirements to the conditions prevalent for that requirement is a key factor in optimising the efficiency of the fluid.
1.3.2
TERMINOLOGY
Rheology
The science of the deformation and flow of matter. Common usage - the analysis of a fluid s viscosity behaviour under variable shear rate conditions.
Shearing Stress
A stress that acts tangentially to a face.
Shear Stress ()
Shear force per unit area of action. [Newtons per square meter or Pascals]
Shear Strain ( )
Shear displacement divided by the thickness of the fluid element. [dimensionless]
Shear Rate ( / t - but usually written as )

Time rate of change of the shear strain (or shear strain rate). [sec-1. reciprocal seconds] This is the condition which changes most throughout the circulation system. Fluid, in laminar flow, moves as parallel layers and has a profile of changing velocity with distance from the walls. The Shear Rate is an average representation of the movement relationship of the layers of fluid in a cross section of the flow path.
Viscosity ()
A fluid s internal resistance to flow (the shear stress at the shear rate). [Newton seconds per square meter, or Poise]
Newtonian Fluids
The shear stress of the fluid is constantly proportional to the shear rate ( = ) .
Non-Newtonian Fluids
The shear stress of the fluid is not constantly proportional to the shear rate. There are a number of different models and the key ones are discussed later in this Topic.
Pseudoplastic Fluids
Non-Newtonian fluid where the viscosity varies inversely to the shear rate; it is thinner at higher shear rates (Shear Thinning).
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Drilling Fluids
Thixotropic Fluids
Time dependent viscosity. Such fluids exhibit a hysteresis (difference) between the shear stress/shear rate plot when applying and removing energy to the fluid. The degree of shift is often related to a realignment of particles with attractive tendencies.
Gel Strength
Thixotropic fluids often exhibit an increase of viscosity with time when at rest. In drilling fluid terminology this is referred to as the Gel Strength. [Newtons per square meter or Pascals]
Figure 6.1.5 : Viscosity-time relationship for a thixotropic fluid
Rheopectic Fluids
Time dependant fluids exhibiting the opposite phenomenon to thixotropic fluids. Often high solids content slurries have rheopectic behaviour.
Yield Stress
The Shear Stress required to overcome internal inertial forces.
Turbulent Flow
Chaotic flow characterised by intense mixing caused by eddies.
Laminar Flow
Smooth flow that is devoid of disturbances such as eddies, characterised by parallel layer movement.
Reynolds Number (N Re)

The ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces. [dimensionless]. Commonly used to determine the velocity at which a fluid s flow regime changes from laminar to turbulent.
1.3.3
DRILLING FLUID VISCOSITY MODEL
An analysis of the various viscosity requirements on the drilling fluid, throughout the circulating system, against the influencing conditions will give us a model of the ideal drilling fluid rheology.
VISCOSITY REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING

Inside the drill string the fluid is purely commuting to the bit. No constructive (or destructive) work is being done. At the high velocities required in the drill string, overcoming the fluid s internal resistance to flow consumes a large proportion of the input pump energy. If the viscosity in this region can be kept to a minimum then this energy can be conserved and better used to assist drilling. The normal flow rate range in the drill string corresponds to a shear rate range of approximately 200 to 2,000 sec-1. At the bit the fluid is passing through small nozzles to generate higher velocities to impact onto the rock to assist drilling. The functions of the fluid at this point are to cool the bit, clean the bit, and remove the cuttings. The first two are a direct function of the velocity of the fluid, which can be maximised as a consequence of minimising energy losses in the drill string.
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Drilling Fluids
The third function is also influenced by the consistency of the fluid. If we imagine the action of a roller cone bit; it is making very fine microfractures in the rock. When these join up a cutting is generated. However the density of the fluid is normally maintained above that of the formation pressure (well control). This differential pressure holds the cutting in place. If the drilling fluid can permeate into the fractures it will equalise the pressures around the cutting and lubricate the surfaces to facilitate easier removal. With the high jet velocity created by the bit nozzle, the fluid exerts additional hydraulic force to assist in removing the cuttings. If the consistency of the drilling fluid is thick like that of honey it will not penetrate. If it is thin like water then the resistance to flow into the fractures is significantly lower. Thus a very low viscosity is required at the drilling face. The shear rate range involved is from 5,000 to 100,000 sec-1. Once the fluid commences its upwards journey the shear rate environment is dramatically reduced and the viscosity requirements are radically different. The generated cuttings must be efficiently removed from the hole. Their vertical transportation is a function of the uphole velocity of the fluid and their downward fall within that fluid (Stokes Law). If the diameter of the drilled hole is enlarged ( washed out ) , and the fluid s resistance to cuttings slip remains the same, then the transport efficiency will reduce, as shown in Table 6.1.5.
Table 6.1.5 : Transport efficiency
Hole Size 311 mm (12. / ")

1 4
Annular fluid velocity 30 18 9
Cuttings slip velocity 9 9 9
Net Cuttings velocity 21 9 0
Transport efficiency 70% 50% 0%
387 mm (15. / ")

1 4
533 mm (21")
To ensure consistent cuttings transport the fluid must be able to increase its resistance to the slippage of the cuttings inversely proportional to the fluid velocity. The annulus shear rate in the range of 5 to 100 sec-1. If the pumps are stopped then the uphole fluid velocity is zero. But the cuttings can continue to slip. They can accumulate around the drill string and stick the pipe. Thus, when at rest, the fluid must build a very high resistance to the cuttings settling. It is normally accepted that the shear rate around a particle in a viscous fluid at rest corresponds to a range of 01 - 1 sec-1. When the pumps are restarted we do not want the fluid to have an excessively high resistance to commence movement. This would be manifested as a high pressure at the bottom of the hole. This could be sufficient to overcome the strength of the rock and cause loss of whole fluid. Thus we want a minimum of thixotropy. The profile of the velocity of the various parallel layers influences the way in which the cuttings are transported. If the profile is parabolic as in Newtonian fluids the cuttings will move outwards to the lower velocity layers, thus slowing their net velocity. If the profile is flatter (higher pseudoplasticity) the cuttings will tend to stay in the same position in the fluid for more efficient transportation. If the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces exceeds a certain value (NRe 3,000 - 4,000) then the fluid flow will become turbulent. The magnitude of the transition point is controlled (proportionately) by the fluid s ability to react to the rate of the imposed shear (pseudoplasticity). Inhibiting invasion of fluid into a permeable zone is essential to protect the formation and facilitate higher quality well data. The viscosity of the fluid can be utilised to limit fluid loss (in addition to or in place of a filter cake). A thick fluid consistency will have a high resistance to flow along the permeation channels limiting the ability of the fluid to invade. However in the reservoir section, this fluid must be removed for maximum recovery of the hydrocarbons.
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Drilling Fluids
Therefore the invading fluid, with its high resistance, needs to thin rapidly on the application of a greater force acting towards the borehole and flow easily out of the formation. The shear rates on entering a typical permeable sand formation are in the range of 001 to 05 sec-1. When the cuttings laden fluid reaches the surface, it must be rapidly processed to limit recycling of the drilled material. Due to the design of the fluid so far settling of the cuttings would take too long. Solids removal equipment utilise inertia, momentum and acceleration differences (due to mass differences between the fluid and the particles) to facilitate liquid/solid separation. Fluid resistance to the movement of the solids should be at a minimum. The processing equipment shear rate usually corresponds to the range of 200 to 5,000 sec-1.
IDEAL MODEL
Analysing the viscosity requirements of the drilling fluid leads to an ideal model being: Above 200 sec-1 200 - 5 sec-1 5 - 1 sec
-1 -1
minimum viscosity.
- a controlled viscosity inversely proportional with shear rate. - a very high viscosity, easily thinning with an increase in the shear rate. - an ultra high viscosity, rapidly thinning with an increase in the shear rate.
Below 1 sec
OPTIMUM MODEL
Common drilling fluids do not behave on such an exacting basis. However most behave as pseudoplastic fluids. What is required is a best match viscosity profile to the ideal model established; an optimum model. The optimum model is a viscosity profile where the viscosity at the higher shear rates is thinner and at the lower shear rates is ever increasing with a reduction in shear, without any hysteresis between the increasing and decreasing shear rate curves. This describes a fluid with rheological profile termed nonthixotropic, pseudoplastic. This model forms the basis for the specification for the drilling fluid rheology. Each hole section will have a specification that addresses the individual needs of the drilling operation and resultant product.
Figure 6.1.6 : Optimum viscosity model for a drilling fluid
1.3.4
RHEOLOGICAL MODEL
Historically three methods have been commonly used to describe the viscous behaviour of a drilling fluid; the Marsh Funnel Viscosity, the Bingham Plastic Rheology Model and the Power Law Rheology Model.
MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY (MFV)

The Marsh Funnel Viscosity test measures the time taken for a unit volume of drilling fluid to flow through a standard tube section. The test has a number of limitations. It generates a high shear rate, in the range of 2,000 to 20,000 sec-1, and provides only a single data point. Due to the complexity of drilling fluid composition it is not possible to extrapolate this data to other ranges of shear. Thus the MFV cannot be used to evaluate performance in those regions of the circulating system. In addition the primary controlling parameters vary throughout the test
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Drilling Fluids
making detailed analysis highly complicated. However due to the simplicity and robustness of the Marsh Funnel it remains the most useful tool for quick, routine monitoring for change.
COAXIAL DIRECT READING VISCOMETER (VG METER, VISCOMETER OR RHEOMETER)

The VG meter is used to provide multiple data points to allow for more detailed analysis of the drilling fluid s viscosity profile. The outer rotating sleeve speed can be varied to produce different shear rates in the annulus around the bob. Shear stress is measured by the deflection of the dial attached to the bob which is held by a spring of known resistance. The instrument configuration is such every 1 of deflection is 511 cP/sec-1.
Figure 6.1.7 : Co-axial viscometer
BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL (PV & YP)

The Bingham Plastic Model describes a fluid which is Newtonian and has an initial yield stress. Mathematically the model can be represented as: = PV( ) + YP The slope of the line (Newtonian viscosity region) is called the Plastic Viscosity (PV) and the intercept with the y axis (initial yield stress) is the Yield Point (YP). The model descriptors are calculated from two readings taken at 1,022 and 511 sec-1 (to give the data directly in viscosity units). PV = [600 rpm Reading] - [300 rpm Reading] YP = [300 rpm Reading] - [PV] As can be seen in Figure 6.1.8, the model does approximate the typical drilling fluid viscosity profile in the medium shear rate ranges and therefore can be used for interpretation in this region. The predominant factor affecting this part of the viscosity profile is the concentration of solids in the drilling fluid. The PV is a useful indicator of resistance in the drill string. The model deviates significantly in the lower shear rate range, corresponding to the annular regions. The YP is not a usable descriptor for interpretation of performance. As MFV and PV are applicable for only medium and high shear rate ranges they are useful for a quick look evaluation but cannot be used to predict performance at the lower shear rates of the annulus region.
Figure 6.1.8 : Rheology model fits for common drilling fluid viscosity profile
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Drilling Fluids
POWER LAW MODEL (N & K)

The Power Law Model describes a fluid which is Non-Newtonian (Pseudoplastic) with no initial yield stress. Mathematically the model can be represented as: = K( )n or = K( )n-1 When plotted on a log-log graph of viscosity versus shear rate it yields a straight line. The Flow Index nis the slope of the line (degree of pseudoplasticity). The Consistency Factor Kis the vertical displacement of the line (thickness or consistency). The model descriptors are calculated from readings taken at 511 and 5.11 sec-1. (one corresponding to the drill string and the other to the annulus). n = (Log [300 rpm Reading] - Log [3 rpm Reading])/2 K = 511 x [300 rpm Reading] / 511n As can be seen in Figure 6.1.8 the model does approximate the typical drilling fluid viscosity profile at the lower shear rate ranges and therefore can be used for interpretation in this region. A lower nindicates a larger viscosity change with variations in shear and is primarily influenced by the type of viscosifier. Kis the consistency of the fluid and is primarily influenced by the concentration of the viscosifier.
1.3.5
MODEL DESCRIPTION
The Power Law Model of rheology can be used to describe the key annular region parameters of the optimum model: sufficient carrying and suspension ability to remove the cuttings. a rate of viscosity change with shear variation sufficient to maintain effective hole cleaning. The PV of the Bingham Plastic Model is used when calculating pressure losses in the drill string.
DRILLING FLUID RHEOLOGY SPECIFICATION

Using a ranked list of objectives the design engineer must then determine what will be the fitfor-purposerheology required. This, of course, will be influenced by many variables; including hole sizes, formations, data requirements, cementation requirements, rig equipment etc. However the two over-riding factors will be the transportation efficiency required and the cuttings settling rate when the fluid is acquiescent (not moving). Once these have been determined, ranges for the Power Law indices nand Kcan be derived. These are the specifications which the fluids engineer will use to prepare and manage the rheology of the drilling fluid.
FIELD MONITORING
The essential factors in field management of drilling fluid rheology are: a quick recognition of any deviation from the specification. distinguishing the type and degree of non-conformance. identifying the probable cause of, and remedial action for, the change. Therefore any monitoring procedure must produce a fair representation of the fluid in use against the optimum model established. Neither of the two classic models fully represents the typical viscosity profile of a field used drilling fluid. More complicated models exist, however their interpretation is correspondingly more complex and other factors, such as instrument error and well irregularities, negate their practical use.
20
Drilling Fluids
The dial readings from the viscometer plotted directly onto a log-log graph give a visual representation of the viscosity profile of the drilling fluid. This representation can be easily compared against the fluid s specification. Without calculation, the fluid can be qualitatively, and fairly reliably, assessed for its capacity to do the job. In addition, errors in reading the instrument are quickly spotted as the resultant graph will not be smooth. Quantification of performance using the graph derived data will be more accurate. The key benefit of this system of rheology monitoring is the simplicity for field application of a very sophisticated, and relatively accurate representation of performance against the specification model. This is particularly useful when troubleshooting problems. The specific short falls can be easily identified and readily explained to anyone. Also when the fluid is blamed for an operational deficiency, its performance in that region of shear rate can be clearly and visibly assessed.
FIELD APPLICATION Product Performance

Having identified the optimum model of viscosity required, then available viscosifiers can be evaluated functionally for performance and then economically to select the most fit-for-purpose material. Using the plot, functional efficiency is evaluated against the optimum model. A material s strong and weak points can be properly compared with other materials. After eliminating poor performance material the remaining contenders can be economically evaluated by comparing the cost to prepare a fluid with a specific consistency.
Problem Analysis
Figure 6.1.9 : Direct viscosity plot
When a change in viscosity is identified (say through a change in MFV) the specific region of variation can be easily identified and assessed. This will direct the engineer to the right area for remedial action. Having identified the area for corrective treatment, and having an evaluation of materials available he can formulate an effective treatment.
Pilot Testing
The engineer can pre-test the potential impact of a treatment by pilot testing and comparing the two plots. This will also give him an assessment of how much material will be needed to return the fluid to specification.
1.3.6
CONCLUSION
The MFV is useful to monitor for change. The Bingham Plastic and Power Law Models should only be used as a quick look analysis. They should not be used as specification parameters, performance indicators nor as the basis for assessing non-conformance or recommending remedial treatments.
21
Drilling Fluids
The direct plot of the fluid viscosity versus the shear rate is a more reliable drilling fluid management tool. It provides a specification the drilling fluid that targets operational performance. Rheology modifiers can be logically chosen based upon true performance and economics. Non-conformance can be properly assessed and remedial treatments verified. The more readings that can be taken (i.e. Fann 6 or 9 speed) the more accurate will be the evaluation.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.4 HY DRA ULICS

1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Managing the effective use of available hydraulic energy to assist hole excavation is a key factor in drilling optimisation.
IMPACT FORCE (I.F.)

The bit nozzles provide a high energy jet to: inject fluid into the microfractures to equalise pressure around, and apply hydraulic lift to, the cuttings. flush away the newly made cuttings from the drilling face. blast the bit teeth and cutters to keep them clean. circulate heat away from the high energy areas of the bit (cutters and bearings) Maximising the Impact Force (I.F.) and Crossflow Velocity are the key factors in optimising bit hydraulics.
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (E.C.D.)

Energy is consumed in circulating the fluid up the annulus. This manifests itself as an additional pressure effect on the bottom of the hole. This pressure could exceed the strength of a weak formation resulting in a fracture and loss of integrity.
MANAGING ANNULAR VELOCITIES

A minimum velocity is required for efficient cuttings removal and a maximum velocity is set to avoid erosion of weak formations.
CALCULATION ACCURACY
The pressure drop calculations for the bit nozzles are normally accurate. Calculated pressure drops in the drill string are also generally within acceptable limits. However calculating pressure drops in the annulus are subject to many indeterminable variables, such as hole size, wall roughness and downhole fluid viscosity.
1.4.2
OPTIMISATION THEORY
OBJECTIVE
To optimise the application of input hydraulic energy at the bit to assist hole excavation whilst maintaining the other circulation criteria.
CONTROLLING FACTORS Minimum & Maximum Flow Rate

The maximum flow rate is dictated by two factors: avoiding hole erosion, controlling the total pressure in the annulus acting on the formation at its weakest point.
23
Drilling Fluids
Up to a certain shear rate the viscosity of the fluid can control the fluid flow to discrete laminae moving in one direction (Laminar Flow). Above this shear rate, excess internal friction begins to create random disorder causing eddies to develop (Transitional Flow). At higher shear rates greater disruption occurs (Turbulent Flow). In practice it is considered that this transition is demarcated by a Reynold s Number (NRe ) of 3,000. It is desirable to keep the fluid in laminar flow in the annulus as an essentially non-moving layer against the borehole wall will act as a protective barrier against erosion. In turbulent flow, the random action of the fluid disrupts this layer and impinges directly upon the formation. Therefore the maximum flow rate should be less than transition to turbulent flow (Critical Velocity; Vc). The loss of energy in circulating the fluid up the annulus manifests itself as a pressure drop (Pa) which acts on the bottom of the hole; in addition to the pressure due to the Hydrostatic Head of the column of the fluid (Pm). The total effective pressure (ECD) should not exceed the pressure at which the formation fractures and takes fluid ingress (Equivalent Maximum Mud Gradient or Leak Off Pressure). This limit will be derived from offset well experience or a Leak-Off Test. In certain circumstances, such as deep, slim and high pressure drilling, the maximum circulation rate may be governed by an ECD ceiling. The minimum flow rate will be determined by the required hole cleaning efficiency. As a rule of thumb the minimum Va should be >2 times the Vs. Refer also to the Well Engineers Notebook, page E-5.
Surface Pressure Limitations

The surface equipment of the rig has a maximum working pressure rating. Normally the contractor does not like to exceed 85% of this as maintenance requirements dramatically increase. Thus there is a maximum pressure that can be applied to the circulation of the drilling fluid.
Friction Losses in the Circulating System

Energy is consumed in overcoming frictional resistance to moving the fluid around the circulation system. The drilling fluid design should target reducing these losses to an acceptable range that allows sufficient energy to be available to assist drilling progress. Input data inaccuracies preclude individual assessment of these pressure losses. In addition they are all non-productive. Therefore, for the purposes of optimising energy application at the bit they can be regarded as a single entity. Minor changes in a drilling assembly will not normally have a significant effect on Ps, the system losses (ie all the downhole pressure losses with the exception of those across the bit). However adjustment for some downhole tools, such as turbines or mud-motors, can be made with the manufacturer s data.
Bit Nozzles - Total Flow Area

Having determined the limitations and controlling factors, the complete circulating system can then be evaluated to select the bit nozzles that maximise the amount of energy that can be directed to the bit.
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Drilling Fluids
1.4.3
OPTIMISING PROCESS
GRAPHICAL METHOD
A graphical process for optimising bit hydraulics is: 1) Determine the operating limits: Maximum pump rate based upon maintaining laminar flow in the annulus or limiting the ECD. Minimum pump rate to ensure adequate hole cleaning. Maximum allowable surface pressure. 2) Determine the available pressure drops at the bit versus the pump rate: At the end of a bit run, record the circulating pressures (Pt) at three pump rates (Q); these should be spread across the working range for the hole (also applicable to the Well Control Worksheet). For each flow rate calculate the pressure drop across the bit nozzles or TFA (Pb) Subtract Pb from Pt to determine the remaining systempressure loss (Ps). confirm the actual nozzles when the bit is recovered. 3) Create a graph with the operating limits: On log-log paper draw a boundary line at the minimum and maximum (annular velocity) pump rates. Draw a boundary line for the maximum allowable surface pressure. Plot the total circulation pressures (Pt) against pump rates. At the intercept with the maximum surface pressure draw a boundary line for the maximum pump rate; if lower than the previous maximum allowable (annular velocity) flow rate. 4) Create a plot of the systempressure losses versus pump rate. Plot the determined Ps against the respective circulation rates. Draw a line through the systemlosses inside the operating limits. This line can be subsequently interpolated/extrapolated for any circulating rate.
5) Plot the design criteria line: Maximum I.F. occurs when Ps = 05Pt 6) Determine the optimum pump rate. Intercept of the systempressure loss with the design criteria line. If the intercept is outside of a boundary limit then review the limit, drilling fluid properties or design criteria and determine the required pump rate as appropriate for the operation. 7) Calculate the total flow area to achieve the optimum or available pressure drop at the bit. Subtract Ps at the optimum required flow rate from the maximum allowable surface pressure. Use the Well Engineer s Notebook, page E-3, to calculate the total flow area required through the nozzles. 8) Determine the nozzles required to approximate the flow. Use the table on page E-4 of the Well Engineers Notebook to choose the nozzles which give a flow area closest to the calculated area.
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Drilling Fluids
If the nozzles are below a minimum size (to avoid plugging off) then re-examine the flow properties to increase the transition flow rate (Vc) to allow an increase in the pumping rate or reduce Ps. Alternatively blanking off one nozzle can allow smaller flow areas with larger jets.
CALCULATION METHOD
The Well Engineers Notebook (page E-3/4) contains all the necessary equations for optimising bit hydraulic horsepower or jet impact force by means of calculations.
1.4.4
ROUTINE MONITORING
Periodic monitoring is restricted to analysing the ECD to ensure well integrity and maintain pressure control. As stated previously annular pressure drop calculations are inappropriate due to input data inaccuracy. The most practical method to determine the ECD is to calculate the drill string and bit hydraulics and subtract them from a reasonably accurate standpipe pressure (choke gauge). Direct calculations should only be used in critical cases and must be properly calibrated against measured total annulus pressure losses.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.5 BORE H OLE INSTABILITY

1.5.1

INTRODUCTION
Fill on trips increasing the drilling time and reducing bit life. Swelling formations producing tight hole. Hole washout compromising cementation. Caving formations that may result in stuck pipe.
An unstable borehole can pose major problems for the drilling, and subsequent, operations:
There are many symptoms but there only a few causes of borehole instability. The key to effective problem solving is identification and treatment of the source, not the effect. Details of the various preventative or remedial actions are covered in subsequent Subtopics.
1.5.2
CAUSE
HOLE EROSION
Hole erosion results from the hydraulic impact on formations with poor inter-grain cementation. Generally it is caused by turbulent fluid flow in the annulus or excessive circulation in one place with the bit off bottom.
IMPACT
The annular fluid velocity will be reduced in enlarged hole sections. If the drilling fluid is not highly pseudoplastic, the cuttings can concentrate in this area. Eventually they may form a mud ringor ball of agglomerated cuttings, which in severe cases can lead to hole pack-off and stuck pipe. Many logging tools require contact with the borehole wall. If the washout is irregular the tool contact will be intermittent giving poor data. If the hole is excessively large the tool may not even contact the wall. Ledges may cause the logging tools to hang-up. During well killing operations if a gas bubble encounters a washout it will expand laterally and the height will reduce proportionately, changing the hydrostatic pressure. If it re-enters a near gauge portion, the opposite will happen. Choke control will need to be accurate and rapid to maintain the bottom hole pressure constant. Ledges may hold up casing, particularly in deviated holes. Good cementing practice requires turbulent flow to ensure proper drilling fluid removal. Large washed out sections may cause the flow to become laminar and induce channelling or poor drilling fluid removal. Eddies in the flow may cause entrapment of drilling fluid pockets in the cement.
PREVENTION
Keep the flow regime laminar, where possible. Maintain highly pseudoplastic rheology (n<05); the critical Reynold s Number is inversely proportional to the flow Index n . High low shear rate viscosity has been successfully used to resist movement of loose formation grains. Along with the reduced flow rate requirements this makes an excellent fluid for unconsolidated formations. Minimise circulating off bottom. Always reciprocate the pipe a full kelly length. When circulating bottoms up, remove one or two pipe joints half way through so as to relocate the impact area.
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Drilling Fluids
In silty formations examine the possibility of water sensitive clays causing further destabilisation. If suspected, test with small treatments of inhibiting chemicals or polymers. Use of K+ to combat such instability has proven detrimental in some areas. Lattice collapse is thought to lead to mechanical instability. One such area is in the northern region of the Malay Basin.
CURE
None. Once the problem has manifested itself the only action is careful planning for subsequent activities.
1.5.3
CAUSE
SWELLING SHALE
Swelling shale is the plastic deformation into the wellbore of high water content shales. This often occurs in the younger formations in the upper hole sections. It is the result of water imbibition by a smectitic shale. In deep, older, formations it is caused by entrapped fluids (abnormal pressure).
IMPACT
The annular diameter is reduced. The drill string, logging tools and casing may not easily pass through. Increased annular friction pressure losses may raise the ECD above the fracture pressure for a lower zone. .
PREVENTION
Ensure that the fluid pressure gradient is higher than that of the formation. For the younger clays, evaluate an inhibitor to mitigate water imbibition effect. Cl-, Ca++ and PO4--- generally prove effective. The reaction rate of K+ is too slow. Encapsulating polymers are ineffective in stopping water imbibition over a long period; though they may assist in maintaining cuttings integrity.
CURE
If the problem is not underbalanced drilling fluid density, apply an inhibitor. Increase dosage gradually and observe reaction. If no effect is noted, a long chain encapsulating polymer may assist in the short term. The problem is most easily handled if water imbibition is controlled from the outset. Once it has started it is generally very difficult to control or reverse.
1.5.4
CAUSE
SPALLING SHALE
Spalling shale is caused by the formation pressure exceeding the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure; Pf > Pm The rock s low permeability resists pressure equalisation. If the differential is higher than the tensile strength the rock will fail by explodinginto the wellbore. The spalled pieces are often long and twisted; like shrapnel.
28
Drilling Fluids
IMPACT
Apart from hole enlargement, covered above, spalling can have a major impact on drilling. Large pieces can quickly build up in the annulus and can pack-off around the larger diameters (i.e. stabilisers and bit); blocking circulation and sticking the pipe .
PREVENTION
Ensure that the fluid pressure gradient is higher than that of the formation. (Except when underbalanced drilling is being undertaken, the borehole pressure should always be higher than the formation pressure. If not, then a kick would result if a porous and permeable zone is penetrated.)
CURE
Raise the drilling fluid density. Examine the cuttings on the shakers for confirmation of the effect of the treatment. Be aware, however, of the fracture pressure limit.
1.5.5
CAUSE
SLOUGHING SHALE
Sloughing shale is caused by brittle failure resulting from differential rock stress. This can be due to tectonic activity or deviation of the well bore from vertical. The rock can fail in either tension or compression depending upon the orientation of the stresses to the wellbore wall. The sloughed pieces tend to be slivers or flat shapes for tensile failure and block shapes for compressive failure.
IMPACT
Comparable with spalling shale.
PREVENTION
The drilling fluid hydrostatic cannot fully oppose the maximum rock stress. However maintaining a positive pressure overbalance against the formation pressure will help to hold the failed rock pieces in place. Wellbore fluid communication with the pore fluid will raise the near wellbore pore pressure and negate the differential effect. Pore isolation techniques such as TAME (Thermally Activated Mud Emulsion) or IOES (Invert Oil Emulsion Systems) will maintain the differential effect. In some formations water imbibition can accelerate destabilisation. If suspected, test with small treatments of inhibiting chemicals, generally Cl- and K+.
CURE
The problem is most easily handled if a positive overbalance is maintained from the outset. Once sloughing has started it can be very difficult to control or reverse. Slowly raising the fluid density can maintain a positive differential for a longer period. Apply pore isolating techniques; TAME or IOES. If the problem is not underbalanced pressure, apply an inhibitor. Increase dosage gradually and observe reaction. If no effect is noted a long chain encapsulating polymer may assist in the short term.
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Drilling Fluids
1.5.6
CAUSE
SALT FORMATIONS
Salt formations can cause problems as a result of wellbore instability through plastic deformation or dissolution by undersaturated water based fluids.
EFFECT
Plastic deformation results in a reduced wellbore size while dissolution causes hole washout.
PREVENTION
Sufficient fluid density to resist plastic flow; for the period needed to drill and case off the section. Use a saturated salt water based drilling fluid or an inert IOES.
CURE
If the problem is not severe, use the preventative measures above. Plastically deformed salt can be washed out with an undersaturated brine. There is no cure for washed out salt sections these cannot be replaced.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.6 CLAY CHEMISTRY

1.6.1 INTRODUCTION
The vast majority of formations drilled are marine, clastic (sedimentary) formations. The bulk of these are mudstones and shales, which are predominantly composed of clay. Therefore it is helpful to know something about the basic chemistry, composition and reactive nature of these minerals.
1.6.2
CLAY TYPES
GENERAL COMPOSITION
The normally encountered clays are similar in composition and structure. They are formed by the weathering of igneous minerals. They are then transported by the streams and rivers and deposited in lakes, swamps and the seas. Burial compacts them into sedimentary rocks. Each clay lattice is made up of two sheets of silica tetrahedra with a central sheet of alumina octahedra. The tips of the tetrahedra point towards the centre of the lattice, and with one of the hydroxyls of the octahedral sheet form a common layer. The lattices are continuous in the x and y directions (horizontal plane) and are stacked one above the other in the z direction (vertical). The O-- layers of each tetrahedra base are adjacent to O-- layers of the neighbouring lattice, with the consequence that there is a weak bond and an excellent cleavage plane between them. In between the lattices, bound water is oriented such that the two hydrogens face each layer of oxygens. Differences between the various clays encountered are primarily due to substitution of the aluminium in the central octahedral layer and silica in the outer tetrahedral layers by other multivalent cations. This creates a charge imbalance which is compensated by adsorbed exchange of cations in the interlattice zone. Chlorite is the exception in that the interlattice zone is filled with a further molecular sheet structure.
Figure 6.1.10 : Clay lattice building blocks
DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the sequence of increasing modification (diagenesis), through this substitution and exchange. Feldspar (source mineral for weathering) Smectite Mixed Layer Clay (a smectite to illite graduation) Illite
31
Drilling Fluids
Muscovite Conversion to the next clay group in the sequence is catalysed by increasing input energy from the depth of burial and geothermal heat. The sequence is marked by a reduction from high reactivity, to water and ion exchange, to inert interlattice activity. This is a result of the ever decreasing interlattice separation and the binding effect of the Potassium (K+), which fixesadjacent clay platelets into their most stable condition.
Figure 6.1.11 : Clay diagenesis cycle
Smectite (Montmorillonite, Bentonite)

Slight substitution in the clay lattice results in about 066 anionic (-ve) charge of per cell unit. This is balanced by exchangeable cations (+ve) adsorbed between the unit layers. A main feature of the smectite group is the wide interlattice gap and weak bonding. Water and other polar molecules can enter between the unit layers and cause the lattice to expand in the z direction. The interlattice dimension varies from 96 to complete separation. The interlattice cations are loosely bound and can be readily exchanged; with the replacement power ranking of Li<Na<K<Ca<Mg<Al. The two main exchangeable cations are Na + and Ca++. The multivalent cation smectite is less reactive with water. Calcium more readily exchanges with sodium than sodium replaces calcium. This phenomenon is used in drilling fluid design for stabilising smectite clay sections. The Potassium ion is unique in that its hydrated size, and co-ordination properties, fit exactly into the basal oxygen sheet of the tetrahedral layer. When exchanged for the Figure 6.1.12 : Smectite clay structure other cations the interlattice distance decreases to the minimum height, the potassium is very difficult to remove and the lattices are essentially fixed. This is the final stage in the diagenesis of smectite to illite. This phenomenon is used to stabilise clays that have been exposed to sufficient pressure and temperature for diagenesis, but where the original depositional environment was deficient in potassium (i.e. lacustrine).
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Drilling Fluids
Illite
Illite is a transitional stage in the diagenesis of smectite to muscovite. The lattice structure is the same as smectite except that there is a higher degree of substitution of Al+++ for Si ++++. The charge deficiency is increased to 13 15 per unit cell, mostly in the silica sheets and therefore closer to the surface. K+ is the fixed interlattice cation. Because of these differences, the illite lattices are relatively fixed in position, so that polar ions cannot enter readily between them and cause expansion. Thus they are not very sensitive to water. The traditional shale classification (after Mondshine) shown in Table 6.1.6 clearly shows the diagenetic trend. With Figure 6.1.13 : Illite-Muscovite clay structure increasing burial, the water content decreases, the density increases, the salinity rises and the amount of reactive (high Cation Exchange Capacity) clay decreases. Exceptions are formations with abnormal pressures (high water content and porosity) and where the original deposition environment was deficient in potassium (high CEC).
Table 6.1.6 : Shale classification
Water content % 1 2 3 4 5 70-25 25-15 15-5 5-2 10-2
Density g/cc 1.2-1.5 1.5-2.2 2.2-2.5 2.5-2.7 2.3-2.7
Salinity g/l >20 20-60 40-100 60-330 40-250
CEC meq/100g 20-40 10-20 3-10 0-3 5-20
Texture
Soft Firm Hard Brittle Firm-Hard
This classification can be used to broadly categorise shales into different inhibition requirements, as shown in Table 6.1.7.
Table 6.1.7 : Shale inhibition requirements
Instability Mechanism 1 2 3 4 5 Rapid hydration, swelling and dispersion Hydration, slight swelling, spalling Slight hydration, spalling, tectonic stress Tectonic stress Hydration, spalling
Stabilising Requirements Chemical change Isolation from water, chemical retarding. Isolation, differential pressure Differential pressure Isolation from water, chemical diagenesis
33
Drilling Fluids
CHLORITE
Chlorite is a mixed layer clay derived from the different source minerals. The structure is basically the same as the other clays except that in between the mica layers is a free floating alumina octahedral brucitelayer. The deficiency charge on the talc layers is balanced by the excess charge on the brucite sheet. The bonding between the sheets is partly electrostatic and partly due to adjacent sheets of oxygen and hydroxyl ions. The fixed nature of the structure precludes adsorption of dipolar molecules. Thus it is non-reactive to water.
Figure 6.1.14 : Chlorite clay structure
KAOLINITE
Kaolinite has a slightly different structure. It is a two layer type which is equi-dimensional in the x and y directions. The charges within the lattice are balanced. Hence there are no adsorbed interlattice ions and it is non-expanding. Thus it is non-reactive to water.
Figure 6.1.15 : Kaolinite clay structure
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.7 INHIBITION

1.7.1 INHIBITING CHEMICALS
INTRODUCTION
There are three approaches to stopping the clay formations deteriorating upon contact with the drilling fluid: slow down the clay-water reaction or render the clay inert (inhibiting chemicals). limit the penetration into the shales (polymers, asphaltenes and polyglycols) render the drilling fluid inert (invert oil emulsion systems) In the younger shales the main destabilising mechanism is dispersion of the clay lattices by penetration of water into the interlattice zone. Limiting water penetration in these formations is difficult due to their rapid reaction rate. Using IOES is generally not economic due to the large volumes required and the potential for downhole losses. The main stabilising mechanism is the use of inhibitive chemicals.
CATION EXCHANGE General

The interlayer cations, which control the dispersion of clay lattices, are exchangeable. Many factors influence this reaction. The replacing power of the common cations is Na+<K+<Ca++<Mg++<NH4 +. The exchange is stoichiometric and the laws of mass action hold. Increased concentration of the replacing cation results in greater exchange. The ease of release depends not only on the ion, but also upon the other ions filling the remainder of the exchange positions. Replaceability varies with the nature of the anions present in the solution; Ca++ in the hydroxyl form is more available for exchange than the sulphate variety. The pH dramatically affects the reaction. Fixation of the exchange cations varies with the size of ions of the same valence. For ions of equal valence, those that are the least hydrated have the greatest energy of replacement. K+ fits into the basal oxygen sheet and remains fixed. The internal clay structure also plays an important role. With so many influencing factors, predicting the response of a particular shale is potentially unreliable. In exploration drilling the estimate will generally be reliant upon experience in surrounding areas. In development drilling, cores (albeit sidewall cores) are available and should be tested to determine the most effective solution. Recovered cuttings cannot be used as they will have already undergone some alteration.
Chloride
Highly ionic solutions, particularly those with monovalent anions severely reduce the rate of water imbibition by smectite clays. The most common, and most economical, is chloride (Cl-); usually as common salt, NaCl. In offshore applications this is readily available (and free) from the sea water (20,000 mg/l).
Calcium
The Ca++ smectite is considerably less reactive to water than the Na+ variety. Ca++ preferentially replaces Na+. Common sources of calcium are: CaCl2, Ca(OH) 2 [lime] and CaSO4.2H2O [gyp]. Calcium drilling fluids are more difficult to run as most common additives adversely react with divalent ions; there are some tolerant materials available. High calcium systems, in conjunction
35
Drilling Fluids
with high temperatures and hydro-aluminium silicates (clays), can form a type of cement, rendering the drilling fluid irretrievably solid.
Magnesium
Mg++ reacts similarly to Ca++ . However many more additives are adversely sensitive to Mg++.
Potassium
A primary agent in the diagenesis of smectite to illite/muscovite. The process is normally slow (geological time) and requires high energy (pressure and heat). However in some cases (K+ deficient deposition environments) the reaction does progress fast enough to be beneficial. Commonly K+ is provided by KCl. K+ activity can be negated by high concentrations of Na +. K+ varieties of common fluid additives, such as KOH and K2CO 3, are available. When using sea water, ensure sufficient K+ concentration to exceed that of the Na+ . Once fashionable were Potassium-Lime/Gyp systems. It was theorised that first the Ca++ would convert the reactive Na+ smectite to the low reactive type and then the slower reacting K+ would then convert the smectite to sub-illite. Exchange chemistry indicates that this cannot happen. KOH has been promoted as a stabiliser for reactive clays. However, the OH- radical is the prime clay dispersive element; therefore this reaction is dubious.
Phosphate
Complexing of the phosphate anion with the exchangeable cations can preclude cation exchange and water imbibition. The most commonly employed forms are PO4- or P2O 7-. Bit balling additives are phosphate surfactants. Most phosphates have a temperature limit of 65C; though Na2 HPO2 can be used up to 200C.
Other Compounds
Periodically other chemicals are investigated or promoted. The reactions, and any side effects, should be thoroughly investigated before field testing.
1.7.2
INHIBITING POLYMERS
In the more competent shales the naturally low permeability resists ingress of water, within the time frame of drilling the section, and the shales are usually composed of the less reactive Illite. The main destabilising mechanism is differential tectonic stress. The drilling fluid cannot permanently protect the formation against this deterioration. However it can mitigate the effect by providing a restraining differential pressure to hold the failed pieces in place. To maintain this protection until casing point the fluid must resist pressure equalisation into the shale for that length of time. Cuttings from these formations also need protection from the annular environment. They are subjected to considerable force and abrading action in their journey. Maintaining them at the largest possible size facilitates easier and earlier removal at the surface. This protection must be rapid as the cuttings are being attacked immediately they are released from the bottom of the hole.
ENCAPSULATING POLYMERS
Coating the exposed clay edges at the well bore wall with high molecular weight polymers to slow down or try and repel the water is not effective. Such materials are too large to effectively stop pressure transmission.
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Drilling Fluids
The limited success reported in the field is attributed to a mechanical binding effect from these highly adsorptive materials or to other mechanisms in the system, such as increased pseudoplasticity.
Table 6.1.8 : Comparative molecular sizes
Material Pore throat Low m.wt. polymers Bentonite
Size () 1050 550 10,000
Material Salts High m.wt. polymers Barytes
Size () 15 50500 >10,000
Encapsulating polymers can provide sufficient protection to the cuttings to allow them to be transported to the surface. Application is limited to the shales that produce actual cuttings during drilling (medium to hard). The soft shales mechanically disintegrate too easily, and every small particle of shale will take up polymer. This consumes expensive material for no benefit in keeping the particles together.
PAC (Poly Anionic Cellulose)

PAC is a modified CMC. It is a relatively long chain polymer that is Poly Anionically charged.
PHPA (Partially Hydrolysed Polyacrylate/Amide)

PHPA is a synthetic long chain copolymer based upon acrylic acid. The side chains are highly anionic.
HYDROPHOBIC POLYMERS
These materials are anionic asphaltene like substances. Application is limited to high temperature wells where they can soften and bond to the borehole walls. Like encapsulating polymers, they do not stop pore pressure penetration. Their limited success in certain areas is attributed to a mechanical binding effect.
BLOCKING AGENTS TAME (Thermally Activated Mud Emulsion)

Outside of invert oil emulsion systems the only available material to effectively block the pore throats and stop pressure transmission are polyglycols. These molecules are normally soluble in a drilling fluid at surface conditions. When the temperature passes a critical point, the polyglycols change to an insoluble phase; this transition is called the cloud point. The resultant micro-gels are large enough to block the shale pore throats and stop pressure transmission. The transition temperature can be regulated with the choice of polyglycol and salinity of the base water to match the cloud point with the formation temperature. The polymer then penetrates the pore throat, heats up, comes out of solution and blocks further penetration.
1.7.3
DESIGN
INHIBITIVE SYSTEMS
Having decided to use an inhibiting system, selection then proceeds to satisfy all the criteria to drill the well.
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Drilling Fluids
Selection Criteria
In addition to those already discussed, other performance criteria are: Fluid Invasion - Minimum petrophysical log interference - Minimum reservoir impact Filter Cake Minimise differential sticking Lubricity Minimum drilling energy loss The drilling fluid must also satisfy some common requirements, such as: Environmental Temperature Compatibility Contamination Ease of use No Lumping Rapid mixing Non toxic and safe Tolerant to the expected downhole & surface temperatures No adverse reaction with other additives Tolerant of expected contaminants Minimum manpower Maximum utilisation Fast preparation in emergency
Selection Process
Each phase is analysed. The fluid properties are investigated to determine the performance levels required. Additives are compared against the models. The economics of the various products are then evaluated to select the optimum fluid for the well.
TYPICAL FORMULATIONS
The salt polymer systems follow the same basic make-up. Typical components are: hardness sequestrant, inhibiting salt, viscosifier, encapsulating polymer, filter cake polymer, hydroxide, defoamer, biocide, lubricant (high angle directional only), anti-scalant, corrosion protection, weighting material and oxygen scavenger.
Saltwater Polymer
Upper hole sections where hole stability is from type 1 and 2 shales and uncemented formations. Inhibiting Salt - NaCl (low concentrations) - CaCl2 (low concentrations) - Phosphate (low concentrations) for bit balling. Pore Fluid Isolation - Polyglycol Viscosifier - Bentonite - CMC Hi Vis (upper sections) - Xanthan Gum (lower critical sections) Encapsulator - PAC (type 2 shale only) - PHPA (type 2 shale only) Filter cake - Bentonite (uncemented formations) - Stabilised starch - CMC Lo Vis
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Drilling Fluids
pH - Caustic Soda (NaOH)
Salt Polymer
Type 2, 3 and 4 shales. Additives in addition, or alternative to, those listed for the saltwaterpolymer system: Inhibiting Salt - NaCl (up to saturation) Viscosifier - Xanthan Gum
KCl Polymer
Type 5 shales. Additives in addition, or alternative to, those listed for the salt-polymer system: Inhibiting Salt - KCl ( 3 to 7 % for freshwater based) (10 to 15 % for sea water based) pH Caustic Potash (KOH) There are many individual variations depending upon the specific goals to be achieved, the conditions prevailing and the economics of the operation. The above are purely meant as typical guidelines.
ENGINEERING
The key to successfully drilling unstable ground is maintaining stable properties and composition. In addition the system must be adaptable to variances from the original hypotheses. Unless permanently converted , any potentially troublesome formation will revert to being problematic if the stabilising mechanism is diluted or removed. Most fluid designs are based upon what will probably happen, some on what might happen, but very few upon what will happen. Thus the engineer must be aware of changes in the formation and its relation to the drilling fluid. If a change is observed or if the fluid is not inhibiting the formation sufficiently he must adjust the right parameters accordingly. A key requirement for effective management of the inhibitive drilling fluid is single function additives. Individual properties can then be adjusted without interference to the other properties. This is essential for maintaining overall efficiency.
Monitoring Performance
The key to proper engineering of the inhibited fluid is being able to recognise the indicators of a problem.
Penetration rate
The penetration rate can be an indicator of increased porosity in a shale section due to abnormal pressure.
Cuttings and Cavings

The cuttings being screened at the shakers are a primary indicator of what is happening downhole. Class 1 shales Poor quality cuttings.
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Drilling Fluids
Class 2 shales Class 3 shales Class 4 shales Class 5 shales
Good sized, though soft, cuttings when properly inhibited. Hard cuttings when properly inhibited. Very hard. These generally cannot be broken with the finger nail. Good firm cuttings when properly inhibited.
Shape and size Long teeth rock bits and PDC s give big cuttings, carbide buttons give small chips, diamonds give very small cuttings. The driller is a good reference on this subject. Long slivers indicate geopressure. Blocks indicate stress compressive failure, slivers or flat shape tensile failure. Volume An increase in the amount of cuttings could indicate a higher ROP, improved cutting inhibition, deterioration of the borehole , or a slug of poorly transported cuttings. A decrease could indicate increased borehole inhibition, increasing dispersion of the formation, or decreasing transport efficiency.
Hole Conditions
Tight hole and excessive torque indicate either that the hole is less than gauge, or poor cuttings removal. Reduced gauge can be due to swelling of water sensitive young clays or geopressured plastic formations, whilst poor cuttings removal is due to poor hole cleaning.
Background Gas
In abnormally pressured formations extra gas is contained in the larger porosity.
Bottoms up lag time

Any washed out or undergauge sections will affect the circulation time.
Drilling fluid Properties

Several drilling fluid properties can give an insight into the effect of the fluid on hole stability. An increase in fine solids may indicate dispersion of the formation clays. If KCl is being employed the take-up of K+ by the formation can be interpreted by analysing plots of the K+ and Cl- concentrations . If the K+ is being consumed the plots will diverge with an increasing Cl-. If the plots are parallel then no K+ is being taken out of the system.
Property Control and Adjustment

An inhibited drilling fluid should be designed where each major property is controlled with a single function additive. The make up will generally be: Viscosifier Inhibiting Chemical Encapsulating Polymer Filtrate Reducing Agent Weighting Material
Replacement volume, for new hole drilled, should be with whole, prepared fluid. This will minimise variations to properties resulting from addition variations.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.8 INVERT OIL EMULSION SYSTEM

1.8.1 INTRODUCTION
A non aqueous fluid in contact with a water sensitive clay will not have the problem of interaction and dispersion of the lattices. An immiscible liquid will have a capillary resistance to flow into the minute pore throats of the shale, thus resisting pore pressure penetration. Therefore a drilling fluid based upon an oil medium can resist borehole instability from both of these mechanisms.
1.8.2
THEORY
It is not practical to use an all oil drilling fluid. In any drilling operation there are numerous sources of water; including released connate water. Encapsulated, high salinity water has an osmotic interaction with the shale. This reduces the desire to imbibe water. Thus the invert oil emulsion system (IOES) was developed. The encapsulated water must be evenly disseminated and emulsified to resist coalescence. The emulsifier is a surfactant (a fatty acid soap) that makes the surface of the water droplet oil wet and repellent to water. {Oil in water emulsifiers work in the opposite way by making oil droplets water wet and repellent to oil.} This barrier acts as a semi-permeable membrane. It is selective in allowing the passage of water without allowing any of the dissolved salts to pass. The clays in the formations being drilled contain interlayer water. The encapsulated water is made more saline than the connate water. By the process of osmosis it pulls water from the formation. This negates the desire of the newly drilled rock to spongeup fluid from the drilling fluid. IOES have a low coefficient of friction due to the natural lubricating properties of the base oil. This can be advantageous in high angle wells. They are particularly efficient and cost effective on multi-well platforms and sites where the fluid can be reconditioned and reused. IOES is not preferred on exploration wells as the oil interferes with visual hydrocarbon spotting, gas chromatography and a number of the normally used logging parameters. The primary disadvantages with IOES is the cost of the base oil and the environmental impact.
1.8.3
ENGINEERING
BASE OIL
A primary restriction on the use of IOES is the potential health and environmental impact of the base oil. Diesel, the traditional medium, is unacceptable due to the content of aromatic hydrocarbons. So called Low Toxicitymineral oil is also not preferred as it still has an unacceptably high impact on the environment. Several modified vegetable and animal (fish) oils have been developed and are marketed under the name of Pseudo Oil Base Mud . Whilst apparently acceptable within the current legislative limits these are still oil base fluids and can have a range of impacts on the environment. Before specifying an IOES all HSE factors must be evaluated; such as oxygen consumption on biodegradation, the toxicity of all breakdown products, nutrient blanketing and additive toxicity.
OIL/WATER RATIO
The desired ratio will depend upon the density, viscosity and the amount of water expected to be absorbed. If a lot of water is drawn then the salinity of a low water content drilling fluid would
41
Drilling Fluids
be quickly reduced - the expected water intake per circulation should be no more than 05% of the water content of the drilling fluid. Most oil systems operate comfortably in the range of oil/water ratio of 90/10 to 65/35; though some systems can be prepared to handle ratios as high as 35/65.
EMULSIFIERS
The encapsulating barrier of the emulsifier is the main protection against water contact with the shales. It must be strong enough the resist the differential pressure applied at the wellbore wall. The hydroxyl ion converts the fatty acid to the emulsifying surfactant. Lime, Ca(OH)2, is used; to be compatible with the CaCl2 salinity of the water phase.
SALINITY
Because of its higher attraction for water (activity) CaCl2 is the preferred salt. There are two schools of thought on the concentration required to drill a hole: balanced (Exxon promoted) and overbalanced (industry, incl. Shell, promoted) activity. In the balanced activity system the engineer matches the desire to absorb water (activity) of the IOES to the activity of the formation. The main problems with this concept are: The activity is based upon measurements on the cuttings, which have already been exposed to the oil mud and stress relieved. Their activity has been modified. Over a long section of drilling the formation may change its activity. Which formation to balance? In the overbalanced concept the IOES is run with a considerably higher salinity. The objective is to create a differential force towards the wellbore. This will provide an extra protection against any desire for the formation to imbibe fluid. An important point to remember when making Ca Cl2 additions is its natural water content, 7277% or 95-98%, and its hygroscopic nature. Old stocks should always be checked in the retort. The water content will affect both the oil/water ratio and the final solution salinity.
Determining Salinity Requirements

To ensure that the IOES has a higher activity it is essential to determine the actual activity of the formation. Several methods of direct measurement have been proposed, however all use the already modified cuttings. By analysing all of the influencing factors, an activity balance can be established. To Formation Hydrostatic Head of the Drilling fluid Desire from Salinity of Connate Water Matrix Stress Relief of Formation From Formation Pore Pressure Desire from Salinity of Drilling Fluid
The lowest IOES activity should balance or exceed the highest formation activity.
VISCOSIFIER
An emulsion has a base consistency; comparable to that of dispersed, fine, solids. Amine treated bentonite, called organophyllic clay, is the primary viscosifier for IOES. It provides a bentonite like viscosity.
42
Drilling Fluids
FLUID LOSS
The bentonite filter cake is supplemented with amine treated lignite and other materials that decrease the cake permeability.
CONDITIONER
A term given to an additive (often Lecithin based) that oil wets normally water wet solids such as barytes to disperse them in the continuous oil phase..
THINNER
A chemical strips the amine from the organophyllic clay rendering it ineffective. The disadvantage is that any other amine treated material is also stripped and subsequent additions of viscosifier may be affected.
WEIGHTING AGENTS
These are as per water based drilling fluids. Note that Barytes which has been recovered by a flotation process may be coated in a water wetting surfactant which could create problems in an IOES application.
1.8.4
MONITORING
Apart from the normal properties it is important to ensure that the IOES has an activity overbalance and emulsion stability. The activity balance should be regularly updated for formation pressure and salinity changes. The best method of evaluating the emulsion stability is by examining the filtrate from a High Temperature High Pressure fluid loss test. The filtrate should contain no oil. Otherwise the membrane has not been effective at this pressure overbalance. If water is observed, emulsifier must be added to reinforce the membrane. A quick check of the emulsion stability can be made with the Emulsion Stability Meter. It uses an imposed voltage potential to determine the resistance to coalescing the water droplets to pass the current. However it should only be used as an initial screening tool. Confirmation of stability must be made with the fluid loss test.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.9 CONTAMINANTS

1.9.1 INTRODUCTION
A contaminant is an intruding element that adversely impacts upon the functions of the drilling fluid. It could be an ion, drilled solids, temperature or even water. This Topic deals with chemical contaminants, their effect on water based bentonite and polymer fluids, identification tests and treatment guide-lines.
1.9.2
CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS
SOURCES
The main chemical contaminants are: Divalent Cations Calcium/Magnesium Monovalent Anion Chloride Acid Gases H2S, CO2 The sources of the contaminant can be manifold and it is critical to the treatment decision that this be identified. If it is a short term event then remedial treatment may suffice. However, if it is likely to be a long term contamination then conversion to a more tolerant fluid type may be required.
Table 6.1.9 : Normal Sources of Contamination
Gypsum Formation Anhydrite Formation Green Cement Accidental Additions Magnesium Formation
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4 Chloride Ca(OH) 2 Lime, Gypsum, Cement, CaCl2 Mg.SO4, KCl.MgCl2 Gases
Seawater Saltwater Flow Salt Formation Accidental Additions Formation
NaCl NaCl Na/K/Mg.Cl NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 H2S, CO2
Calcium
EFFECTS
Contaminants have varying effects on different drilling fluid materials; due to composition and ionic variances. See Table 6.1.10 Flocculated bentonite will have a higher low shear viscosity and increased thixotropy. Precipitated polymers will be taken out of solution and their influence reduced.
IDENTIFICATION
Most contamination can be deduced from the routine density and Marsh Funnel tests and a simple pH measurement. Solids increase the density and viscosity, water has the opposite effect. Gas drops the density, but raises the viscosity. Cement contains lime which raises the pH while the acid gases lower it. In the event of formation or accidental contamination the Total Hardness test, which identifies both Calcium and Magnesium, will suffice to differentiate it from Chloride contamination. It is used in preference, as chlorides cannot be treated out.
44
Drilling Fluids
In some case the Calcium and Magnesium need to be further differentiated as some of the newer generation polymers are sensitive to only one. The supplier should advise on such idiosyncrasies. H2S can be readily differentiated from CO2 by a gas detector and its unique odour. However care should be taken with high pH fluids as the H2S may be in solution and not immediately detectable. Carbonate treatment of Ca++ and Mg++ contamination can dramatically affect the pH/Alkalinity of the drilling fluid. This is covered more fully under property testing, but suffice it to say that alkalinity should always be tested when Carbonate ions have been used.
Table 6.1.10 : Generalised reactions to contaminants
Figure 6.1.16 : Contaminant identification
Material Bentonite Starch CMC/PAC HEC Guar Gum Polyacrylate/Amide (PHPA) Xanthan
Ca/Mg Strongly flocculated No effect Strongly precipitated No effect Strongly precipitated Strongly precipitated pH<11.0: No effect pH>11.0: Precipitated
Cl Mildly flocculated No effect No effect No effect No effect Rendered non-ionic (decreased viscosity) (no effect on encapsulation) No effect
Acid Gases Mildly flocculated No effect No effect No effect No effect No effect No effect
1.9.3
TREATMENT
CALCIUM/MAGNESIUM
Short term contamination can readily be treated out with a sequestrant, see Table 6.1.11. The choice will depend on availability, application, environment and the resultant effect on the fluid. Long term contamination requires a change to a tolerant drilling fluid. Gypand Limedrilling fluids are very inefficient in terms of rheology, with high friction pressure losses and poor carrying characteristics. But their worst feature is the progressive Gel Strengths that can develop during trips (particular at elevated bottom hole temperatures), resulting in high surge and swab effects and excessive pump pressures to break circulation. This can, in part, be controlled with thinners(also called deflocculants ); though their use should be limited because they effect the low shear part of rheology profile by reducing interparticle attraction.
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Drilling Fluids
Modern polymer technology has developed products which are tolerant to high levels of Ca++ and Mg++ whilst providing good fluid properties for efficient operation, see Table 6.1.12.
Table 6.1.11 : Sequestrants for Treating Ca/Mg Contamination
Soda Ash Bicarb
Na2CO 3 NaHCO3
---
Rapid acting with increase in pH. Over treatment in bentonite systems causes fragile gels. Moderate reaction. The acid radical buffers the increase in pH. More difficult to over treat. Fast reaction. Lowers the pH. Strong deflocculant for bentonite. ++ Useful for polymer systems sensitive to pH and Ca (such as Xanthan). Phosphate can contribute to stabilising reactive clays. Polyphosphates have a temperature limitation of 200oC; while pyrophosphates will break down at 75oC to the clay flocculating orthophosphate.
Phosphate PO4
Table 6.1.12 : Polymers for Use in Ca/Mg Contaminated Fluids
Viscosifier
Xanthan is stable in most cases; excluding heavy cement contamination (high pH). HEC is stable in all calcium/magnesium solutions.
Filter Cake Clay Stabiliser
Starch is the most effective polymer for calcium and magnesium contaminated systems. Several synthetic polymers are available and HEC can provide some fluid loss control. Ca and Mg are inhibitors for young, highly water sensitive, clays. K has been used in conjunction with them, but the effectiveness in the presence of such a high concentration of other ions is unproved.
++ ++ +
CHLORIDE
There is no chemical treatment to remove the Chloride ion. Unless the contamination is a one off occurrence, the system must be converted to compatible products. Most polymers work effectively in salt solutions up to sea water concentration. Various products are discussed in the sections on salt polymer systems.
ACID GASES
H2S can be held in solution in the safe HS- and S-- form by maintaining the fluid s pH above 9. ++ ++ Remedial treatment uses sequestering ions for H2S, these are Fe and Zn . Zinc compounds (as Carbonate or Chelate) are used as a pre-treatment and for moderate levels of contamination (<1,000 mg/l). A special form of sintered Fe2O 3 (sponge) is sometimes used; however it is a solid and creates surface processing problems. In solution CO2 is in the bicarbonate form. Calcium is used as the sequestrant.
OTHER
Borate (B4O 7--) can be found in sea water. It can affect some polymers, but most particularly Guar Gum. Removal treatment is expensive, hence a change of polymer is recommended.
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Drilling Fluids
1.9.4
TREATMENT CHEMISTRY
In the treatment of contaminants the objective is to remove the majority of the offending ion, without introducing new complications. It is desirable to match the amount of treatment and offending contaminant.
CALCIUM WITH SODA ASH (ANHYDRITE SOURCE)

Equation Ca+++ CO3-- = CaCO3 ? (precipitate) (1g/l) (25 g/l) Carbonate constitutes 566% of Soda Ash; thus 283 g/l is required.
SODIUM BICARBONATE
Ca++ + HCO3- = CaCO3 (precipitate) + H+ (1g/l) (2,5 g/l) Bicarbonate constitutes 726% of Sodium Bicarbonate: thus 2.1 g/l is required. Equation
H2S WITH ZINC

S-- + Zn ++ = (1g/l) 3 gm/l will remove 500 mg/l. Equation ZnS (precipitate) (x g/l)
H 2S WITH IRON
Equation S-- + Fe++ = 3 gm/l will remove 200 mg/l. FeS (precipitate)
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.10 TEMPERATURE

1.10.1 DEGRADATION LIMITATIONS
Nearly all drilling fluid additives have a temperature limitations.
Table 6.1.13 : Temperature limits for common materials
Material Bentonite Lignosulphonate Pyrophosphates Copolymer Deflocculants Cellulosic Polymers PHPA Starch Barite NaCl/KCl/CaCl2
Temp oC 200 175 75 200 140 200 70 no limit no limit
Material Attapulgite/Sepiolite Lignite Polyphosphates Guar Gum Xanthan Gum Asphaltines Other Synthetic Polymers Calcium Carbonate Na2CO 3/NaHCO3
Temp oC 400 260 200 65 150 260 200 600 no limit
The polysaccharide polymers can be extended by the use of oxygen and free radical scavengers. Potassium formate will extend long chain polysaccharides, like xanthan gum, up to 190C. Note that the actual degradation characteristics of a product may vary and should be checked with the supplier.
1.10.2 TEMPERATURE RESPONSE

In high temperature applications bentonite based fluids can exhibit an unusual response. Initially the slurry will thin, as do most drilling fluids. However, with prolonged exposure to temperatures over 175C the surface charge and water envelope change in nature. The fluid begins to develop a high progressive gel structure. This results in a very thick drilling fluid on bottom that requires a very high pump pressure to re-initiate flow. The problem can be combated by the use of deflocculants (which must be tolerant to the temperatures as well). However care must be taken with this method as the thinned fluid may be compounded by the initial temperature thinning effect, resulting in very poor suspension characteristics. All viscosifying polymers thin with increasing temperature. There are two primary aspects to the effect: Viscosity reduction at the elevated temperatures. Viscosity regain upon cooling. The specific response is individual to each polymer. The temperature response curves for both low and high shear rates (recommended 511 sec-1 and 511 sec-1) should be requested from the supplier. Reduction in the Consistency Index Kcan be compensated by raising the concentration. But an increase in the Flow Index nshows a loss of performance potential.
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Drilling Fluids
Table 6.1.14 : Temperature Effects on Common Polymers
Polymer Xanthan Guar Cellulosics Synthetics
% Initial viscosity % Initial viscosity @ 135oC on cooling 40 0 25 10 95 0 65 90
Note that the temperature response of blended materials should be conducted on the final slurry as synergistic or antagonistic effects may significantly alter the results.
1.10.3 BREAKDOWN PRODUCTS

Lignosulphonate breaks down and gives off S- and SO2-- gases which are corrosive and lower the pH of the drilling fluid rendering remaining lignosulphonate ineffectual. Deflocculating pyrophosphates convert to the strongly flocculating orthophosphates. Most polymers simply break along the backbone to yield smaller, less effect, polymeric chains. The natural polymers (Starch, Guar, Xanthan etc.) on breaking do not cause any side effects. Cellulosics, and synthetic polymers, can produce shorter chain end products that are strong deflocculants.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.11 DRILLED SOLIDS

1.11.1 INTRODUCTION
It has been said that without drilled solids there would be no need for a drilling fluid engineer. To some respect this is true. A large proportion of the day to day treatments are in response to the effects of unremovable solids and to replace volume lost via the solids removal equipment. The drilling process breaks the formations into small cuttings. During the journey to surface they are subjected to various abrading forces further reducing them in size. The larger sizes are readily separated by the shale shaker, and other solids removal equipment. But the finer particles are harder to remove. Recycling of these smaller particles in the circulating system reduces the performance of the drilling operation, is potentially damaging to the production zone and can be a safety risk.
1.11.2 EFFECT
DRILLING FLUID
Solids incorporation in the drilling fluid raises the fluid density and viscosity. Maintenance to a maximum limit will require dilution; increasing cost. Viscosity effects will raise the ECD impact on the bottom of the hole. Incorporated solids provide increased surface area upon which the base liquids adsorb. This reduces the free fluid for flow, raising the consistency of the fluid. The solids are essentially inert and do not have the ability to provide a pseudoplastic (shear thinning) rheology. This reduces drilling performance. The incorporated drilled solids are generally angular, blocky shaped, particles. In the filter cake they create porosity and permeability. Thus the cake continues to leak filtrate to the formation. This results in a continuing build up of cake, increasing the potential for differential sticking of the drill string.
DRILLING RATE
The recycled solids are good bridging particles. They restrict the flow of fluid into the fractures made by the bit thus reducing the drilling rate. The angular, hard, particles abrade and erode components in the circulating system. This can cause premature failure resulting in expensive downtime, repairs (mud pumps), and possibly the failure of safety devices.
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL
The bridging effect of the incorporated drilled solids also impacts upon the permeable production zone. Once in place the particles are very difficult to remove. The composition of the solids is mostly silica (SiO2) and clay which are inert to all chemicals except hydrofluoric acid (HF).
WEIGHTING UP POTENTIAL
The consistency of a drilling fluid is proportional to the surface area of incorporated solids. Allowing for the effects of viscosifying additives, there is a limit to the amount of solids that a fluid can incorporate before it is rendered unpumpable. If a kick is taken, it may not be possible to weight up if this limit will be exceeded.
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Drilling Fluids
1.11.3 PREVENTION
IN HOLE
The main preventative measure is to ensure that the cuttings are transported to the surface with as little degradation as possible. This means minimising exposure time and protecting against weakening. The rheology of the drilling fluid should provide a high net cuttings velocity (Vf -Vs) and a flat flow profile to minimise cuttings tumbling. Turbulent flow increases the amount of interparticulate collision, increasing degradation. A well designed fluid rheology plays a very important role in minimising cuttings degradation. A key element in protecting weak cuttings is a rapid coating with an isolating layer. Highly anionic, high molecular weight polymers, such as PHPA, can quickly attach to the clay and provide a suitable barrier.
SURFACE REMOVAL
Surface processing equipment also provide mechanical degradation forces. Rapid removal is essential in controlling the incorporation of fine drilled solids.
Shale Shakers
The most effective solids removal equipment is the shale shaker. It can handle a wide size variation and makes a definitive size cut. If the cuttings are not excessively degraded the shaker is capable of removing the vast majority of the solids. Multiple units with fine screens, and a suitable drilling fluid design, have removed up to 85% of the drilled material; with the cut as low as 440 m.
Hydrocyclones
These use acceleration to separate solids by mass differential. They come in various sizes, but the most common sizes are: Desanders8" - 12" Desilters 4" - 6" Because of the time needed for separation the hydrocyclone removes a varying proportion of a range of particle sizes. The cut point is stated as where the cyclone removes 50% of that particle size. Factors influencing the cut points are shape of particle, density of particle, quantity of particles, rheology & density of the fluid, shape and length of cone, vortex finder and discharge orifice. The specific performance curves are available from the manufacturer.
Table 6.1.15 : Cut Points for Common Hydrocylones
Cone Size 12" 6"
D 50 140m 50 m
Cone Size 10" 4"
D 50 100 m 35 m
Cone Size 8" 2"
D 50 75 m 20 m
Mud Cleaner
Where expensive, or environmentally sensitive, base liquids are used the hydrocyclone can be used as a concentrator to allow finer screening. This reduces the volume processed by the
51
Drilling Fluids
screen to improve separation efficiency. In oilfield terminology this has been called a mud cleaner.
Centrifuge
The last stage in mechanically treating the drilling fluid is the decanting centrifuge. This uses the same principles as the hydrocyclone. However more energy can be utilised and the influencing parameters can be varied to tune separation to the solids in the system. It is capable of removing particles down to about 2 m. A variation on the mud cleaner concept is to use a hydrocyclone as a concentrator before centrifuging.
Flocculants
Chemical flocculants increase the effective particle size and hence quantity of material separated at each removal stage. A common flocculant used is FeCl3. This material is a severe skin irritant.
Equipment Sequence
It is important that the removal of drilled solids is conducted in a size decreasing sequence. The larger particles should be treated by equipment more suited to handle them. Apart from the aspect of overloading the subsequent equipment, the finer particle treating machines use increasing energy and thus have a higher mechanical degradation effect. No fluid should by-pass any stage of treatment. Topping up of tanks must be with already treated fluid. Solids removal equipment should not be bypassed for any reason, even lost circulation. Lost circulation materials are cheaper than the drilling fluid and circulating system components.
Dilution
Dilution is generally an expensive method of removing drilled solids effects. It does not remove the solids but reduces their concentration. Until discarded with the excess volume they are still in the system, abrading to finer and finer particles with more and more surface area. In nearly all cases mechanical removal is cheaper. As a rule of thumb it takes 25 m3 of dilution for every 1 m3 of solids retained in the fluid.
CURE
Solids removal with a centrifuge (or dilution if insufficient centrifuge capacity).
NO CURE Deflocculants
These are not a remedial treatment against the build up of drilled solids. They do not remove the solids. Deflocculants attach to the negative charges on reactive clays reducing interparticle attraction. In a bentonite based drilling fluid, the deflocculant will preferentially coat out on the desirable Na+ Bentonite; negating its beneficial effects. Deflocculants remove the attraction forces that contribute to the low shear rate viscosity which is providing beneficial carrying capacity (to minimise cuttings exposure time ).
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Drilling Fluids
In non bentonite based systems, the deflocculant will be ineffectual as it has no reactive material to work on. Deflocculants are a cosmetic cover-up of the effects of a solids build-up. They do not remove the effect and can be likened to taking an aspirin for a bullet wound to the head. They should only be used in emergency to get the drilling fluid to a usable state. Solids removal should then be used to restore the desired properties.
1.11.4 MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Each situation must be evaluated separately. A mass balance of volume drilled versus solids removed will highlight the effectiveness of each removal stage. The economics of solids removal equipment can be quickly evaluated by comparing the dilution cost to maintain a specific solids content against the cost of using proper SRE.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 1.12
1.12.1 BIT BALLING
Water sensitive, young shales can form soft sticky clay when exposed to water. This sticky clay can adhere to water wet metal. If the problem becomes severe the clay may block the annulus, or cover the bit completely.
PREVENTION
Ensure good bit and hole cleaning. Specify an inhibitive fluid to limit the water imbibition. Ca++, Cl- and PO4--- ions are generally very effective.
CURE
Apply a concentrated slug of phosphate surfactant to ensure oil wetting of the metal surfaces. Apply an inhibitor to limit the water imbibition.
1.12.2 TORQUE AND DRAG

Torque is rotational resistance arising from contact with the wellbore. Drag is the linear resistance. Excessive wall contact and sticky clays / thick filter cake can increase the torque and drag; reducing drilling efficiency
VERTICAL HOLES
In vertical holes torque and drag are usually well within tolerable levels. High values are an indicator of a more specific problem and should be investigated to determine the actual cause. Curing without such an investigation may mask a more serious problem.
DEVIATED HOLES
In deviated holes the drill string is in more intimate contact with the wall. Over long sections the contact may eventually require a lubricant to optimise the delivery of power. Again, excessive build up of torque and drag is generally an indicator of a different problem and all possible causes should be thoroughly investigated before applying treatments with lubricants.
ADDITIVES
Several proprietary brands of lubricant are available. They are based upon blends of mineral oils or processed vegetable and fish oils. The choice is based upon proven performance and HSE considerations. The use of straight diesel oil is bad practice. It is toxic, has a very low surface adsorption potential and is rapidly emulsified in the fluid rendering it ineffectual.
1.12.3 DIFFERENTIALLY STUCK PIPE

The inability to move the drill string can result from a number of circumstances; many of which have already been covered. The remaining, drilling fluid related, cause is differential sticking.
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Drilling Fluids
CAUSE
Differential pressure, towards the formation, also acts on any pipe in contact with the filter cake. A soft, thick, cake can act like a suctioncup and hold the pipe in place.
PREVENTION
Ensure that the minimum drilling fluid density, to safely drill the well, is maintained. Use additives that will give a thin, tough, slick, impermeable cake under downhole conditions. Use fluted or spiral drill collars. Do not let pipe remain stationary longer than absolutely necessary and never when pumping.
CURE
Carefully(!) reduce the mud gradient (well control!) Immediately reduce the pump rate and commence jarring. Do not stop pumps entirely as the cuttings must be circulated out to avoid complicating the problem. Spot one of the proprietary blended spotting fluids (packaged oil based fluids). Use sufficient to cover the zone plus 10% above. A further volume is required, as the pill should be moved 5 m up the hole every 10 minutes to ensure good contact. Normally soaking time should be approximately 1 hour. Therefore an extra 30 m of annular volume is needed. The spotting fluid should be weighted to prevent an ingress of formation fluid.
Failing this an overshot with a drilling face is needed. During fishing the drilling fluid must be highly treated to minimise new filter cake build up. High levels of lubricant should be used to minimise friction on both overshot and drill string. The fluid density must be kept to a minimum to ensure that the overshot is not stuck as well.
1.12.4 LOST CIRCULATION

INTRODUCTION
When the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid exceeds the invasion resistance fluid will be lost to the formation. When the permeability channels exceed a size that the normal drilling fluid cake or particles cannot bridge then whole fluid will be lost into the formation. This is lost circulation. The severity of the loss will dictate the criticality of the situation and the response required. Seepage losses (less than 25% of the circulating rate) are usually treated as a routine problem without interfering with the ongoing operation. Severe losses (above 25%) are considered hazardous and require ongoing operations (excluding well control) to be halted until remedial action has resolved the problem. In certain circumstances, incurable problem with manageable risk, losses may be untreated.
Prevention
Minimum overbalance of hydrostatic head, plus ECD.
Cure
Cut down the pump rate
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Drilling Fluids
Reduce the overbalance Block the permeation channels.
CONVENTIONAL MATERIALS Plating Materials

These are materials such as mica, cellophane flakes and paper sacks that supplement the filter cake. This cure is often temporary as the cake can be later removed by the actions of downhole tool and fluid.
Bridging and Blocking Materials

These are materials such as ground limestone, nut hulls and fibres that enter the permeation channels and bridge off. These are effective in stopping losses into both course granular formations and small fractures. The effect is generally permanent.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Foam

To produce a lighter hydrostatic column. The average density of a drilling foam is less than 12 kPa/m.
Plugging Material
Granular bentonite swells by imbibing the formation and drilling fluid water to form a plug of plastic material. A Gunk squeeze (DOB) is created with powdered bentonite dispersed in oil (1,100 kg/m3). The slurry is pumped into the offending zone. On contact with water the bentonite hydrates and forms a plastic plug. DOB2Cis a variation on the gunk squeeze. Cement replaces 60% of the bentonite. The resultant plug is stronger and more permanent. Hydrational polymers (called super-absorbants) can take up to 1,000 times their own weight of fresh water. The unhydrated grains are lost to the formation. They absorb water from the formation and swell to occupy the volume of the absorbed water. The space or fracture is then filled with a gel.
Floating Mud Cap

When incurable lost circulation is below a zone of high pressure a floating mud capcan be used. Lighter fluid is pumped down the drill string for drilling. In the annulus a column of higher density fluid is maintained by continual injection into the top of the annulus. Both fluids are lost into the thief zone, along with the drilled cuttings, but sufficient hydrostatic head is maintained on the high pressure zone to control an influx. This method requires very careful planning and good logistics. Connections and trips are difficult operations under these conditions. If the heavy column of drilling fluid cannot be maintained then a kick will be taken and an underground blowout may result.
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Drilling Fluids
1.12.5 CORROSION
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is the destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical interaction with the environment. In drilling the main effect of corrosion is weakening of the drill pipe resulting in washouts or pin failure. The major corrodants encountered are carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and dissolved oxygen (O2). In salt based drilling fluids the corrosion potential can be enhanced by the presence of dissociated ions. Influencing factors are the chemical composition of the fluid, temperature, velocity, pressure and metallurgy. The specific reactions are complex with more than one type of corrosion possible. Specific details on the reactions and interplay should be sought from the corrosion engineers.
TREATMENT
Oxygen is the most commonly occurring corrodant in the drilling fluid. Sodium Sulphite powder and Ammonium Bisulphite liquid are the two most common oxygen scavengers used. Treatments are usually based upon maintaining 100 mg/l excess sulphite in the system. Additions should be made directly at the mud pump suction so that oxygen is removed at the point of entering the system. Oil wetting agents lay a monomolecular layer of hydrocarbon based fluid against the metal components to minimise water, ion and oxygen contact. Scale (calcium, magnesium or iron carbonate) can form a precipitate layer on metal surfaces. The layer can seal the metal from the environment, and from corrosion control treatments. Under the layer initial corrosion establishes a galvanic system which leads to further corrosion. Organic phosphates are used to precipitate divalent ions which would otherwise react with the carbonate to form the scale. As previously discussed hydrogen sulphide is directly scavenged from the system. Sulphate reducing bacteria cause sulphide corrosion in an anaerobic environment. The organisms utilise hydrogen formed by electrochemical corrosion during their growth to reduce sulphate to H 2S. Various bactericides are available. In polymer fluids these are often required to prevent degradation of the polymers.
MONITORING
The corrosion coupon is a ring placed into a tool joint. It gives an accurate measure of the corrosion rate taking place inside the drill string. The coupon must be accurately weighed and visually checked. The galvanic probe gives a continuous, and instantaneous reading, of the corrosion taking place on two sacrificial pieces of metal (brass and iron). It gives an qualitative indication of changes to the corrosion rate.
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Drilling Fluids
TOPIC 13 WELL CONTROL

Being able to control subsurface pressures is critical for the safety of the whole drilling operation. This Topic deals only with the drilling fluid aspects of well control. Well control procedures are not covered.
1.13.1 PREVENTION
Except when under-balanced drilling, the pressure exerted by the drilling fluid must be higher than the bottom hole formation pressure. Where abnormal pressures are present the drilling fluid density must be routinely and frequently checked. Additions of water (or oil) at all locations on the rig must be controlled and monitored.
1.13.2 EFFECTS OF KICK TYPES

SALT WATER
Dilution of additives and flocculation of bentonite are the major problems. In IOES the water must be rapidly emulsified to prevent water wetting the weighting material which will then drop out.
OIL
Entrained oil acts as a solid in water-based drilling fluids. In IOES it dilutes additive concentration and density.
GAS
In IOES gas can be soluble in the hydrocarbon phase whilst under pressure. This complicates annular pressure response during well killing as the gas comes out of solution and rapidly expands higher in the well.
1.13.3 CURE
Raise the density of the fluid to control the pore pressure and circulate out the influx. Any detrimental impact on the drilling fluid should be treated as soon as possible.
1.13.4 PREPAREDNESS
It is important to know the circulating volume and rate at which density can be increase with the rig s mixing system.
1.13.5 KICK AND LOST CIRCULATION

If one of the formations exposed is weak and cannot withstand the wellbore pressures then lost circulation will occur, complicating the well killing procedure.
LOSSES ABOVE KICK

The problem is to provide a variable hydrostatic head whereby the exerted pressure at the kick zone is sufficient to kill the well and the pressure at the loss zone is insufficient to lose drilling fluid. A tricky situation. In severe cases, trying to circulate different density fluids around will not be successful. The generally accepted method is to set a barytes plug over the overpressured zone. This will
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Drilling Fluids
provide a very heavy and impermeable barrier. The losses can then be cured before drilling ahead The plug is basically a slurry of barytes and water that is pumped down the drill pipe and placed at the bottom of the wellbore. The purpose of the barytes plug is twofold: Kill the well Settle and mechanically plug the wellbore. The composition of a barytes plug is: Water Barytes Deflocculant: - Phosphate - Lignosulphonate - Lignite - Synthetic Polymer 05 m3 320 kg 2 kg/m3 8 kg/m3 (+ Caustic 3 kg/m3) 12 kg/m3 (+ Caustic 3 kg/m3) 2 kg/m3
The barytes plug is mixed and pumped on the fly; usually with a cement unit. Once started, pumping cannot stop until the plug is outside the drill string. Otherwise it will bridge off and stop any circulation capability.
LOSSES BELOW KICK

This is the more difficult situation of the two. The losses must be tackled first and then the well killed. However the influx must be controlled from rising up the annulus. Weighted fluid must be continually pumped into the top of the annulus to stop ingress of the kick material. Low density drilling fluid must be continually pumped in through the drillpipe to satisfy the losses to the thief zone thus minimising the loss of weighted fluid. When remedial action taken to combat the lost circulation, it must be mixed separately to the circulating fluid and then placed without stopping circulation to avoid losing control. The major problem is being able to prepare all of the drilling fluids fast enough to maintain control.
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TOPIC 1.14 CEMENTING

Successful primary cementation requires an uncontaminated annulus of cement with good bond to the pipe and borehole. Key factors for the cement slurry to achieve this are: a consistent hole shape throughout the section and good displacement of the drilling fluid.
1.14.1 HOLE CONDITION

Drilling fluid displacement from inconsistent washouts is difficult to achieve. Enlarged hole sizes require higher pumping rates to achieve turbulence for good scouring of the annulus to remove the drilling fluid and filter cake. Excessive hole enlargement requires larger volumes of cement to be pumped. Apart from the expense, the slurry will require conditioning to modify the thickening time. Whenever additives are used there is a possibility of an incorrect assessment of the dosage required. Unlike faulty drilling fluids treatments, poor cement conditioning is permanent. Proper fluid design, to produce a stable and relatively consistent hole shape, is essential.
1.14.2 DRILLING FLUID CONDITION

A properly designed and maintained drilling fluid should need no conditioning for either running casing or cementing. It should already provide good suspension, have low energy flow and be easy to displace.
1.14.3 DRILLING FLUID - CEMENT SPACERS

The key factors in designing the cement spacer are: Avoiding contamination of either fluid. Displacement of all drilling fluid in front of cement Removal of any filter cake that has developed.
RHEOLOGY
The rheology of the spacer should be designed to ensure complete displacement of the drilling fluid. The rheology should promote easy transition into turbulent flow to assist scouring.
VOLUME
The annular height of the spacer should be sufficient to have >4 minutes of contact time.
FORMULATION
Water is the simplest spacer. It can be easily pumped in turbulence and has the minimum contamination potential. A light cement slurry (scavenger slurry) is the next simplest spacer. The cement grains provide some scouring effect to assist in filter cake erosion. For complicated operations the spacer may require special additives. With IOES the pipes and formations are oil wet. Cement bonding may be compromised. A water wetting surfactant is often added to the spacer. For overpressure situations the length of the spacer column should be kept to a minimum to avoid well control problems. The spacer can be weighted with salt (up to 12 S.G.). Otherwise a scavenger slurry can be used to achieve sufficient spacer density. High temperature, high pressure wells may require specially designed weighted spacers. These should be thoroughly tested for compatibility with both fluids before usage.
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1.14.4 CEMENT PLUGS

Sometimes a problem during drilling (such as lost circulation, stuck pipe, kick control or deviation correction) requires a cement plug to be placed in the hole. Problems in setting these plugs above lower density drilling fluids, without a bridge plug, can arise from unstable interfaces causing the fluids to intermingle thus contaminating the integrity of the plug. This can be avoided by spotting a high consistency pill below the intended cement plug. A thixotropic rheology is better suited to this application as the gel strength is more able to resist the flow tendency of the heavier cement. The pill should be prepared by adding bentonite to the existing fluid to get maximum consistency with a pumpable fluid. For the average polymer based drilling fluid 7% to 8% bentonite (pre-hydrated) can be added to give the fluid needed thixotropy.
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TOPIC 1.15 DRILL-IN, COMPLETION AND WELL INTERVENTION FLUIDS

1.15.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the top of the reservoir is reached there must be a change in the criteria for the design of the fluids to be used in the well. In addition to achieving the operational processes there is the need to protect the reservoir from impairment. Therefore the drilling fluid is generally re-named to 'drill-in' fluid to ensure that the right mind-set is achieved. In effect the drill-in fluid should be regarded as a completion or well intervention fluid. Therefore all fluids will be regarded within this category. Specific criteria for the operational aspect will conform to those covered in previous chapters (i.e.: rheology) The design criteria remain essentially the same except that the fluid should not have a negative impact on the reservoir production (or injection) potential.
1.15.2 PRODUCTIVITY IMPAIRMENT

There are two terms used in connection with a reduction in permeability caused by the drilling process: Damage is defined as a reduction in permeability in the immediate near wellbore region. Impairment is defined as an irreversible reduction in permeability in the immediate near wellbore region. Most damage manifests itself in the near well bore area the zone of damage is consequently called the skin. The resulting effect on production is termed the skin effect. The mechanisms of damage are: particles plugging the formation pore throats or fractures drilling and completion fluids reacting with formation water to form a precipitate emulsion from mixing oil and water and stabilising with natural or introduced surfactants surfactants changing the wetting characteristics (anti bit balling additives and invert oil emulsifiers)
Of these mechanisms particle plugging is by far the major contributory factor; though emulsions and oil wetting changes from IOES fluids can affect the effective fluid viscosity. Therefore the major attention in design is on ensuring that the plugging mechanism does not result in irreversible permeability reduction.
1.15.3 WELLBORE FLUID DESIGN

The primary design criterion for drill-in, completion and well intervention fluids is to ensure minimum impairment of the reservoir. In most cases it will be difficult to eliminate all material that will cause impairment. Therefore in most cases the design will allow for a damage mechanism, via a reversible process, to initially protect the reservoir and then allow maximum permeability regain.
DENSITY CONTROL
In most cases the fluid will be prepared using a brine to achieve the density required for well control. If the required density cannot be achieved then 'acid soluble' weighting agents are
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generally used. In some circumstances (high density with perforated completions) insoluble solid weighting agents are used. Refer to Topic 1.2.6 for information on using soluble salts as weighting agents.
CRYSTALLISATION TEMPERATURE
Care must be taken with brine solutions (including those with polymers added) to ensure that they are used above the crystallisation point. Otherwise the salt can precipitate and the salinity and density will drop and the viscosity will increase. The crystallisation temperature is the temperature at which the brine is saturated with respect to one of the salts that it contains. Below the crystallisation temperature, this least soluble salt becomes insoluble and precipitates. The crystals can be either salt solids or freshwater ice. The salt will crystallise first at the coolest location (usually the tanks). If the salt crystals settle in the pits, the density of the brine pumped downhole will be lower. As more crystals form, without settling, they will increase the brine viscosity. Eventually the viscosity can become so high that the brine appears to be frozen solid. It cannot be pumped and the lines are plugged. In deep offshore wells this cooling point could be in the riser; with the disastrous consequences of a 'frozen' annulus. First Crystal To Appear (FCTA): This is the temperature at which visible crystals start to form. It appears at the first inflexion in the cooling curve. It will include some supercooling effect. True Crystallisation Temperature (TCT): This is the maximum temperature reached following the super-cooling minimum. It is the FCTA if no super-cooling takes place. Last Crystal To Dissolve (LCTD): This is the temperature at which crystals disappear, or the inflexion point in the heating curve. TCT is the best measure of the crystallisation temperature of a brine. The test procedure defined in API Recommended Practices 13J should be used. For treated brines both the raw salt solution and the final mix should be tested as additives can have a significant effect. For example Xanthan Gum and Starch are crystallisation temperature suppressants. The crystallisation temperature can be altered by changing the brine composition. As a rule the lower the TCT the higher the price. Therefore, selecting a brine with an excessively low crystallisation temperature can be very costly. You should specify a TCT a few degrees below the lowest expected temperature.
FORMATION COMPATIBILITY.
There are three areas of concern with respect to compatibility: rock, water and hydrocarbons.
Rock
The primary concern is whether the fluid will cause swelling/dispersion of the formation clays in the pore spaces. Normally providing some salinity will cure this problem. This is usually achieved by using 3% NH4Cl or 2% KCl. However, in some cases, a higher salinity can also destabilise the formation clays. It is generally difficult to assess whether formation clays will be affected by a fluid without extensive core flush testing. However as a general rule, if the same ionic character as the original formation water can be maintained then the clays should remain in equilibrium. Hence some areas now use 'Dehydration Water' to formulate Drill-in and CWI Fluids.
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Water
The chief concern is the formation of precipitates, or scales. The most common scales are calcium and iron carbonates; calcium, barium and strontium sulphates; sodium chloride; iron sulphide; and silicates. Scale can be formed due to: mixing incompatible waters (divalent cations and anions react together) solubility change with temperature solubility change with temperature and pressure. For example: certain saturated CaBr2/CaCl2 brines can cause NaCl to precipitate from saturated NaCl formation water. A 60C TCT brine will give strong precipitation whilst a -37C brine will have no reaction. Compatibility checks on all waters should always be confirmed by testing at downhole conditions.
Hydrocarbons
The chief concern is the formation of emulsions or the destabilisation of heavy crude components that precipitate as sludge. Generally low to moderate salinity brines will not be problematic. It is only the heavy, fully saturated brines that will cause problems; particularly those with a very high or very low pH. Surfactants added to the system may exacerbate the problem. Compatibility testing with core flushing should be carried out.
FLUID/SOLID INVASION CONTROL.

Large overbalance, high permeable streaks and long perforated or open-hole sections can cause substantial loss of fluid to the formation. Such losses are expensive and may increase production impairment potential. To minimise the potential for production impairment many wells are deliberately 'damaged' with materials that will naturally disappear or can be removed. These materials can be bridging agents (sized particulates) viscosifiers or cross-linked polymers.
Bridging Materials (including lost circulation materials)

There are currently three basic options for bridging : sized salt, ground CaCO3 and oil soluble resin. Sized salt is the basis of the Thixsal and Bridgsal systems. It requires a saturated brine base. The major advantage of the system is that the solute for the bridging agent is water. The disadvantages are that the base brine density is high and not suitable for depleted reservoir applications, the wash water solution can cause formation damage and the dissolving process can be slow (using rig time or delaying production). Ground CaCO3 is the most common bridging material used, especially in the case of major fluid losses. The advantages are that it is cheap and the dissolving action with acid is vigorous promoting easy removal. The disadvantages are that the acid solution is dangerous and corrosive. Oil soluble resin is currently not used outside of some limited applications in stimulation as it is not always fully oil soluble when used in water based systems. Particle size must be chosen such that the smallest grain will be > 33% of the largest pore throat size. This is normally selected after examining cores and scanning electron microscope photos.
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The filter cake formed by the bridging agents, if maintained externally may not be robust enough to survive the activities being conducted in the well. Therefore it is often supplemented with a binding agent such as starch. This is selected because it is generally not damaging in its own right and is fully acid soluble.
Viscosifiers
High filtrate viscosities can damage the effective permeability of the formation (increasing m to decrease Q). It is essential to use fully acid soluble polymers such as HEC and Biopolymer (Xanthan Gum). Viscosifiers will also be required when using bridging particulates (albeit at a lower concentration). The key factor in selecting the material is high quality pure material that is degradable under the conditions of use. For example: HEC comes in many grades; some with high concentrations of acid insoluble impurities. Xanthan Gum is not readily acid degradable below 65C.
Crossed Linked Polymers

These are rarely used in working fluids except during hydraulic fracturing due to the difficulty to control the process without affecting a circulating fluid.
CORROSION
The electrically conductive nature of brines provides an environment favourable for the corrosion of metal to occur. Given that it is not practical to stop corrosion the aim is to reduce it to an acceptable level. For temporary fluids (CWIF) this is generally set as <10 kg/m2/yr using a corrosion coupon test. For packer fluids this must be lower due to the prolonged exposure. For most brine based systems the key agent for corrosion is oxygen. The solubility of oxygen decreases as the saturation point of the salt is approached. Even though a brine may initially contain oxygen, if it is not replenished it will soon deplete as a result of the corrosion process. Therefore oxygen scavengers are not used. In brines to be circulated ammonium bisulphite is generally used to scavenge the oxygen. Film forming amine corrosion inhibitors are not recommended as they are also adsorbing on silica and silicates and may cause impairment. Organophosphate inhibitors are also not used as they often give incomplete coverage and can result in galvanic cell corrosion. Very dense bromide brines have a very low pH which means that they can cause leaching corrosion (preferentially dissolving grains in the steel). Bacterial growth can cause acid conditions to develop. Additions of high shock, degradable biocides are sometimes used.
1.15.4 WELLBORE FLUID PREPARATION

Despite all of the best planning and pre-testing, poor preparation of the fluids to be used in the reservoir section is still the major source of production impairment.
SOLIDS
Solids, other than those deliberately added, can be picked up from the drilling process, dirty tanks, the drill water supply or even airborne sources.
POLYMERS
Non-completion grade HEC contains high concentrations of partially- or un-reacted cellulose material that can block pore throats. This cellulose material is not acid soluble.
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HEC and Xanthan which is not fully hydrated can have minute polymer 'lumps' which subsequently hydrate in place causing blockage and hence impairment. This polymer blockage is often difficult to access with acid stimulation.
FILTRATION
Both HEC and Xanthan, when fully hydrated will pass through a 2mm filter cell. Therefore to ensure that no damaging materials have been included the fluid should be filtered to less than the pore through size before adding the bridging agent. To ensure that fluid will readily pass through the filters without excessive blocking the solution should be tested with the API fluid loss test. Both polymers will pass through the Watman 50 filter paper.
1.15.5 DAMAGE/IMPAIRMENT REMOVAL

The key factor is to ensure that all of the "damaging" material is removed to restore original formation permeability. This is more easily said than done. In carbonate formations acidising the matrix can release the bridging solids. It is essential however that the acid solution is not too strong. Otherwise it will dissolve the first point of contact, establish a path to the permeable formation and be "lost" before it can remove all of the cake. Too often a report states "Got good losses immediately upon contacting with acid". This usually means that some cake is still there to impair production. The acid wash treatment should be lower strength, at or near balance to the reservoir pressure and should preferably be viscosified to resist seepage into the formation.
Inert solids are difficult to remove. Surging and jetting can be tried, though success is usually very low. Emulsion blocks can be treated with a demulsifier but success is very low. Surfactants can restore the wetting characteristics but success is very low
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APPENDIX TERMINOLOGY A ND S YMBOLS

The drilling industry uses technology from various sources; internal and external. Consequently different symbols often depict the same data unit or the same symbols represents different data. This can lead to confusion for the uninitiated. For example dis sometimes used to denote depth. However, in rock mechanics zis used for depth. In engineering dis used to denote diameter. Standard drilling fluid symbols and terminology have been used in this Part the ones most commonly used. These may differ from those that you are familiar with.
Standard Units
All working units are standard Shelloilfield SI. Alternate units are shown in brackets where appropriate. Pressure is in Pascals (Pa).
Table 6.1.16 : Symbols used
Symbol r l D m P log
Denotes radius length depth micron/micrometer pressure density shear rate dial reading energy angle log10 Reaction precipitate
Symbol d w k T Q n C ln
Denotes diameter width difference/ differential 1000 temperature pump rate shear stress power law index work constant natural logarithm Reaction Gas
Symbol h , M v V K c
Denotes pi height Correction Factors 1,000,000 volume velocity viscosity consistency factor stress constant approximately
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Drilling Fluids
WEDLP Edition 10 SECT I ON 6 PART 1 D R I L L I N G FL U I D S
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W181 Preparation for the Wellsite

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1.13 1.14 1.15

Appendix 1 : Terminology and symbols

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TOPIC 1.1 INTROD UCTION

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THE ANATOMY OF A DRILLING FLUID

DRILLING FLUID PLANNING

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TO PIC 1.2 D EN SITY & PR ESSU R E GR A D IEN TS

Oilfield SI Pressure Gradient kPa kPa/m

Value for fresh water

Other Oilfield Units psi

Value for fresh water

0.433 1 8.33 62.4

1.2.3 FORMATION STRESS & PRESSURE

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NORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE.

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FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT

MINIMUM FRACTURE INITIATION PRESSURE

TECTONICALLY STRESSED AREAS

Figure 6.1.4a : Pressure-depth plot onshore

Figure 6.1.4b : Pressure-depth plot offshore

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ABNORMALLY PRESSURED FORMATIONS

FLUID LEAK OFF TEST

IMPACT ON DRILLING OPERATIONS

DRILLING FLUID DENSITY

WEIGHTING MATERIALS Salts & Brines

Salt KCl NaBr NaFormate K2CO 3

S.G 1.16 1.50 1.4 1.5

Salt NaCl CaBr2 KFormate

S.G 1.19 1.72 1.5

Salt CaCl2 ZnBr2 CsFormate

S.G 1.39 2.31 2.6

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where = /P correction (kg/m3/100kPa)

Brine NaCl CaCl2 NaBr CaBr2 ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCl2 ZnBr2/CaBr2

Maximum Density kg/m3 1,190 1,390 1,500 1,720 1,920 2,310

kg/m3/oC 0.24 0.54 0.71 0.71 0.78 1.04

kg/m3/100kPa 0.0331 0.0296 0.0365 0.0383 0.0383 0.0540

Material Sand Barite

S.G Material 2.6 4.2 Clay Hematite

2.4 Limestone 2.7 5.0 Galena 6.5