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Volume I A-J
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Published in the United States of America by Idea Group Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200 Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@idea-group.com Web site: http://www.idea-group-ref.com and in the United Kingdom by Idea Group Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.) 3 Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanonline.com Copyright 2007 by Idea Group Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identiication purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dictionary of information science and technology / Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, editor. p. cm. Summary: This book is the premier comprehensive reference source for the latest terms, acronyms and deinitions related to all aspects of information science and technology. It provides the most current information to researchers on every level--Provided by publisher. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-59904-385-8 (hardcover) -- ISBN 1-59904-386-6 (ebook) 1. Information science--Dictionaries. 2. Information technology--Dictionaries. I. Khosrowpour, Mehdi, 1951T58.5.D499 2006 020.03--dc22 2006030015 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this handbook is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this handbook are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Contents
Volume I
A ...........................................................................................................................................................1 B .........................................................................................................................................................46 C .........................................................................................................................................................69 D .......................................................................................................................................................152 E .......................................................................................................................................................200 F .......................................................................................................................................................254 G.......................................................................................................................................................277 H.......................................................................................................................................................296 I ........................................................................................................................................................314 J ........................................................................................................................................................376
Volume II
K.......................................................................................................................................................379 L .......................................................................................................................................................400 M ......................................................................................................................................................423 N .......................................................................................................................................................467 O.......................................................................................................................................................481 P .......................................................................................................................................................507 Q.......................................................................................................................................................557 R .......................................................................................................................................................563 S .......................................................................................................................................................591 T .......................................................................................................................................................668 U .......................................................................................................................................................703 V .......................................................................................................................................................716 W ......................................................................................................................................................737 X .......................................................................................................................................................758 Y .......................................................................................................................................................760 Z .......................................................................................................................................................761
Preface
During the past few decades, considerable advancements of computer technologies, combined with innovations achieved in telecommunication technologies, have served as fuel for the formation of a new discipline, known today as information science and technology (IST). Since its inception, IST has grown to encompass many other speciic areas within the ield itself, allowing the IST domain of studies to expand exponentially. Moreover, the primary focus of IST as a discipline is broadening the science of information processing, management, and dissemination. This newly developed scientiic paradigm is comprised of many resources and components, including: (1) type of information; (2) computer hardware technologies; (3) computer software technologies; (4) telecommunication technologies; (5) technology applications; (6) information processing systems structures; (7) systems personnel and management; (8) end users; and (9) management skills and programs (Khosrow-Pour & Yaverbaum, 1990). In recent years, the IST revolution has globally impacted all aspects of life at the individual, organizational, and societal level. In many ways, IST has been the principal driving force behind the second industrial revolution, known as the digital revolution. The expansion of IST as a science, like other scientiic ields, such as medicine, has created a new language illed with terminologies, key words, and acronyms unique to IST and its speciic disciplines. Furthermore, the sheer volume of ongoing discoveries of new technologies and applications, as well as transpiring research indings, continue to expand the list of terminology associated with the ield of IST. Because of these incessant advancements, it is nearly impossible to maintain an understanding of the jargon related to IST and its peripheral domains of study without comprehending its emerging technological vernacular. To provide the most comprehensive coverage of IST language, the idea of a new Dictionary of Information Science and Technology was formed to provide the most in-depth and complete introduction to all terms, acronyms, and deinitions related to some of most commonly studied areas of IST, such as accounting information systems; database management and technologies; data warehousing and mining; decision support systems technologies; distance education technologies; e-collaboration; electronic commerce technologies management; end user computing; enterprise resource planning, expert systems; geographical information systems; global IT management; human computer interaction; human side of IT; information resources management; information security management; information systems research; information technology education; IT evaluation methods and management; IT management in libraries; IT management in health care; IT in small business; IT personnel; professional IT association; intelligent information systems; knowledge management; minorities in information technology; mobile computing and commerce; multimedia information management; objected oriented technologies; open source technologies and systems; social responsibility in the information age; software engineering; strategic IT management; telecommunications and networking technologies; uniied modeling languages and uniied process; and virtual communities and IT. Perhaps the most challenging task related to the compilation of a dictionary for such a young ield of science, is the fact that there is no single or standard deinition in existence for each element of the vocabulary. Instead, individual researchers have formed distinctive descriptions of the terminology, providing a much more meaningful and broader understanding of each term. To achieve this goal, all attempts were made to supply the user of this dictionary with the most inclusive deinition used to describe every term, and not just a singular deinition designated by the editor. An exhibition of numerous language contributions from different researchers have been listed for each of the terms, allowing
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the user to be exposed to different angles of each deinition in hopes that the user will form a much broader understanding of the vocabulary that is speciic to IST. This dictionary is divided into two sections. The irst section lists all terms and acronyms in alphabetical order. Each term may consist of multiple deinitions, numbered in sequential order, and ends with the source/reference from which the deinition was derived. The second section includes the complete reference information, also organized in alphabetical order and formatted to comply with American Psychological Association (APA) recommended style guidelines. Although one might notice a wide range of deinitions for various terms, it is our opinion that it is much more helpful to provide an expansive list of deinitions rather than limit the meaning to a singular description. Furthermore, to defuse any inaccuracy in the deinitions obtained from different sources, it was decided to provide the most complete meaning as possible, allowing for any confusion that may result from the descriptions to be dealt with in light of other explanations. The two-volume Dictionary of Information Science and Technology is the premier comprehensive resource composed of the latest terms and deinitions related to all aspects of the information science and technology ield. This complete and timely reference collection of over 13,000 deinitions for more than 11,000 terms and acronyms will provide researchers, practitioners, educators and students with the most accurate and current knowledge available of prevalent key words in the ever-expanding world of IST. Terms and deinitions included in this important reference publication were contributed by over 2,500 noted researchers from over 40 countries. The Dictionary of Information Science and Technology will prove to be a valuable and essential reference publication for libraries and individuals worldwide. To make sure that the Dictionary of Information Science and Technology and its coverage stays up-to-date, access to the dictionarys online database, which provides complete search capabilities, will be offered to all libraries at a discount of 50% off the subscription price upon purchase of the print copy. This database will be updated on a regular basis with new terms, acronyms, and their deinitions, and will provide coverage of all new and emerging terminologies and their deinitions as they materialize. The comprehensive coverage of thousands of terms and acronyms provided in this two-volume resource will contribute to a better understanding of the technical and managerial language available and its applications for the ield of information science and technology. Furthermore, the deinitions included in this dictionary will be instrumental in the body of knowledge expanding in this vast ield. The coverage of this two-volume dictionary provides strength to this source of reference for both information science and technology researchers in obtaining a greater comprehension of the language of IST. It is my sincere hope that this reference publication and its immeasurable amount of valuable information will assist my research colleagues, all faculty, their students, and practitioners in enhancing their understanding of this discipline. Perhaps this publication will even inspire additional breakthroughs in this gigantic ield and elevate it to a much higher level within the world of scientiic discoveries. Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, D.B.A. Information Resources Management Association, USA
Reference
Khosrow-Pour, M., & Yaverbaum, G.J. (1990). Information technology resources utilization and management: Issues and trends. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.
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Acknowledgments
Putting together a comprehensive publication of this magnitude requires tremendous involvement and assistance from many individuals. The most important goal of editing this dictionary was to compile a comprehensive list of terms, acronyms and their deinitions in the ield of information science and technology. This goal could not have been achieved without the valuable contributions of more than 2,500 researchers in the ield of IST, and I am very thankful for their contributions to this publication. In terms of editorial assistance, I would like to convey my deep appreciation and gratitude to my editorial staff at Idea Group Reference (IGR), including Ms. Michelle Potter, former acquisitions and development editor, for her immeasurable assistance during the development process for this publication. I would also like to express my many thanks to Ms. Kristin Roth, development editor, Ms. Lynley Lapp, former assistant development editor, Ms. Kristin Klinger, acquisitions editor, Ms. Lauren Kenes, former editorial assistant, Ms. Sara Reed, managing editor, Ms. Jennifer Neidig, senior managing editor, Ms. Diane Huskinson, assistant managing editor, Ms. Lisa Tosheff, graphic artist, and Ms. Maria Boyer, copy editor for their involvement and assistance with this publication. My warmest thanks also go to my wife, Beth Peiffer, for her support, wisdom, encouragement, understanding, patience, and love. My heart also goes to my two young girls, Basha and Anar, for the joys that they have brought to my life. Finally, much gratitude goes to all those who have taught me immeasurable amounts during the past three decades. Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, D.B.A. Information Resources Management Association, USA
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Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, DBA is currently the executive director of the Information Resources Management Association (IRMA), USA, and senior academic editor for Idea Group Reference. Previously, he served on the faculty of the Pennsylvania State University as an associate professor of information systems for 20 years. He has written or edited over 30 books in information technology management, and he is also the editor of the Information Resources Management Journal, Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations, Journal of Cases on Information Technology, and International Journal of Cases on Electronic Commerce.
A
Aad: See Attitude Toward the Ad. AAR: See After-Action Review. Abduction
1: Abduction is the process by which a new concept is formed on the basis of an existing concept that is perceived as having something in common with it. Therefore abduction focuses on associations. (Nobre, 2006a) 2: The explanatory process of inferring certain facts and/or hypotheses that explain or discover some phenomenon or observation. (Magnani & Bardone, 2006) of its employees. The greater the absorptive capacity of an organization, the greater its ability to learn and adapt to changing market forces. (Jones & Gupta, 2005) 2: Relects the receiving employees ability to absorb the knowledge sent by the giving employee. (Chen, Duan, et al., 2006) 3: The ability of a irm to recognize the value of new, external information; assimilate it; and apply it to commercial ends. (Priestley, 2006; Yaniv & Schwartz, 2006; Lertwongsatien & Wongpinunwatana, 2005)
Abstract Dimension
Describes the soft issues of a relationship. (Leonard, 2005)
Abductive Mode
This mode permits programs to explore how did this happen? or provides for diagnostic programming features. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005c)
Ability Grouping
The practice of forming learning groups of students of similar abilities, for example, putting students who read on a third-grade level with other students who read on a third-grade level. (Trammell, 2005)
Abstraction Levels
A model is an abstraction, and as such it may represent an aspect of reality with some level of detail. Different models can represent the same aspect, each with a different abstraction level. The abstraction level is directly related to the amount of detail represented in the model. (Tobar et al., 2006)
Abort
Cancels all modiications of a transaction. (Meixner, 2005)
Academic Accountability
The emphasis from society, government, and academia that education should lead to beneicial outcomes and learning that can be measured. (Lindsay, Williams, et al., 2005)
Academic Administration
Administration procedures or formalities linked with university education, such as registrations for semesters or examinations, progress reviews and monitoring, eligibility formalities, student history records or progress archiving, promotions to levels or years, academic timetables, and so forth. (Fernando, 2005)
Absorptive Capacity
1: An organizations ability to absorb new knowledge; often based on the prior experience and knowledge base
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1: A policy created in an organization to outline the permitted and restricted uses of the companys networks and computer systems. (Urbaczewski, 2005) 2: A written policy document that deines what activities are appropriate and inappropriate for a user of a particular resource. A document indicating the understanding and acceptance of an AUP is often required to be formally signed by a user before he or she gains access to the resource. (Knight & Labruyere, 2005)
mechanism which grants, denies, or revokes permissions. (Mundy & Otenko, 2005) 3: Software control of the use of a computer. (N.C. Rowe, 2006c)
Access History
Navigation path taken by a user as he/she surfs a Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). (Quah & Seet, 2006)
Access
1: One of the three preconditions for citizen participation in e-democracy (accesscompetencemotivation). Access to communication involves existence of technical and logical access point, communications device, and permission to access. (Keskinen & Kuosa, 2005) 2: Citizens have access to the technology they need. Access is both physical (ICT is located at a physically appropriate place, such as in the home, community center, library, or school) and economic (it is affordable). (Williamson, 2005) 3: Refers to the ability to get into, and use, an online system. Access to the Internet through commercial online services requires an account, an access telephone number, a password, and special software designed for that service. (Magagula, 2005) 4: The ability to ind or to exchange information via online media. (St.Amant, 2005d) 5: The ability to physically or electronically obtain data or information. (Buche & Vician, 2005) 6: The ability, the opportunity, or the right to enter or use technology and all that it has to offer in todays society. (Reilly, 2005) 7: The quality principle that is the fundamental motivation for online learning, access means that people who are qualiied and motivated can obtain affordable, quality education in the discipline of choice. (Moore, Bourne, et al., 2005)
Access Latency
The delay time when a data item or object is accessed. (Tse, 2006)
Access Link
Web page address used for navigation purposes. (Quah & Seet, 2006)
Access Method
1: A data structure that enables fast access over the records of a database ile. Careful tuning or selection of the appropriate access method is very important in database performance. (Tzouramanis, 2005) 2: In the database domain, indexes are designed to access data that are stored in a speciic structure. The type of data and the type of the structure used determine the procedures followed by the index to access these data, which is referred to as the access method. (Gaffar, 2005) 3: A technique of organizing data that allows the eficient retrieval of data according to a set of search criteria. R-trees and Quadtrees are two well-known families of such techniques. (Vassilakopoulos & Corral, 2005)
Access Control
1: Methods used to determine if requests to use a system, network, application, or resource should be granted or denied. (Knight & Labruyere, 2005) 2: Restriction of access to some resource through the application of a
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Polyzos, 2006) 3: Typically, infrastructure-based wireless networks provide access to the wired backbone network via an AP. The AP may act as a repeater, bridge, router, or even as a gateway to regenerate, forward, ilter, or translate messages. All communication between mobile devices has to take place via the AP. (Sarkar, 2005)
Access Table
A table listing the transactions to be implemented with an application. For each transaction, it shows the classes from the Class Diagram it needs to visit, including the number and types of accesses (Read, Write) in order to collect the data necessary for composing the inal result. (Polese et al. 2005)
operating. Designing for diversity not only increases the number of people able to access software or a Web site, but also increases their level of involvement with it. (Singh, 2005b) 5: Problems encountered by Internet users with perceptual and cognitive challenges, physical conditions, or other factors such as geographical location; sociocultural, political, and economic issues; language; and so forth, which inluence their use of the Web. (Campbell, 2005) 6: The ability to easily navigate and move about in the environment. Usually thought of in terms of the architecture of buildings, but since the recent advent of the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI), has been expanded to include the architecture of the World Wide Web and all electronic and information technology. (Proctor, 2005) 7: The measure of whether a person can perform an interaction, access information, or do anything else. It does not measure how well he or she can do it, though. (Polovina & Pearson, 2006) 8: The relative ease by which the locations of activities, such as work, school, shopping, and health care, can be reached from a given location. (Wang & Lou, 2005) 9: The sum of the space and time between an individual and an activity. (Kenyon, 2005)
Accessibility
1: A characteristic of information technology that allows it to be used by people with different abilities. In more general terms, accessibility refers to the ability of people with disabilities to access public and private spaces. (Keates et al., 2006) 2: An individuals perception that he/she can contact or reach his/her leader when so desired. (Connaughton, 2005) 3: Accessibility is achieved when individuals with disabilities can access and use information technology in ways comparable to those available to people without disabilities. A narrower, operational deinition conceptualizes accessibility in terms of conformance to certain accessibility criteria. (Schmetzke, 2005) 4: Just as computers vary by operating system, processor speed, screen size, memory, and networking abilities, users vary in ways both expected and unexpected. Some differences more commonly thought of are language, gender, age, cultures, preferences, and interests. However, some of the differences that need to be paid more attention to by the software and Web development community are skills, ability levels, and constraints under which users may be
Accessibility Toolkit
Refers to software tools and resources, provided by operating system manufacturers, that help in the developing accessibility software (e.g., screen readers). (Lahiri & Basu, 2005)
Accessible
Describes a product, information, or environment that is fully usable by a person, with or without assistive technology. (Burgstahler, 2005b)
Accessible Technology
Products, devices, or equipment that can be used, with or without assistive technology, by individuals with disabilities. (Keates et al., 2006)
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Also sometimes referred to as barrier-free Web design. Web design that strives to accommodate the needs of people with disabilities, including those using assistive technology, to access the Web environment. (Schmetzke, 2005)
Accommodation
1: A mental process individuals use to create new schemata or to modify old schemata as the result of interaction with new environmental stimulus. Both of these actions result in cognitive development. (Gillani, 2005a) 2: Modiication or adjustment to a task or an environment that allows a person with a disability an equal opportunity to complete a task or to access an environment. Not all persons with disabilities, or kinds of disability, require accommodations. Environmental accommodations include, but are not limited to, ramps, curb cuts, handicapped-accessible bathrooms, accessible computer stations, touch screens, and light switches. Education accommodations include, but are not limited to, tape recorders, screen readers, oral tests, extra time to complete related course work, materials printed in Braille, and note takers and interpreters provided to students with disabilities. (Proctor, 2005; Burgstahler, 2005a) 3: Provisions made in how a student accesses and/or demonstrates learning. The term focuses on changes in the instruction, or how students are expected to learn, along with changes in methods of assessment that demonstrate or document what has been learned. The use of an accommodation does not change the educational goals, standards, or objectives, the instructional level, or the content, and provides the student with equal access and equal opportunity to demonstrate his or her skills and knowledge. (T. Cavanaugh, 2005)
Being called to account or held responsible for discharging higher education mission and goals, generally understood in terms of higher educations responsibility to ensure student learning at a reasonable cost. (Keinath, 2005) 4: Responsibility of member behavior for their actions among the community. Such notion is strictly related to identity management in a virtual community. (Bertino et al., 2006) 5: Transparency of responsibility for performance, the management of performance, and resulting implications for the deployment of future resources. (Wright & Taylor, 2005)
Accountable Identiication
A way to identify a person in an electronic interaction and to give legal status to electronic documents. Different technologies have been tried out, for example, chip cards and digital signatures. (Jaeger, 2005)
Accreditation
1: An external quality-review process used by higher education to evaluate colleges, universities, and educational programs or courses to ensure and improve quality. (KungMing, 2005) 2: Endorsement of quality performance by an outside agency. (C. Cavanaugh, 2005) 3: Recognition by a certifying organization or agency that a college meets certain acceptable standards in its education programs, services, and facilities. Regional accreditation applies to a college as a whole and not to any particular program or course of study. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005) 4: The primary means by which colleges and universities and other higher learning programs assure academic quality to students and to the public. (Garten & Thompson, 2005) 5: The process of certifying whether a program meets the standards and expectations of any association to which it belongs. (Howell & Wilcken, 2005) 6: The seal of approval granted by an accrediting agency to an academic institution indicating that certain quality standards are met. (Kostopoulos, 2005)
Accountability
1: A responsibility to account for and/or explain actions undertaken; obligation of government, public services, or funding agencies in compliance with agreed rules and standards. (Park, 2006) 2: Accountability of parties means holding to account, scrutinizing, and being required to give an account; especially in white-collar crime, accountability is often associated with governance. (Mitrakas, 2006) 3:
Accreditation Mills
Associations that claim to extend academic accreditation, while they themselves do not have any oficials or otherwise recognized capacity. (Kostopoulos, 2005)
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Accrediting Agency
An organization that grants seals of approval to academic institutions for having met a certain level of quality standards. Normally authorized by a cognizant government entity. (Kostopoulos, 2005)
Accrediting Commissions
In the United States there are both regional and professional accreditation systems that serve as the gatekeepers for quality in higher education. The six geographic regions of the U.S. each have their own commissions (some have two) that are made up of individuals from the member institutions served by the region. These regional accrediting commissions also serve a role in determining institutional eligibility to administer federal inancial aid for students. (S.M. Johnstone, 2005)
other concurrent transactions, and is durable after it has been committed. (Frank, 2005b) 3: Conventional online transaction processing (OLTP) requires the following properties called ACID properties: Atomicity (A): All changes are totally done (committed) or totally undone (rolled back); Consistency (C): The effect of a transaction preserves the invariant properties of the system; Isolation (I): Intermediate results are not visible to other transactions. Transactions have the effect of executing serially, although they act concurrently; Durability (D): The effects of a transaction are persistent; changes are not lost except under catastrophic failure. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005c)
Accrual
The concept that all revenues and costs that are accrued and matched within the same economic year. (Tahinakis et al., 2006)
Acoustic Metadata
Metadata obtained from an analysis of the audio signal. (Pachet, 2006)
Acculturation
The process by which a person adopts and assimilates characteristics of another culture into ones own culture. (Petter et al., 2005)
Acquisition-of-Expertise Hypothesis
States that people will perform better in dynamic tasks, if they acquire the requisite expertise. (Qudrat-Ullah, 2006)
Accuracy
1: The agreement between the real measurement and some objective standard taken as the ground truth. In a given measurement experimentation, the high accuracy could be achieved using correct sample design and measurement methods. An accurate measurement is also called an unbiased measurement. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005c) 2: The measure of how well a pattern can generalize. In classiication it is usually deined as the percentage of examples that are correctly classiied. (Zhou, 2005)
Action Learning
1: A collaborative but challenging group process of cyclic inquiry that facilitates insight in an individual group
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member facing an important real-life problem such that (s)he may take reasoned action to resolve her/his problem, and the individual and other group members learn through the overall process. (Smith, 2006a) 2: A practical and structured process focused on real organizational problems and the development of a case study describing the problem, including team-based research within an online environment. Action learning includes a continuous renewal process of reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation, and concrete experience. (Baskin et al., 2005)
and facilitate the articulation of self-deinitions for a wider audience. In each case, action research involves the identiication of a problem, an understanding of for whom the research is being conducted, and a notion of some disadvantage that is to be addressed or solved through research. (Forte, 2005) 3: Research that is designed not simply to establish the facts about a situation, but which is designed to facilitate the goals of the organization being researched. (David, 2005) 4: Type of research approach in which the researcher attempts to improve the research client, which can be an organization, while at the same time generating relevant academic knowledge. (Kock, 2005) 5: An action-oriented methodology or intervention process that is collaborative in nature. It aims to work with stakeholders. (Braun, 2005a)
Action-Mediating Web
Services and actions are enabled by the Web including learning actions. This complements the traditional idea of the Semantic Web as knowledge representation structure. (Liu & Koppelaar, 2005)
Time can be considered in the speciication. There are several ways of doing this: considering time as linear or branching, synchronous, asynchronous, and so forth. (Dasso & Funes, 2005)
Actionability
Actionability of a pattern indicates its usefulness. Essentially, a pattern is actionable if a user can act on it to his or her advantage. Though it has a great practical orientation, actionability is dificult to operationalize due to the inherent dificulty in mapping patterns to useful actions. (Natarajan & Shekar, 2006)
Actionable Information
Information that can be used as the basis for a decision, or for taking action, usually to change something. (Holstein & Crnkovic, 2005)
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Actionable Rule
A rule is actionable if the user can do an action to his/ her advantage based on this rule. (Ras, Tzacheva, et al., 2005)
Active Interface
An interface that monitors and tracks its interaction with the user. (Soh, 2006)
Activation-Emotion Space
A 2D representation of the emotion space, with the two axes representing the magnitude and the hue of a speciic emotion. (Karpouzis et al., 2005)
Activation Function
Transforms the net input of a neural network into an output signal, which is transmitted to other neurons. (Yeo, 2005)
Active Audience
Uses and gratiications theory presumes media users are actively involved in selection and use of media, and are not passive recipients. This implies the need to speciically target media offerings to perceived user needs. (Stafford, 2005)
Active Database
A database with the capability for reacting to stimula. (Ale & Espil, 2005)
Active Design
Also called agent environment co-design. The main idea is to split the work of building the intelligence into a load belonging to the agents and a load belonging to the environment. (Liu & Koppelaar, 2005)
Active Disk
A disk whose controller runs application code, which can process data on disk. (Thomasian, 2005a)
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discovering, processing, and applying information. Active learning derives from two basic assumptions: (1) learning is by nature an active endeavor, and (2) different people learn in different ways. (Beck & Schornack, 2005)
Active Rule
This is represented by an ECA structure, meaning when an event is produced, if the condition is veriied, execute an action. The event part represents a situation that triggers the rule, the condition part represents the state of a system execution or of a database, and the action part denotes a set of operations or a program. (Vargas-Solar, 2005)
Active Mechanism
A system responsible for detecting events and reacting automatically to such events according to predeined active rules or ECA rules. Traditionally, active mechanisms are embedded within Active Database Management Systems (ADBMSs). Unbundled active mechanisms have been proposed for federated database systems and for component database systems. (Vargas-Solar, 2005)
Active Modality
Modality voluntarily and consciously used by users to issue a command to the computer; for example, a voice command or a pen gesture. (Bourguet, 2006)
Active Tag
An active tag is powered by its own battery, and it can transmit its ID and related information continuously. (Owens et al., 2005)
Active Participation
Citizens are actively engaged in the policy-making process. The government acknowledges citizens as partners; citizens participate proposing policy options and shaping the policy dialogue. (Kaufman, 2005)
ActiveX Control
A Microsoft software module that enables another program to add functionality by calling ready-made components that blend in and appear as normal parts of the program. (Friedman, 2005)
Activities
Single tasks or chains of tasks that form business processes and allow a irm to differentiate itself in the marketplace. (Hanebeck, 2005)
Activities-Based Costing
A costing method that assesses a given activity in terms of component costs for all persons and resources involved in the activity; the alternative is parsing costs of an activity by looking at aggregate cost data for only those key institutions or units directly responsible for that activity. (Fisher, 2005)
Active Replica
The replica that directly processes a given transaction, generating the updates that later will be transmitted to the other, passive replicas. The active status of a replica functionally depends on the given transaction. (MuozEsco et al., 2005)
Activity
1: A logically connected set of actions that are carried out as a unit in some order. It is associated with a state (called action state) in which the system remains while the activity is performed. (Rittgen, 2005) 2: Sometimes used as shorthand to refer to opportunities, services, social networks, and other goods, as well as to people, communities, and other locations. (Kenyon, 2005)
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Activity Diagram A UML diagram showing operations and triggers between operations; a diagram which shows system dynamics via cause and effect relationships. An activity diagram is a state diagram in which most of the states are action states, and most of the transitions are triggered by the completion of these action states. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a)
that initiates an action by signaling an event. An actor is outside a system and can be either another system or a human being. (Hvannberg et al., 2006)
Activity Level
A measure of the number of participant-initiated actions that take place during a time interval. (Kushnir, 2006)
Activity List
A prose description of a task or subtask divided into lines to represent separate task behaviors; it usually has only one main agent and one action per line. (Diaper, 2006)
Activity Logging
Electronic recordkeeping of such system or network actions as applications accessed, commands executed, iles accessed, and trafic generated from a system. (Knight & Labruyere, 2005)
Actuary
A statistician who practices the collection and interpretation of numerical data; especially someone who uses statistics to calculate insurance premiums. (Kitchens, 2005)
Actor
1: A person or (computer) system that can perform an activity. The actor does not refer to a particular individual but rather to a role (e.g., teacher). (Rittgen, 2005) 2: An actor plays one or more roles in relation to a set of use cases. An actor could correspond to a job title (e.g., purchasing agent, sales clerk) or can be non-human (e.g., another system or database). Each actor in a use case must be directly involved at some point and is not merely a stakeholder (someone or something that is affected by the success or failure of a particular transaction). (Dobing & Parsons, 2005) 3: An entity that can make its presence individually felt by other actors. Actors can be human or non-human, non-human actors including such things as computer programs, portals, companies, and other entities that cannot be seen as individual people. An actor can be seen as an association of heterogeneous elements that constitute a network. This is especially important with non-human actors, as there are always some human aspects within the network. (Tatnall, 2005a) 4: Someone
Ad Hoc Network
Peer-to-peer 802.11 network formed automatically when several computers come together without an access point. Such computers can exchange data within the network, but cannot access the Internet. (Houser & Thornton, 2005)
ADA: See Americans with Disabilities Act. AdaBoost: See Adaptive Boosting. Adaptability
1: One says this of a system that can perform adaptation based on conigurations set by the user before or during the execution of the system. (Tobar et al., 2006) 2: The ease with which software satisies differing system constraints and user needs. (Guan, 2006b)
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appearance, and so forth to his or her needs. (Anke & Sundaram, 2006)
Adaptable Systems
Systems that offer personalizationthat is, pre-deined before the execution of the system and which may be modiied by users. (Gaudioso & Montero, 2006)
Adaptive Feedback
Immediate feedback in the form of an explanation or discussion that is tailored to the qualities of the students answer. (Owen & Aworuwa, 2005)
Adaptation
A system characteristic concerned with the capacity of adjusting its behavior according to one or a combination of targets: the user, the human computer interaction process, or the computational platform. (Tobar et al., 2006)
Adaptive Filter
Linear system that modiies its parameters, minimizing some given criterion of the difference between its output and a given reference signal. Widely used in echo and noise canceling, equalization of communication channels, antenna arrays, and so forth. (Perez-Meana & NakanoMiyatake, 2005)
Adaptation Engineering
The process of constructing the automatic adjustment of an application to the user; often in adaptation engineering, models are created for the domain, the user, and the adaptation. (Houben, Aroyo, & Dicheva, 2006)
Adaptation Model
Representation of the way in which both the selection and presentation of content are adapted to the user. (Houben et al., 2006)
Adapter
Intermediate software that understands proprietary back-end application interfaces and provides easy access interfaces for EAI technology integration. (Bussler, 2005b)
Adaptive Learning
An algorithm that can learn a hidden concept from interactive feedback provided by a user or the underlying environment. (Meng & Chen, 2005)
Adaptive Cognition
A cognitive style that prefers to think sequentially and work within current paradigms. (Kaluzniacky, 2006)
Adaptive Services
In order to support personalized application, a system provides special content, presentation, and interaction
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adaptively to individual users according to their needs, abilities, and experiences. (Liu & Koppelaar, 2005)
Adaptive System
1: A system adapting its behavior on the basis of the environment it is operating in. (De Meo, Quattrone, et al., 2005) 2: A system that offers personalization that is dynamically built and automatically performed based on what these systems learn about the users. (Gaudioso & Montero, 2006)
Adaptivity
1: Allows the content and the display of the content to be altered according to the characteristics of any individual user. Provides a dynamic adaptation of the content and appearance based on each individual user. (Shareef & Kinshuk, 2005) 2: One says this of a system that can perform adaptation automatically. Generally, the system acquires and analyzes external data in order to make inferences and execute adaptation actions. (Tobar et al., 2006)
Added Value
Traditional usage is as an indication that the particular packaging, delivery method, or combination of services in a product brings extra benefits than one would otherwise receive. Applied to educational technology, it communicates that the use of technology brings added value to the teaching or learning processes when it makes possible something that otherwise would be impossible or less viable to do. (Dexter, 2005)
Adding Value
This is giving something that was not anticipated, such as selling a customer a product, and then giving additional information about gaining maximum beneit from it, or giving advice about safety issues relating to the product. (Mitchell, 2005b)
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Addressable Unit
A speciic unit within a particular digital asset such as a digital video movie. (Subramanian, 2005)
with the professor. These include e-registration, einancial aid, e-library, e-bookstore, e-advisors, e-student organizations, and virtual communities. (Levy & Ramim, 2005a)
Admission Control
The algorithms used by the system to accept or refuse new radio links (e.g., new users) in the system. (Iossiides et al., 2005)
Ad-Hoc Network
1: A local area network or other small network, especially one with wireless or temporary plug-in connections, in which some of the network devices (sometimes mobile) are part of the network only for the duration of a communication session or because some of the devices are in some close proximity, so a communication session can take place. (Maamar, 2005) 2: A special type of computer network where communication does not require any ixed computer network infrastructure (e.g., it does not need a router); the nodes communicate directly with each other without access points. In host-multicast, mobile peering hosts a construct ad-hoc network. (Hossz, 2005b) 3: A self-coniguring mobile network of routers (and hosts), connected wirelessly, in which the nodes may move freely and randomly, resulting in a rapid and unpredictable change in the networks wireless topology. See also Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET). (Akhtar, 2005)
Adoption
1: Changes in employee attitudes, perceptions, and actions that lead them to try new practices, activities, or innovations that are different from their normal routines or behaviors. (Jones & Gupta, 2005) 2: Result of an innovation decision process. Decision to use an innovation. (Voeth & Liehr, 2005) 3: The decision to accept or invest in a technology. (Signoret, 2006b) 4: The decision to implement an innovation. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005a) 5: The stage of technology diffusion in which an individual or organization decides to select a technology for use. (Green, Day, et al., 2005)
Adoption Factors
The major factors that encourage (or discourage) an organization to adopt an innovation. These include the following keywords. (Cragg & Mills, 2005)
Adjacency Matrix
A matrix representing a graph with n vertex. It is an n-by-n array of Boolean values with the entry in row u and column v deined to be 1 if there is an edge connecting vertex u and v in the graph, and to be 0 otherwise. (Li, 2005)
Adult Education
This term is used to show awareness of the reality that many adults come to formal educational programs with different orientations to study, motivations, and prior experiences from younger learners. These differences need to be accommodated in the learning designs used. (Ching et al., 2005)
Adult Learner
A student typically 25 years of age or older who is selfdirected, motivated, and an active participant in his or her learning process. (Ordonez, 2005)
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Advance Organizer
1: A general statement at the beginning of the information or lesson to activate existing cognitive structure or to provide the appropriate cognitive structure to learn the details in the information or the lesson. (Ally, 2005c) 2: Any presentation of information that displays and represents the content and structure of a hypertext or text. (Shapiro, 2006)
Adverse Effect
Any untoward medical occurrence that may be life threatening and requires in-patient hospitalization. (Kusiak & Shah, 2005)
Advertising Fee
A payment received from an advertiser for including an advertisement on a Web site. (Shan et al., 2006b)
Advertising Waste
Advertising that reaches an audience that is outside of its target market or intended audience. (Owen, 2006a)
Advisory Agent
Intelligent agent that provides intelligent advice and decision support autonomously. These agents decide what information is needed, seek it out, and use it to make recommendations. (Gates & Nissen, 2005a)
Advisory System
Front-end software system that guides customers according to their proiles and preferences through a personalized consulting process resulting in the generation of product conigurations that better fulill customers needs. In opposition to the commonly used product-oriented interfaces in conigurators, advisory systems are customer oriented and do not assume any specific technical knowledge of the product. (Blecker, 2006b)
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clarinet), double reeds (oboe), lutes, and brass (trumpet). (Wieczorkowska, 2005)
Aesthetic Integrity
A principle that advocates that a design should be visually appealing and should follow common principles of visual designconsistency, a clear identity, a clear visual hierarchy, good alignment, contrast, and proportions. (Singh, 2005b)
area concerned with computing that relates to, arises from, or deliberately inluences emotion. Affective computing expands HCI by including emotional communication, together with the appropriate means of handling affective information. (Pantic, 2005a)
Affective Learning
The attitude of the student toward the educational experience. (Woods & Baker, 2005)
Aesthetics of Use
The behavioral aspects of an artifact, system, or device that precipitate an aesthetic experience based on temporal as well as spatial elements. (Kettley, 2006a)
Afiliate Marketing
When companies use third parties to provide services on their behalf. The afiliates may deliver customer lists or customers to the main company in return for a commission payment or cross-selling opportunity. (Brindley, 2006)
Affective
Domain of learning concerned with inward disposition, feeling, intent, intention, earnest, reality; contrasted with merely cognitive development and/or external manifestation. (Rogers & Howell, 2005)
Affective Complexity
How much communication is sensitive to attitudes or changes in disposition toward the communication partner or subject matter. (Willis, 2005)
Afinity Communities
Communities that are based on profession, common interest, cause, demographic, or marketer-generated phenomenon. (Roy, A., 2005)
Affective Computing
1: A domain of computer science research combining ields such as Artiicial Intelligence and Human-Computer Interaction in the endeavor to develop computers that can recognize, express, and have emotions. (Byl & Toleman, 2005) 2: A recent theory that recognizes that emotions play an essential role in perception and learning by shaping the mechanisms of rational thinking. In order to enhance the process of interaction, we should design systems with the ability to recognize, to understand, and even to have and express emotions. (Karpouzis et al., 2005) 3: The research
Afinity Network
Groups of people who are drawn together based on one or more shared personal attributes. Their activities are highly relationship oriented and typically include networking, mentoring, and representing a collective voice in both organizational and external community affairs. (Archer, 2006)
Afinity Portal
A special type of vertical portal that targets speciic segments of the market and is designed to appeal to
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peoples emotions, values, and belief systems. (Vrazalic & Hyland, 2005)
Affordance
1: Can be viewed as a property of an object that supports certain kinds of actions rather than others. (Magnani & Bardone, 2006) 2: A features of an environment or artifact that affords or permits certain behaviors. (Graham, Allen, et al., 2005) 3: The actual or perceived properties of an object that determine how the object could be used. (Yong, 2005)
Agent
1: A complex system constituting elements that are individual performers, which can be described by their interrelationships, knowledge/skill, performance and constraints factors. (Plekhanova, 2005a) 2: A component of software and/or hardware that is capable of acting in order to accomplish tasks on behalf of its user. Software agents are agents in the form of programs (code) that operate in computer environments. (Cardoso & Freire,
2005) 3: A computational entity capable of both perceiving dynamic changes in the environment it is operating in and autonomously performing user-delegated tasks, possibly by communicating and cooperating with other similar entities. (De Meo, Quattrone, et al., 2005) 4: A computational entity which acts on behalf of other entities. (Karoui, 2005) 5: A convenient metaphor for building software to interact with the range and diversity of online resources is that of an agent. An agent is a program that performs some task on your behalf. You expect an agent to act even if all the details are not speciied or if the situation changes. You expect an agent to communicate effectively with other agents. Using agents adds a layer of abstraction that localizes decisions about dealing with local peculiarities of format, knowledge conventions, and so forth, and thus helps to understand and manage complexity. (Hamdi, 2005b) 6: A module that is able to sense its environment, receive stimuli from the environment, make autonomous decisions, and actuate the decisions, which in turn change the environment. (Soh, 2006) 7: A piece of software that autonomously performs a given task using information collected from its environment to act in a suitable manner so as to complete the task successfully. This software should be able to adapt itself based on changes occurring in its environment, so that a change in circumstances will still yield the intended result. (Camarinha-Matos & Ferrada, 2006) 8: A program designed to provide specialized and well-deined services. An agent can be staticexecuting on the computer where it was installed, or mobileexecuting on computer nodes in a network. (Raisinghani, Klassen, & Schkade, 2005) 9: A software agent is a piece of autonomous or semiautonomous, proactive and reactive computer software. Many individual communicative software agents may form a multi-agent system. (Guan, 2006f) 10: A software agent is a programmable artifact capable of intelligent autonomous action toward an objective. (Nabuco et al., 2006) 11: A system that is capable of perceiving events in its environment, or representing information about the current state of affairs and of acting in its environment guided by perceptions and stored information (current deinition by AOIS, agent-oriented information system community). (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005a) 12: A virtual representation of real or imaginary human beings in software systems. (Arya, 2005) 13: An agent is an encapsulated computer system that is situated in some environment and that is capable of lexible, autonomous action in that environment in order to meet its design
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objectives. Agents normally exhibit autonomous, reactive, proactive, and social behaviors. (Kefalas et al., 2005)
Agent-Based E-Marketplace
A distributed multi-agent system formed by stationary and mobile agents that provide e-commerce services to end users within a business context. (Fortino, Garro, et al., 2006)
Agent-Based Simulation
Simulation of organizations as interacting autonomous entities with their own interests, goals, and discrete processes. (Janssen, 2005)
Agent Attributes
An agent can be classiied using some of its characteristics called attributes. An agent has three basic attributes: mobility, intelligence, and interaction. (Karoui, 2005)
Agent Framework
A program or code library that provides a comprehensive set of capabilities that are used to develop and support software agents. (Zwitserloot & Pantic, 2005)
Agent Orientation
The next step in the evolution of computational modeling, programming methodologies, and software engineering paradigms. Aspects of agent orientation include both cooperative and competitive interactions, knowledge, economic and logical rationality, and learning, all of which are useful for designing distributed computations in open dynamic environments. (Ghenniwa & Huhns, 2005)
Agents Compatibility
A capability of an agent to work with other agents without adaptation, adjustment, or modiication. (Plekhanova, 2005a)
Aggregate Function
A function that is used to aggregate a set of values to get a single value. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005)
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Aging Effect
Software artifacts evolve over time due to the changes in domain requirements, platform, and even language. After their release, software needs to be modiied regularly. These modiications introduce errors to the software and reduce its overall quality over time, which is often called the aging effect. (Gaffar, 2005)
Aging-Related Declines
Age-related differences in cognitive, motor, and perceptual abilities. (Zaphiris & Kurniawan, 2005)
Aggregation
1: A relationship in which a composite object (whole) consists of other component objects (parts). (Taniar, Pardede, & Rahayu, 2005) 2: Also commonly called a summary, an aggregation is the calculation of a value from a bag or (multi)set of entities. Typical aggregations are sum, count, and average. (Perlich & Provost, 2005) 3: Metaphorical boundaries that indicate a community networks zones of inclusion and exclusion, and structures of content, activity, and functionality within the site. (Gibbs et al., 2005)
Aglets
Platforms for mobile agents to operate on and on which to perform transactions. (Quah, Leow, & Ong, 2006)
A-GPS: See Assisted Global Positioning System. AHIMA: See American Health Information Management
Association.
Aggregation Queries
Common queries executed by decision support systems that aggregate and group large amounts of data, where aggregation operators are typically SUM, COUNT, AVG, and so forth. (Das, 2005)
AIC Criterion
The AIC criterion is deined by the following equation:
Agile
Being agile means to be proicient at change, which allows an organization to do anything it wants, whenever it wants. Since virtual enterprises do not own signiicant capital resources of their own, it helps if they are agile, so they can be formed and changed very rapidly. (Wong, 2005)
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AI CC Alignm e nt
AL Set
The name given to an AL group. (Smith, 2006a)
Training) Committee.
Algebraic Speciication
Aides Memoires
Aids to the memory or mental artifacts that indicate the sources of information rather than the information itself. (Atkinson & Burstein 2006)
A technique whereby an object is speciied in terms of the relationships between the operations that act on that object. A speciication is presented in four parts: the Introduction, where the sort of the entity being speciied is introduced and the name of any other speciications that are required are set out; the Informal Description of the sort and its operations; the Signature, where the names of the operations on that object and the sorts of their parameters are deined; and the Axioms, where the relationships between the sort operations are deined. (Felice & Riesco, 2005)
Algorithm AIML: See Artiicial Intelligence Markup Language. AIP: See Application Infrastructure Provider. Air Trafic Control (ATC)
Refers to both the activities and the systems involved in the management of lights by air trafic controllers. The air trafic controllers main task is to ensure light safety with an eficient, secure, and ordered air trafic low. ATC systems are dedicated to the support of these tasks. (Bastide et al., 2006) A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem, in this case that of determining completion and retention rates. No national, standardized algorithm exists yet for calculating these rates. (Lindsay, Howell, et al., 2005)
Algorithm Animation
Visualization of a piece of software illustrating the main ideas or steps (i.e., its algorithmic behavior), but without a close relationship to the source code. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005)
Algorithmic Information Theory AIT: See Analytical Information Technology. Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Schwartz Bayesian Criterion (SBC)
The two most commonly used model selection criteria. They trade off itness of a model for the complexity of the model. If the AIC (or SBC) of model A is smaller than that of model B, it is said that model A is better than model B. (Cho, 2005) Absolute information theory based on Kolmogorov complexity theory. (T. Y. Lin, 2005)
Akruti
A brand name of Indian language software. (Literal meaning of Akruti is igure.) (Shaligram, 2005)
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with determinant factors that affect the degree to which one set of objectives are mutually consistent and supportive of the other. (Dery & Samson, 2005) 3: Explicit mapping of characters of a sequence to characters of one or more other sequence(s). (Tsunoda et al., 2005) 4: Means the alignment of the strategic vision for information technology with the organizations strategic vision, ensuring the strategic vision for information technology supports the organizations strategic vision. (Brabston, 2005) 5: The arrangement or position of different separate elements (strategies) in relation to each other. (Johnston, 2005)
Alt String
An HTML tag for attaching text to a media object. (N.C. Rowe, 2005b)
Alternative Assessment
Activities developed by an instructor to assist the student in identifying the processes and products of learning beyond the one right answer approach, and where the scoring or rating criteria are distributed at the same time as the assignment directions. (B.L. MacGregor, 2005)
Alternative Hypothesis
The hypothesis that an object is relevant. In general terms, the alternative hypothesis refers to the set of events that is the complement of the null hypothesis. (Mukherjee, 2005)
Alliance Management
Allows two different organizations to effectively work together and combine resources, which is expected to bring beneits to both organizations. (Mandal et al., 2005)
Alternative Stafing
Support systems for student learning that consist of various kinds of instructional personnel, often replacing expensive personnel with relatively inexpensive personnel as appropriate. (Twigg, 2005)
Alliterate
A person who has the ability to read, yet chooses not to use it. (Trammell, 2005)
ALT-Text
Stands for alternative text, primarily used to render graphics when the image is not being displayed or cannot be viewed due to visual impairments or blindness. (Yu, 2005b)
Ambient Intelligence
1: Represents a vision of the future where people will be surrounded by electronic environments that are sensitive and responsive to people. (Hua et al., 2006) 2: The merging of mobile communications and sensing technologies with
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Am biguit y AM PS
the aim of enabling a pervasive and unobtrusive intelligence in the surrounding environment supporting the activities and interactions of the users. Technologies like face-based interfaces and affective computing are inherent ambientintelligence technologies. (Pantic, 2005b)
Ambiguity
Something dificult to interpret, dificult to understand, unclear. A situational factor proposed to contribute to the occurrence of Limited-Perspective Bias. (Moore & Burke, 2005)
There are many differing deinitions for distance education, spanning from videotape exchange through simple video supported to completely asynchronous (different time/different place) environments. (Martz & Shepherd, 2005)
Amortize-Scans
Amortizing disk reads by computing as many group-bys as possible, simultaneously in memory. (Tan, 2005a)
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Analog
Encoding a physical phenomenon by a direct, perceptually continuous variation of a physical property such as electromagnetic intensity (recording tape), mechanical displacement (vinyl disk), or opaqueness (photographic ilm). (Kieler & West, 2005)
Analytic Method
Method in which a system is evaluated based on its interface design attributes (typically by a usability expert). (Danielson, 2006b)
Analytical Data
All data that are obtained from optimization, forecasting, and decision support models. (Mathieu & Levary, 2005)
Analysis
1: The stage of the intelligence cycle in which the strategic signiicance of environmental data is determined. In this stage, the intelligence is produced. During analysis, intelligence professionals may use different models and techniques to interpret and value environmental data (e.g., SWOT analysis, growth-share matrix, or scenario analysis). (Achterbergh, 2005a) 2: The word analysis can have different meanings in different contexts. Within the natural computing domain, analysis corresponds to the investigation of a given phenomenon in order to obtain some information from it or to derive simpliied computational systems (or theoretical models) that somewhat mimic the behavior of the natural system being analyzed. (de Castro, 2005)
Analytical Query
A query on a data warehouse for identifying business intelligence. These queries often have complex expressions, access many kinds of data, and involve statistical functions. (Lu, 2005)
Analysis Model
A model developed to learn all aspects of a problem domain to determine the best way to solve a speciic set of user needs. (Krogstie, 2005a)
Anchor Domain
The area that provides (drives, catalyzes, or enables) the change forces applied to the pivot domain. (Abou-Zeid, 2005a)
Anchored Instruction
Learning is anchored in a real-world context. Within this context, learners engage in different activities to solve a problem, such as math calculations or geographic coordinates to travel across a continent or sale a ship. (Jennings et al., 2005)
Analyst
A user who collaborates with designers as a domain expert analyzing constraints and trade-offs in existing and envisioned work practices is called an analyst. This is the second stage in the developmental theory of participatory-design relationships between users and designers. (Carroll, 2005)
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Anchoring
Animation
1: A graphical representation of a simulation process. The major popularity of animation is its ability to communicate the essence of the model to managers and other key project personnel, greatly increasing the models credibility. It is also used as a debugging and training tool. (Al-Hanbali & Sadoun, 2006) 2: A synthetic apparent motion created through artiicial means. (Yong & Choo, 2005) 3: Technique of imparting motion and activity in graphic images of such objects as products and cartoons to create a condition of being alive, active, or spirited. (Gao, 2005b)
An evaluator bias in analytic methods in which a system is evaluated with respect to users too similar to the evaluator to be representative of the user population. (Danielson, 2006a)
Andragogy
1: The art and science of helping adults learn. (Whitield, 2005) 2: The study of adult education. The term andragogy was coined by Malcolm Knowles, a leading researcher in the study of adult learners. (Ordonez, 2005) 3: This concept was irst developed by Knowles in the late 1960s as a science of teaching adults; its key assumptions, based on the characteristics of adult learners, are: (1) self-directedness and independence increases as a person matures; (2) adult experience constitutes a resource for learning; (3) readiness to learn is related to needs, which in turn are related to the different developmental tasks, phases, and roles of adult life; (4) as a person matures, his or her orientation to learn is more directed toward the immediacy of application and to one of problem centeredness; and (5) in the adult, learning motivation is intrinsic. (Correia & Sarmento, 2005)
Animation Model
A graphical representation of a problem situation that can consist of a visualization of the time-ordered dynamics of objects, a static background, an overview of performance indicators, and a user interface. (Janssen, 2005)
Anecdote
A naturally occurring story or the recounting of an experience in conversation or when prompted. Anecdotes are in effect a response to some form of stimulus and recount real or imagined experience. (Snowden, 2006)
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by a reader playing the role of an author, which makes a statement about the document or some part of it at a certain time. (Qayyum, 2005)
Anonymity
1: A feature of an ARS that can protect the identity of a participant. (Banks, 2005) 2: Ability to conceal ones identity. (N.C. Rowe, 2006c) 3: A distinct characteristic of peer-to-peer networks, derived from the peer-to-peer philosophy. The identity and usage records of a peer are hidden from others to prevent piracy violation and censorship. (Kwok, Cheung, et al., 2006) 4: The lack of the identity due to the eliminated social cues (e.g., visual or verbal indication of a communication partners presence in the social interaction circumstance). Anonymity may encourage people to be more open to sharing their feelings and opinions, freeing them from social pressure to follow norms of groups in which they are involved. (Kang et al., 2006) 5: The degree to which a software system or component allows for or supports anonymous transactions. (Guan, 2005a)
Annotation Pipeline
A media object (and its growing collection of annotations) is pushed or pulled through a sequence of annotation extraction algorithms. (Windhouwer & Kersten, 2005)
Annotation Pool
Annotations of digital media are stored in a data pool. Annotation extraction algorithms populate this pool when their input is available. (Windhouwer & Kersten, 2005)
Anomaly
1: An unwanted consequence of inadequate database design. Data can be unintentionally lost or be more dificult to add or modify than the designer intended. (Schultz, 2005) 2: A value or observation that deviates from the rule or analogy. A potentially incorrect value. (Morantz, 2005)
Anomaly Detection
Analysis strategy that identiies intrusions as unusual behavior that differs from the normal behavior of the monitored system. (Lazarevic, 2005)
Anthropomorphic
An attribution of human characteristic or behavior to natural phenomena or inanimate objectsthat is, the embodiment of a graphic user interface agent can be
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anthropomorphic since the representation may take on human attributes or qualities. Anthropomorphism is an attempt to design technologies to be user friendly. (Faiola, 2006)
Anycast
Introduced in IPv6, associates an address with multiple nodes. Packets sent to an anycast address are routed to the nearest node having that address, depending on the distance of the routing path. Anycast can be used to provide high availability (automatic failover) and load balancing for stateless services, for example, access to replicated data. (Papagiannidis et al., 2005)
Anthropomorphism
To ascribe human characteristics to things not human. Some authors argue that, unlike a human being, an organization can have no memory. It has been argued that the idea of organizational memory raises problems of anthropomorphism. (Jasimuddin et al., 2006)
Anthropopathy
Attribution of human feelings to non-humans (animals, objects, or virtual entities). (Analide et al., 2006)
Antimonotonic
A property of some pattern-inding problems stating that patterns of size k can only exist if certain patterns with sizes smaller than k exist in the same dataset. This property is used in level-wise algorithms, such as the a priori algorithm used for association rule mining or some algorithms for inclusion dependency mining. (Koeller, 2005)
Antinoise
Estimated replica of acoustic noise generated by an active noise canceller system, which is used to cancel an environmental noise. (Perez-Meana & Nakano-Miyatake, 2005)
Antivirus Software
A class of programs that searches networks, hard drives, loppy disks, and other data access devices, such as CDROM/DVD-ROMs and zip drives, for any known or potential viruses. The market for this kind of program has expanded because of Internet growth and the increasing use of the Internet by businesses concerned about protecting their computer assets. (Luo & Warkentin, 2005)
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Application Domain
That part of the assumed real world that is changed by a work system to achieve the work systems goals. (Diaper, 2006)
Apparent Distance
The perceived proximity of faculty and students in a distance education environment. Close apparent distance is the term used to describe a relationship that is perceived as positive, supporting, in regular communicationa relationship in which the student and faculty are well known to each other and where communications low easily. (Sales, 2005)
Application Integration
The process of bringing data or a function from one application program together with that of another application program. (Karakostas, 2005)
Application Layer
Layer 7 of the OSI model. This layer determines the interface of the system with the user. (Ngoh & Shankar, 2005)
Applet
A computer program that is portable between operating systems and requires only minimal memory to run, often written in the Java programming language. (Fagan, 2005)
Application 1
1: An application is a program, script, or other collection of instructions that direct the operation of a processor. This is a wide deinition of application. It does not distinguish Web-based software from stand-alone software. Nor does this deinition distinguish system software from goalspeciic software. (Maris, 2005) 2: Knowledge integration to create organizational capability through directives, organizational routines, and self-contained task teams. (Lindsey, 2006)
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2005) 3: A company that manages and hosts a software program on behalf of a client. (Baker & Schihl, 2005) 4: A service company offering outsourcing solutions that supply, develop, and manage application-speciic software and hardware so that customers internal information technology resources can be freed up. (Zhu, 2005) 5: The provisioning to individuals and companies of software applications and ICT-related services, via the Internet or other data networks, that are to be paid on a rental/usage base. (Iacob et al., 2005) 6: A provider of application services over the Internet or an intranet. (Feuerlicht & Vorisek, 2006) 7: A specialized operator that offers a bundle of customized software applications from a remote position through the Internet, in exchange for a periodic fee. (Morabito & Provera, 2005) 8: A third-party service irm that deploys, manages, and remotely hosts software applications through centrally located services in a rental or lease agreement. Such application deliveries are done to multiple entities from data centers across a wide area network (WAN) as a service rather than a product, priced according to a license fee and maintenance contract set by the vendor. An ASP is considered by many to be the new form of IT outsourcing, usually referred to as application outsourcing. (Guah & Currie, 2005) 9: An HTML page that includes one or more scripts that are processed on a Microsoft Web server before the page is sent to the user. An ASP is somewhat similar to a server-side or a common gateway interface (CGI) application in that all involve programs that run on the server, usually tailoring a page for the user. (Lee, Suh, et al., 2005)
Application-Sharing Space
A groupware tool that produces multiple distributed remote views of a particular space. Any single-user application put under the control of the particular space can be viewed remotely and controlled by the group members that have access to this space. Therefore, the application-sharing space transforms any single-user application put under its control into a multi-user shared application. (Villemur & Drira, 2006)
Application-Speciic Ontology
An engineering object deining the model of knowledge in a speciic application case. (Cristani & Cuel, 2006)
Applied Ethics
1: The branch of ethics that emphasizes not theories of morality but ways of analyzing and resolving issues and conlicts in daily life, the professions, and public affairs. (Goodman, 2005) 2: The study of a morally controversial practice, whereby the practice is described and analyzed, and moral principles and judgments are applied, resulting in a set of recommendations. (Cook, 2005)
Appreciative Settings
A body of linked connotations of personal or collective interest, discrimination, and valuation which we bring to the exercise of judgment and which tacitly determine what we shall notice, how we shall discriminate situations of concern from the general confusion of an ongoing event, and how we shall regard them. (Vat, 2005a)
Application State
Current snapshot of the application itself and all of the resources it addresses. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005)
Application Synchronization
A speciic type of wireless application whereby the data on the wireless device is synchronized with that on the main server. (K. J. MacGregor, 2005)
Appreciative Systems
Developed by Vickers in the 1960s, the concepts of appreciative systems and of appreciative inquiry go beyond the paradigm of goal seeking to explain the processes of social activity, including decision making and action. Vickers criticized the reductionism of the perspective of focusing exclusively on goals, which he thought would be adequate to explain the behavior of rats in mazes.
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In order to describe and to explain the processes that characterize social systems, it is necessary to capture the establishing and modifying of relationships through time. Vickers also rejects the cybernetic paradigm where the course to be steered is available from outside the system, whereas systems of human activity themselves generate and regulate multiple and sometimes mutually inconsistent courses. Vickers model is cyclical and starts with previous experiences which have created certain tacit patterns, standards, values, or norms; these lead to a readiness to notice certain features which determine which facts are relevant; the facts noticed are evaluated against the norms, leading both to regulatory action and to the modiication of the norms so that future experiences may be evaluated differently. The organization of this process is the appreciative system which creates an individual and a social appreciative world. The appreciative settings condition new experience but are also modiied by the new experience. Since the state of an appreciative system is the function of its own history, this implies that they are learning systems, and for Vickers, learning is the most central and basic social process. Soft systems methodology and complex systems thinking have extended the use and notion of appreciative systems. (Nobre, 2006b)
Apriori Algorithm
1: An eficient association rule mining algorithm developed by Agrawal in 1993. Apriori employs a breadth-irst search and uses a hash tree structure to count candidate item sets eficiently. The algorithm generates candidate item sets of length k from k1 length item sets. Then, the patterns that have an infrequent subpattern are pruned. Following that, the whole transaction database is scanned to determine frequent item sets among the candidates. For determining frequent items in a fast manner, the algorithm uses a hash tree to store candidate item sets. (Huang, 2005) 2: A classic algorithm that popularized association rule mining. It pioneered a method to generate candidate itemsets by using only frequent itemsets in the previous pass. The idea rests on the fact that any subset of a frequent itemset must be frequent as well. This idea is also known as the downward closure property. (Woon et al., 2005) 3: A level-wise algorithm for inding association rules. Apriori uses the support of an itemset to prune the search space of all itemsets. It then uses the conidence metric to ind association rules. (Imberman & Tansel, 2006) 4: Association rule mining algorithm that uses the fact that the support of a non-empty subset of an item set cannot be smaller than the support of the item set itself. (Denton & Besemann, 2005) 5: The method of generating candidates before testing them during a scan over the database, insuring that if a candidate may be frequent, then it will be generated. See also Generating-Pruning. (Masseglia et al., 2005) 6: Analysis and description of the media content at the time of insertion in the database. The gained information is stored in a database and enables contentbased retrieval of the corresponding media object without actually accessing the latter. (Geisler & Kao, 2005)
Appropriation
The idea that active exploration enables peoplewhile creating their own textsto appropriate the knowledge that will help them read other texts. (Pryor, 2005)
Approved
Term used to describe an educational institution or program that has the explicit recognition of an accrediting agency. (Kostopoulos, 2005)
Approximate Searching
Searching that permits some differences between the pattern speciication and its text occurrences. (Navarro, 2005)
Approximation Set
An alternative (and more technically correct) name for a rough set, which is deined by two sets, the lower
The transformation of software applications into the Arabic language, in terms of usage as well as interface, to be able to cater for a community that stands in 2003 at around 300 million people. (Kamel, 2005a)
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Arbitrage
The simultaneous purchase of an undervalued security and sale of an overvalued but equivalent security to obtain a riskless proit on the price differential. Taking advantage of a market eficiency in a riskless manner. (Roofe, 2005)
Arbitration
A private form of conlict resolution. The litigating parties may voluntarily submit a dispute to one or more independent, neutral experts (arbitrators) who decide upon the case similarly to a court, generally in a shorter period of time. Arbitrations are usually regulated by law. (Cevenini, 2005)
Archetype
A naturally occurring constituent and output of a story tradition in which characters emerge from a body of anecdotes and stories that over time become more extreme until each archetype represents one aspect of that society. In a true archetype, all members of a community would recognize some aspect of themselves in each archetype. Archetypes are often associated with the work of Jung and Campbell who, in different contexts, argue for the existence of universal archetypes. This is not the only interpretation; many authors (including this one) argue from experience that archetypes across cultures may appear similar, but are in fact very different. For example, the trickster archetype of Norse legend is Loki, whose primary purpose if any seems at times destructive, whereas in many Native American stories the trickster is the coyote, whose function is to teach and advance humans to greater understanding. (Snowden, 2006)
curriculum content, networked relationships, various applications, and outcomes. (Baskin et al., 2005) 2: The coniguration of the network of neurons into layers of neurons is referred to as the neural architecture. To specify, the architecture involves declaring the number of input variables, hidden layers, hidden neurons, and output neurons. (Smith, 2005) 3: The fundamental organization of a system, embodied in its components, their relationships to each other and the environment, and the principles governing its design and evolution (ANSI/ IEEE Standard 1471-2000). (Stojanovic & Dahanayake, 2005) 4: The organization of components of a system that enables their interacting with one another to achieve the objectives of the system. (Fulton, 2005) 5: Used to describe the basic building blocks, functions, interfaces, and relationships of complex systems on an abstract level of detail. It is also used as a blueprint or reference model for implementing information systems, for example, enterprise architectures, information-system architectures, or software architectures. (Maier & Hdrich, 2006)
Architecture Viewpoint
An abstraction of a set of concerns on a system derived by using a set of concepts and rules of structure (RM-ODP). (Stojanovic & Dahanayake, 2005)
Area of Interest
An analysis method used in eye tracking. Researchers deine areas of interest over certain parts of a display or interface under evaluation and analyze only the eye movements that fall within such areas. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
Architecture
1: A tailored interactive communications and information structure that leads to online transactions including
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Areal Interpolation
A method of estimating counts or quantities for one coniguration of geographic units (target zones) based on known counts from a different coniguration of the same geographic space (source zones). (Garb & Wait, 2005a)
Articulation
1: One of four knowledge transmission mechanisms according to Nonaka. Articulation is about explicit or codiied knowledge being transferred to become explicit knowledge elsewhere by recombining two or more sets of coded knowledge. (Brock & Zhou, 2006) 2: The process by which sounds are formed; the manner in which notes are struck, sustained, and released. Examples: staccato (shortening and detaching of notes), legato (smooth), pizzicato (plucking strings), vibrato (varying the pitch of a note up and down), muted (stringed instruments, by sliding a block of rubber or similar material onto the bridge), brass (by inserting a conical device into the bell). (Wieczorkowska, 2005)
Arity
The number of roles in a fact type (unary = 1, binary = 2, ternary = 3, etc.). In ORM, fact types may be of arity 1 or more. In UML, fact types (associations) may be of arity 2 or more. (Halpin, 2005)
Artifact
1: Any object produced or consumed by an activity of a business process. (De Lucia et al., 2006) 2: Evidence in a portfolio; a product that demonstrates an aspect of performance or a professional work that has been selected by the creator of a portfolio. (Wieseman, 2005a) 3: Actual examples of lesson plans, philosophies, and correspondence that show evidence of teacher competency in standards. (Shaw & Slick, 2005) 4: Any human-made object. It can be physical (e.g., paper, application) or conceptual (e.g., norm, convention, habit). (Munkvold, 2006)
Around-the-Sun Development: See Around-theClock Development. ARPAnet: See Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
Artefact
In the context of CoPs, indicates objects, articles, and things that have been created by the CoP to assist the members in their work and may have some of the communitys knowledge embedded in them. Artefacts do not have to be concretea process or procedure may be an artefact. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2005)
Articulated Object
Structure composed of two or more rigid bodies interconnected by means of joints. The degrees of freedom associated with each joint deine the different structure conigurations. (Sappa et al., 2005)
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systems that feature automated human-intelligent, rational behavior and employ knowledge representation and reasoning methods. (Heucke et al., 2005) 5: The branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans. John McCarthy coined the term in 1956 while at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It refers to the science that provides computers with the ability to solve problems not easily solved through algorithmic models. (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2006) 6: The ield of science that studies how to make computers intelligent. It consists mainly of the ields of machine learning (neuronal networks and decision trees) and expert systems. The principal problem is how to represent knowledge. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005b) 7: The study of the principles of intelligence (scientiic objective), and the design and build of intelligent machines like robots (engineering objective). (Gelepithis, 2005) 8: The use of computer systems, software, and models to imitate human thought and reasoning when completing a task. (Ally, 2005b)
patterns found in sample or historical data. (Kitchens, 2005) 3: Biologically inspired statistical tools modeled after the structure of the human brain. Neural networks are composed of interconnected units or nodes (similar to neurons) with associated weights and activation values. Training or learning rules are incorporated into the network to accomplish forecasting or classiication tasks based on the pattern of interconnection throughout the network. (Fuller & Wilson, 2006) 4: Parallel distributed processor formed by single processing units that has a natural capacity of storing experimental knowledge and making it available for use. Artiicial neural networks are designed to model complex problems such as time series forecasting, pattern recognition, and so forth. (Castro & Braga, 2006) 5: A network of many simple processors (units or neurons) that imitates a biological neural network. The units are connected by unidirectional communication channels, which carry numeric data. Neural networks can be trained to ind nonlinear relationships in data, and are used in applications such as robotics, speech recognition, signal processing, or medical diagnosis. (Rabual Dopico et al., 2005) 6: A system composed of many simple processing elements operating in parallel whose function is determined by network structure, connection strengths, and the processing performed at computing elements or units. (Zhou, 2005) 7: Approach based on the neural structure of the brain with the capability to identify and learn patterns from different situations as well as to predict new situations. (Hentea, 2005b) 8: A nonlinear predictive model that learns through training and resembles biological neural networks in structure. (Hamdi, 2005a) 9: Type of machine learning paradigm that simulates the densely interconnected, parallel structure of the mammalian brain. ANNs have been shown to be powerful tools for function approximation. (Wen, Hong, et al., 2005)
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ASEAN
Association of Southeast Asian Countries. (Sanzogni & Arthur-Gray, 2005) ASF: See Adaptive Synchronization Framework.
beneits so they dedicate their efforts to the project. (Sipior, 2005) 3: Expression in a relational database system that allows stating a condition involving several attributes and several tables. Assertions are irst-class database entities, such as tables. (Badia, 2005b)
Assertion Between Knowledge Patterns Asia Paciic Development Information Program (APDIP)
The regional ICT program of UNDP. (Hutchinson, 2005) A particular interschema property. It indicates either a subsumption or an equivalence between knowledge patterns. Roughly speaking, knowledge patterns can be seen as views on involved information sources. (De Meo, Terracina, et al., 2005)
Assertional Reasoning
A description logic knowledge base is made up of two parts, a terminological part (the terminology or Tbox) and an assertional part (the Abox), each part consisting of a set of axioms. The AbBox contains extensional knowledge that is speciic to the individuals of the domain of discourse. There has been a great deal of work on the development of reasoning algorithms for expressive DLs, but in most cases these only consider Tbox reasoning. Reasoning mechanisms for the Abox (i.e., instance checking) are called assertional reasoning. Assertional reasoning is important for real Semantic Web applications. (RoldnGarca et al., 2005)
ASP: See Application Service Provider; Active Server Page Scripting. ASP Aggregator
The ASP aggregator model is based on the premise that the rapid proliferation of irms offering ASP services has created an overly complex market for medium-sized enterprises to deal with when investigating application outsourcing options. (Guah & Currie, 2005)
Assessment Aspect
Deines a set of related node properties, attributable to nodes with the same value for an aspect descriptor. For a given node, aspects can be added and removed at runtime by manipulating the values for its aspect descriptors. (Lemahieu, 2005) 1: A process by which learning is measured, often through content-related assignments such as papers, projects, or tests. (Hawkins & Baker, 2005) 2: A process of assisting an individual with a disability in the selection of appropriate assistive technology devices and/or conigurations of standard information technology devices. (Trewin & Keates, 2006) 3: Determining how much someone has learned or how well someone understands a particular subject. (Bieber et al., 2005) 4: Process by which learning gains or performance chance are measured and labelled according to a consistent scoring criterion. (Collis & Moonen, 2005a) 5: Systematic evaluation of student work and learning based on scoring criteria and leading to a mark or grade. (Collis & Moonen, 2005b) 6: The evaluation of the amount, value, quality, or importance of something. (Kung-Ming, 2005) 7: The process of comparing the actual measurements of the characteristics of interest with
Aspect Descriptor
Attribute for which each possible value deines an aspect of a node. (Lemahieu, 2005)
Assertion
1: A statement (entity deinition, attribute value, constraint, rule, function, and the like) assumed to be true and therefore supporting the theory of the ontology. Example: Gravity is an attracting force in nature. (Buchholz, 2006) 2: Authoritatively convincing others of a projects potential
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the speciications of those characteristics. (Leung, 2005) 8: The process of gathering, describing, or quantifying information about performance. (Brace & Berge, 2006)
Assistive Technology
1: A set of solutions, both hardware and software, aimed at supporting people with disabilities in interacting with digital content. (Costagliola, Di Martino, Ferrucci, & Gravino, 2006) 2: Examples of assistive technology include wheelchairs, hand controls for automobiles, prostheses, communication aids, hand splints, hearing aids, and alternatives to computer keyboards (also called Technology-Related Assistance). (Burgstahler, 2005b) 3: Any item, piece of equipment, or system that is commonly used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Examples include screen readers, teletypewriters (TTYs), and Braille keyboards. (Bursa, Justice, & Kessler, 2005) 4: Products, devices, or equipment, whether acquired commercially, modiied, or customized, that are used to maintain, increase, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. (Keates et al., 2006) 5: Specialized software or hardware, such as screen readers, magniication software, and a modiied keyboard, used by some people with disabilities to interact with the computer. (Schmetzke, 2005) 6: Technologies designed to support disabled individuals in the conduct of their daily tasks. (Roldan, 2005)
Assessment Tools
Methods used to obtain information about student learning to guide a variety of educational strategies and decisions. (Beck & Schornack, 2005)
Asset Creator
Anyone who creates an asset, which could be in any digital format, and provides the asset and its associated information to the asset manager. (Subramanian, 2005)
Asset Manager
The asset manager converts the information associated with the asset into an XML metadata format, builds the appropriate data type deinitions, and passes the information and the asset to the metadata manager. (Subramanian, 2005)
Assignment
A repartition in which we allocate the available resources to achieve the different tasks. (Kacem, 2005)
Association
1: A relationship between two statistical variables. Unlike a correlation, an association does not yield a quantitative result, but is contingent upon the ranking of the bivariate data values only. (Mullany, 2005) 2: A technique in data mining that attempts to identify similarities across a set of records, such as purchases that occur together across a number of transactions. (Amaravadi, 2005) 3: The degree to which participation in global communication confers on participants some of the prestige associated with more glamorous lifestyles. (Pryor, 2005)
Association Analysis
Use of statistics criteria to measure the proximity of two distinct objects or texts using some of their properties or attributes. A method for identifying correlation or dependencies among elements or attributes, using statistical techniques. (Antonio do Prado et al., 2005)
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Assoc iat ion of Re se a rch Libra rie s (ARL) Assoc iat o i n Rule Disc ove r y
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Association Rule
1: A kind of rule in the form X Ij, where X is a set of some items and Ij is a single item not in X. (Wong & Fu, 2005) 2: A pair of frequent itemsets (A, B), where the ratio between the support of AB and A itemsets is greater than a predeined threshold, denoted minconf. (Dumitriu, 2005) 3: A relation between the occurrences of a set of items with another set of items in a large data set. (Jha & Sural, 2005) 4: A rule in the form of if this, then that. It states a statistical correlation between the occurrence of certain attributes in a database. (Huang, 2005) 5: A rule of the form AB, meaning if the set of items A is present in a transaction, the set of items B is likely to be present too. A typical example constitutes associations between items purchased at a supermarket. (Denton & Besemann, 2005) 6: A rule relating two itemsetsthe antecedent and the consequent. The rule indicates that the presence of the antecedent implies that the consequent is more probable in the data. Written as (Butler & Webb, 2005) 7: A rule showing the association between two or more nominal attributes. Associations can be directed or undirected. For instance, a rule of the form, If the customer buys French fries and hamburgers she or he buys ketchup, is a directed association rule. The techniques for learning association rules are speciic, and many of them, such as the Apriori Algorithm, are based on the idea of inding frequent item sets in the data. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005b) 8: A statement A => B, which states that if A is true, then we can expect B to be true with a certain degree of conidence. A and B are sets of items, and the operator is interpreted as implies. (Ale & Rossi, 2005) 9: An association between two sets of items co-occurring frequently in groups of data. (Meo & Psaila, 2005) 10: An association has the form I1I2, where I1 and I2 are two itemsets. The support of an association rule is the support of the itemset I1I2, and the conidence of a rule is the ratio of support of I1I2 and the support of I1. (Zhou & Wang, 2005) 11: An implication rule XY that shows the conditions of co-occurrence of disjoint itemsets (attribute value sets) X and Y in a given database. (Shen, 2005) 12: Given a set I = { i1, i2, i3, in} of items, any subset of I is called an itemset. Let X and Y be subsets of I such that XY = . An association rule is a probabilistic implication X Y. (Imberman & Tansel, 2006) 13: Implication of the form X Y, meaning that database tuples satisfying the conditions of X are also
likely to satisfy the conditions of Y. (Chung & Mangamuri, 2005) 14: The implication of connections for variables that are explored in databases, having a form of AB, where A and B are disjoint subsets of a dataset of binary attributes. (Wu & Lee, 2005) 15: An implication of the form A B, where A and B are database itemsets. Association rules must satisfy the pre-set minimum support (minsup) and minimum conidence (minconf) constraints. (Daly & Taniar, 2005a) 16: An implication rule between two itemsets with statistical measures of range (support) and precision (conidence). (Pasquier, 2005) 17: An implication rule that brings out hidden relationships among attributes on the basis of co-occurrence of attributes. In the marketbasket context, it informs about items that are likely to be purchased together, thereby providing an insight into customer purchasing behavior. Formally, an association rule is an implication of the form A B, where A and B can be single items or sets of items, with no commonality between sets A and B, e.g., {Bread} {Butter}, {Bread, Jam} {Butter}, and so forth. An association rule is characterized by two measures, support (a statement of generality) and conidence (a statement of predictive ability). These rules are very general, having a simple interpretation with minimal restrictions on their structure. {Bread} {Butter} with support =20% and conidence = 60% means that 60% of the transactions that contain Bread also contain Butter, and they are purchased together in 20% of the transactions. (Natarajan & Shekar, 2006) 18: Let X1, .., Xp be a collection of random variables. In general, a pattern for such variables identiies a subset of all possible observations over them. A rule is a logical statement between two patterns, say a and b, written as ab. (Giudici & Cerchiello, 2005) 19: Predicts the occurrence of an event based on the occurrences of another event. (Yeo, 2005) 20: Uncovering interesting trends, patterns, and rules in large data sets with support s and conidence c. (Swierzowicz, 2005) 21: Used to associate items in a database sharing some relationship (e.g., co-purchase information). Often takes the form if this, then that, such as, If the customer buys a handheld videogame, then the customer is likely to purchase batteries. (Schafer, 2005)
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et al., 2005) 2: Implication of the form X Y, where X and Y are sets of items; implies that if the condition X is veriied, the prediction Y is valid. (Jourdan et al., 2005)
Asymmetric Threat
An adversarial situation characterized by the inequality in resources between the contenders, which usually results in one of them resorting to covert and terrorist activities to continue the conlict. (Badia, 2006)
Assurance
Statement, indication, or presumption that inspires conidence while excluding doubt. Assurance is an aspect of trust. Given the fact that trust cannot be quantiied precisely, assurance provides a basis for quantitatively or qualitatively specifying the level of trust towards a system. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006)
Asymmetry
Used in IT to mean that parties are heterogeneous and possess diverse knowledge bases. Asymmetry manifests also in corporate culture and management. (Blomqvist, 2005)
Asynchronous
1: A form of online discussion among students, workers, or instructors. Participants post comments, opinions, relections, or questions to a type of online discussion board. Participants can read and respond to others postings. Participants can access or post at any time. (Iannarelli, 2005) 2: Communication between parties in which the interaction does not take place simultaneously. (Danenberg & Chen, 2005) 3: Communication occurring via a time delay, such as posts to an electronic bulletin board. (Hawkins & Baker, 2005) 4: Communication that allows for the sharing of ideas over a period of time, such as through discussion boards, e-mail, or a newsroom. (Etter & Byrnes, 2005) 5: Communications between the student and teacher which do not take place simultaneously. (T. Cavanaugh, 2005) 6: Denotes a communication method which participants use to interact in a time-delayed context, that is, without everyone gathering at a particular time. (Al-Saggaf & Weckert, 2005) 7: Occurring at different times. In the context of communications technologies, asynchronous technologies allow communicators to interact with the conversation at different timesfor example, e-mail or threaded discussions. (Newberry, 2005) 8: Occurring at different times; typically used to refer to technologies such as a discussion board or e-mail that may be utilized at the users convenience. (Ordonez, 2005) 9: Online, asynchronous refers to communication that occurs at different times. Common examples of asynchronous communications are e-mail, ListProc
Ast: See Attitude Toward the Site. ASTD: See American Societ y for Training & Development. Asymmetric Communication
A process in which both communicating parties are at different levels of economic and social development. (Targowski & Metwalli, 2005)
Asymmetric Cryptography
A data encryption system that uses two separate but related encryption keys. The private key is known only to its owner, while the public key is made available in a key repository or as part of a digital certiicate. Asymmetric cryptography is the basis of digital signature systems. (Richter & Roth, 2006)
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Asynchronous Colla borat ion Asynchronous Com put e r-M e diat e d Com m unic at ion
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(listerserv), or the WebCT discussions tool. (Paoletti, 2005) 10: Out of synchronicity. Conversations with time lags, as in e-mail. (Coakes, 2006b) 11: Refers to the ability of learners to complete required tasks at different times. Discussion tools (i.e., bulletin boards) are examples of asynchronous tools used in the Web-based environment. (Morphew, 2005) 12: The 24-hour classroom discussion is always open; plenty of time for relection, analysis, and composition; encourages thinking, retrospective analysis; the whole transcript discussion is there for review; class discussion is open ended, not limited to the end of a period. (Nandavadekar, 2005) 13: Time-delayed interaction that does not require participants to be online simultaneously; individuals send or post messages, and the recipients read them at a later time. (Woods & Baker, 2005)
often taking place in geographically dispersed locations and time zones. (Wong-MingJi, 2005) 10: Information sharing and interaction between individuals taking place at different times, as in the sending of e-mails where messages are sent and then read at a later time. (Ally, 2005d) 11: The sharing of messages with delayed feedback. (Han & Hill, 2006) 12: When participants decide when to retrieve and respond to others in the online environment through tools such as discussion boards and e-mail. (S.-K. Wang, 2005) 13: Communications that occur between two or more people in which the method of communication of one or more individuals does not occur at the same time as the others involved (Day, 2005) 14: When messages are exchanged during different time intervals (Burke et al., 2005)
Asynchronous Collaboration
Collaborative interactions, for example, over the Internet that are not synchronized in real time such as e-mail exchanges, browser-based shared editing (wikis), and postings to newsgroups. (Carroll et al., 2005)
Asynchronous Communication
1: A delayed time communication, typically in text format, between the learner and instructor or among learners. (Gold, 2005) 2: An electronically transmitted exchange of ideas that allows participation to occur at discontinuous points in time. (Baugher et al., 2005) 3: Communication between parties that does not require the parties to be available for communication all at the same time. (Lam et al., 2006) 4: Communication that does not occur in real time. There can be a delay between sending information and retrieving it. Responses to messages may be delayed, with each message waiting until the recipient is ready to read and/or reply. Asynchronous communication utilizes such tools as e-mail and discussion groups. (Erlich, 2005) 5: Communication that does not occur in real time (e.g., e-mail, letters, and telegrams). (Dell, 2005) 6: Communication that does not require both the sender and receiver to be present/logged in at the same time. Common asynchronous forms of computer-mediated communication are e-mail and newsgroups. (Roberts, Smith, & Pollock, 2006b) 7: Communication where the message is not sent and received simultaneously (e.g., e-mail, discussion forums, listservs). (Stodel et al., 2005) 8: Computer-based communication tool in which interaction between parties does not take place simultaneously. (Ketelhut et al., 2005) 9: Information exchanges sent and received at different times,
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Asynchronous Cooperation
Members are not present in the same time within the cooperation group (no co-presence). They communicate with asynchronous media (e.g., e-mail messages) on top of extended and improved message systems. (Villemur & Drira, 2006)
mail, and video programming, and the implicit absence of immediate interaction with the teacher or other students. (C. Wright, 2005)
Asynchronous Interaction
1: Communication that takes place over a network at different times. Examples of asynchronous interaction include communication via group support systems, email, and electronic bulletin boards. The opposite of asynchronous interaction is synchronous interaction, which occurs when participants interact over a network simultaneously (i.e., in real time). (Klein, 2005) 2: Interactions that do not take place simultaneously for the involved participants (e.g., email communication). (Taylor et al., 2005)
Asynchronous Discussion
1: Discussion that occurs irrespective of time and location. Asynchronous discussion allows readers (e.g., from different time zones and/or at different times) to create and respond to learners who are typically not online at the same time. (Bedard-Voorhees, 2005) 2: Online discussions that occur independent of time and space. Participants do not have to be online simultaneously, and can read and contribute to the conversation on their own schedules. (Ingram, 2005) 3: The exchange of information that occurs over a period of time. This discussion method allows for relection and considered opinions. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005b)
Asynchronous Learning
1: A type of learning that is both time and location independent; the learner can be located anywhere and contribute anytime. Also called delayed learning as opposed to real-time learning. (Bonk et al., 2005) 2: Learners use a computer and communications technologies to work with remote learning resources, without the requirement to be online at the same time or in the same location. Participation in online discussion boards is an example of asynchronous learning. (Chapman, 2005a) 3: Learning in which interaction between instructors and students occurs intermittently with a time delay. Examples are self-paced courses taken via the Internet or CD-ROM, Q&A mentoring, online discussion groups, and e-mail. (Torres-Coronas, 2005) 4: Learning that occurs at the place and time of the students choosing, not the instructors.
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(Novitzki, 2005) 5: Online courses that allow students to participate at anytime from any location with Internet access. (Lazarus, 2005b)
Technology that does not require real-time, simultaneous participation, and that does not support anytime, anyplace communication. (Wild, 2005)
Asynchronous Media
Delayed delivery of media (e.g., video, e-mail). (Whateley et al., 2005)
Asynchronous Mode
A non-real-time education where students and teachers interact with each other, but not at same time, e.g., by using a bulletin board or e-mail. (Lammintakanen & Rissanen, 2005a)
Asynchrony
A condition whereby events occur that are not coordinated in time. In online education, asynchrony makes it possible to perform course tasks at the most convenient time, not tied to a schedule. (Rollier & Niederman, 2005)
ATAP: See Any Time, Any Place Learning. ATC: See Air Trafic Control. Ateleology
In the context of IS development, refers to the development of an IS which does not aim at the attainment of a speciic set of goals only, expressed in the form of user requirements as they have been articulated at a speciic point of time, but rather refers to developing an IS that addresses a range of issues within a speciic problem domain and, at the same time, is lexible enough to accommodate changes and extensions of the IS behavior while it is being operated. (Stamoulis et al., 2005)
Asynchronous Replication
Lazy replicationthat is, all updates of a transaction (if any) are transmitted to passive replicas once the transaction is committed, but never ahead of commit time. (MuozEsco et al., 2005)
Asynchronous System
Allows students to participate at a time and place convenient to them. In an asynchronous system, interaction between the student and the faculty takes place intermittently through e-mail, HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) content, and/or news or discussion groups. The interaction does not require participation at the same time. (Sivakumar, 2006)
ATM: See Asynchronous Transfer Mode; Automatic Teller Machine System. Atoma
Asynchronous Technology
1: Technology that creates a delay in communication, such as e-mail or a discussion board. (Wei & Wang, 2006) 2:
The most abstract level of representation of a real-world entity, encompassing only the most basic data and
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functionality for representing and manipulating the entity. (Lepouras et al., 2006)
with the attention-related constructs are what we presume to be detecting in dual-task studies. (Owen, 2006c)
Atomic Broadcast
Requires that each correct process deliver all messages in the same orderthat is, a reliable broadcast with total order. (Muoz-Esco et al., 2005)
Attention Object
An information carrier that delivers the authors intention and catches part of the users attention as a whole. An attention object often represents a semantic object, such as a human face, a lower, a mobile car, a text sentence, and so forth. (Hua et al., 2006)
Atomic Transaction
A transaction whose updates are either all executed or removed (the A in the ACID properties). The atomicity property makes it easier to complete database recovery. (Frank, 2005b)
Attention-Based IT Infrastructure
An IT infrastructure that is able to sort through volumes of data and produce the right information at the right time for the right persons to consume. (Chen, Zhang, et al., 2005b)
At-Risk Learners
Typically individuals who struggle with the structure and/or content of formal education. (Crichton, 2005)
Attention-Deicit Principle
Recognizes that organizations have limited attention capacity, and attention should be treated as a resource that needs to be managed. (Yaniv & Schwartz, 2006)
Attachment
An extra ile, in any ile format, that is linked to a e-mail message. The e-mail message itself must structurally conform to messaging protocols. (Horiuchi, 2005b)
Attentional Capacity
Cognitive capacity divided and allocated to perform cognitive task. (Seta, 2006)
Attacks
Any processing that circumvents the intended purpose of the watermarking technique for a given application. An attack potentially breaks the robustness of the watermark. (Sattar & Yu, 2006)
Attack Signature
Patterns observed in previously known attacks that are used to distinguish malicious packets from normal trafic. (Syed, Nur, et al., 2005)
Attenuation
Loss of signal strength and power as a signal passes through the optical iber medium. (Littman, 2006)
Attention
1: An internal cognitive process by which one actively selects which part of the environmental information surrounds them and focuses on that part or maintains interest while ignoring distractions. (Alkhalifa, 2006) 2: Mental processing that consumes our conscious thinking. Through a variety of mechanisms, there is a limit to the amount of processing that can take place in our consciousness. (Owen, 2006b) 3: Associated with a variety of more speciic constructs such as mental effort, mental focus, mental elaboration, and such. Processes associated
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Attribute
1: A substantial feature of a whole that is perceived by an observer with the potential to produce or cause a product or effect. (Gelman et al., 2005) 2: A property of an object/class. The class Car, for example, can have an attribute Color, its value for the object MyCar: Car might be blue. (Rittgen, 2005) 3: Column of a dataset. (Gehrke, 2005) 4: Pieces of information contained in a GIS database that describe or detail a spatially referenced element. (Crossland, 2005)
learners or students engaged in some course of study. (Adkins & Nitsch, 2005)
Auction
A type of market in which sellers post an initial price for the item being offered and a deadline by which the item needs to be sold. Buyers make bids on the offered item. The auction mechanism determines the dynamics of the prices bid by the buyers, the winner-determination strategy, and the bid-disclosure strategy. Common auction mechanisms include the English auction, Dutch auction, and Vickrey auction. (Dasgupta et al., 2006)
Attribute Dependency
Introduces when it falls within a dimension caused by attribute hierarchies. (Tan, 2005a)
Attribute Fuzziication
A process that converts numeric attribute values into membership values of fuzzy sets. (Shen & Horiguchi, 2005)
Audience Class
Group of target visitors of a Web site with the same requirements. (De Troyer, 2005)
Attribute Realism
An ontological position that the properties of entities exist in the world independent of their being perceived by the modeler. (Artz, 2005c)
Audience Track
Part of a Web site that provides information and services speciically tailored to an audience class. (De Troyer, 2005)
Attribute-Tolerant Transactions
These transactions can be permitted to be locally relaxed in terms of certain constraints on attributes, but globally consistent eventually. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005c)
Attributed Graph
A graph whose vertices and edges have attributes typically deined by vectors and matrices, respectively. (Caelli, 2005)
Audio Browser
Also referred to as talking browser. Software that interprets the HTML code of Web pages and provides speech output for text-based components, along with information provided by the HTML markup tags. Typically, it also enables users to navigate the Web page through alternative keystrokes. (Schmetzke, 2005)
Attribution
Source code published under this license may be used freely, provided that the original author is attributed. (Fleming, 2005b)
Attrition
The falling off or stoppage of coursework and degree progression that results in a decrease in the number of
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Audio File
Audit
The review and monitor of the performance of a system. (Sarkis & Sundarraj, 2005)
A computer file that contains audio instruction or explanation. It might also contain graphic images that correlate with the audio. (Cooper, 2005)
Auditing
A systematic process of objectively obtaining and evaluating evidence of assertions about economic actions and events to ascertain the correspondence between those assertions and established criteria, and to communicate the results to interested parties. (Garrity et al., 2005)
Audio Packet
Packet encoding an audio sample in digital form. Each audio packet has a timestamp and a sequence number as additional information. Timestamps are used to measure the end-toend delay (jitter) experienced during the communication, and sequence numbers are used to detect packet losses. Typically, during an audio communication, audio packets are transmitted over the network, received in a playout buffer, decoded in sequential order, and inally, played out by the audio device. (Roccetti & Ferretti, 2005)
Auditory Icon
Icons that use everyday sounds to represent application objects or activities. (Lumsden, 2005)
Augmented Reality
Intermixing a physical reality and a virtual reality. (Terashima, 2005)
Audio Sample
The amplitude of a waveform is measured (sampled) at regular time intervals and converted into an integer value. Each of these instantaneous measurements is an audio sample. (Roccetti & Ferretti, 2005)
Audiographic Communication
A multimedia approach with simultaneous resources for listening, viewing, and interacting with materials. (C. Wright, 2005)
Audiographic Teleconferencing
Voice communication supplemented with the transmission of still images. (Lateh & Raman, 2005)
Authentic Learning
Learning that uses real-world problems and projects, and that allows students to explore and discuss these problems in ways that are relevant to them. (Bieber et al., 2005)
Audio-Lingual Method
The method of studying a foreign language that stresses hearing the language spoken by native speakers, and then imitating the patterns of pronunciation and grammar heard in the example. (Switala, 2005)
Authentication
1: A signaling procedure in cellular networks to identify the subscribers when access to certain services are demanded. (Louvros et al., 2006) 2: Determines a users identity, as well as determining what a user is authorized to access. (Medlin et al., 2006) 3: Guarantees that an individual or organization involved in a transaction is who they say they are. (Lowry, Stephens, et al., 2005) 4: The process by which a system can provably verify the identity of a resource such as an individual, a system, an application, and
Audioteleconferencing
Voice-only communication via ordinary phone lines. Audio systems include telephone conference calls, as well as more sophisticated systems that connect multiple locations. (C. Wright, 2005)
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so on. (Mundy & Otenko, 2005) 5: Method of assuring the identities of entities engaged in electronic communication. (Calzonetti & deChambeau, 2006) 6: A set of procedures employed to verify the identity of an entity. (Buche & Vician, 2005) 7: Technique by which a process veriies that its communication partner is who it is supposed to be and is not an imposter. It makes sure that the parties engaging in business are who they claim to be. Integrity allows the system to verify whether modiications have occurred; it does not ensure that information was not altered. (Pierre, 2006b) 8: The action of verifying information such as identity, ownership, or authorization. (Vatsa et al., 2005) 9: The process by which a contemporary biometric sample is acquired from an individual and is used to compare against a historically enrolled sample. If the samples match, the user is authenticated. Depending on the type of system, the authentication may be prompted by some additional informationa key to the identity of the user or the pseudonym against which the enrolled data was registered. (Fleming, 2005a) 10: The process of determining whether someone or something is who or what they declare to be. In private or public computer networks, authentication is commonly done through the use of logon passwords or digital certiicates. (Butcher-Powell, 2005) 11: The process of ensuring that an individual is who he or she claims to be. (Guan, 2006h) 12: Veriication that one is who they say they are. (Lawson-Body et al., 2005) 13: Biometric identiiers operate either in veriication (authentication) mode or in a recognition (identiication) mode. A veriication system authenticates a persons identity by comparing the captured biometric characteristic with the persons own biometric original. In a recognition system, the system establishes a subjects identity by searching the entire template for a match, without the subject initially claiming an identity. (Scott et al., 2006)
as opposed to passive reception. This is the only way in which an individual can relate incoming information to the context of his or her own lifeworld, without which meaning does not exist for that person. We often sense the lack of authenticity in interaction without necessarily understanding our own misgivings. (Kettley, 2006b) 3: Undisputed credibility of being genuine, honest with oneself as well as others; an absence of hypocrisy or selfdeception. (Park, 2006)
Author
Much of the philosophy extended in analyses of technology stems from literary theory. Author has connotations synonymous with artist and designer, and may be useful in future discussions regarding terminology across more or less user-centered processes. (Kettley, 2006a)
Authoring
The creation and organization of multimedia or hypermedia content. (Lemahieu, 2005)
Authoring Language
A program designed for use by a non-computer expert to create e-learning products. An authoring system does not require programming knowledge to operate. It allows the placement of graphics, text, and other multimedia elements into an e-learning program. It functions like word processing software. (Kapp, 2005)
Authoring Program
Software used to develop multimedia applications. (Berg, 2005e)
Authentication System
System used to verify the identity of an entity (user, application, host, system, device) that is attempting to participate in a computing environment. (Knight & Labruyere, 2005)
Authoring Shell
Internet-based template that consists of various electronic tools and functions with which a user can create a customized Web environment. (Ketelhut et al., 2005)
Authenticity
1: Divided in two sections: Data origin authenticity and entity authenticity. Data origin authenticity is the proof of the datas origin, genuineness, originality, truth, and realness. Entity authenticity is the proof that a person or other agent has been correctly identiied, or that a message is stored and received as transmitted. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 2: The agentive participation in meaning making,
Authoring Tool
1: A software application or program used by trainers and instructional designers to create e-learning courseware. Types of authoring tools include instructionally focused authoring tools, Web authoring and programming tools, template-focused authoring tools, knowledge capture systems, and text and ile creation tools. (Snchez-Segura et al., 2005) 2: A software program with standard user
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Auto-Personalization
Self-adaptive features of WAP applications. (Quah & Seet, 2006)
Authority
1: A Web site that provides the best source of information on a speciic topic. (Hu, Yang, Yeh, et al., 2005) 2: An established power to enforce moral or legal decisions. Organizational authority is accountable for its actions. Authority is a right to demand and instruct subordinates. Authority may also be delegated or be derived from delegated control. The organization may mandate power to a role, position a group or individual in authority, or power may be assigned or sanctioned by consensus. (Zyngier, 2006) 3: Link analysis considers Web pages of high quality to be authorities for their topic. That means these pages contain the best, most convincing, most comprehensive, and objective information for that topic. (Mandl, 2006) 4: The power, right, or control to give orders or to make decisions. (Park, 2006)
Autobiographical Memory
The aspect of memory systems that allows the perception of the historic order in which experiential remembrances are stored in long-term memory. (Atkinson & Burstein 2006)
Autocorrelation
Measures the correlation between observations of a time series and the same values at a ixed time offset interval. (Cho, 2005)
Automated Approaches
The industrialization of the teaching process using technology. (Laws, Howell, & Lindsay, 2005)
Authorization
1: Granting of rights; includes granting of access based on access rights or privileges, and implies the rights to perform some operation and that those rights or privileges have been granted to some process, entity, or human agent. (Karnouskos & Vilmos, 2006) 2: One or many access rights assigned to an entity by a certiication authority (CA). Authorization does not make sure that messages received really do come from a given counterpart. (Pierre, 2006b) 3: Privileges afforded to an entity to access equipment and/or information. (Buche & Vician, 2005) 4: The process of determining if a requesting party has suficient rights to access a resource. (Mundy & Otenko, 2005)
Automated Planning
An area of artiicial intelligence concerned with solving the problem of inding a sequence of actions that transforms a speciied initial state into a speciied goal state. (Babaian, 2005)
Auto ID Technology
A precursor to the RFID technology that led to the deinitions of RFID technology, including electronic product code. (Owens et al., 2005)
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new content on the basis of the learners response to content presented by the machine. (Aworuwa & Owen, 2005)
Automatic Classiication
The process by which a classiicatory system processes information in order to classify data accurately; also the result of such process. (Wieczorkowska, 2005)
Automatic Documentation
Allows for a structured view of the application and generates books of HTML documentation. Knowledge minings automatic documentation focuses on the ability to save diagrams and reports in various formats. (Raisinghani, 2005)
Automation
The technique, method, or system of operating or controlling a process by highly automatic means, as by electronic devices, reducing human intervention to a minimum. When applied to education, automation means increasing teacher/student ratio, reducing teacher/student contact, and reducing qualiied staff with automated teaching methods and tutorials. (Reilly, 2005)
Automatism
An attention mechanism established through practice whereby the performance of a task apparently no longer interferes with the concurrent performance of other tasks. (Owen, 2006b)
Automatic Indexing
A process that algorithmically examines information items to build a data structure that can be quickly searched. (Hu, Yang, Yeh, et al., 2005)
Autonomous Agent
1: A system situated within an environment and a part of an environment that senses that environment and acts on it, over time, in pursuit of its own agenda, so as to affect what it senses in the future. (Raisinghani et al., 2005) 2: Software components capable of working for the performance of tasks to the beneit of its users. An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators. (Castro & Braga, 2006)
Autonomous Learning
The student is engaged in the learning environment independent of instructor guidance/supervision and peer interaction/communication. S/he takes primary responsibility for her/his learning needs and goals, as well
Automatic Tutoring
Programmed-machine methods that interact with the learner in a way that mimics a human teacher by adjusting
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Aut onom ous Produc t ion Syst e m Ave ra ge Pre c ision (P _Avg)
(Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 2: Availability of data is the degree to which a system is operable and in a committable state at the start of an assignment. (Mitrakas, 2006) 3: Prevention of unauthorized withholding of information or resources. (Tong & Wong, 2005a)
Availability of Data
The probability of having access to the data. Replication will normally increase data availability. (Frank, 2005a)
Autonomous Robot
A robot that is capable of existing independent of human control. (Hall & Woods, 2006)
Avatar
1: A computer-generated representation almost always graphical in nature, and sometimes a three-dimensional construct that represents the user/operator in the virtual world. (Ajiferuke & Markus, 2005) 2: A graphical representation of a user or a character controlled by a user. (Champion, 2006b) 3: A virtual representation generated by computers. It can be, for example, a copy of a users body to try on virtual clothes. (Volino et al., 2005) 4: An image representing a user in a multi-user virtual reality space. (Yong & Choo, 2005) 5: Personiication of a user in a graphic virtual reality. An avatar can be an icon, an image, or a character, and it interacts with other avatars in the shared virtual reality. The term is drawn from the Hindu culture, where it refers to the incarnation of a deity. (Pace, 2005) 6: The computer-simulated graphic of the human body in which speciic physical and mental attributes are embodied. (Park & Lepawsky, 2006) 7: The word comes from Indian culture and means reincarnation. On the Internet, the word is used to describe the object representing the user in forms of two- or three-dimensional photo, design, picture, or animation. (Pys & Lowyck, 2005) 8: Computer-generated personas that are adopted by users to interface with other humans and agents involved in a social interaction, particularly in interacting in online virtual reality worlds. (Duchastel, 2006) 9: Synthetic representation of a human body able to be animated. Avatars are often used in games for representing players or in virtual environments when the presence of the user must be visible. (Prteux & Preda, 2005)
Autonomous (Sub)System
A system that decides about its own information input and output requirements. (Szczerbicki, 2005)
Autopoietic System
A self-making or self-organizing system. (Murphy, 2005a)
Autoregressive
Uses historical data to predict future results. (Kushnir, 2006)
Auxiliary View
A view materialized in the DW exclusively for reducing the view maintenance cost. (Theodoratos & Simitsis, 2005)
AV Encoder
An encoder used to encode the input audio/video signal to speciic digital format. (Liu & Chen, 2005)
Average Cost
The averaged cost of all of the learning experiences in an enterprise. (Norris, 2005)
Availability
1: Indicates the assurance that resources, like information, services, or equipment, are working adequately and available at a speciied time to authorized entities. An available system has to be safe and secure from attacks.
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AV LE Ax iom at ic T he or y
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Axiomatic Semantics
The meaning is given in terms of conditions, pre and post. (Dasso & Funes, 2005)
Awareness Model
A model that represents various levels of awareness. Level0 awareness consists of the concepts that lead an actor to knowledge about all the tasks that an actor performs within the process. A roles level-3 awareness is its level2 awareness, plus awareness about all the interactions (represented by the process resources used/shared) that occur between any two roles within the process. And inally, level-4 awareness is the highest level of awareness that a role can have in any ERP process. It is deined as the knowledge about how everything its together to form the ERP process. (Daneshgar, 2005)
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B
BA: See Behavior Aggregate. Ba
A physical, virtual, or mental context that enables effective knowledge creation; based on the Japanese idea of place. (Medeni, 2006a) data that was not used to optimize model parameters. (Kushnir, 2006)
Backbone Network
Long-haul networks such as CA*net 4 and GANT 2, Long-Haul that interconnect network segments in WAN conigurations to facilitate resource sharing and ecollaborative information exchange. (Littman, 2006)
Back Propagation
A training method used to calculate the weight in a neural net from the data. (Kumar, 2005)
Backpropagation
1: A learning algorithm for modifying a feed-forward neural network which minimizes a continuous error function or objective function. Back-propagation is a gradient descent method of training in that it uses gradient information to modify the network weights to decrease the value of the error function on subsequent tests of the inputs. Other gradient-based methods from numerical analysis can be used to train networks more eficiently. (Kitchens, 2005) 2: A neural network training algorithm for feed-forward networks where the errors at the output layer are propagated back to the previous layer to update connection weights in learning. If the previous layer is not the input layer, then the errors at this hidden layer are propagated back to the layer before. (An, 2005) 3: Method for computing the error gradient for a feed-forward neural network. (Yeo, 2005) 4: The name of the most common learning algorithm for MFNNs. It involves modifying the weights of the MFNN in such a way that the error (difference between the MFNN output and the training data desired output) is minimized over time. The error at the hidden neurons is approximated by propagating the output error backwards, hence the name backpropagation. (Smith, 2005)
Back-Channel
The standard use of e-mail, person to person, without routing through the communitys available channels. (Patrick et al., 2006)
Back-End Interoperability
Business-process-centric integration approach that interconnects different application systems in order to enable the execution of cross-organizational business processes. (Werth, 2005)
Back-End Processing
Dealing with the raw data, which is stored in either tables (ROLAP) or arrays (MOLAP). (Tan, 2005b)
Back-End System
The support components of a computer system. Typically refers to the database management system (DBMS), which is the storehouse for the data. (Mockler et al., 2006)
Backpropagation Algorithm
Learning algorithm of artiicial neural networks based on minimizing the error obtained from the comparison between the outputs that the network gives after the application of a set of network inputs and the outputs it
Back-Testing
Testing a mathematical model for its performance over past intervals. Back-testing often uses out-of-sample
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Backsourcing
Taking work that had been outsourced back in-house. (Beaumont, 2005)
Bag Relation
A relation that permits repetition of tuples. (T.Y. Lin, 2005)
Bandwidth
1: A measure of how much information or data path times frequency. For example, the ISA bus has a data path of 16 bits (it can send 16 bits at a time) and typically operates at 8.33MHz, so it has a bandwidth of 133.28 megabits per second. It is the speed of a connection between computers. The range of frequencies (size of the pipe) available for carrying information, and the total amount of data or information that can be transmitted via a given communications channel (e.g., between a hard drive and the host PC) in a given unit of time. (Magagula, 2005) 2: A measure of the data transmission capacity of a communications link. (Ruppel & Ruppel, 2005) 3: The amount of data that can be transferred in a ixed amount of time using a speciied communications channel/pathway in a computer network. The term is often used as a synonym for data transfer rate. (Pease et al., 2005) 4: Colloquially, the amount of network capacity available for a connection. (Urbaczewski, 2005) 5: Deining the capacity of a communication channel, it refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted in a ixed time over the channel; it is commonly expressed in bits per second. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005a) 6: Determines the rate at which information can be sent through a channel. (Singh, 2006a) 7: In networks, bandwidth is often used as a synonym for data transfer rate: the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second). This kind of bandwidth is usually expressed in bits (of data) per second (bps). (Olla, 2005a) 8: Maximum data transfer capacity of a communication channel. (Arya, 2005) 9: Range of frequencies within a communication channel or capacity to carry data. (Lawson-Body et al., 2005) 10: Refers to the range of frequencies available for a speciic broadcast, for example, radio/television channels,
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mobile phones, and so on. In computer networks, bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transferred in a given period of time. (Papagiannidis et al., 2005) 11: Term used to denote the capacity of a communication channel for information: a narrow bandwidth implies slow or limited communication. It describes the carrying capacity of the users connection or the server connection. It is commonly measured in bits or bytes per second. (Boersma & Kingma, 2006) 12: The amount of data per second that can be delivered to your computer. A 56K modem has a bandwidth of 56 kilobits/second. The term bandwidth is also used in conjunction with data rate when discussing video. (Cosemans, 2005a)
Base Class
User-deined class; a collection of objects that have the same behavior and state deinition. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005b)
Baseband
In radio communications systems, the range of frequencies starting at 0 Hz (DC) and extending up to an upper frequency as required to carry information in an electronic form, such as a bitstream before it is modulated onto a carrier in transmission or after it is demodulated from a carrier in reception. In cable communications, such as those of a local area network (LAN), it is a method whereby signals are transmitted without prior frequency conversion. (Chochliouros et al., 2005b)
Banner
A typically rectangular advertisement placed on a Web site either above, below, or on the sides of the main content and linked to the advertisers own Web site. In the early days of the Internet, banners were advertisements with text and graphic images. Today, with technologies such as Flash, banners have gotten much more complex and can be advertisements with text, animated graphics, and sound. (Lalopoulos, Chochliouros, & SpiliopoulouChochliourou, 2005b)
Baseline Data
The data in a study captured before an intervention or innovation is introduced in an experimental setting, in order to describe the situation before the experimental intervention or innovation is effected. (Fisher, 2005)
Bar Codes
Simple form of optical character recognition where information is encoded in printed bars of relative thickness and spacing. RFID combines this technology with radio frequency. (Kotzab, 2005)
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Bayesian Hyperstructure
A Bayesian Behavior Network is a Bayesian hyperstructure that in turn constitutes the internal model of the complex adaptive system. (Potgieter et al., 2005)
Bayesian Method
Means of quantifying uncertainty based on the probability theory. The method deines a rule for reining a hypothesis by factoring in additional evidence and background information. It uses results of previous events to predict results of future events. (Polgar, 2005a)
Baudot
A 5-bit standard encoding method for upper-case letters. (Kieler & West, 2005)
Bayes Factor
Ratio between the probability of the observed data under one hypothesis divided by its probability under an alternative hypothesis. (Ramoni & Sebastiani, 2005)
Bayesian Network
1: A directed acyclic graph (DAG) that encodes the probabilistic dependencies between the variables within a domain and is consistent with a joint probability distribution (JPD) for that domain. For example, a domain with variables {A,B,C,D}, in which the variables B and C depend on A and the variable D depends on C and D, would have the following JPD: P(A,B,C,D) = p(A)p(B|A)p(C|A)p(D|C,D) and the following graph (Vargas, 2005):
A B D C
Bayes Rule
1: Mathematical equation relating prior and posterior probabilities. (Rippon & Mengersen, 2005) 2: Shows how probabilities can be updated in the light of evidence. Derives from a simple reordering of terms in the product rule and by subsequently applying the law of total probability. (Laura, 2005)
Bayes Theorem
Result in probability theory that states the conditional probability of a variable A, given B, in terms of the conditional probability of variable B, given A, and the marginal probability of A alone. (Bashir et al., 2005)
2: A directed acyclic graph where the nodes represent random variables and arcs represent the relationships between them. Their strength is represented by means of
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conditional probability distributions stored in the nodes. (de Campos, Fernndez-Luna, & Huete, 2005) 3: A graphical model that encodes the probability distribution of a set of random variables by specifying a set of conditional independence assumptions, together with a set of relationships among these variables and their related joint probabilities. (Laura, 2005) 4: A graphical model deining the dependencies between random variables. (Caelli, 2005)
Belief
A positive function that represents the conidence that a proposition lies in a focal element or any subset of it. (Beynon, 2005a)
Belief Revision
The process of changing beliefs to relect the acquisition of new information. A fundamental issue in belief revision is how to decide information to retract in order to maintain consistency, when the addition of a new belief to a theory would make it inconsistent. (Colucci et al., 2006)
Below-View
Elements of experience that are not available to direct inspection without applying some semiotic tool such as linguistic analysis. (Zappavigna-Lee & Patrick, 2005)
BBA: See Bone-Based Animation. BBS: See Bulletin Board System. BDHM: See Block Data Hiding Method. Beam Analysis Tool (BAT)
A nonlinear-capable online software developed using the Macromedia Flash programming environment and which focuses on beam delection problems using the moment-area method. (Burrage & Pelton, 2005)
Benchmark
1: A standard program that runs on different systems to provide an accurate measure of their performance. (Darmont, 2005) 2: A standard, usually from outside sources and usually representing the best or better-thanaverage performance against which an activitys metric is compared. For example, world-class competitors have 35 defects per unit within the irst six months; we have 85. (Holstein & Crnkovic, 2005)
Beat Tracking
The process of inding the times of musical beats in an audio signal, including following tempo changes, similar to the way that people tap their feet in time to music. (Dixon, 2005)
Behavioral Biometric
A biometric characterized by a behavioral trait learned and acquired over time. (Vatsa et al., 2005)
Behavioral/Value Information
Information that represents how large-scale, complex systems, including social systems, interact under different environmental conditions and in conjunction with different stimuli. (McIntosh & Siau, 2005)
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Benchmarking
1: To identify the best in class of business processes, which might then be implemented or adapted for use by other businesses. (Troutt & Long, 2005) 2: An improvement process in which a company measures its performance against that of best in class companies, determines how those companies achieved their performance levels, and uses the information to improve its own performance. The subjects that can be benchmarked include strategies, operations, processes, and procedures. (Archer, 2006) 3: Procedure to compare and improve manufacturing quality and services based on the comparison of operations, methods, procedures, and processes inside and outside the organization. (Xodo, 2005)
Benchmarking E-Government
The continuous process of measuring products, services, and practices against successful governments, and making comparisons with them and then learning the lessons that those comparisons throw up. (Yigitcanlar & Baum, 2006a)
Benchmarking/Best Practices
The continuous process of measuring products, services, and practices against others. Mostly used to identify processes, services, and so forth generally considered to be superior in approach, and results in other methods internal or external to the enterprise. (Ribire & Romn, 2006)
recognized as best by other peer organizations. (Pemberton & Stalker, 2006) 2: An explicit recognition of the fact that optimization techniques and the goal of obtaining speciic objective function maximization or minimization is inapplicable in the context. Best practice in the end is determined by the stakeholders and the producers, and may involve many subjective criteria. (Nicholls, 2006) 3: Industry-agreed best way of doing a process. (Brady, 2005) 4: Superior performance within a function independent of industry, leadership, management, or operational methods or approaches that lead to exceptional performance; best practice is a relative term and usually indicates innovative or interesting business practices that have been identiied as contributing to improved performance at leading companies. Best practice exercises routinely employ a variety of strategies to facilitate knowledge sharing and the creation of knowledge content in pursuit of enhanced customer service and ultimately customer loyalty. (Archer, 2006) 5: Generic business processes that are programmed into ERP software. They are based on cumulative knowledge about widely accepted practices that have been seen to work effectively across organizations in generic industries. (Tarafdar, 2005) 6: Process procedures of recognized excellence, usually obtained from companies experience and/or process optimization analysis. (Framinan, 2005)
Better-Faster-Cheaper
A shorthand label for processes that contribute value through better quality, less costly products and services, at a faster production pace. (Mendonca, 2005)
Beneit Function
Theoretical algebraic functions depicting the user satisfaction for a multimedia service in correlation with the allocated resources. (Koumaras et al., 2005)
Betweenness Centrality
A measurement of centrality indicating how powerful an actor is in terms of controlling information low in a network. The idea here is that actors are central if they lie between other actors on the shortest paths connecting these actors. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006)
Beneits Management
A managed and controlled process of checking, implementing, and adjusting expected results and continuously adjusting the path leading from investments to expected business beneits. (Lin & Pervan, 2005)
BHR: See Byte Hit Rate. Beneits Realization: See Beneits Management. BI: See Bibliog ra phic In st r uction; Busine ss Benevolence
1: An act intending or showing goodwill and kindness. (Wong, 2005) 2: The belief that the other party cares about the trustor. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006) Intelligence.
Biased Marketplace
Electronic marketplace owned and operated by one or more organizations primarily for the purpose of conducting electronic commerce with trading partners. (Turner, 2006)
Best Practice
1: A superior method or innovative practice that contributes to the improved performance of an organization, usually
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Biased Sampling
A random sample of k tuples of a database, where the probability of a tuple belonging to the sample varies across tuples. (Das, 2005)
Bibliometrics
1: The study of the relationship among scientific publications. The most important application is the calculation of impact factors for publications. During this process, a large number of references is considered to be an indicator for high scientiic quality. Other analyses include the structure and the development of scientiic communities. (Mandl, 2006) 2: The study of regularities in citations, authorship, subjects, and other extractable facets from scientiic communication using quantitative and visualization techniques. This allows researchers to understand patterns in the creation and documented use of scholarly publishing. (Nicholson & Stanton, 2005)
Bibliomining
1: Data mining applied to digital libraries to discover patterns in large collections. (Cunningham & Hu, 2005) 2: The application of statistical and pattern-recognition tools to large amounts of data associated with library systems in order to aid decision making or justify services. The term bibliomining comes from the combination of bibliometrics and data mining, which are the two main toolsets used for analysis. (Nicholson & Stanton, 2005)
Billing
A signaling procedure in cellular networks to transfer call-related data to the billing center for charging the subscribers. (Louvros et al., 2006)
Binarization
The process of deriving a binary representation for numerical and/or categorical attributes. (Boros et al., 2005)
Binary Coding
A basic coding in which a solution of some problems can be represented in a list of zeros and ones. (Kacem, 2005)
Binary Image
An image made up of black and white pixels with values of 0s or 1s. (Chen, Chen, & Cheng, 2005)
Big Deal
Online aggregation of journals offered by publishers. Big Deal can oblige libraries to subscribe to marginal journals to have access to must-have journals. (Rennard, 2006)
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7: The processing of the huge amount of information pertaining to biology. (Liberati, 2005)
Biological Model
A construct developed from the observation of biophysical processes of living things. (Atkinson & Burstein, 2006)
Biometric
1: A measurable, physical characteristic or personal behavioral trait used to recognize the identity or verify the claimed identity of an enrollee. A biometric identiication system identiies a human from a measurement of a physical feature or repeatable action of the individual (for example, hand geometry, retinal scan, iris scan, ingerprint patterns, facial characteristics, DNA sequence characteristics, voice prints, and handwritten signature). (Lovell & Chen, 2005) 2: A physiological or behavioral characteristic used to recognize the claimed identity of any user. The technique used for measuring the characteristic and comparing it is known as biometrics. (Vatsa et al., 2005) 3: Some measurement of the biological characteristics of a human subject. A useful biometric is one that is easily acquired and digitized, and where historical samples can be readily compared with contemporary ones. (Fleming, 2005a) 4: The application of computational methods to biological features, especially with regard to the study of unique biological characteristics of humans. (Scott et al., 2006) 5: The automated technique of measuring a physical characteristic or personal trait of an individual and comparing that characteristic to a comprehensive database for purposes of identiication. (Vatsa et al., 2005) 6: The science of automatically identifying people or verifying peoples identity based on unique human physiological or behavioral characteristics such as face, ingerprint, iris retina, voice, and so forth. (Li, 2006) 7: The science of measuring, analyzing, and matching human biological data such as ingerprints, irises, and voice/facial patterns. In information system security,
Biographical Analysis
An interpretive research approach to understand how individuals take part in social contexts and make sense of them. The analysis of the interviews helps to reveal the structures of personal and social processes of action. Usually, at the beginning of the interview, there is nothing that would be recognized as relevant categories; these should emerge from the analysis of data. (Correia & Sarmento, 2005)
Bioinformatics
1: All aspects of information processing on biological data, in particular genomic data. The rise of bioinformatics is driven by the genomic projects. (L.M. Fu, 2005) 2: An integration of mathematical, statistical, and computational methods to organize and analyze biological data. (Chen & Liu, 2005) 3: Data mining applied to medical digital libraries. (Cunningham & Hu, 2005) 4: Field of science in which biology, computer science, and information technology merge into a single discipline. (Jourdan et al., 2005) 5: The analysis of biological information using computers and statistical techniques; the science of developing and utilizing computer databases and algorithms to accelerate and enhance biological research (Ge & Liu, 2005) 6: The development and application of computational and mathematical methods for organizing, analyzing, and interpreting biological data. (Liu, 2005)
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these measures are increasingly being introduced for authentication purposes and will play a critical role in the future of digital security. (Tassabehji, 2005a) 8: The use of computational methods to evaluate the unique biological and behavioral traits of people. (Lowry et al., 2005b) 9: The use of technological devices to identify people through scans of their faces, hands, ingers, eyes, or voice. (Szewczak, 2005) 10: Using one or more physical characteristics of a person for identiication. Fingerprints, retina scans, hand proiles, voice recognition, face recognition, and many others may be used. (Strauss, 2005) 11: Usually refers to technologies for measuring and analyzing human physiological characteristics such as ingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice patterns, facial patterns, and hand measurements, especially for authentication purposes. In a typical IT biometric system, a person registers with the system when one or more of his physiological characteristics are obtained, processed by a numerical algorithm, and entered into a database. Ideally, when he logs in, all of his features match 100%; then when someone else tries to log in, she does not fully match, so the system will not allow her to log in. (Wong, 2006) 12: Generally, biometrics refers to the study of measurable biological characteristics. In computer security, biometric technologies are deined as automated methods of identifying or authenticating the identity of a living person based on his or her physiological (e.g., ingerprint, hand, ear, face, eyeiris/retina) or behavioral (e.g., signature, voice, keystroke) characteristic. This method of identiication is preferred over current methods involving passwords and pin numbers, as the person to be identiied is required to be physically present at the point of identiication, so the person or user is identiied, not the device, as in case of PIN and password. (Mezgr, 2006b)
the integrity of sensitive data stored in information systems. (Scott et al., 2006)
Biometric Sample
The unprocessed image or physical or behavioral characteristic captured to generate the biometric template. (Vatsa et al., 2005)
Biometric Template
The mathematical representation of the biometric sample which is inally used for matching. The size of a template varies from 9 bytes for hand geometry to 256 bytes for iris recognition to thousands of bytes for face. (Vatsa et al., 2005)
Biophysical Variables
Objective physical data collected during experiments such as pulse, blood pressure, hormone levels, electroencephalograms, and electrocardiograms. (Molinari, Anderberg, et al., 2005)
Bit Depth
The number of bits used for color resolution when viewing a movie. (Vitolo et al., 2005)
Bit Rate
1: A data rate expressed in bits per second. In video encoding, the bit rate can be constant, which means that it retains a speciic value for the whole encoding process, or it can be variable, which means that it luctuates around a speciic value according to the content of the video signal. (Koumaras et al., 2005) 2: In a bit stream, the number of bits occurring per unit time, usually expressed in bits per second. Usually, it measures the rate of transmission of information. (Ragazzi, 2005)
Biometric Authentication
The identiication of individuals using their physiological and behavioral characteristics. (Chakravarty et al., 2005a)
Biometric Identiier
The use of biometric data to enable the reliable identiication of an individual from the measurement of a physiological property which provides the ability to control and protect
Bit-Parallelism
A technique to store several values in a single computer word so as to process them all at once. (Navarro, 2005)
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Blackboard Metaphor
A metaphor used in query languages, its philosophy is to let users draw the sketch of their query. (Ferri & Rafanelli, 2005)
Bitmap Index
1: An index containing a series of bitmaps such that for attribute A on relation R, each bitmap tells us if a given record in R has a certain value for A. Bitmap indices are often used in decision support environments, since used in conjunction with other bitmap or regular indices, they can cut down on disk accesses for selections, thereby improving query response time. (Badia, 2005a) 2: Consists of a collection of bitmap vectors, each of which is created to represent each distinct value of the indexed column. A bit i in a bitmap vector, representing value x, is set to 1, if the record i in the indexed table contains x. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005)
Blank Node
A node in the RDF graph that does not correspond to a Web resource. Blank nodes are normally used to refer to a set of resources or an entire statement. With respect to querying, they can be used to represent a variable in an RDF query. (Stuckenschmidt, 2005)
Blend
A judicious mixture of face-to-face and computer-mediated interactions to facilitate collaboration. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006)
Bi-Temporal Query
Refers to a query that involves both valid and transaction time points or intervals. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005b)
Blended Course
A course that utilizes a combination of different delivery modalities, combining face-to-face interaction with online delivery as appropriate. (Shaw, 2006)
Black Boxing
A technique used for simpliication. Multiple actors can be put into a black box so that it is not necessary to look at them in detail. The portal could be considered as a black box containing the ISP, portal software, data storage devices, modems, telephone devices, and so on. Black-boxing is done for convenience, as it means that an entity can then be seen as just another actor, and it saves looking at the detail until necessary. The black box can later be reopened to investigate its contents. (Tatnall, 2005a)
Blended Learning
1: Deined broadly, the integration of classroom faceto-face learning with online or technology-supported learning, including a range of pedagogical approaches and delivery systems. Strategic applications of blended learning have shown achievement of learning gains while tackling other problems faced by our universities, most notably the pressures of increasing class sizes, and limitations in funding, classroom space, and learning support. (Campbell, 2005) 2: E-learning used in conjunction with other teaching and learning methods. (Dixon et al., 2005) 3: Learning design that combines various activities such as face-to-face meetings, Internet-based learning modules, and virtual learning communities. (Link & Wagner, 2006) 4: Learning that results from using mixed methods of instructional
Blackboard
An e-learning software platform that is utilized to deliver and manage instructional activities online. (Aisami, 2005)
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delivery (i.e., face to face and Internet.) (Chapman, 2005b). See Mixed-Mode Learning.
Blocklisting
Set up as an approach for blocking unsolicited or junk email. blocklists provide lists of URLs or Web addresses from which spammers operate. The blocklists therefore provide a way of ameliorating or preventing spam from reaching the intended destination. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006a)
Blog
1: A personal diary and a collaborative space. A breakingnews outlet, a collection of links, your own private thoughts. In simple terms, a blog is a Web site where you write material on an ongoing basis. New entries show up at the top, so your visitors can read what is new. Then they comment on it or link to it, or they e-mail you. (Robinson, 2006) 2: A Web log that allows for a diary-style forum for posting ones personal thoughts and experiences. (Cannoy & Iyer, 2006) 3: An online diary in which a Netizen or Cybercitizen records thoughts and opinions on a theme or topic of interest to its creator. (Goldsmith, 2006) 4: A type of Web page that serves as a publicly accessible personal journal, typically updated frequently. Blog software usually has archives of old blogs and is searchable. (Paoletti, 2005) 5: A form of Web-based communication that has increased in popularity in the last several years. Blogs facilitate easy publishing and sharing of ideas between individuals. (Graham & Misanchuk, 2005) 6: Usually a personal journal on the Web, it could be of opinions, social issues, or relections. People that blog are often identiied as bloggers. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006b) 7: Typically, an individuals journal entries presented in last-in-irst-out format. Some blogs also allow for user commentary in response to these entries, creating a type of interactive community. (Isaak, 2006) 8: Personal, online journals and one of the fastest growing trends on the Internet. Blogs are now considered one of the tools to maintain knowledge communities. (Yamazaki, 2006)
Blended Model
1: A learning model utilizing traditional lecture-/ classroom-style teaching with computer-aided models to aid in independent learning based on a students learningstyles assessment requirements. (Rhoten, 2006b) 2: An instructional model or instruction that combines two or more instructional models. (Askar et al., 2005) 3: A face-to-face instructor-delivered instruction in a brickand-mortar location supplemented by a variety of online resources. (Aworuwa & Owen, 2005) BLOB: See Binary Large Object.
Block Scheduling
A daily schedule for middle schools and high schools that involves fewer class periods, but each one is longer than traditional 40- to 55-minute periods. Advocates claim that block scheduling allows for a wider variety of instructional techniques, increased ability for teachers and students to focus on complex tasks, and makes for a calmer school environment. (Glick, 2005b)
Blogger
One who maintains a blogan online journal, diary, or record. (Baim, 2006b)
Blocking
1: A means of disallowing access to Internet content and services by restricting access at the corporate gateway. (Urbaczewski, 2005) 2: Allows an IM user to control the ability of his or her online status. When you block someone, that person will not be able to send messages to you until you remove that person from your block list. (Hwang & Stewart, 2005)
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Bluetooth
1: A short-range radio technology aimed at simplifying communications among Internet devices, and between devices and the Internet. It also aims to simplify data synchronization between Internet devices and other computers. (Lalopoulos et al., 2005a) 2: A short-range wireless radio standard aimed at enabling communications between digital devices. The technology supports data transfer at up to 2Mbps in the 2.45GHz band over a 10m range. It is used primarily for connecting PDAs, cell phones, PCs, and peripherals over short distances. (Garrett, 2006a) 3: A speciication for personal radio networks, named after the nickname of the Danish king Harald who united Norway and Denmark in the 10th century. (Kaspar & Hagenhoff, 2005) 4: A wireless technology developed by Ericsson, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba that speciies how mobile phones, computers, and PDAs interconnect with each other, with computers, and with ofice or home phones. The technology enables data connections between electronic devices in the 2.4 GHz range. Bluetooth can replace cable or infrared connections for such devices. (Bose et al., 2005) 5: A wireless networking protocol designed to replace cable network technology for devices within 30 feet. Like IEEE 802.11b, Bluetooth also operates in unlicensed 2.4GHz spectrum, but it only supports data rates up to 1 Mbp. (Akhtar, 2005) 6: Low-power radio communication technology similar to cordless phones, used to connect up to eight peripherals with a computer over distances of a few meters. Typically used in cordless keyboards, or to connect laptops or PDAs with cell-phone modems. Competes with IR and 802.11. (Houser & Thornton, 2005) 7: Short-range wireless technology limited to less than 30 feet. (Lawson-Body et al., 2005) 8: A lowpower wireless-network standard that allows computers, peripherals, and consumer electronic devices to talk to each other at distances of up to 30 feet. (Galanxhi-Janaqi & Nah, 2005) 9: A wireless telecommunications system that provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices like personal digital assistants or mobile phones. (Flavin & Guinalu, 2006)
Bookshelf
The combination of text, graphics, audio, and video with tools that allow the user to navigate, interact, create, and communicate the content or his or her own ideas, but which lack the links to connect the information. (Bradley et al., 2005)
BM_Virtual Enterprise
A virtual enterprise in total or partial conformance with the BM_Virtual Enterprise Architecture Reference Model (BM_VEARM). (Cunha & Putnik, 2005)
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F) denotes a set of data vectors belonging to positive (resp., negative) class. (Boros et al., 2005)
Border Meetings
Brings together some of the members of two or more communities of practice in order to foster an interchange of practices and to trigger thinking processes into the community itself or in the border practices. (Falivene & Kaufman, 2006)
Boolean Query
A query that uses Boolean operators (AND, OR, and NOT) to formulate a complex condition. A Boolean query example can be university OR college. (Wei & Li, 2005)
Bottom-Up Approach
1: Proceeding from the bottom of a hierarchy or process upwards. This approach involves the community at the start of the project. (Gnaniah, Yeo, et al., 2005) 2: Development approach founded upon the principle that communities are better placed to coordinate and integrate efforts at the local level. (Thompson, 2005)
Boosting
1: Assigning and updating weights on data points according to a particular formula in the process of reining classiication models. (B. Zhang, 2005) 2: Creation of an ensemble of hypotheses to convert a weak learner to strong one by modifying expected instance distribution. (Leni et al., 2005) 3: Generates multiple models or classiiers (for prediction or classiication), and to derive weights to combine the predictions from those models into a single prediction or predicted classiication. (Yeo, 2005) 4: One of the most effective types of learners for text categorization. A classiier built by boosting methods is actually a committee (or ensemble) of classiiers, and the classiication decision is made by combining the decisions of all the members of the committee. The members are generated sequentially by the learner, who attempts to specialize each member by correctly classifying the training documents the previously generated members have misclassiied most often. (Sebastiani, 2005)
Bounce Rate
A ratio of the number of Web page visitors who enter and then back out (leave) without linking from anything on the page (e.g., viewing other pages on the site) vs. the total number of visitors (total pageviews), expressed as a percentage. (Owen, 2006a)
Boundary
1: A social construction that deines knowledge and people to be included (or to beneit) from a decision. (Crdoba, 2006a) 2: A systems concept whereby all systems are held to have a boundary, and often judgments at the boundary will yield insightful results. (Green & Hurley, 2006)
Bootstrap
1: A resampling scheme in which surrogate data is generated by resampling the original data or sampling from a model that was it to the original data. (Burr, 2005a) 2: A European method for software process assessment and improvement. It enhanced and reined the Capability Maturity Model developed at the Software Engineering Institute for software process assessment, and adapted it to the European software industry. (Leung, 2005) 3: Generating artiicial patterns from the given original patterns. (This does not mean that the artiicial set is larger in size than the original set; also, artiicial patterns need not be distinct from the original patterns.) (Viswanath et al., 2005)
Boundary Crossing
1: The crossing of ones own professional, disciplinary, or expertise boundaries (i.e., knowledge zones), and venturing into others. This is required when people work in situations that require multi-faceted input, where no one possesses all the different types of knowledge necessary (e.g., a medical doctor working with a structural engineer on an artiicial limb project). (Fong, 2006a) 2: Virtual teams are often characterized by their boundary spanning attributes; that
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is, they usually cross time and distance, and often include different national (ethnic), organizational, and functional cultures. (Pauleen, 2005)
shaped surfaces. Most animation programs use this method. (Cruz et al., 2005)
Boundary Encounters
The ways in which different communities of practice may meet to exchange knowledge. (Wenn, 2006a)
Box-Jenkins Approach
A very versatile linear approach that can model trend, seasonal, and other behaviors by using moving averages, autoregression, and difference equations. (G.P. Zhang, 2005)
Boundary Object
1: An element that enables community members to participate together and communicate outside of the community. (Crdoba, 2006b) 2: As knowledge crosses three forms of boundaries (syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic), certain objects assist this knowledge low. They can be repositories, standard forms, objects and models, and maps of boundaries. They are both concrete and abstract objects. (Paquette, 2006a) 3: Describes an actant that is able to bring a degree of commensurability to the knowledge practices of different communities for some shared purpose. It takes knowledge from one community and presents it to another in such a way that it makes sense to that community. (Wenn, 2006a)
BPA: See Business-Process Analysis. BPEL4WS: See Business Process Execution Language
for Web Services.
B+-Tree
A particular form of search tree in which the keys used to access data are stored in the leaves. Particularly eficient for key-access to data stored in slow memory devices (e.g., disks). (Tininini, 2005b)
Boundary Paradox
In the knowledge transfer process, the giving and receiving organizations borders must be open to lows of information and knowledge from the networks and markets in which they operate, but at the same time, the organization must protect and nurture its own knowledge base and intellectual capital. (Chen, Duan, et al., 2006)
Boundary Region
Those objects that may or may not be in the approximation set. It is the difference between the upper approximation and the lower approximation. If the boundary region is empty, the set is said to be crisp. If the boundary region is not empty, the set is rough. (Voges, 2005)
Brain Drain
The emigration of highly educated workers from developing countries to developed countries. (Negash, 2005)
Branching
A subgraph of a directed graph in which there are no cycles and the indegree of each node is 1 or 0. (Chen, 2005a)
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Brick-and-Mortar Organization
An organization located or serving customers in a physical facility, as opposed to a virtual organization. (Zhao, 2005)
The ability of learners to form knowledge in a nonlinear way as they work in hypermedia digital environments. (Eshet, 2005)
Brand
1: A name, term, sign, symbol, or designor a combination of themintended to identify the goods and services of one seller or a group of sellers, and to differentiate them from those of competition. (Roberts & Schwaab, 2006) 2: The promise that a Web site, company, product, or service makes to its customers. (T.S. Chan, 2005)
Broadband
1: Refers to a telecommunication service in which a wide band of frequencies is available to transmit information. When a wide band of frequencies is available to subscribers, information can be multiplexed and sent on many different frequencies or channels within the band concurrently. This means more information can be transmitted in a given amount of time, just as more lanes on a highway allow more cars to travel on it at the same time. As a general rule, the greater the bandwidth, the faster the service. (De Weaver, 2005) 2: A class of communication channels capable of supporting a wide range of frequencies, typically from audio up to video frequencies. A broadband channel can carry multiple signals by dividing the total capacity into multiple, independent bandwidth channels, where each channel operates only on a speciic range of frequencies. The term has come to be used for any kind of Internet connection with a download speed of more than 56K baud. (Vician & Buche, 2005) 3: A digital delivery system using iber optics to establish an interactive infrastructure that carries large quantities of interactive information. (Weber & Lim, 2005) 4: A network capable of delivering high bandwidth. Broadband networks are used by Internet and cable television providers. For cable, they range from 550 MHz to 1GHz. A single TV regular broadcast channel requires 6MHz, for example. In the Internet domain, bandwidth is measured in bits-per-second (BPS). (Pagani, 2005a) 5: A service or connection allowing a considerable amount of information to be conveyed, such as video. It is generally deined as a bandwidth of over 2 Mbit/s. (Chochliouros et al., 2005c) 6: A transmission facility having a bandwidth suficient to carry multiple voice, video, or data channels simultaneously. (Singh, 2006b) 7: A type of data transmission in which a single medium (such as iber optic wire) can carry several channels at once. Cable TV, for example, uses broadband transmission. (Braun, 2005c) 8: A new way of connecting to the
Brand Equity
The value of a brand, measured in inancial terms. (Roberts & Schwaab, 2006)
Branding
Campusversities use branding (e.g., McGill sweaters, Concordia backpacks) as marketing tactics. A large part of what most students hope for is to take on some of the prestigious institutional identity of their university. Any community is partly a matter of symbolic identiication. (Boyd & Zhang, 2005)
Brand Presence
The presence of a product offering that is distinguished from its competitors through the use of a symbol, design, or characteristic, or a combination of these. (Brindley, 2006)
Breadth-First
The method of growing the intermediate result by adding items both at the beginning and the end of the sequences. (Masseglia et al., 2005)
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Internet that will ensure rapid access, faster download times, and better overall performance such as highresolution, graphics, and CD-quality sound. Broadband connections are sometimes also called fat pipes due to the substantial amounts of data they can carry compared to more traditional narrowband connections, such as a modem which delivers variable service quality with slow download speeds. A broadband connection can be delivered in several different ways: cable, DSL, ixed wireless, and satellite. (Cosemans, 2005a) 9: High-speed transmission services such as xDSLs and CATV lines which allow users to access the Internet at signiicantly higher speeds than dial-up modems or narrowband. (Park & Lepawsky, 2006) 10: In data communications, generally refers to systems that provide user data rates of greater than 2 Mbps and up to 100s of Mbps. (Ngoh & Shankar, 2005) 11: Internet connection with a download speed of more than 56k band. (Msiska, 2005) 12: Transmission facility having a bandwidth suficient to carry multiple voice, video, or data channels simultaneously, often greater than 512 Mbit/sec. Each channel occupies (is modulated to) a different frequency bandwidth on the transmission medium and is demodulated to its original frequency at the receiving end. (Negash, 2005)
technologies to vastly speed up rates of information transfer between communication devices such as computers. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005b) 3: A telecommunications network that allows for rapid transmission of voluminous amounts of information. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2006) 4: A network that operates at a wide band of frequencies. In these communications networks, the bandwidth can be divided and shared by multiple simultaneous signals (for voice or data or video). (Barolli & Koyama, 2005a)
Broadband Transmission
A form of data transmission in which data are carried on high-frequency carrier waves; the carrying capacity medium is divided into a number of subchannels for data such as video, low-speed data, high-speed data, and voice, allowing the medium to satisfy several communication needs. (Hentea, 2005a)
Broadband Access
1: A form of Internet access that provides information and communication services to end users with high-bandwidth capabilities. (Hentea, 2005a) 2: The process of using ADSL, iber cable, or other technologies to transmit large amounts of data at rapid rates. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005a)
Broadcast
A transmission to multiple unspeciied recipients. (Prata, 2005)
Broadcast Cycle
A complete broadcast ile. (Waluyo et al., 2005)
Broadcast Database
A mobile database whose contents are being broadcast, fully or partially, to a population of mobile clients. (Leong, 2005a)
Broadband Network
1: A telecommunications network that can transmit information well above the normal rate (56K) on ordinary phone lines. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005c) 2: A telecommunications network that leverages on various
Broadcast Disk
Distributes data according to a predeined schedule so that interested clients can pick up the data from the schedule. (Fiege, 2005)
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Broadcast TV Service
A television service that provides a continuous low of information distributed from a central source to a large number of users. (Hulicki, 2005)
server logs incomplete because some requests are served by the cache. A related issue is the management of the cache to improve its hit rate. (Y. Fu, 2005)
Browsewrap Agreement
Generally pertains to accessing information on a Web page. A notice is placed on the Web site informing the user that continued use of (browsing) the Web site constitutes acceptance of a license agreement (the terms of which are usually made available by the user selecting a link on the Web site). (Sprague, 2005)
BSS: See Basic Service Set. BST: See Base Station Transceiver.
Browse
To view formatted documents. For example, one looks at Web pages with a Web browser. Browse is often used in the same sense as surf. (Singh, 2005a)
BS7799-2:2002
Part 2 is an information security management system (ISMS) that adopts a systematic approach to managing sensitive company information that encompasses people, processes, and IT systems. (Tassabehji, 2005b)
Browser
1: An application that interprets the computer language and presents it in its inal Web page format. (Falk & Sockel, 2005) 2: A client software program used for searching and viewing various kinds of resources such as information on a Web site or on an intranet. (Vaast, 2005) 3: A computer software program that requests Web pages and other associated applications over the Internet, and that can display these iles using the right format. (Dasgupta & Chandrashekaran, 2005) 4: A software program running on a client computer that allows a person to read hypertext. The browser permits viewing the contents of pages and navigating from one page to another. Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Lynx are common browser examples. (Vician & Buche, 2005)
B2A: See Business-to-Administration. B2B: See Business-to-Business. B2B E-Commerce: See Business-to-Business Electronic
Commerce.
Browser Caching
A Web browser keeps a local copy of server pages in an area called a cache on clients computer. This is to avoid repeated requests to the server. However, this also makes
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is an aggregate information (i.e., sum, average, count, etc.) about tuples with that value of X belonging to the interval (inf, sup). (Buccafurri & Lax, 2005)
Bucket-Based Histogram
A type of histogram whose construction is driven by the search of a suitable partition of the attribute domain into buckets. (Buccafurri & Lax, 2005)
Buddy List
Presence awareness technology that allows users to monitor the online status of others. A buddy list window shows whether buddies are online or off-line. Users double-click on a screen name of an active friend, and a message is automatically initiated. (Hwang & Stewart, 2005)
used for early local Internet service providers, since their message board function was a key service. (Paoletti, 2005) 2: A computerized meeting and announcement system that allows people to carry on discussions, upload and download iles, and make announcements without people being connected to the computer at the same time. In the early 1990s, there were millions of BBSs around the world, most very small, running on a single IBM clone PC with one or two phone lines. Some are very large, and the line between a BBS and a system like CompuServe gets crossed at some point, but it is not clearly drawn. (Chim, 2006)
Bullwhip Effect
1: A situation in which ineffective network effects occur because each successive node in the supply chain orders more supplies than the previous one based on wrong assumptions, a lack of communication, and lawed planning processes. (Hanebeck, 2005) 2: Demand ampliication from its source across the supply chain. This is largely caused by information asymmetry among the entities in the supply chain. (Aigbedo, 2005)
Buffer Query
This spatial query involves two spatial datasets and a distance threshold d. The answer is a set of pairs of spatial objects from the two input datasets that are within distance d from each other. (Corral & Vassilakopoulos, 2005)
Burst
In OBS networks, IP packets (datagrams) are assembled into a very large-sized data packet called a burst. (Rodrigues, Freire, Monteiro, & Lorenz, 2005)
Burst Detection
The identiication of sharp changes in a time series of values. Examples of bursts include the increasing use of certain words in association with given events. (Chen, Toprani, et al., 2006)
Bulkload
Adding a (large) set of data to a database rather than individual tuples. (Schmidt et al., 2005)
Burst Offset
The interval of time at the source node between the processing of the irst bit of the setup message and the transmission of the irst bit of the data burst. (Rodrigues et al., 2005)
Business Alignment
Actions to be undertaken by an organization, to answer a market opportunity with the provision of the required
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product, with the required speciications, at the required time, with the lowest cost, and with the best possible return. (Cunha & Putnik, 2005)
Business Complexity
Degree of dificulty associated with supplier- and customerfacing processes. It incorporates diversity and volatility aspects. (Setzekorn et al., 2005)
Business Ecosystem
A system in which companies work cooperatively and competitively to support new products, satisfy customers, and create the next round of innovation in key market segments. (Lee et al., 2006)
Business Engineering
The integral design of both organizational structures and information systems. (Janssen, 2005)
Business Games
Computer-based simulations designed to teach businessrelated concepts. (Proserpio & Magni, 2005)
Business Incubators
Proper t y-based organizations with identif iable administrative centers focused on the mission of business acceleration through knowledge agglomeration and resource sharing. The main role of the incubator is to assist entrepreneurs with business start-ups and development. (Moodley, 2005)
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Busine ss M ission Busine ss Proc e ss Exe c ut ion La ngu a ge for We b Se r vic e s (BPEL4 WS)
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warehouse and the tools to store, retrieve, and present the information it contains (e.g., data-mining software). (Vriens, 2005a)
Business Process
1: A collection of interrelated work tasks initiated in response to an event that achieves a speciic result for the customer of the process. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005a) 2: A collection of business activities which take several inputs and creates one or more outputs. (Johnston, 2005) 3: A process at the business layer of an organization. Since the 1990s, the focus of any business reengineering project and one of the central inputs for IT design. It is sometimes also used as a synonym for worklow. (Heucke et al., 2005) 4: A series of related activities performed by staff in a business organization to achieve a speciic output (for example: loan processing). (Henry, 2006) 5: A set of interrelated activities performed in an organization with the goal of generating value in connection with a product or service. (Kock, 2006) 6: A set of one or more linked activities which collectively realize a business objective or goal, normally within the context of an organizational structure. (Cardoso, 2006) 7: A set of organized work-related tasks and resources to pursue a speciic organizational objective inluencing learning experiences by deining two speciic relationships: process-based roles (between business process and people) and learning tasks (between business process and information systems). (Rentroia-Bonito & Jorge, 2005) 8: A term widely used in business to indicate anything from a single activity, such as printing a report, to a set of activities, such as an entire transaction cycle. Sometimes used as a synonym of transaction cycle. (Dunn & Grabski, 2005) 9: The sequence of activities, the people, and the technology involved in carrying out some business or achieving some desired results in an organization. (Galatescu, 2005) 10: Business transactions that realize a business objective. (Johannesson, 2005) 11: The interaction, coordination, communication, and decision choices made by organizations in order to transform inputs (resources)personnel, equipment, technology, information, energy, capital, and so forthinto products or services of added value to the customer/citizen. (Joia, 2006) 12: The speciic processes into which each primary activity of the value chain can be decomposed. (Scupola, 2005)
Business Mission
A basic role or function that a irm performs in a speciic environment. (Cepeda-Carrin, 2006)
Business Model
1: A speciic arrangement of organizational strategies, goals, processes, resources (technologies, inances, people, etc.), structures, products, and services that enable a irm to successfully compete in the marketplace. Many EC researchers have taken a narrower view, based on organizations involved (i.e., B2B, B2C, B2G, etc.) or speciic framework used (i.e., hierarchy, hub, or intermediary for e-markets). While there is not yet a consensus about what makes up a business model, the trend is away from a narrower view. (Craig, 2005) 2: Architecture for products, services, and information lows, including descriptions of the various business actors and their roles, the potential beneits, and the sources of revenue. (Shan et al., 2006b) 3: Means by which a new venture will attract and serve customers, in order to generate revenue and proit. (Craig, 2006b) 4: The method of doing business by which a company can generate revenue to sustain itself. (Lee et al., 2006) 5: With regard to business models, we must verify which cooperation partner is responsible for which partial tasks. We can either assign services that have been provided by the public sector to the private sector (privatization), or both cooperation partners can invest resources to accomplish these tasks (partnership). Outsourcing is an example of privatization, while franchising is an example of partnership. (Knust & Hagenhoff, 2005)
Business Opportunity
Perfect time interval to eficiently match a speciic market need to a core competence and available capacity. (Pires et al., 2006)
Business Performance
Relects an organizations overall results and is often measured using a number of inancial measures; for example, annual sales revenue, sales growth, annual proit, and proit growth. Rather than seek empirical data, some studies ask managers for their perceptions, for example, their perception of sales growth compared to competitors. (Cragg & Todorova, 2005)
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A set of linked activities that are distributed at member enterprises of the virtual enterprise and collectively realize its common business goal. (Protogeros, 2006)
is deined in terms of existing objects. (Halpin, 2005) 2: Originally, a statement that deines or constrains the evolution of data pertaining to an enterprises business. Business rules usually are implemented by integrity constraints or triggers, or stored procedures. (Decker, 2005) 3: Statement that deines or constrains business objects, their behavior, and relationships. Usually expressed in a semiformal language, using a vocabulary of business terms and verbs such as have to, should, and must. (Badia, 2005b) 4: Statements that model the reaction to events that occur in the real world, having tangible side effects on the database content. They respond to application needs. (Rivero, 2005) 5: Precise statements that describe, constrain, and control the structure, operations, and strategy of a business. They may be thought of as small pieces of knowledge about a business domain. (Cilia, 2005)
Business Strategy
1: A description of the plans, actions, or steps an organization intends to take in order to strengthen and grow itself. (Johnston, 2005) 2: The main way the organization chooses to compete; for example, via cost leadership, differentiation, niche, and so forth. (Cragg & Todorova, 2005)
Business Term
Word or expression denoting a concept that has a particular meaning in the context of an enterprise. (Badia, 2005b)
Business Value
The overall value that an investment brings to a corporation. Examples of performance measures of the business value of electronic commerce can be: (1) proitabilitythat is, whether electronic commerce contributes to an increase in the proitability of the corporation; or (2) competitive advantage that could be measured as an increase in market share, shareholder value, or customer satisfaction. (Scupola, 2005)
Business Rule
1: A constraint or derivation rule that applies to the business domain. A static constraint restricts the possible states of the business, and a dynamic constraint restricts the possible transitions between states. A derivation rule declares how a fact may be derived from existing facts, or how an object
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Business-Continuity Planning
The objective of business-continuity planning is to counteract interruptions to business activities and critical business processes from the effects of major failures or disasters. (Tong & Wong, 2005a)
business applications and services that allow small and midsized organizations and divisions of large enterprises to connect employees, customers, and suppliers for improved eficiency. (Passi et al., 2005)
Business-Episode Concept
The approach to classify and cluster public services by repeating speciic situations that often occur during the life of a citizen resp. the different periods of an enterprise. Typical examples are marriage for a citizen and VAT declaration for a company. (Werth, 2005)
Business-to-Administration (B2A)
Data interchange between commercial organizations and government bodies using e-technologies such as EDI or an Internet Web site. A component of e-government. (Whiteley, 2006)
Business-to-Business (B2B)
1: Business made electronically (mainly by Internet) between companies by the selling or purchasing of goods or services. Includes data interchange. (de Medeiros et al., 2006) 2: A business that provides some kind of services or sells some product to other businesses. (Youn & McLeod, 2006) 3: Interactions between two businesses, such as transfers of information, purchases and so forth, are said to follow a B2B format. (Baim, 2006a) 4: Business-to-business trading involves the sale of goods or services by one business to another business. (Braun, 2005c) 5: E-procurement systems improve the eficiency of the procurement process by automating and decentralizing the procurement process. The traditional methods of sending Request for Quotes (RFQ) documents and obtaining invoices are carried out over the Web through purchasing mechanisms such as auctions or other electronic marketplace functions, including catalogs. (Mller, 2005) 6: A business selling goods and/or services online to another business. (Toland, 2006) 7: Commercial transactions between commercial trading partners using e-technologies such as EDI or an Internet e-shop. (Whiteley, 2006) 8: Automated processes between trading partners. (Shih & Fang, 2006) 9: Used to describe an e-business solution that caters to other businesses. It offers integrated
Business-to-Business Model
Provision of education content to another institution, which then enters the teaching and learning agreements with the learner. (Robinson, 2005)
Business-To-Business Transaction
Electronic commercial transaction from business to business. (Pierre, 2006a)
Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
1: Retail selling via the Internet. (de Medeiros et al., 2006) 2: Interactions between a business and its customers are said to follow a B2C format. In common usage of the term B2C, the distinction between customers (purchasers of a product/service) and consumers (end users of a
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product/service) is not rigorously made. (Baim, 2006a) 3: Involves the sale of goods or services by a business directly to individual customers. (Braun, 2005a) 4: A form of e-commerce applications in which the seller is a business organization and the buyer is consumer. A typical example is Amazon.com. (Hwang & Stewart, 2006) 5: A business selling goods and/or services online to private customers. (Toland, 2006) 6: An e-commerce business model that facilitates transactions between a company and a consumer, as opposed to a transaction between companies (called B2B) or a transaction between consumers (C2C). (OBuyonge & Chen, 2006) 7: Commercial transactions between commercial organizations and members of the public, typically using an Internet e-shop. (Whiteley, 2006) 8: In this method, products or services are sold from a irm to a consumer. (Shih & Fang, 2006) 9: Any business transaction conducted through the Internet between a business and a consumer. An example includes a commercial Web site that sells products to individual customers. (Gangopadhyay & Huang, 2005)
Buying Process
In B2B settings, buying raw materials, maintenance, repairs, and operating supplies is a necessary business activity involving multiple decision makers and formal vendor selection and evaluation procedures. (Bridges et al., 2006)
Buzz
1: A buzzword referring to word-of-mouth off-line or on the Internet. (Goldsmith, 2006) 2: Word of mouth or social communicationconsumers talking to consumers, spreading inluence and information. (Waterson, 2006)
Business-to-Consumer Model
Provision of educational content directly to the learner. (Robinson, 2005)
Business-to-Employee (B2E)
Intranets or knowledge management systems provide the employee with an updated personalized portal to the enterprise on his desktop. The perspectives of the intranet and knowledge management systems increase in the context of the ERP II concept. (Mller, 2005)
Byte-Code
This machine-independent code is translated into the machine language of the computer on which it is running. (Lucas, 2005)
Busy Hour
The hour at which a mobile telephone network handles the maximum call trafic in a 24-hour period. It is that hour during the day or night when the product of the average number of incoming calls and average call duration is at its maximum. (Mani et al., 2005)
Buy-and-Hold Strategy
An investment strategy for buying portfolios of stocks or mutual funds with solid, long-term growth potential. The underlying value and stability of the investments are important, rather than the short- or medium-term volatility of the market. (Hou, Sheng, et al., 2005)
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CA CAGR
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C
CA: See Certificate (or Certification) Authority;
Conditional Access Service.
Caching Cache
1: A region of a computers memory which stores recently or frequently accessed data so that the time of repeated access to the same data can decrease. (Lin et al., 2005) 2: Disk space used to store the documents loaded from the server for future use. (Kacimi et al., 2005) 3: A storage area on the user computers hard disk where recently viewed Web pages are stored. (Dasgupta & Chandrashekaran, 2005) 4: Memory that mirrors often-used parts of a slower but larger memory. The term cache mainly refers to the function, not to the memory technology. Cache can be standard random access memory that is used to speed up disk access, but it also can be very specialized high-speed memory that is used to speed up processor access to main memory. (Meixner, 2005) 1: A replication method where access to frequently used data is optimized. In remote caching, a primary copy of the frequently used data is normally stored on a very fast medium to optimize access to data. In local caching, an often inconsistent secondary copy of the frequently used data is stored in or close to the location of some users to optimize their access to the data. (Frank, 2005a) 2: The technique of copying data from a server machine (the central storage place) to a client machines local disk or memory; users then access the copy locally. Caching reduces network load because the data does not have to be fetched across the network more than once (unless the central copy changes). (Bose et al., 2005) 3: Using a buffer within your own computers fast memory to hold recently accessed data. Designed to speed up access to the same data later. (Cosemans, 2005b)
Cache Invalidation
The procedure of validating whether the cached data is consistent with the master copy at the server. (Xu, 2006)
Caching Proxy
A caching proxy or proxy server or proxy is a server that acts as an intermediary between a client and a content server. It intercepts the requests of the client and checks whether it can serve the client from its own cache, and if not, it forwards the requests to the content server. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005a)
Cache Memory
A technology developed to reduce ile download time and maximize network performance. (Szewczak, 2005)
Cache Replacement
The procedure of inding the victim data item(s) to be dropped from the cache in order to allocate suficient cache space for an incoming data item. (Xu, 2006)
CAD: See Computer-Aided Design. CAFS: See Content-Addressable File Store. CAGR: See Cumulative Annual Growth Rate.
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biometric sample in order to generate multiple variants to represent the same person. (Li, 2006)
Calculative Trust
Trust based on the weights of the costs and beneits of certain actions, and on a view of man as a rational actor. (Huotari & Iivonen, 2005)
Candidate Generation
Creating new subgraphs out of smaller ones; then it checks to see how often this new subgraph appears in the analyzed graph database. (Fischer & Meinl, 2005)
Calculative-Based Trust
Trust based on the calculation that it is not in the best interest of the trusted party to cheat or take advantage of the situation, regardless of his or her trustworthiness. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006)
Candidate Key
Minimum set of attributes that uniquely identify each tuple of a given relation. One candidate key is selected as the primary key. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005a)
Calibration
Correspondence between accuracy and confidence. Calibration exists when there is correspondence. (Goldsmith & Pillai, 2006)
Capability Differential
Resource and competence coniguration, that is to say, a coniguration to reach competitive advantage sources. (Cepeda-Carrin, 2006)
CAL: See Computer-Aided Learning. Capability Maturity Model (CMM) CALL: See Computer-Assisted Language Learning;
Computer-Aided Language Learning. 1: A framework to achieve maturity in project activities in the software ield which presents ive maturity levels, each corresponding to a set of structural requirements for key process areas. (Monteiro de Carvalho et al., 2005) 2: A methodology used to evaluate an organizations software development process. The model describes a ive-level evolutionary path of increasingly organized and systematically more mature processes. (Hawk & Kaiser, 2005) 3: A model used to assess the capability and the maturity of a software process. The CMM levels range from 1 (initial, ad hoc) to 5 (optimizing, process improvement). (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005) 4: A model containing the essential elements of effective processes for one or more disciplines. Also describes an evolutionary improvement path from ad hoc, immature processes to disciplined, mature processes with improved quality and effectiveness. (Gibson, 2005) 5: Developed at the Software Engineering Institute of Carnegie-Mellon University and also known as CMM-SW, this model helps a software development organization to identify its strengths and weaknesses, and provides a well-deined plan for improvement. (Berztiss, 2006a) 6: A ive-level framework laying out a generic path to process improvement for software development in organizations. (Brewer, 2005) 7: A suite of models that update and upgrade the CMM. (Berztiss, 2006a)
CALT: See Computer-Assisted Language Testing. CAM: See Computer-Aided Manufacturing. Camera Calibration
A process of setting digital imaging components to standardized settings that will produce accurate and predictable results in the output. (Ozer et al., 2005)
Cancelable Biometrics
A technique that allows the user to choose non-invertible transformation functions to be operated on his/her original
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8: An integration of best practices from proven process improvement models, including the SW-CMM, EIA731, and the Integrated Product Management CMM. Included are tools that help organizations improve their ability to develop and maintain quality products and services. (Leung, 2005)
and knowledge base that can then be leveraged for achieving other, more broad goals. (M. Mitchell, 2005b)
Capacity Miss
This miss occurs because the cache cannot accommodate all requested objects. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005a)
Capability Table
A list that speciies data items or physical devices (for example, printers) that users are authorized to access. (Mattord & Whitman, 2005)
Cardinality Constraints
One constraint established in a relationship. It limits the number of entity occurrences that are associated in a relationship. (Cuadra et al., 2005)
Capacity
The amount of stimuli that can be noticed and processed in a given time period, or the number of concurrent issues that can be processed by a decision maker. (Yaniv & Schwartz, 2006)
Career Trajectory
Describes the positions, roles, and experience that individuals have accumulated, up to and including the position they currently hold. (Ali & Warne, 2005)
Capacity Building
Building the skills, commitment, and conidence of community members to develop networks to inluence what happens around them in their environment, and give them the capability to contribute to shaping and planning their communitys future. (Sutcliffe, 2005)
CareerOneStop
The federal Department of Labors Web-based gateway to job listings, rsums, and career information nationwide. (Langer, 2005)
Carrier
A transmitted signal that can carry information, usually in the form of modulation. (Chochliouros et al., 2005b)
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Carrier Sensing
Case Grammar
A linguistic theory of the ways in which an action can be associated with other concepts. (N.C. Rowe, 2006d)
Determination that the medium is not being used by a neighboring transmitter before accessing the channel. (Erbas, 2005)
Case Study
1: A detailed analysis of a person or group from a social, psychological, or medical point of view. A careful study of some social unit (a corporation or a division within a corporation) that attempts to determine what factors led to its success or failure. (Sarmento, 2005) 2: A scenario used to illustrate the application of a learning concept. May be either factual or hypothetical. (Snchez-Segura et al., 2005) 3: A systematic way of looking at what is happening, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. (M. Mitchell, 2005b) 4: An examination of a phenomenon in its natural setting using ixed boundaries such as time. (Trauth, 2005b) 5: An instruction tool containing a detailed description of a real-world situation. (Pendegraft, 2005) 6: Investigation of phenomena in a naturalistic setting, conducted to enable in-depth analysis of that phenomena. (Dalcher, 2005) 7: Research conducted to assess a single instance of a phenomenon. (Schifter, 2005) 8: The intensive examination of a single instance of a phenomenon or where one or just a few cases are intensively examined using a variety of data-gathering techniques. (Thompson, 2005)
CART: See Classiication and Regression Tree. Case Study Research Cartography
The art, science, and engineering of mapmaking. (Sadoun, 2006) An in-depth investigation that attempts to capture lessons learned through studying the environment, procedures, results, achievements, and failures of a particular project or set of circumstances. (McPherson, 2005)
CAS: See Course Applicability System. CASE Tool CASE: See Computer-Aided Software Engineering.
A software tool that helps software designers and developers specify, generate, and maintain some or all
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software components of an application. Most CASE tools provide functions to allow developers to draw database schemas and to generate the corresponding DDL code. (Hainaut et al., 2005)
a mathematical construct (like the roots of a tree) can go much wider and deeper than can be seen in the construct as such. The result is that in mathematical modeling, an apt formal counterpart F of a real-world phenomenon/artifact W can give much more than initially expected from stating the correspondence F models W. The history of applying mathematics to science and engineering is full of examples of when formalisms turned out to be surprisingly clever in their modeling and predictive capabilities. (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005)
Categorization
1: The process of deducing, from the content of an artifact, the potentially multiple ways in which the artifact can be classiied for the purpose of later retrieval from a database, library, collection, or physical storage system. (Heucke et al., 2005) 2: A cognitive process based on similarity of mental schemes and concepts in which subjects establish conditions that are both necessary and suficient (properties) to capture meaning and/or the hierarchy inclusion (as part of a set) by family resemblances shared by their members. Every category has a prototypical internal structure, depending on the context. (Amoretti, 2005)
Casebase
A collection of cases with each case containing a problem description and its corresponding solution approach. (Soh, 2006)
Category
1: A collection of objects or entities that is a subset of the union of different entity types; entities offering a similar role are grouped into a category. (Bagui, 2005) 2: Special type of entity that represents the union of two or more different entity types. (Mani & Badia, 2005) 3: A set of levels of observed actions or choices made by an individual. (Medlin et al., 2006)
Catalog
The collection of records used to describe and locate the items contained in a library. (Hnisch, 2005)
Categorical Attribute
An attribute that takes values from a discrete domain. (Gehrke, 2005)
Category Attribute
The variable that describes the summary data of an aggregate data structure. (Rafanelli, 2005)
Categorical Data
Fits into a small number of distinct categories of a discrete nature, in contrast to continuous data; may be ordered (ordinal), for example, high, medium, or low temperatures, or non-ordered (nominal), for example, gender or city. (Zhu, 2005)
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Cat 5 CDR
as a category: directed graph with composable arrows. For example, models of a given sort (meta-model) and mappings between them form a category in a very natural way. If one wants to work with a heterogeneous universe of models (that is, models of different meta-models), one should use ibrations described in Math-II. The philosophy of CT is that everything one wants to say about objects, one must say in terms of arrows between objects. Correspondingly, an objects structure is a structure over its arrow interface. This way of deining structures and manipulations with them is often called arrow thinking. (Diskin, 2005)
CBIR: See Content-Based Image Retrieval. CBIS: See Computer-Based Information System. CBL: See Case-Based Learning; Call-Back Locking. CBR: See Case-Based Reasoning. CBT: See Calculus-Based Trust; Computer-Based
Training.
CCH: See Computerized Criminal History. CCR: See Customer Conversion Rate.
Causal Ambiguity
1: Refers to uncertainty, by competitors, regarding the causes of eficiency and effectiveness of a company, when it is unclear which resource combinations are enabling speciic competitive capabilities that are earning the company proits. (Potgieter et al., 2005) 2: The knowability (the extent to which something can be known) and knowness (the extent to which something is known) of two sets of elements: the organizational inputs, and the causal factors that are used in combination to generate outcomes. (Priestley, 2006)
CCNA: See Cisco-Certiied Network Associate. ccTLD: See Country Code Top-Level Domain. CDI: See Customer Data Integration. CDM: See Common Data Model. CDMA: See Code Division Multiple Access. CDMA-2000
Causal Chain
A sequence of instances of causal relations such that the effect of each instance except the last one is the cause of the next one in sequence. (Kontos & Malagardi, 2006)
Causal Link
1: An arrow on a group map which represents a causal relationship between the two issues represented by the contributions it links. (Shaw, 2006) 2: An arrow that denotes the cause-effect relationships between two variables in a system dynamics model. (Casado, 2005)
Sometimes also known as IS-136 and IMT-CDMA multi-carrier (1X/3X), CDMA-2000 is an evolution of narrowband radio transmission technology known as CDMA-ONE (also called CDMA or IS-95) to third generation. 1X refers to the use of 1.25 Mhz channel while 3X refers to 5 Mhz channel. (Akhtar, 2005)
CDPD: See Cellular Digital Packet Data. CDR: See Charging Data Record.
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mobile communication networks. The method relies on the fact that mobile networks can identify the approximate position of a mobile handset by knowing which cell site the device is using at a given time. (Giaglis, 2005)
Cell Phone: See Mobile Phone. Cell-ID: See Cell Identiication. Cellular Communication
Wireless communication between mobile devices (e.g., cell phones, PDAs, and PCs) and ixed base stations. The base stations serve relatively small areas of a few square miles (called cells) and are interconnected by a ixed telecommunication infrastructure that provides connection with other telecommunication systems. As a mobile device passes from one cell to another, one base station hands off the communication with the device to another without disrupting communication. (MelliarSmith & Moser, 2005)
Cellular Telephony
A mobile telephone service employing a network of cell sites distributed over a wide area. Each cell site contains a radio transceiver and a base station controller that manages, sends, and receives trafic from the mobiles in its geographical area to a cellular telephone switch. It also employs a tower and antennas, and provides a link to the distant cellular switch called a mobile telecommunications switching ofice (MTSO). The MTSO places calls from land-based telephones to wireless customers, switches calls between cells as mobiles travel across cell boundaries, and authenticates wireless customers before they make calls. (Latchem, 2005)
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Centralization
An index at group level, measuring how variable or heterogeneous the actor centralities are. It records the extent to which a single actor has high centrality, and the other, low centrality. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006)
Can be categorized as message-based service, entertainment service, inancial service, and information service. (Lee & Pai, 2005)
Censored
Censored cases are those in which the survival times are unknown. (Chen, Oppenheim, et al., 2005)
Centralized Model
The concentration of decision making in a single point in the organization in which a single decision applies. (Peterson, 2005)
Census II X-11
A method that systematically decomposes a time series into trend, cyclical, seasonal, and error components. It was developed by the Bureau of the Census of the Department of Commerce and is widely used in deseasonalizing economic data. (G.P. Zhang, 2005)
Center-Based Clustering
Similarity among the data points is deined through a set of centers. The distance from each data point to a center determined the data points association with that center. The clusters are represented by the centers. (B. Zhang, 2005)
Center of Gravity
The center of gravity of the image is calculated as per the following equation:
X = (y.Ph [y]) / Ph [y] ,
m m y =1 y =1
Centralized Strategy
1: A managerial approach through which support for information technology use for all constituencies is provided by a single on-campus structure. (Poda & Brescia, 2005) 2: In contrast with decentralization, the centralized structure is sometimes referred to as vertical, bureaucratic, mechanistic, rigid, or inlexible. (Wang, Chen, et al., 2006)
and
Y = (x.Pv [x ]) / Pv [x ] ,
n n x =1 x =1
where X and Y are the x and y coordinates of the center of gravity of the image, and Ph and Pv are the horizontal and vertical projections respectively. (Chakravarty et al., 2005a)
Centrality
1: An index used to indicate how critical an actor is in a network. Degree is the most popular way to measure centrality.; see also Betweenness Centrality; Closeness Centrality. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006) 2: The extent to which ties give an individual or subgroup a central position in a network. (Dekker, & Hendriks, 2006)
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predictors of behavior than when the peripheral route is taken. (Duthler, 2005)
CG: See Computer Graphic. CGI: See Cell Global Identity; Common Gateway
Interface.
Certiication
1: A procedure by which a third party gives written assurance that a product, process, or service conforms to specified characteristics. Certification involves assessment. (Leung, 2005) 2: The conirmation that external professional requirements have been met. (D.B. Johnstone, 2005)
1: A trusted third party whose purpose is to sign certiicates for network entities that it has authenticated using secure means. Other network entities can check the signature to verify that a CA has authenticated the bearer of a certiicate. (Pulkkis et al., 2005b) 2: An authority that manages the allocation of digital identity certiicates to users. The CA exists as part of a PKI. The CA in conjunction with a Registration Authority (RA) initially checks to ensure the identity of a user. Once identity has been conirmed, the CA issues digital identity certiicates that electronically assure the identity of a user based on the CAs digital signature. (Mundy & Otenko, 2005) 3: An entity (typically a company) that issues digital certiicates to other entities (organizations or individuals) to allow them to prove their identity to others. (Fortino, 2005) 4: An authority such as GlobalSign that issues, suspends, or revokes a digital certiicate. (Mitrakas, 2005) 5: An authority trusted by one or more users to create and assign public key certiicates. (Trcek, 2005) 6: A trusted third party in a network that issues, signs, and manages certiicates for network entities. Technically, a CA provides a set of digital certiicate management services, including veriication. (Xu & Korba, 2005)
Chain of Sustainability
An evolving, dynamic, and matched mix between company resources (arranged in value-generating combinations) and the changing marketplace that gives the company a competitive edge. (Potgieter et al., 2005)
Challenged Project
A completed and approved project that is over budget, late, and has fewer features and functions than originally speciied. (Dalcher, 2005)
A statement of the practices of a certiicate authority and the conditions of issuance, suspension, revocation, and so forth of a certiicate. (Mitrakas, 2005)
Change Agent
A person or group who is responsible for implementing the desired change. (Lick & Kaufman, 2005)
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Change Creation
Change Process
The process where an individual or group of individuals works over time and with continual adjustments in attitudes, skills, and resources to do something signiicant differently. In general for the process to be successful, it must address a priority need, the essential features of the change must be deined and practical, and the plan for making the change must be based on a realistic assessment of what is needed to accomplish it. (Johnson, 2005)
The process whereby an institution and its people invite, accept, and welcome change as a vital component in deining and achieving future success; deine the future they want to design and deliver; and develop and implement a change plan that capably transitions its people, processes, and circumstances, and especially its culture, from the existing paradigm to the new, desired one. (Lick & Kaufman, 2005)
Change Culture
Recognizes the multi-dimensional nature of complex change and actively works to create conditions where it can thrive. These conditions include but are not limited to understanding the nature of complex change, providing research-based support for making complex change, and allowing suficient time for complex change to occur. A fundamental assumption of a change culture is that its members must think conditionally about their current knowledge structures, behaviors, and values. Thinking conditionally requires individuals consistently to seek new information that prompts the emergence or enhancement of cognitive structures that enable rethinking of prior ideas and actions. (Johnson, 2005)
Change Readiness
An organizational mindset that welcomes challenges to established structures and processes and administrative orthodoxies. (Wright & Taylor, 2005)
Change Sponsor
A person or group who authorizes and legitimizes a change. (Lick & Kaufman, 2005)
Change Target
A person or group who must change as a result of the change effort. (Lick & Kaufman, 2005)
Change-Based CQs
The CQs that are ired when new data arrives at a source. (Khan, 2005)
Change Management
1: A formal process for planning for and managing change in an organization. Involves navigation, expeditionary development, leadership, enablement, and engagement. (Norris, 2005) 2: An organized application of knowledge, tools, and resources that helps organizations to achieve their business strategy. (Partow-Navid & Slusky, 2005) 3: The process of assisting individuals and organizations in passing from an old way of doing things to a new way of doing things. (Hyrinen & Saranto, 2005) 4: Successfully implementing a new position, course, or direction for individuals, processes, or products. (Hanson et al., 2005) 5: The application of many different ideas from the engineering, business, and psychology ields that focus on observable, measurable business elements. These elements, which can be changed or improved, include business strategy, processes, systems, organizational structures, and job roles. (Hanson, 2005) 6: The coordination and action by management required to lead the change of organizational systems and structures in order to support a new business activity or effort. (Ash & Burn, 2006) 7: The procedure that controls the evolution of public services to keep them consistent with their governing legislation, user needs, technological developments, and so forth. (Vassilakis & Lepouras, 2006)
Changes to XML
Given two XML document, the set of edit operations that transform one document to another. (Zhao & Bhowmick, 2005)
Channel
1: A chat room on Internet Relay Chat (IRC). The /LIST command can be used to list all public channels, with the channel topic and number of occupants for each channel. (Roberts et al., 2006a) 2: A course or pathway through which information is transmitted or business is transacted. (Bahn, 2006)
Channel Availability
A feature of any communication medium. A communication mediums channel can be contextual, audio, visual, or any combination of the three. For example, telephone is an audio-only communication medium, while videoconferencing is an audio-visual communication medium. (Y.D. Wang, 2005)
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Channel Capacity
1: The maximum possible information rate through a channel subject to the constraints of that channel. (Statica & Deek, 2006) 2: The potential to transmit a high variety of cues and languages. (Willis, 2005)
Chaos Theory
1: A theory that deals with complex and dynamic arrangements of connections between elements forming a uniied whole, the behavior of which is simultaneously both unpredictable (chaotic) and patterned (orderly). (Smith, 2006b) 2: A theory that describes systems that are apparently disordered or uncertain, but which may have an underlying order. An underlying tenet is that a small change in the initial conditions can drastically change the long-term behavior of a system. (Burrage & Pelton, 2005)
Channel Conlict
Situation in which an e-channel creates a conlict with existing channels because of real or perceived damage from inter-channel competition. (I. Lee, 2005)
Channel Expansion
A theory that posits that as communication participants acquire experience with the communication (channel, topic, context, co-participants), they increase the richness of their message encoding and message decoding. Technology leads to increasingly rich communication as users increase their ability to communicate effectively using the given technology. In addition, when individual decision makers have a shared knowledge base, they obtain richer results with leaner media. The channel-expansion theory helps to support the notion that decision makers, especially remote decision makers, may use a knowledge network for solving equivocal tasks and for sharing tacit knowledge. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Characteristic
Abstraction of a property of a set of objects. For example, Dan has blue-gray eyes means blue-gray eyes is the property of Dan associated with the characteristic eye color of people. The term property is misused in the ISO/IEC 11179 standard. There, it means the same thing as characteristic. (Gillman, 2006)
Characterizing Function
A mathematical description of a fuzzy number. (Viertl, 2005)
Character Segmentation
The technique that partitions images of lines or words into individual characters. (Chan, Ho, et al., 2005)
Channel Symmetry
A feature of any communication medium. A communication medium affords symmetry if the recipient of a message can respond with the same type of message. For example, telephone and e-mail tools are symmetric (two-way) communication media, while television and Web sites are asymmetric (one-way) communication media. (Y.D. Wang, 2005)
Charter School
1: An independent public school created by teachers, parents, and others with approval of the governing state to create an alternative choice for students seeking a program that matches their educational interests and/or needs. (Dorniden, 2005) 2: A governance model where the
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Cha se Che ck
school exists independent from a larger school district, and is run primarily by teachers and parents. (Glick, 2005a) 3: A public school operated independently of the local school board, often with a curriculum and educational philosophy different from the other schools in the system. (Schrum, 2005)
Chat Room
1: A Web site, or part of a Web site, that allows individuals to communicate in real time. (Whitty, 2005) 2: An area where synchronous, text-based, online conversation can take place. Sometimes conversations can be conducted ad hoc, or they can be scheduled for a speciic time and topic. (Coakes, 2006b) 3: Interactive conversation involving several people (via typing on a computer terminal or PC) usually centered on a single topic utilizing the Internet. Occasionally members of the chat room break off to form a smaller, more intimate conversation, to the exclusion of all others, thus invoking privacy privileges. (Friedman, 2005) 4: Many-to-many synchronous communication that provides communities of users with a common interest of the opportunity to communicate in real time. Users register and log into a particular room, and chat by typing messages that are instantly visible in the communal message area (room). Synonym: Group Chat. (Erlich, 2005) 5: In online chat meetings, people come together, in real time over long distances, by typing on their computers. All comments are recorded on screen so that participants can view what has been discussed. (Gillani, 2005b) 6: Online spaces where virtual users can converse in real time about issues of speciic interest. Users can engage in both public and private chats with other users. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006b) 7: A real-time online interactive discussion group. (Hwang & Stewart, 2005)
Chase
A kind of a recursive strategy applied to a database V, based on functional dependencies or rules extracted from V, by which a null value or an incomplete value in V is replaced by a new, more complete value. (Ras & Dardzinska, 2005)
Chat
1: A technology that provides the capability of instant, textual conversation with another individual through a computer session. (Panton, 2005) 2: A computer-mediated real-time written conversation. It has the characteristics of a casual conversation and is usually not stored. A chat can be Web based or software based. The irst means that it can be accessed from any computer with a Web connection, the latter that certain software needs to be installed on the computer. There are open chat forums that anyone can visit to chat, to ind new acquaintances or information. Just as often, people prefer to chat with friends, using chat tools that require authentication before allowed chatting. Examples of software chat tools are Irc and Mirc. (Dunkels, 2005) 3: A real-time conferencing capability that uses text by typing on the keyboard, not speaking. Generally between two or more users on a local area network (LAN), on the Internet, or via a Bulletin Board Service (BBS). (Burke et al., 2005) 4: A software system that enables real-time communication among users through the exchange of textual messages.(Loh et al., 2005) 5: An interactive communication between two or more people who can enter text by typing on the keyboard, and have the entered text appear in real-time on the other users monitor. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is an early example. (OHagan, 2005) 6: In combination with asynchronous conferencing, chat allows people to gather and interact with a small group at a very low cost. It is very effective for small group meetings where decisions can be made and details arranged. (Kardaras & Karakostas, 2006) 7: One-to-one synchronous communication in which two persons exchange messages in real time. (Erlich, 2005) See Instant Messaging.
Chat Session
A live discussion online with a variable number of participants in a Web-based class. Can be formal and led by the instructor, or can be leaderless informal conversations. A chat session is synchronous. (Marold, 2005)
Chat Tool
A Web-based tool that enables text-based synchronous communication among individuals in a learning community. (Morphew, 2005)
Chatiquette
Standard rules of courtesy and correct behavior for online chat. (Link & Wagner, 2006)
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Examples: guitar, violin, piano, harp, lyre, musical bow. (Wieczorkowska, 2005)
Choreography
The message exchange behavior that a business exposes in order to participate in a business relationship based on electronic message exchange. (Bussler, 2005a)
CIM: See Common Information Model. CIO: See Chief Information Oficer. Circuit Switched
A type of network in which a physical path is obtained for and dedicated to a single connection between two endpoints in the network for the duration of the connection. Ordinary voice phone service is circuit switched. The telephone company reserves a speciic physical path to the number you are calling for the duration of your call. During that time, no one else can use the physical lines involved. (Olla, 2005a)
A senior-level executive responsible for managing a irms knowledge management initiative. (Herschel, 2005)
Circuit Switching
1: A type of communication in which a dedicated channel (or circuit) is established for the duration of a transmission. (Lee & Warkentin, 2006) 2: A circuitswitched network establishes a permanent physical connection between communicating devices. For the time of the communication, this connection can be used exclusively by the communicating devices. (Kaspar & Hagenhoff, 2005)
Choiceboard
An interactive, Web-based tool that lets customers design their own products and services by choosing from a menu of options. (Roberts & Schwaab, 2006)
Chordophones
The category of musical instruments producing sound by means of a vibrating string; stringed instruments.
Circulation Database
The information of material usages that are stored in a database, including user identiier, material identiier,
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date the material is borrowed and returned, and so forth. (Wu & Lee, 2005)
and government, and conceptualizes citizens as the most important stakeholder of e-government initiatives. (Almazn & Gil-Garca, 2006)
Citation Indexing
The indexing mechanism invented by Eugene Garield in which cited work, rather than subject terms, is used as part of the indexing vocabulary. (Chen & Lobo, 2006)
A new approach to organization of government information and dissemination of government services that focuses on citizen needs and desires instead of traditional bureaucratic functions. For example, a citizen-centric Web site may combine various services, provided by different departments or agencies, under a common heading based on life events. (Schelin, 2005)
Citizen-Centric
Citizen Engagement
Citizen-Led E-Democracy
A two-way process through which a government or agency can develop an understanding of citizens concerns and needs and respond to them, conversely enabling citizens to develop an appreciation of how they can positively contribute to and inluence the future of their community and region. (Sutcliffe, 2005)
Citizen Rights
Those rights that an individual has by virtue of being a member of a government unit (country, state, province, etc.). They vary from government unit to government unit. (Gilbert, 2005)
Bottom-up, transformative process. Citizens create and sustain ICT applications, including e-mail lists, discussion boards, chat, and Web sites, that accurately capture and relect the discourse of citizen. Such fora can be vertical (subject) or horizontal (geographic). Such an entity must be able to inluence government actions either directly (through shared involvement) or indirectly (through public, media, or political inluence). Citizen-led e-democracy involves governments working with, rather than delivering to citizens. (Williamson, 2005)
Citizen-Oriented Model
Citizen Satisfaction
Term coined to describe the overall approval rating of services received by citizens within their communities. A 100% rating indicates total satisfaction with services received. Ratings may be taken per service or represent satisfaction with an entire government structure. (Baim, 2005)
A model in which citizens are considered to be decision makers with equal opportunities to reach representative decision makers. In this model, the citizens set the agenda, not the politicians, or this process is interactive and based on win-win strategies. However, there has to be a procedure to coordinate this process and avoid the continuous need for voter input. The citizens should be able to take part in strategic decision making, while conventional decision makers take the role of executive decision makers. (Keskinen & Kuosa, 2005)
Citizens Jury
A group of people selected for preparation of public opinion. The jury is typically selected using stratiied sampling in order to match a proile of a given population. The participants (usually a group of 12 to 20) spend two to three days deliberating on a charge under the guidance of an impartial moderator. Participants have opportunities to question experts and to discuss the complexities of the issue, and are asked to work toward a consensus response. (Keskinen & Kuosa, 2005)
Citizenship
A complex part of collective identity, refers to the relationship between the individual and the community and between the individuals within a community/state. (Kozeluh, 2005)
The ield that deals with the methods, designs, issues, and models used to have successful plans and designs for cities, towns, and regions. (Al-Hanbali & Sadoun, 2006)
A way to study e-government that emphasizes the social and political nature of the relationships between citizens
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Civic Engagement
Describes the level of citizens participation in all those activities that concern fostering democratic values and public virtues such as trustworthiness, freedom of speech, and honesty. (Magnani et al., 2006)
Class
1: A blueprint or prototype that deines the variables and the methods common to all objects of a certain kind. 2: A collection of objects sharing certain characteristics (such as producer, customer, product, company, etc.). Individual objects are called instances of the class. The classes of an ontology describe the important concepts of a particular domain being modeled. (Antoniou et al., 2005) 3: A collection of objects that have the same behavior and state deinition. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005a) 4: A program construct representing a type of thing (abstract data type) which includes a deinition of both form (information or data) and functionality (methods); the implementation of the design concept of object type. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 5: A template for similar objects deining attributes and operations. (Rittgen, 2005)
Civil Law
The legal tradition that has its origin in Roman law and was subsequently developed in Continental Europe. It is highly systematized and structured, and relies on declarations of broad, general principles, often ignoring the details. (Zeleznikow, 2006)
Class Algebra
This fuzzy Boolean algebra can be used either to state necessary conditions (declarations) or suficient conditions (queries). Because of the decidability of the containment of one class algebra expression by another, any set of class algebra expressions forms an IS-A hierarchy. (Buehrer, 2005)
Civil Society
1: Refers to the sphere of associative activity between the individual and the state. Analysts differ between those who include the economy and those who do not. (Smith & Smythe, 2005) 2: There are many deinitions of the term civil society, none of which receives universal acquiescence. There are many ways one could classify the different organizations of civil societyby sector, focus, origins, scale, level of formality, values base, and different theoretical perspectives. As with deinitions, there is no universally accepted schema, and the details of each typology should always be adapted to relect the needs of particular tasks. (Finquelievich, 2005)
Class Diagram
1: A diagram that shows a set of classes and their relationships (association, dependency, generalization/ specialization, realization); class diagrams address the static design view of a system. (Favre et al., 2005) 2: Shows the classes of the system, their interrelationships, and the collaboration between those classes. (Riesco et al., 2005)
Class Hierarchy
1: A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) that describes the subclass/superclass relationships among classes. Each node represents a class, the children of a node represent the direct subclasses of a class, and the parents of a node represent the direct superclasses of a class. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005b) 2: Classes are usually organized in a conceptual space along a generalization/specialization axis. A class A is more general (superclass) than a class B when each instance of B is also an instance of A. (Antoniou et al., 2005)
Class-Conditional Independence
Property of a multivariate distribution with a categorical class variable c and a set of other variables (e.g., x and y).
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The probability of observing a combination of variable values given the class label is equal to the product of the probabilities of each variable value given the class: P(x,y|c) = P(x|c)*P(y|c). (Perlich & Provost, 2005)
Classiication
1: A method of categorizing or assigning class labels to a pattern set under the supervision. (Oh et al., 2005) 2: A process of predicting the classes of unseen instances based on patterns learned from available instances with predeined classes. (Liu & Yu, 2005) 3: A systematic arrangement of objects (texts) or groups according to (pre) established criteria, or the process of allocating elements in predeined classes. The classiication needs a predeined taxonomy in contrast with the clustering technique that works without previous knowledge. Sometimes it is also associated with the process of identifying classes, that is, discovering attributes that characterize one class and that distinguish this from others. (Antonio do Prado et al., 2005) 4: A technique dividing a dataset into mutually exclusive groups. Unlike clustering, classiication relies on predeined classes. (Chen, Tsai, et al., 2005) 5: A technique in data mining that attempts to group data according to pre-speciied categories, such as loyal customers vs. customers likely to switch. (Amaravadi, 2005) 6: Also known as a recognition problem; the identiication of the class to which a given object belongs. (Mart, 2005) 7: Given a set of training examples in which each example is labeled by a class, build a model, called a classiier, to predict the class label of new examples that follow the same class distribution as training examples. A classiier is accurate if the predicted class label is the same as the actual class label. (Zhou & Wang, 2005) 8: The process of distributing things into classes or categories of the same type by a learnt mapping function. (Fung & Ng, 2005) 9: Mapping a data item into one of several predeined categories. Stored data are used to locate data in predetermined groups. For example, a retail store chain could use customer purchase data to determine when customers visit and what they typically buy. (Laura, 2005) 10: The central problem in (supervised) data mining. Given a training data set, classiication algorithms provide predictions for new data based on predictive rules and other types of models. (Muruzbal, 2005) 11: The distribution of things into classes or categories of the same type, or the prediction of the category of data by building a model based on some predictor variables. (Zhu, 2005) 12: The process of dividing a dataset into mutually exclusive groups such that the members of each group are as close as possible
to one another, and different groups are as far as possible from one another, where distance is measured with respect to speciic variables one is trying to predict. For example, a typical classiication problem is to divide a database of companies into groups that are as homogeneous as possible with respect to a creditworthiness variable with values good and bad. Supervised classiication is when we know the class labels and the number of classes. (Hamdi, 2005a) 13: The process of predicting the classes of unseen instances based on patterns learned from available instances with predeined classes. (Yu & Liu, 2005) 14: The task of inferring concepts from observations. It is a mapping from a measurement space into the space of possible meanings, viewed as inite and discrete target points (class labels). It makes use of training data. (Domeniconi & Gunopulos, 2005)
1: Error produced by incorrect classiications which consists of two types: correct negative (wrongly classify an item belonging to one class into another class) and false positive (wrongly classify an item from other classes into the current class). (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005b) 2: Number of elements that are classiied in the wrong class by a classiication rule. In two class problems, the classiication error is divided into the so-called false positive and false negative. (Felici & Truemper, 2005)
Classiication Error
Classiication Level
A security level that represents both the conidentiality degree of the information and its category. (Gabillon, 2005)
Classiication Model
A pattern or set of patterns that allows a new instance to be mapped to one or more classes. Classiication models (also known as classiiers) are learned from data in which a special attribute is selected as the class. For instance, a model that classiies customers between likely to sign a mortgage and customers unlikely to do so is a classiication model. Classiication models can be learned by many different techniques: decision trees, neural networks, support vector machines, linear and
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nonlinear discriminants, nearest neighbors, logistic models, Bayesian, fuzzy, genetic techniques, and so forth. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005b)
Classiication Rule
competition and cooperation processes. Note that classiier systems can also be understood as systems capable of performing classiication. Not all CSs qualify as classiier systems in the broader sense, but a variety of CS algorithms concerned with classiication do. (Muruzbal, 2005)
The association that occurs in classiication data between an antecedent containing a set of predicates expressing the values of particular attributes or features and a consequent expressing a class label. Classiication rules represent concise descriptions of the target class. (Richards & de la Iglesia, 2005)
Class Label
A label identifying the concept or class of an instance. (Maloof, 2005)
Classroom Community
Sense of community in a classroom setting. (Rovai & Gallien, 2006)
Classroom Interaction
The interaction that can only be achieved face to face in a classroom. (W.B. Martz, Jr. & V.K. Reddy, 2005)
Classiication Tree
1: A decision tree that places categorical variables into classes. (Kumar, 2005) 2: A decision tree where the dependent attribute is categorical. (Gehrke, 2005) 3: An oriented tree structure obtained by a recursive partitioning of a sample of cases on the basis of a sequential partitioning of the predictor space such to obtain internally homogenous groups and externally heterogeneous groups of cases with respect to a categorical variable. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005) 4: Type of decision tree that is used to predict categorical variables, whereas regression trees are decision trees used to predict continuous variables. (Hirji, 2005)
CLC: See Conversation Learning Community. CLD: See Causal Loop Diagram. CLDS
The facetiously named system development life cycle (SDLC) for analytical, DSS systems. CLDS is so named because in fact it is the reverse of the classical SDLC. (Yao et al., 2005)
Cleansing
To ilter the irrelevant entries in the Web log, such as graphics iles. The HTTP protocol is stateless, which requires a separate connection for each ile that is requested from the Web server. Therefore, several log entries may result from a request to view a single page, since the iles for the graphics embedded in the page are automatically downloaded from the Web server. Such iltering can be done by checking the sufixes of the URI name such as jpg and gif. (Yao & Xiao, 2005)
Classiier
1: A decision-supporting system that, given an unseen input object, yields a prediction (e.g., it classiies the given object to a certain class). (Bruha, 2005) 2: An algorithm that, given as input two or more classes (or labels), automatically decides to which class or classes a given document belongs, based on an analysis of the contents of the document. A single-label classiier is one that picks one class for each document. When the classes among which a single-label classiier must choose are just two, it is called a binary classiier. A multi-label classiier is one that may pick zero, one, or many classes for each document. (Sebastiani, 2005)
Clear Case
A case that experts agree can be solved in an acceptable manner by simply applying the existing legal rules to it. (Svensson, 2005)
Classiier System
A rich class of evolutionary computation algorithms building on the idea of evolving a population of predictive (or behavioral) rules under the enforcement of certain
Clear Direction
Goals that facilitate creativity are clear, negotiated, attainable, shared, and valued. (Torres-Coronas & GascHernndez, 2005)
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Clearance Level
A security level that represents both the trust level of the user and his or her need to know. (Gabillon, 2005)
on each page, and in what order the pages are viewed. It is frequently recorded in Web server logs. (Nasraoui, 2005) 6: A sequential series of Web page view requests from an individual user. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005b)
Clementine
Data-mining software developed by SPSS Corporation that is used to create predictive models to solve business challenges. (Athappilly & Rea, 2005)
Clickstream Data
Web usage data. A virtual trail that a user leaves behind while suring the Internet (e.g., every Web site and every page of every Web site that the user visits; how long the user was on a page or a site). (Dholakia, Bang, et al., 2005)
Clickstream Tracking
The use of software to monitor when people use the Internet and what sites they visit. (Szewczak, 2005)
Clickwrap Agreement
Applies to software acquired without any packaging (e.g., when it is copied to a computer (downloaded) from a Web site or is pre-loaded on a computer). When the buyer installs the software, a dialogue box is displayed containing the license agreement. The user is instructed to select a button to accept the terms of the license agreement and complete the installation. (Sprague, 2005)
Click-and-Mortar
1: A irm that operates both online and off-line, or a hybrid operation that requires a combination of online and off-line aspects to complete a transaction. For example, a company offers items for sale online and requires that the customers pick up the items from a nearby store. (Aigbedo, 2005) 2: An e-commerce company that has both online presence and a physical store. (Wang, Ding, et al., 2006)
Client
1: A computer, other device, or application that receives services from a server. (Maris, 2005) 2: A computer that requests and receives data and services from servers on a computer network. Computer users work with clients to access information on the Internet and World Wide Web. (Dasgupta & Chandrashekaran, 2005) 3: A computer that downloads iles or requests documents or services from a ile server. (Hantula, 2005) 4: Customers who pay for good and services. (Guan, 2006b)
Click-Through
When a Web page visitor clicks on a link, such as an advertisement, for more information. (Owen, 2006a)
Clickstream
1: A sequence of mouse clicks. (Quah et al., 2006c) 2: In Web research, the sequence of Web pages visited by the experimental subject. A clickstream data record can be as simple as URL and sequence number, or a time stamp can be added. This latter approach allows for analysis of page viewing time. (Westin, 2005) 3: The sequence of mouse clicks executed by an individual during an online Internet session. (Agresti, 2005) 4: The sequence of movement as a person clicks on a Web site, then moves from page to page within that site, and then moves to another site. (Waterson, 2006) 5: Virtual trail left by a users computer as the user surfs the Internet. The clickstream is a record of every Web site visited by a user, how long they spend
Client Organization
Public or private entity that uses international outsourcing workers to perform different tasks. (St.Amant, 2006b)
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processes, make enhancements to the installed system to meet new user requirements, and provide helpdesk supports. (Ng, 2005)
Clinical Coding
Categorizes diagnoses and procedures for patient episodes according to a detailed clinical standard index. The most common standard is the International Classiication of Diseases (ICD), particularly for inancial audit, but a UK standard Read is very popular with medical staff. These are grouped to provide aggregate information for audit. (Barnes, 2005)
Client-Server Model
1: A model deining a basis for communication between two programs called respectively the client and the server. The requesting program is a client and the service-providing program is the server. (Karoui, 2005) 2: A communication where one host has more functionality than the other. It differs from the P2P network. (Hossz, 2006)
Clip
A set of segments having the same salient objects. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Client/Server Architecture
1: Computer network model separating computers providing services (servers) from computers using these services (clients). (Framinan, 2005) 2: A network architecture in which each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server. Servers are powerful computers or processes dedicated to managing disk drives (ile servers), printers (print servers), or network trafic (network servers). Clients are PCs or workstations on which users run applications. Clients rely on servers for resources, such as iles, devices, and even processing power. (Dez-Higuera & Daz-Pernas, 2005) 3: The architecture built on top of Remote Procedure Call (RPC) commonly used in business applications. (Fiege, 2005)
Cloaking
Another means of spamdexing in which sites provide a different page to the search engine spider than the one that will be seen by human users. (Kasi & Jain, 2006)
Clock Synchronization
Physical clocks in a network are synchronized to within certain precision and accuracy. The precision refers to the difference between readings of clocks, and the accuracy refers to the difference between the clock reading and the universal standard time. (Yang et al., 2005b)
CLOD
A virtual collaborative learning paradigm enabling a self-tutored, interactive, and cooperative learning process where a small group of remote students requests, watches, and controls the playback of an archived lecture by exchanging questions with each other. (Fortino, 2005)
Client-Side/Server-Side Scripting
1: In a Web environment, this term relates to the fact that scripted tasks can be handled by the browser software (client side) or by the Web server software (server side). A single Web page may contain both client-side and server-side scripts. The script host is determined by the RUNAT attribute of the SCRIPT tag. (Westin, 2005) 2: Activities that occur on the users computer which may interact with the server. (Note that clients may now include mobile devices, such as smart phones and PDAs.) (Moore et al., 2006)
Closed Itemset
An itemset that is a maximal set of items common to a set of objects. An itemset is closed if it is equal to the intersection of all objects containing it. (Pasquier, 2005)
Clinical Audit
The assessment of professional clinical practices. General information routinely provided includes lengths of stay, deaths, and re-admissions. More speciic information such as drugs administered and operative procedures performed are available via the appropriate feeder systems. The data allow aspects of case mix, clinical management, diagnostic accuracy, and patient outcomes to be compared. (Barnes, 2005)
Closed Loop
Transfer of value happens as with digital cash. For instance, when the user receives the issue from the issue subject, and the digital money is allotted to the money payment of the commodity or service, the seller will shut the settlement to the issue subject for the transfer of value. (Kurihara, 2006)
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Closeness Centrality
A measurement of centrality indicating how close an actor is to all other actors in a network. The idea here is that actors are central if they can quickly interact with all other actors in a network. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006)
A frequent sequential pattern that is not included in another frequent sequential pattern having exactly the same support. (Masseglia et al., 2005)
Closed Shape
A shape is represented by the ordered set of points and the ordered set of lines connecting points. The start point and the end point are coincident in closed shapes. (Ferri & Grifoni, 2006)
Closure Operator
Let S be a set and c: (S)(S); c is a closure operator on S if X, YS, c satisies the following properties: (1) extension, Xc(X); (2) mononicity, if XY, then c(X)c(Y); (3) idempotency, c(c(X)) = c(X). Note: st and ts are closure operators, when s and t are the mappings in a Galois connection. (Dumitriu, 2005)
Cluster
1: A group of content-similar multimedia objects. (Hurson & Yang, 2005) 2: A group of elements that have some characteristics or attributes in common. (Antonio do Prado et al., 2005) 3: A group of linked enterprises that share a common purpose of gaining competitive advantage and economies of scale. (Braun, 2006) 4: A group of organizations that are linked together around a particular industry. (Mason et al., 2006) 5: A set of entities that are similar between themselves and dissimilar to entities from other clusters. (Ma & Li, 2005) 6: A group of objects of a dataset that are similar with respect to speciic metrics (values of the attributes used to identify the similarity between the objects). (Santos et al., 2005) 7: Parallel architecture that contains multiple standard computers connected via a high-performance network that work together to solve the problem. (Geisler & Kao, 2005) 8: Subset of data records; the goal of clustering is to partition a database into clusters of similar records such that records that share a number of properties are considered to be homogeneous. (Hirji, 2005)
Closed-Loop MRP
The combination of MRP functionality with planning and production execution modules, with the potential for feedback from the execution cycle to the planning cycle. (Carton & Adam, 2005)
Closed-World Assumption
1: A principle that claims that every atom not entailed by the KDB is assumed to be false. This principle is sound on KDBs with simple syntax as logic programs. (AlonsoJimnez et al., 2005) 2: The assumption that any goal that is not provable is false. For example, if the knowledge base cannot prove that there is a light from Taipei to New York, then you can assume that there is no such light. This assumption is used by most knowledge bases. For class algebra, which is decidable (i.e., membership in a class expression is either true or false for a given object), the closed-world assumption corresponds to the true-complement ~ operator. A pseudo-complement - operator is used in proving that something has negative evidence, but the pseudo-complemented predicates are treated like positive literals in terms of Horn clauses. The maximum proofs of positive and negative evidence produce a fuzzy interval for any class algebra expression. (Buehrer, 2005) 3: An assumption made in classical planning that all facts that are not implied by the knowledge base are false. Closed-world assumption rests on the assumption of completeness of knowledge. (Babaian, 2005)
Cluster Analysis
1: A data analysis technique involving the grouping of objects into sub-groups or clusters so that objects in the same cluster are more similar to one another than they are to objects in other clusters. (Voges, 2005) 2: A multivariate statistical technique that assesses the similarities between individuals of a population. Clusters are groups or categories formed so members within a cluster are less different than members from different clusters. (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005) 3: Deining groups based on the degree to which an item belongs in a category. The degree may be determined by indicating a percentage amount. (Lenard & Alam, 2005) 4: Dividing objects into groups using varying assumptions
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regarding the number of groups, and the deterministic and stochastic mechanisms that generate the observed values. (Burr, 2005a) 5: Partitioning a given data set into clusters where data assigned to the same cluster should be similar, whereas data from different clusters should be dissimilar. (Klawonn & Georgevia, 2005) 6: The process that includes the clustering method and the analysis of its results in order to discover and understand the contents of a set of elements, texts, or objects, and the relations among them. (Antonio do Prado et al., 2005)
Cluster Sampling
The process in which a sample of clusters is selected and observations/measurements are made on the clusters. (Lutu, 2005)
Cluster Validation
Evaluating the clustering results, and judging the cluster structures. (Ma & Li, 2005)
Clustering
1: A technique that uses features to ind the linking pages of each other automatically. Usually, the Web pages with near features will be clustered together. (Chen, Tsai, et al., 2005) 2: Two or more interconnected computers that create a solution to provide higher availability, higher scalability, or both. (Tong & Wong, 2005b) 3: A form of unsupervised learning that divides a data set so that records with similar content are in the same group and groups are as different from each other as possible. (Lingras et al., 2005) 4: A process of grouping instances into clusters so that instances are similar to one another within a cluster but dissimilar to instances in other clusters. (Liu & Yu,
2005) 5: A process of mapping a data item into one of several clusters, where clusters are natural groupings for data items based on similarity metrics or probability density models. (Oh et al., 2005) 6: A process to group, based on some deined criteria, two or more terms together to form a large collection. In the context of image segmentation, clustering is to gather several pixels or groups of pixels with similar property to form a region. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005c) 7: A task that segments objects into groups according to object similarity. (Chen & McLeod, 2006) 8: A technique in data mining that attempts to identify the natural groupings of data, such as income groups that customers belong to. (Amaravadi, 2005) 9: An algorithm that takes a dataset and groups the objects such that objects within the same cluster have a high similarity to each other, but are dissimilar to objects in other clusters.(Cunningham & Hu, 2005) 10: An unsupervised process of dividing data into meaningful groups such that each identiied cluster can explain the characteristics of underlying data distribution. Examples include characterization of different customer groups based on the customers purchasing patterns, categorization of documents on the World Wide Web, or grouping of spatial locations of the earth where neighbor points in each region have similar short-term/long-term climate patterns.(Chung et al., 2005) 11: Clustering algorithms discover similarities and differences among groups of items. They divide a dataset so that patients with similar content are in the same group, and groups are as different as possible from each other. (Kusiak & Shah, 2005) 12: The process of identifying groups in data. In the classiication, all groups are pre-deined in the classiication system and products are arranged into the existing group structure. Contrary to this, the clustering process identiies groups based on the product data. This means that the groups change depending on the product data. (Abels & Hahn, 2006) 13: Data-mining approach that partitions large sets of data objects into homogeneous groups. (Garrity et al., 2005) 14: Data-mining task in which the system has to classify a set of objects without any information on the characteristics of the classes. (Jourdan et al., 2005)
Clustering Algorithm
An algorithm that sorts data into groups of similar items, where the category boundaries are not known in advance. (Dixon, 2005)
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Co-Clustering
Performing simultaneous clustering of both points and their attributes by way of utilizing the canonical duality contained in the point-by-attribute data representation. (Ma & Li, 2005)
Clustering Model
A pattern or set of patterns that allows examples to be separated into groups. All attributes are treated equally and no attribute is selected as output. The goal is to ind clusters such that elements in the same cluster are similar between them but are different to elements of other clusters. For instance, a model that groups employees according to several features is a clustering model. Clustering models can be learned by many different techniques: kmeans, minimum spanning trees (dendrograms), neural networks, Bayesian, fuzzy, genetic techniques, and so forth. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005b)
Co-Construction
Unlike the process of a lone researcher documenting a construction (whether this is a ritual, an identity, a discourse, and so forth) that preexists the research project, in this case, the researcher is engaged in the construction along with those that in conventional research would have simply been called informants. Also called CoProduction. (Forte, 2005)
Co-Located Team CLV: See Customer Lifetime Value. CMA: See Career Management Account. CMC: See Computer-Mediated Communication. CME: See Computer-Mediated Education. CMI: See Computer-Managed Instruction; ComputerMediated Interaction. CMM: See Capability Maturity Model. CMM I (CMM-I1; CMM-I2)
A model enhanced in two dimensions: scope dimension and evaluation dimension. The CMM-Il incorporated both approaches: the traditional (called staged CMM) and the maturity proile (called continuous CMM). (Monteiro de Carvalho et al., 2005) A traditional team that shares a common goal and works toward that goal in a face-to-face, same-ofice environment. (Long et al., 2005)
Co-Located Work
Collaborative work carried out by several persons at the same geographical location. (Wiberg, 2005)
Co-Location
1: When members of a community work in the same physical space and time. (Raja et al., 2006) 2: Team members sharing the same physical location, which allows for face-to-face interaction. (Wong-MingJi, 2005)
Co-Partnership Managers
The course instructor on the university side and a senior manager of the client organization, who jointly manage a course partnership project. (Kock, 2005)
Co-Sourcing
Used instead of outsourcing to emphasize that the outsourcing arrangement is based on cooperation (or partnering) between the parties. Partnering is often used to signify a highly cooperative arrangement, but Australian law only recognizes written contracts (not a spirit of cooperation) and de facto relationships. (Beaumont, 2005)
CMS: See Content Management System. CMT: See Computer-Mediated Technology. CNC Machine
Tool machine with a computer numeric control; a standard in the mechanical engineering ield. (Rse, 2006a)
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Coach
A user who helps other users participate in design work by coaching them. This is the fourth stage in the developmental theory of participatory-design relationships between users and designers. (Carroll, 2005)
Coaction Field
A place where inhabitants, real or virtual, work or play together as if they were gathered at the same place. (Terashima, 2005)
Coalesce
1: In the context of phylogenetic trees, two lineages coalesce at the time that they most recently share a common ancestor (and hence, come together in the tree). (Burr, 2005b) 2: Combining tuples whose times are contiguous or overlapping into one tuple whose time reference includes the time of constituent tuples. (Tansel, 2005)
Codec
1: Short for compressor/decompressor. (Hutchinson, 2005) 2: A computer application that compresses and decompresses the signal for transmission over the Internet. (Dudding, 2005) 3: Compression and decompression algorithms provided by either a software application or a hardware device. (Vitolo et al., 2005)
Codiication
Putting knowledge into a form that makes it accessible to others, for example, writing down a formula. (Mitchell, 2005b)
Cocited
Web pages that have the same parent page or have the same child pages are said to be cocited. (Chen, Tsai, et al., 2005)
Coding
A manner in which a solution of a given problem can be represented. (Kacem, 2005)
Coding Data
Analyzing data by assigning codes and categorizing information based on speciied research constructs and patterns. (Neale et al., 2005)
Coevolution
Describes the mutual inf luences among actors in a collective, as well as their environment; mutual inluences can be desirable and undesirable, constructive or destructive. In the case of an organization, it can
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be envisaged as a set of multi-dimensional networks, themselves part of a larger set of networks to which they are linked. Nodes in the networks represent entities such as ofices, factories, teams, and individuals. They are linked formally or informally to other nodes. Activities at any node send messagesand by implication, knowledgeto other nodes in the form of feedback, or feed-forward, thereby triggering activities in those nodes. The messages may use the formal or the informal links in the network. They may be sent intentionally or accidentally. (Land, Amjad, et al., 2006a)
(Cartelli, 2006b) 2: Students work in teams on projects or problems with close scaffolding of the instructor. Cognitive apprenticeships are representative of Vygotskian zones of proximal development in which student tasks are slightly more dificult than students can manage independently, requiring the aid of their peers and instructor to succeed. (Jennings et al., 2005)
Cognitive Complexity
A function of the intensity of information exchanged and the multiplicity of views held. (Willis, 2005)
Cognition
1: The mental processes of an individual, including internal thoughts, perceptions, understanding, and reasoning. Includes the way we organize, store, and process information, as well as make sense of the environment. It can also include processes that involve knowledge and the act of knowing, and may be interpreted in a social or cultural sense to describe the development of knowledge. (Faiola, 2006) 2:The psychological result of perception, learning, and reasoning. (Alkhalifa, 2005a) 3: The collection of mental processes and activities used in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and understanding, and the act of using those processes. (Atkinson & Burstein, 2006)
Cognitive Conlict
Overt discrepancy among intervening parties about how a particular task or issue should be resolved and their subsequent engagement in action to redress the situation. (Fernndez, 2005)
Cognitive Constructivism
An approach to constructivism based on the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, particularly his theory of cognitive development. According to Piaget, the knowledge of human beings is constructed through experience, but not from the information they are given. (Bodomo, 2005a)
Cognition-Based Trust
A rational view of trust associated with competence, ability, responsibility, integrity, credibility, reliability, and dependability. (Huotari & Iivonen, 2005)
Cognitive Dissonance
The situation where a person simultaneously holds two contradictory models of the same subject matter (e.g., an ICT system). (Maceield, 2006)
Cognitive
Psychological phenomena relating to thinking processes as opposed to senses or movement. (N.C. Rowe, 2006b)
Cognitive Engineering
A ield aiming at understanding the fundamental principles behind human activities that are relevant in context of designing a system that supports these activities. (Jaspers, 2006)
Cognitive/Affective Aspects
The aspects of mental processes or behavior directed toward action or change and including impulse, desire, volition, and striving. (Raisinghani & Hohertz, 2005)
Cognitive Apprenticeship
1: Originates from traditional apprenticeship, which has the following well-known features: modeling, coaching, scaffolding, and fading. When applied to educational and research situations, the new features of articulation, relection, and exploration must be added to the ones above.
Cognitive Gap
The difference in cognitive problem-solving style between two people, especially two people who are obliged to interact as members of a group or team. (Mullany, 2005)
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Cognitive Jogthrough
A modiication of the initial Cognitive Walkthrough in order to speed up the procedure. A video camera now records the evaluation session. (Karoulis et al., 2006)
Cognitive Map
1: A collection of nodes linked by some edges (arcs). From a logical perspective, a node is a logical proposition, and a link is an implication. Thus, a cognitive map consists of causal and temporal relations between cognitive concepts. (von Wartburg, 2006) 2: A structure representation of contributions, structured with links, to represent one persons knowledge of a topic. Often a map is built by oneself or by an interviewer during an interview. (Shaw, 2006) 3: A structured representation of decision depicted in graphical format (variations of cognitive maps are cause maps, inluence diagrams, or belief nets). Basic cognitive maps include nodes connected by arcs, where the nodes represent constructs (or states) and the arcs represent relationships. Cognitive maps have been used to understand decision situations, to analyze complex causeeffect representations, and to support communication. (Teeni, 2006) 4: Internal representation of the world and its spatial properties stored in memory (also called mental map). (Rambaldi, 2005)
Cognitive Learning
1: A consequence of the vision of the situation in light of a new aspect that enables the comprehension of logic relations or the perception of relations between means and aims. (Xodo, 2005) 2: The degree of comprehension and retention of knowledge by a student in an educational experience. (Woods & Baker, 2005)
Cognitive Modeling
Using algorithms to represent and simulate the cognitive process, for example, to add intelligence to software agents. (Arya, 2005)
Cognitive Node
Scalable access point for augmenting knowledge and facilitating communication in knowledge networks. Nodes manage virtue maps and data relevant to knowledge workers. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Cognitive Level
The level of cognitive functions in the order of increasing complexity of cognitive processing. (Alkhalifa, 2005b)
Cognitive Load
1: Amount of mental resources necessary for information processing. (Utsi & Lowyck, 2005) 2: The limited capacities of the visual and auditory channels in working memory. Since these channels can easily become overloaded, one potential beneit of multimedia learning is being able to present complex information in a format that minimizes potential overloads. (M. Mitchell, 2005c) 3: The degree of cognitive processes required to accomplish a speciic task. (Alkhalifa, 2005a)
Cognitive Overhead
The amount of mental resources that need to be expended to complete a given task. (Boechler, 2006a)
Cognitive Presence
The extent to which discussion participants are able to construct meaning through sustained communication. (Swan, 2005)
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The position an individual occupies between two extremes of cognitive problem-solving style personalitynamely, the adaptor and the innovator. (Mullany, 2005)
Cognitive Tool
A tool that reduces the cognitive load required by a speciic task. (Alkhalifa, 2005a)
Cognitive Reasoning
Learning through the process of thinking about an issue; the student learns new ideas and relationships by relating an issue to previously learned material. (Owen & Aworuwa, 2005)
Cognitive Trait
An ability a human possesses for cognition. Working memory is an example. (Lin & Kinshuk, 2005)
Cognitive Trust
Judgments regarding a persons competence and reliability. (Sonnenwald, 2005)
Cognitive Walkthrough
1: An expert-based interface evaluation method. Experts perform a walkthrough of the interface according to pre-speciied tasks, trying to pinpoint shortcomings and deiciencies in it. Their remarks are recorded by a recorder and are elaborated by the design team. (Karoulis et al., 2006) 2: A model-based technique for evaluation of interactive systems designs. It is particularly suited for walk up and use interfaces such as electronic kiosks or ATMs. Its aim is to analyze how well the interface will guide irst-time or infrequent users in performing tasks. Analysis is performed by asking three questions at each stage of the interaction: Will the correct action be made suficiently evident to users? Will users connect the correct actions description with what they are trying to achieve? Will users interpret the systems response to the chosen action correctly? (Campos & Harrison, 2006)
Cognitive Style
1: A persons preferred way of gathering, processing, and evaluating information. (Kaluzniacky, 2006) 2: An individual exhibits characteristic ways of processing information and hence solving problems, known as his or her cognitive style. (Mullany, 2005) 3: Refers to enduring patterns of an individuals cognitive functioning that remain stable across varied situations. (Crossland, 2005)
Cognitive System
A complex system that learns and develops knowledge. It can be a human, a group, an organization, an agent, a computer, or some combination. It can provide computational representations of human cognitive processes to augment the cognitive capacities of human agents. (Plekhanova, 2005a)
Cognitivism
1: A scientiic branch of social sciences; also known as being part of cognitive science. Cognitivism focuses on cognition and on cognitive processes by following a perspective that is centered on the individual, on the idea of the mind, and on the neuro-physiology of brain processes. The Cartesian dualism and the radical distinction between individual and
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social processes, the rationalist and utilitarist perspectives that interpret the human subject as an independent and autonomous entity, and the results-oriented and objectivescentered approaches to human action may all come under the broad umbrella of cognitivism. Mainstream management theory is largely inluenced by cognitivist approaches. Pos-cognitivism does not deny the positive contributions brought by cognitivist thinking, though it highlights the need for further developments and for the exploration of alternative approaches. Communities of practice theory may be understood as being part of the pos-cognitivism movement, which calls attention to the social embeddedness and embodiedness of all knowledgecreation processes. (Nobre, 2006c) 2: Concerned with what the learner is thinking in terms of processing information for storage and retrieval. (Ally, 2005b)
CoLKEN
Coopetitive Learning and Knowledge Exchange Networkthat is, a speciic setting for inter-organizational knowledge management initiatives focusing on issues related to cooperation-competition-dilemmas and intentional/unintentional knowledge transfer. (Loebbecke & Angehrn, 2006)
CoLKEN Construct
Structure of main CoLKEN components: at the base level are knowledge, knowledge agents, and knowledge networks; at the CoLKEN focus level, we ind the balancing act between cooperation and competition, which should lead to value maximization on the top level. (Loebbecke & Angehrn, 2006)
Cohesion
1: The extent to which nodes form a group such that all members have mutual strong ties. (Dekker & Hendriks, 2006) 2: The strength of connection between the members of a community or network, and thus a community or network can be densely knit or only loosely coupled; cohesion is a result of intensity, frequency, and type of the members contacts. (Meller-Prothmann, 2006a) 3: The degree to which elements within a class are related to one another and work together to provide well-bounded behavior. (Polgar, 2005b)
Cohort
A group of students who take the same courses together throughout their academic program. (Murray & Efendioglu, 2005)
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Colla borat ion Sc ript Colla borat ive Fore c a st ing a n d Re ple nishm e nt
interdependence, synthesis, and independence. (Ingram, 2005) 8: Sharing responsibility in tasks with common goal(s). (Han & Hill, 2006) 9: The mutual engagement of participants in a coordinated effort to solve a problem. (Cagiltay et al., 2005) 10: The process of communication among people with the goal of sharing information and knowledge. (Loh et al., 2005) 11: To facilitate the process of shared creation involving two or more individuals interacting to create shared understanding where none had existed or could have existed on its own. (Vat, 2005b)
Collaborative Culture
By their nature, virtual organizations foster camaraderie between members even in the absence of face-to-face communications. Since the built-in communications tools are so easy to access and use, relationships form between members who have not even met. A corporate culture forms out of friendship that produces a highly collaborative nature, unlike traditional organizations where such extensive communicating is not required. (J. Lee, 2005)
Collaboration Script
A detailed and explicit contract between the instructor and the learners, often in a sequence of phases, each phase typically consisting of a set of instructions that prescribe the task, the group composition, the way the task is distributed within and among the groups, the nature of interaction, and the timing. A well-known example of a collaborative script is the Jigsaw. (Pys & Lowyck, 2005)
Collaborative Filter
A form of Recommender System that uses implicit or explicit recommendations of others to provide advice. (Dron, 2005)
Collaborative Filtering
1: A method for making automatic predictions (iltering) about the interests of a user by collecting ratings and interest information from many users (collaborating). (Nasraoui, 2005) 2: A recommendation technique that uses k-nearest neighbor learning algorithm. Variations include user-based and item-based algorithms. (Sarwar et al., 2005) 3: A technique that is used for making recommendations by computing the similarities among users. (Chen & Liu, 2005) 4: A technique used to collect user opinions or preferences for items of interest. A CF algorithm employs a correlation method to predict and recommend items to new or returning users based on the similarity of their interests with those of other users. (Dasgupta et al., 2006) 5: Aims at exploiting preference behavior and qualities of other persons in speculating about the preferences of a particular individual. (Parmar & Angelides, 2005) 6: An approach to provide recommendations based on the preferences of similar users. (Chen & McLeod, 2006) 7: An approach that collects user ratings on currently proposed products to infer the similarity between users. (Lorenzi & Ricci, 2005) 8: Such methods combine personal preferences of a user with preferences of like-minded people to guide the user. (Seitz, 2005) 9: Selecting content based on the preferences of people with similar interests. (Schafer, 2005) 10: Unveiling general patterns through snifing through users past activities. (Quah et al., 2006c)
Collaboration Server
Helps users work together via the Web, supporting tasks, projects, communities, calendars, discussions, and document sharing with version control. (Wojtkowski, 2006)
Collaboration Tools
Technologies designed to allow users to share knowledge with one another. The key features include shared spaces, calendaring, worklow management services, and synchronous and asynchronous communication. (Chua, 2006)
Collaborative Browsing
Online navigation on the Internet by a group of individuals that assembles in the same physical setting and browses online using the same or adjacent interfaces in the attainment of task-oriented objectives. (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2005)
Collaborative Commerce
The processes, technologies, and supporting standards that allow continuous and automated exchange of information between trading partners and can be horizontal competitive cooperation or coopetition, as well as vertical collaboration along a supply chain. (Rowe et al., 2006)
Collaborative Community
A group of people sharing common interests and acting together toward common goals. (Nabuco et al., 2006)
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parties can reduce demand uncertainty and coordinate their decisions. (Abraham & Leon, 2006)
Collaborative Interface
Interface in which the interaction between the user and the system is guided by the principles of collaborative behavior. (Babaian, 2005)
Collaborative Learning
1: A model of learning that involves groups of students working together on a project or assignment. In this model, communication between students is crucial to a successful outcome. (Shaw, 2005) 2: A more radical departure from cooperative learning. Involves learners working together in small groups to develop their own answer through interaction and reaching consensus, not necessarily a known answer. Monitoring the groups or correcting wrong impressions is not the role of the trainer, since there is no authority on what the answer should be. (Blackmore et al., 2006) 3: A philosophy of interaction where individuals are responsible for their actions, including learning, and respect the abilities and contributions of their peers. (Berg, 2005f) 4: A style of teaching and learning in which students work in teams toward a common goal. In some online courses, collaborative learning teams are used to encourage students to work cooperatively with each other. The idea is that students learn from each other while participating in teams. (Du Mont, 2005) 5: An instruction method in which students work in groups toward a common academic goal. (Moreira & da Silva, 2005) 6: An instructional approach in which students of varying abilities work together in small groups to solve a problem, complete a project, or achieve a common goal. It is a philosophy that involves a sharing of authority and responsibility among group members who strive to build consensus and group ownership for the learning. (Sala, 2005b) 7: A personal philosophy, not just a classroom technique. In all situations where people come together in groups, it suggests a way of dealing with people that respects and highlights individual group members abilities and contributions. There is a sharing of authority and acceptance of responsibility among group members for the groups actions. The underlying premise of collaborative learning is based upon consensus building through cooperation by group members, in contrast to competition in which individuals beat other group members. (Donnelly, 2005) 8: An approach that involves learners (and sometimes teachers) working together and learning from each other. (Agosti, 2005) 9: Engagement in learning wherein students utilize and build upon their individual strengths and interests for greater good.
(Bonk et al., 2005) 10: Learning is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs, languages, and ways of doing things. What holds the learners together is a common sense of purpose and a real need to know what the other knows. The essence is the underlying process of shared creation, involving two or more individuals interacting to create shared understanding where none could have existed on its own. (Vat, 2005a) 11: Learning situation in which a group of learners work together on a task, where each learners input is critical to the learning of the others in the group. (Collis & Moonen, 2005a) 12: Learning that occurs through the exchange of knowledge among learners. Collaborative learning is a form of social learning. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005b) 13: Learning that requires joint activity in which two or more learners negotiate meaning and process, and contribute to the inal outcome. (Bennett, 2005) 14: Learning where emphasis is placed on student-to-student interaction in the learning process, and the instructors role becomes that of a facilitator (a guide-on-the-side). (McInnerney & Roberts, 2005) 15: A form of learning that involves collaborative learning processes. It is designed for coaches, helpers and faculty, and groups of learners to fulill the learning objectives of groups and of each learner through sharing resources and interacting. (Kayama & Okamoto, 2005)
Collaborative Network
A network of services and the base infrastructure supporting distributed cooperative environments. (Unal et al., 2006)
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using the same information through collaborative process to improve sales and forecast accuracy, reduce inventory levels, and prevent stock outs due to promotions. (Khan et al., 2006) 2: An industry-wide initiative that involves collaboration between trading (supply chain) partners in the retail industry in order to achieve lower costs, higher eficiency, and better customer satisfaction. (Saha, 2005) 3: A global, open, and neutral business process standard for value chain partners to coordinate the various activities of purchasing, production planning, demand forecasting, and inventory replenishment, in order to reduce the variance between supply and demand, and to share the beneits of a more eficient and effective supply chain. (Archer, 2005)
premium brand name and Nestls manufacturing and distribution know-how. (Angehrn & Gibbert, 2005)
Collaborative Tool
1: A tool or technique that facilitates distant collaboration geographically at different locations. (Nandavadekar, 2005) 2: An electronic tool that supports communication and collaborationpeople working together; essentially it takes the form of networked computer software. (Metaxiotis, 2006) 3: E-mail, an intranets, a threaded discussions, or an online discussion room that allows learners to collaborate on projects. Such tools also allow moderated discussions to take place in an online environment. (Brown, 2006) 4: Traditional chat, whiteboard, messaging, presentation, VoIP, or a conferencing system; a strong component of knowledge management in the military. (Maule, 2006)
Collaborative Research
A type of research developed by individuals who belong to different academic or practical disciplines in which there is a variety of purposes, methods, and outcomes. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006)
Collaborative Resources
An object representing a resource used/shared/exchanged by a pair of collaborating roles in order to perform certain simple tasks in collaboration with one another. (Daneshgar, 2005)
Collaboratory
Provides groups with technologies and tools so that they can access each other, databases, and remote tools to better collaborate, coordinate activities, and enhance group processes. (Alavi et al., 2005)
Collaborative Tele-Learning
The use of technology for distributed communication, collaboration, and problem solving among participants in a learning environment. (Wild, 2005)
Collection Development
The portion of collection management activities that primarily deals with selection decisions. (Gregory, 2005)
Collaborative Thinking
A strategic mindset where adjacent and even overlapping stages in the industry value chain are seen as potential partners rather than competitors. For example, Starbucks and Nestl both produce coffee, but they nevertheless partnered up for the creation and distribution of chilled coffee-based soft drinks, thereby leveraging Starbucks
Collection Management
All the activities involved in information gathering, communication, coordination, policy formulation, evaluation, and planning that result in decisions about
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the acquisition, retention, and provision of access to information sources in support of the needs of a speciic library community. (Gregory, 2005)
Collection of Information
Comprises several (typically several thousand or several million) documents. (Trujillo, 2005)
and such social inluence as compliance, group norms, and social identity and such personal mental states as anticipated emotions, desires, and value perceptions (e.g., purposive value, self-discovery, maintenance or personal connectivity, social enhancement, and entertainment value). (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2005)
Collection Type
A composite value comprising elements of some data types. SQL:1999 supports arrays, which are ordered and unbounded sets of elements. Another collection type not supported by the standard is a nested table. (Zendulka, 2005b)
Collective Responsibility
The idea that a group is sanctioned with, and accepts responsibility for, creating change in the organization. Each member helps and supports other members to make progress on implementing actions. (Shaw et al., 2006)
Collective Action
1: The voluntary cooperation of a group of individuals that typically involves the production of a public or semi-public good. (Teigland & Wasko, 2005) 2: An initiative, undertaken by groups of owners, industry groups, government groups, and so forth, who audit the collective system operation and exchange information to detect patterns of distributed attacks. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005)
Collectivism
Concerned with group interest rather than individual interest (individualism). Collectivist societies support structures where people are born and live in extended families. The concept of collective strength includes sharing, nurturing, supporting, and empowering interdependent groups. (Peszynski, 2005)
Collective Awareness
A common and shared vision of a whole teams context which allows members to coordinate implicitly their activities and behaviors through communication. (Daassi & Favier, 2006)
Collision
A usually destructive event resulting from the simultaneous access to the same bandwidth resource by multiple users. (Markhasin et al., 2005)
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Color Feature
Analyzing the color distribution of pixels in an image. (Chan & Chang, 2005)
Color Histogram
A method to represent the color feature of an image by counting how many values of each color occur in the image and then forming a representing histogram. (Farag, 2005a)
Combination
1: A knowledge transfer mode that involves new explicit knowledge being derived from existing explicit knowledge. (Wickramasinghe, 2005) 2: One of four knowledge transmission mechanisms according to Nonaka. It is a tacit-to-explicit knowledge transfer taking place when individuals articulate their tacit knowledge base, converting it into explicit knowledge that can be shared with others. (Brock & Zhou, 2006)
Commit
Activates all modiications performed by a transaction, makes them visible to the outside, and makes all modiications durable. (Meixner, 2005)
Combination of Forecasts
Combining two or more individual forecasts to form a composite one. (C.K. Chan, 2005)
Commitment
A state of mind that holds people and organizations in the line of behavior. It encompasses psychological forces that bind an individual to an action. (Leonard, 2005)
Combinatorial Optimization
Branch of optimization in applied mathematics and computer science related to algorithm theory and computational complexity theory. (Felici & Truemper, 2005)
Commodity
A generic and largely undifferentiated product that is usually bought or sold by itself without bundled valueadded services or differentiated features. (Bahn, 2006)
Commerce
The selling of products from the manufacturing, distribution, and retail irms to customers. (Borders & Johnston, 2005)
Commodity-Based Market
A form of a market in which various suppliers and consumers participate to trade goods and services (i.e., commodities) of the same type. The market price is publicly agreed upon for each commodity, independent of any particular supplier. All consumers and suppliers decide whether and how much to buy or sell at each agreed-upon price. (Ghenniwa & Huhns, 2005)
Common Carrier
A company licensed, usually by a national government, to provide telecommunications services to the public, facilitating the transmission of voice and data messages. (Guah & Currie, 2005)
Commercial Knowledge
An important focus of practical knowledge transfer in business. It is exempliied by the implementation knowledgesets of rules, tools, guidelines, and ways to effectively employ themthat is conveyed by a consultant who is aiding a client in implementing or customizing a complex information system. (King, 2006b)
Common Cost
The cost of joint production of a set of services. (Hackbarth et al., 2005)
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Common Knowledge
An organizations cumulative experiences in comprehending a category of knowledge and activities, and the organizing principles that support communication and coordination. (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2006)
Common Ground
1: A form of self-awareness in the interaction between two people; the sum of their mutual, common, or joint knowledge, beliefs, and suppositions. (Ahmad & Al-Sayed, 2006) 2: Shared knowledge and experience common to both sender and receiver. This common ground enables the references and context of the message to be deciphered successfully and meaning to be communicated. (Thomas & Roda, 2006b)
Common Identity
A common ground/understanding to which many people/ groups can subscribe; requires a shift from seeing oneself as separate to seeing oneself as connected to and part of an organizational unit. (Ali & Warne, 2005)
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the names for all publicly known vulnerabilities and security exposures. (Cardoso & Freire, 2005)
Commonsense Knowledge
The knowledge expected of every individual in a society. It includes acquaintance with the physical world and the laws governing it, social behaviors, and procedures for everyday tasks, such as simple business transactions. It lies on the commonsense-expert knowledge dimension. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
constructively conlict is managed. (Ali & Warne, 2005) 2: Or atmosphere, can be deined as a set of conditions that transform cultural behavior and information into desired (or undesired) states of a given entity (person, group, organization, region, nation, globe) through the communication process. (Targowski & Metwalli, 2005)
Communication Environment
In one sense, technology operates in a physical environment, but for computer-mediated communication, technology is the environment, that is, that through which communication occurs. (Whitworth, 2006b)
Communicating X-Machine
A set of stream X-machine components that are able to communicate with each other by exchanging messages. (Kefalas et al., 2005)
Communication Infrastructure
Glue that links geographically dispersed users of a learning environment together and gives them the impression of being in the shared workspace of the virtual classroom. (Rugelj, 2005)
Communication
1: The exchange of information between two or more people with the intent that the senders message be understood and considered by the receiver. (Teeni, 2006) 2: H1 communicates with H2 on a topic T if and only if: H1 understands T (symbol: U(H1 T)), H2 understands T (symbol: U(H2 T)), U(H1 T) is presentable to and understood by H2, and U(H2 T) is presentable to and understood by H1. (Gelepithis, 2005) 3: Human interaction to present, share, and build information and knowledge. (Han & Hill, 2006) 4: The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information by speech, signals, writing, or behavior. Communication generally includes a sender, a receiver, a message, and a medium used to carry the message. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Communication Media
The methods or tools in which information can be exchanged and communication can be facilitated. Examples include telephones, televisions, e-mail, Web sites, videoconferencing, and instant messaging, to name a few. (Y.D. Wang, 2005)
Communication Norms
In the context of virtual teams, communication norms are typical routines and expectations for communicating within a virtual team using the communication media that the team has available to them (e.g., electronic communication such as e-mail or instant messaging, telephone, etc.). (Staples et al., 2005)
Communication Apprehension
Apprehension associated with real or anticipated communication with others. Traditional students with high communication apprehension tend to quietly sit in a large lecture room, having minimal interpersonal contact with the instructor or other students. (Adkins & Nitsch, 2005)
Communication Preference
The selection of your own way in the art and technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas. (Janvier & Ghaoui, 2006)
Communication Technology
The branch of technology concerned with the representation, transfer, interpretation, and processing of data among persons, places, and machines. (Melkonyan, 2005)
Communication Climate
1: Extent to which there is an open and free exchange of information, transparency of decision making, and how
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Communications Center
A commercial venture that is reselling telephone services from a few number of telephone lines. (Frempong & Braimah, 2005)
Community Building
All activities related to building and maintaining online communities. (Kindmller et al., 2005)
Community College
A higher education institution supported by the government, emphasizing preparing students for transfer to four-year colleges and on providing skill education in speciic vocations. (Berg, 2005b)
Community
1: Social network whose members are characterized by a common interest, similar behavior, and a sense of moral responsibility. (Flavin & Guinalu, 2006) 2: A destination within the portal used to deliver applications and group workspaces. For example, portal users can create communities to bring a team of people together to collaborate on a project or to deliver an employee services application to the entire company. Communities are assembled using portlets, and can be created from templates that control the communitys functionality and appearance. (Wojtkowski, 2006)
Community Development
1: Activities that consider social and economic beneits, including self-determination. (Geiselhart & Jamieson, 2005) 2: Concerned with the relationship between social and economic development, building a capacity for local cooperation, self-help, and the use of expertise and methods drawn from outside the local community. (Walker, 2006)
Community Informatics
1: A multidisciplinary ield for the investigation of the social and cultural factors shaping the development and diffusion of new ICT and its effects upon community development, regeneration, and sustainability. (Thompson, 2005) 2: The process of using ICT, and ICT-related facilities, such as a telecenter, in social development programs to help the community develop economically, socially, and culturally. (Gnaniah, Songan, et al., 2005) 3: The use of ICT and associated facilities in conjunction with the development and delivery of programs to aid community development economically, culturally, and socially. (Pease et al., 2005) 4: The use of information and computer technologies in communities in order to impact communities socially and economically. (Shea & Davis, 2005)
Community Broker
The leader of a community who provides the overall guidance and management to establish and/or maintain a community. He/she supports community activities, promotes the community within the organizations, and acts as the contact person for both community members and people interested in (joining) the community. (Zboralski & Gemnden, 2006)
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Community Memory
Community of Circumstance
A community driven by position, circumstance, or life experiences. Such communities are distinguished from communities of practice in that they tend to be personally focused and are often built around life stages, such as teenagehood, university, marriage, or parenthood. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2005)
Communities are made up of individuals, each of whom possesses unique memories. Community memory is the preservation, persistence, and sharing of individual memories and knowledge among a community through communicative means such as tradition, custom, language, writing, stories and myth, and various artifacts. (Leath, 2005)
Community Model
A model in which all the partners in an interaction are able to communicate with one other on an equal basis. (Shan et al., 2006b)
Community Moderators
Day-to-day leaders in virtual communities who control discussions in individual forums, point the community members in the right direction, and ensure that the social climate of the forum promotes participation and exchange among its members. (Ruhi, 2006)
Community of Interest
1: A group of people who share a common interest. Members exchange ideas and thoughts about the given interest, but may know little about each other outside of this area. Participation in a community of interest can be compelling and entertaining, but is not focused on learning
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in the same way as a community of practice. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2005) 2: An online group that grows from common interest in a subject. They develop norms based on shared values and meanings. (Lambropoulos, 2006b)
Community of Peers
A grouping of peers having something in common or considered grouped for a speciic purpose, (e.g., having particular types of privacy policies as discussed above). (Yee & Korba, 2006)
with strategic imperatives, helping each other to solve problems, share and beneit from each others expertise, and are committed to jointly developing better practice. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006) 7: A relatively tightly knit, emergent social collective, in which individuals working on similar problems self-organize to help each other and share perspectives about their work practice, generally in face-to-face settings. (Wasko & Teigland, 2006a) 8: An informal collective group of individuals bound by a common practice base engaged in knowledge-sharing activities to add value to work. (Huq, et al., 2006) 9: An informal community of people bound by a common task or purpose (e.g., similar work activities). A CoP nurtures a critical skill set in an organization. It can exist across company divisions and sometimes across organizational boundaries. (Sivakumar, 2006) 10: A group of people who share a set of concerns and sustain their collective actions through their participation and generation of new knowledge. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006) 11: AHIMAs online networking and collaborating tool, created for the use of its members and launched in 2001. (Zender, 2006) 12: The concept of a CoP was irst introduced by Lave and Wenger in 1991 in relation to situated learning. Lave and Wenger saw the acquisition of knowledge as a social process in which people participated in communal learning at different levels depending on their authority in a groupthat is, newcomers learn from old-timers by being allowed to participate in tasks relating to the practice of the community. Since 1991, the concept of CoPs has been extended and applied to areas such as knowledge management and virtual working. (Kimble & Li, 2006) 13: A group of people who come together around common interests and expertise. They create, share, and apply knowledge within and across the boundaries of teams, business units, and even entire organizationsproviding a concrete path toward creating a true knowledge organization. (Vat, 2006b) 14: Although this term is common when referring to informal groups or networks of people who share similar interests and objectives, CoPs have been seen as an alternative to teamwork where a variety of problems may be better considered through knowledge shared by loose coalitions of people who develop their own tacit knowledge and methods for doing things. This is more common among certain professions such as lawyers, barristers, GPs, academics, and so forth whose conduct is regulated by professional associations and who share a similarity of attitudes and conventions. (Grieves, 2006b) 15: Collaborative means to build and share knowledge and expertise, increase social capital and the
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economic value of relationships within the military, and lower the cost of training. (Maule, 2006) 16: A community formed by people who engage in a process of collective learning in a shared domain of human endeavor. For a community of practice to function, it needs to generate and appropriate a shared repertoire of ideas, commitments, and memories. It also needs to develop various resources such as tools, documents, routines, vocabulary, and symbols that in some way carry the accumulated knowledge of the community. (Boersma & Kingma, 2006)
Community Space
A spacereal, virtual, or a combination of bothwhere a sense of community is created. (Walker, 2006)
Community Telecenter
A public place that provides low-cost community access to ICTs such as computers, printers, telephones, faxes, e-mail, and the Internet. In many cases telecenters also have library resources, as well as audio, video, and documentation production facilities. They may also provide training in the use of ICTs, distance learning, and telemedicine, and also usually support the production of information resources relevant to the needs of local users. They are sometimes referred to as multipurpose community telecenters. (Mwesige, 2005)
Community of Purpose
A community that forms around people who are to achieve a similar objective. Such a community only serves a functional purpose. Members of the community can assist each other by sharing experiences, suggesting strategies, and exchanging information on the process in hand. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2005)
Community-Oriented Policing
Contemporary policing approach that builds relationships between police oficers and the citizens of a community on an ongoing basis. Crime prevention is stressed as a partnership approach before an actual emergency situation(s) develops. (Baim, 2005)
Community Portal
1: A portal designed and developed to provide access to community resources and serve community needs and interests. (Vrazalic & Hyland, 2005) 2: A Web site tailored for the needs of a community. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006b) 3: An online initiative often developed through participative processes which aims to achieve better coordination of relevant Web-based information and provide communication services for community members. (Thompson, 2005) 4: Often set up by community groups or based around special group interests, a community portal attempts to foster the concept of a virtual community where all users share a common location or interest, and provide many different services. (Tatnall et al., 2006)
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using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive. (Kabene, Takhar, et al., 2005) 3: A computer storage device offering a relatively high capacity. The full name denotes the fact that CD-ROMs are read-only devices; data cannot be written to a CD-ROM by a conventional player. (Duan, 2005)
Compensating Transaction
A transaction that is executed to undo the effect of another committed transaction. Unlike ordinary transaction rollback or abort, both original and compensating transactions are visible in the committed projection of the execution history. (Leong, 2005a)
Compensatory Strategy
An educational approach that focuses on providing structures that support and enhance learners weaknesses rather than exploiting their strengths. (Boechler, 2006a)
Competence
1: A description of the membership of a community of practice according to the degree of learning about practice in the community. (Crdoba, 2006b) 2: One of the three preconditions for citizen participation in e-democracy (access-competence-motivation). Communications competence means that a person has the ability to use channels of communication, opportunity, access, and skills to use the devices involved and to formulate messages. (Keskinen & Kuosa, 2005)
Comparison-Shopping Agent
A Web-based service that can collect product and service information, especially price-related information, from multiple online vendors, aggregate them, and then provide value-added service to online shoppers to assist with their online shopping. (Wan, 2006)
Competence Set
The nodes in a Bayesian Behavior Network are grouped into competence sets, where each competence set has an associated set of actions that must be performed by the Bayesian agencies depending on the states of the nodes in the competence set. (Potgieter et al., 2005)
Compatibility
1: The degree to which an innovation is seen to be compatible with existing values, beliefs, experiences, and needs of adopters. (Green et al., 2005) 2: Describes the degree to which the new product is consistent with the adopters existing values and product knowledge, past experiences, and current needs. (Owens et al., 2005) 3: Designs that match our expectations in terms of characteristics, function, and operation. (Noyes, 2006) 4: The ability to transmit data from one source to another without losses or modiications to the data or additional programming requirements. (Becker, 2006) 5: Views V1 and V2 are compatible if functions f1 and f2 exist such that for all x, f1(x1) = f2(x2) = f (x), where f is the true target function. (Scheffer, 2005)
Competency
1: The recent focus on competency that comes from employers stands in contrast to previous ways of acknowledging learning, such as seat-based time or diplomas. To an increasing degree, graduates are being judged by what they can do, not by what they know. (Lindsay et al., 2005b) 2: A combination of education and skills that qualify a professional for a certain task or ield. (Kostopoulos, 2005) 3: A statement that deines the qualiication required to perform an activity or to complete a task. Faculty competencies for online distance education identify the qualiications needed to be successful in a job. (Sales, 2005) 4: Demonstrated command of the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for effective performance in a particular degree area. (D.B. Johnstone, 2005)
Compatibility of Innovation
The degree of consistency of an innovation with the needs, expected values, and norms of potential adopters and their social systems. (Askarany, 2005)
Competition
When two individuals or species are in competition with each other, they are each striving for the same thing. In
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biological systems, this is typically for food, space, or some other physical need, but in IT, it can be any matter relating to IS curriculum. When the thing the competitors are striving for is not in adequate supply for both of them, the result is that both are hampered or adversely affected in some manner. (Tatnall & Davey, 2005)
Competitive Advantage
1: A condition that enables companies to operate in a more eficient or higher quality manner than the companies it competes with, which results in inancial beneits. (Braun, 2006) 2: A positive, relative position held by a irm as compared with competitors within a market or industry. There are two types of competitive advantage: cost leadership and differentiation. (Cepeda-Carrin, 2006) 3: Deines a places or regions attribute(s) with the potential to place it in a leading position in any ield (generally used with regard to commercial or economic activity), such as a natural or environmental icon that may give a region a competitive advantage in terms of tourism, or a mineral deposit in terms of mining. A region or place needs to identify and capitalize on distinctive assets and capacities to realize its competitive advantage. (Sutcliffe, 2005) 4: Employing organizational resources in an advantageous manner that cannot be imitated readily by competitors. (Nissen, 2005) 5: The ability to gain a disproportionately larger share of a market because of cost leadership, or product or service differentiation. (McManus & Carr, 2005) 6: The head start a business has owing to its access to new or unique information and knowledge about the market in which it is operating. (Kroeze, 2005) 7: Usually refers to characteristics that permit a irm to compete effectively with other irms due to low cost or superior technology, perhaps internationally. (Lubbe, 2005) 8: A company is said to have a competitive advantage when, based on its strategic architecture and complementary resource combinations (CRCs), it is able to implement a strategy that generates returns and beneits in excess of those of its current competitorswho simultaneously are implementing strategies, similar or otherwise because of the perceived value in the marketplace. The deinition therefore also depends on what the company, its management, and its stakeholders deine as what the required returns and beneits should be (because even though many would list it as inancial, clearly this does not apply to all companies, i.e., an advantage could be something other than inancial). One could reasonably expect, though, that companies within similar industries
would deine similar variables as the required returns and beneits. A company is said to have a sustained competitive advantage when it is implementing a value-creating strategy, which generates returns and beneits at a level not enjoyed by current competitors and when these other companies are unable to reach an equilibrium level with the company enjoying the advantage. In this sense, the deinition of sustained competitive advantage adopted here does not imply that it will last forever, and does not depend upon the period of time during which a company enjoys a competitive advantage (rather, the equilibrium level is critical in this deinition). (Potgieter et al., 2005)
Competitive Intelligence
1: In IT literature, two deinitions are used: a product deinition and a process deinition. In the product deinition, competitive intelligence is deined as information about the environment, relevant for strategic purposes. The process deinition highlights producing and processing this environmental information. Process deinitions often refer to the intelligence cycle. (Achterbergh, 2005a) 2: The set of interrelated measures that aim at systematically feeding the organizational decision process with information about the organizational environment in order to make it possible for people to learn about it, to anticipate its evolution, and to make better decisions in consequence. (de Carvalho & Ferreira, 2006)
Competitive Neutrality
A principle that states that government agencies and businesses should not enjoy any competitive advantage over privately operated competitors in the delivery of services by virtue of being government owned. Competitive neutrality is achieved through transparent accounting and cost-relexive charges for services. (Cameron, 2005)
Complementarity
1: A product or service that provides more value as part of a group than individually. For example, hybrid e-retailers can leverage complementarities by providing off-line services to online shoppers. (I. Lee, 2005) 2: Several activities are mutually complementary if doing more of any one activity increases (or at least does not decrease) the marginal proitability of each other activity in the group. Complementarities among activities imply mutual relationships and dependence among various activities whose exploration can lead to higher proitability. (Scupola, 2005)
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the time availability decreases, and the degree of judgment required increases. Decision making is ex-post, complex, and may require multiple steps. Initial monitoring uses a priori thresholds broader than in a simple environment that is, more granular and produces exceptions that identify a Suspected Non-Compliant Event (SNCE). Evidence for decision making uses the results of the initial monitoring as well as important information related to the event, characterized by a need for judgmental expertise. (Goldschmidt, 2005)
Complexity
1: Degree to which an innovation is seen by the potential adopter as being relatively dificult to use and understand. (Green et al., 2005) 2: The degree to which the structure, behavior, and application of an organization is dificult to understand and validate due to its physical size, the intertwined relationships between its components, and the signiicant number of interactions required by its collaborating components to provide organizational capabilities. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006) 3: The degree to which a system or component has a design or implementation that is dificult to understand and verify. The irst and still classic measure of complexity is that introduced by Kolmogorov which is the shortest computer program capable of generating a given string. (Polgar, 2005b)
Complex Situation
The current world state that the user needs to understand. The understanding in a complex situation extends beyond procedural information and requires understanding the dynamic interrelationships of large amounts of information. (Albers, 2006)
Complete Test
Veriies that an update operation leads a consistent database state to either a consistent or inconsistent database state. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Completion Rate
The most common measure for success in an online or distance learning course, frequently associated with program persistence and retention rates. No standardized algorithm currently exists for calculating completion rates; they are best used in comparing one cohort of the same course with another. (Howell & Wilcken, 2005)
Complex System
1: A collection of interrelated elements organized to accomplish a speciic function or a set of functions. Complexity can be considered in terms of a number of elements and/or complexity of relationships. (Plekhanova, 2005a) 2: From a mathematical perspective, a system described by differential or difference equations; from an informational perspective, a system for which information is the main resource and functioning in an information-rich environment. (Szczerbicki, 2005) 3: A new ield of science studying how parts of a complex
Complex Environment
In such an environment, complexity increases as the granularity increases, the frequency of changes increases,
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system give rise to the collective behaviors of the system. Complexity (information-theoretical and computational) and emergence of collective behavior are the two main characteristics of such complex systems. Social systems formed (in part) out of people, the brain formed out of neurons, molecules formed out of atoms, and the weather formed out of air lows are all examples of complex systems. The ield of complex systems cuts across all traditional disciplines of science, as well as engineering, management, and medicine. (Shahabi & Banaei-Kashani, 2005) 4: Borrowed from Complexity Theory, a system that is neither rigidly ordered nor highly disordered. System complexity is deined as the number and variety of identiiable regularities in the structure and behavior of the group, given a description of that group at a ixed level of detail. (Farooq et al., 2006)
Component Model
A model specifying the standards and conventions imposed on developers of components. Includes admissible ways of describing the functionality and other attributes of a component, admissible communication between components (protocols), and so forth. (Chroust, 2006)
Component-Based Development
A software development approach where all aspects and phases of the development lifecycle are based on components. (Stojanovic & Dahanayake, 2005)
Component-Based Solution
A set of smaller software components that link seamlessly to a wider framework through the adoption of standards. (Salter, 2005b)
Compliance
Social inluence process whereby a person conforms to the expectations of others based upon the motivation of a need for approval. Also known as subjective norm. (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2005)
Compliance Veriication
Ensuring the necessary and suficient evidence supports the assertion of non-compliance. (Goldschmidt, 2005)
Component
1: A term used to describe an information system and its composition for the purposes of this work. Speciically, the components in this work are: system quality, information quality, and service quality. (Wilkin, 2005) 2: An encapsulated, autonomous, service-based software unit that delivers useful services through the well-speciied interface to its environment. (Stojanovic & Dahanayake, 2005) 3: Small pre-deined program snippets within Flash that allow reuse of elements. Examples are buttons, pull-down menus, text boxes, and text areas. (Barone, 2005)
Composite Data
Data containing an ordered string of ields describing several attributes (parameters, properties, etc.) of an object. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Composite Model
Model for collaboration between institutions where each institution is responsible for particular parts of certain courses or study programs; a cooperative method. (Haugen & Ask, 2005)
Composition
1: A new class in an objected programming language that is composed of other classes. (D. Brandon, 2005a) 2: A speciic form of an aggregation. It is a relationship in which a composite object consists of non-shareable objects, and the latter are existence-dependent to the former. (Taniar et al., 2005)
Component Interface
The behavior of a component along with constraints at a subset of components interactions, data types used in exposing the behavior, coniguration, and quality parameters of the behavior. (Stojanovic & Dahanayake, 2005)
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Comprehensibility
The understandability of a pattern to human beings; the ability of a data-mining algorithm to produce patterns understandable to human beings. (Zhou, 2005)
but predicates or assertions they must verify are given. (Calvo et al., 2005)
Comprehension-Modeling Tool
A math representation tool that enables users to: (1) generate multiple representations of mathematical concepts and processes, (2) dynamically link the different representations, (3) communicate the mathematical ideas they have constructed, and (4) make movie-like sequences of animation slides that enable others to replay the process used to generate the solution. (Nason & Woodruff, 2005a)
Compression
The act of reducing ile size so an image can download more quickly on the Web. (Szabados & Sonwalkar, 2005)
Compulsory Miss
Also called a cold-start miss, this occurs during the irst access of a Web object. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005a)
Computational Emergence
Assuming that computational interactions can generate different features or behaviors, this is one of the approaches in the ield of artiicial life. (Deb, 2005)
Computer
A mechanical system composed of software and hardware designed to process data in support of various computing programs and applications. (Khosrow-Pour, 1990)
Computational Experimentation
The use of validated, theory-driven computer models with experimental methods to assess systematic behaviors associated with alternate organizational designs. (Nissen & Levitt, 2006)
Computational Problem
A relation between input and output data, where input data are known (and correspond to all possible different problem instances), and output data are to be identiied,
Computer Animation
Motion created by using a computer through a technique in which the illusion of movement is created by displaying
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on a screen or recording on a device a series of individual states of a dynamic scene. (Yong & Choo, 2005)
Computer Conidence
Computer Anxiety
1: A diffuse, unpleasant, and vague sense of discomfort and apprehension when confronted by computer technology or people who talk about computers. (Blignaut et al., 2005) 2: The degree to which an individual is nervous in his or her interaction with computers; the uneasiness some people feel when they have to use a microcomputer. Anxiety results from a danger or a danger threat. As a feeling, it has a clearly unpleasant character. (de Souza Dias, 2005) 3: The tendency of a particular individual to experience a level of uneasiness over his or her impending use of a computer, which is disproportionate to the actual threat presented by the computer. (Kase & Ritter, 2005)
A term referring to when the user is conident that he or she would be able to master a required skill to solve a particular problem using a computer, for example, learning how to use a speciic facility of an application program or learning a programming language. (Blignaut et al., 2005)
Computer Game
An interactive game played on a computer. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
Computer Attitude
A complex mental state that affects a humans choice of action or behavior toward computers and computer-related tasks. (Blignaut et al., 2005)
Computer Hardware
Refers to computer equipment such as a CPU, disk drive, modem, printer, and so forth. (Magagula, 2005)
Computer Comfort
The term used to describe when the user does not experience any suffering, anxiety, pain, and so forth when using a computer. (Blignaut et al., 2005)
Computer Communication
A term often mistakenly used in relation to online education. Typically, the object of communication is another person, not a computer, and the term computermediated communication would be more accurate. (Salter, 2005c)
Computer Interface
The way in which a person experiences the computer, its application programs, hardware components, output devices, and functionality. (Barolli & Koyama, 2005b)
Computer Conference
Communication between students, and between students and faculty, to share ideas and to comment on others ideas. The information is seen as a threaded discourse so that individuals can track which comment belongs to which topic. (Ally, 2005d)
Computer Liking
The use of a computer to solve problems; considered enjoyable, stimulating, and even addictive. (Blignaut et al., 2005)
Computer Literacy
1: The ability conidently and competently to make good or optimum use of the facilities that computers provide. (Vaast, 2005) 2: The acquisition of basic knowledge and ability to operate or use a computer. (Magagula, 2005)
Computer Conferencing
1: An effective electronic means of connecting learners who may or may not be separated by distance in a shared learning space using computers. (Wild, 2005) 2: Exchanging information and ideas in a multi-user environment through computers (e.g., e-mail). (Nandavadekar, 2005)
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Computer Whiteboard
A whiteboard that supports graphical synchronous inputs from a group. (Morphew, 2005)
Computer Self-Eficacy
1: A judgment of ones capability to use a computer. It incorporates judgments of an individual on his or her skills to perform tasks using a microcomputer. (de Souza Dias, 2005) 2: Computer self-conidence or perceptions of ability. Beliefs about ones ability to perform a speciic behavior or task on a computer. (Kase & Ritter, 2005)
Computer Simulation
1: A simulation built using a computer language. (Pendegraft, 2005) 2: The process of using authentic data in a computer program to simulate a real phenomenon. (Morphew, 2005)
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Com put e r-Assist e d I nst ruc t ion (CAI ) Com put e r-M e diat e d Com m unic at ion (CM C)
al., 2006) 2: Software tools that provide computer-assisted support for some portion of the software or systems development process, especially on large and complex projects involving many software components and people. (Lee, Suh, et al., 2005) 3: A tool to aid in the analysis and design of software systems. (Favre et al., 2005)
Computer-Based Learning
Use of a computer to deliver instructions to students using a variety of instructional strategies to meet individual students needs. (Ally, 2005a)
Computer-Based Assessment
Addresses the use of computers for the entire process of assessment including production, delivery, grading, and provision of feedback. (Valenti, 2005)
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and computer networks that enables users to transmit, receive, and store information via synchronous and asynchronous communication tools. (Erlich, 2005) 3: A communication system that involves or is assisted by computers. Computer-mediated communication includes group support systems, e-mail, videoconferencing, chat rooms, and instant messaging. (Klein, 2005) 4: CMC was made widely popular by the Internet, which allows people to communicate in a variety of modes such as e-mail or chat. CMC in turn is affecting translation practice as more and more people communicate in a CMC mode across languages and require language support. (OHagan, 2005) 5: Communication between humans using the computer as a medium. (Link & Wagner, 2006) 6: Communication that is facilitated by computer applications, for example, e-mail, bulletin boards, and newsgroups. (Kung-Ming & Khoon-Seng 2005) 7: Communication that takes place through, or is facilitated by, computers. Examples include both asynchronous tools such as bulletin boards, e-mail, and threaded discussion, and synchronous tools such as chat and videoconferencing. (Swan, 2005) 8: Human communication that takes place through or is facilitated by information technology, including networked telecommunications systems and computers. (Ridings, 2006a) 9: Interactions in which all involved parties use computers as the primary or the only means of exchanging information. (St.Amant, 2006a) 10: All media that are involved in the dynamic transfer and storage of data (analog and digital) across established networks. The technology includes the World Wide Web, e-mail, telephones, iber optics, and satellites. (Zakaria & Yusof, 2005) 11: Using technology-based tools such as e-mail, chat programs, or conferencing tools to communicate at a distance. (Schoenfeld & Berge, 2005) 12: The use of information technology to support the interaction between people, directed to the resolution of a problem or activity in a task context. (Fleming, 2005c) 13: CMC, like e-mail, is one-to-one, asynchronous communication mediated by electronic means. List e-mail seems to be many-to-many communication, but the transmission system simply duplicates one-to-one transmissions. In true one-to-many transmissions, like a bulletin board, one communication operation is transmitted to many people (e.g., posting a message). (Whitworth, 2006b) 14: Communication between instructor and student or between students which discusses some aspect of course content, assignment, or student progress in an online course, utilizing the online computing environment for the communication. (Gold, 2005) 15: Communication between two or more
individuals that occurs via computer networks. Computermediated communication may be text, audio, graphics, or video based, and may occur synchronously (in real time) or asynchronously (delayed). (Roberts et al., 2005) 16: Communication that is facilitated using information technologies such as e-mail, videoconferencing, and teleconferencing. (Panteli, 2005)
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occurring as the result of group interaction, or put more tersely, individual learning as a result of group purpose. (Sala, 2005b) 9: Usually based on special tools (e.g., a knowledge forum) that can create electronic or virtual environments, improving collaborative learning by means of computer networks. Main ideas they are based on include: (1) intentional learning (based on motivation to learn), (2) involvement in a process of expertise development, and (3) looking at the group as a community building new knowledge. (Cartelli, 2006a) 10: The ield of study investigating the role of technology in the theory and practice of collaborative learning. (Woodruff & Nirula, 2005) 11: A research area that uses software and hardware to provide an environment for collaborative learning. (Moreira & da Silva, 2005)
Computer-Supported Learning
Learning processes that take place in an environment that includes computer-based tools and/or electronically stored resources. (Nash et al., 2005b)
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& Diday, 2005) 4: In the Galois connection of the (T, I, D) context, a concept is a pair (X, Y), XT, YI, that satisies s(X)=Y and t(Y)=X. X is called the extent and Y the intent of the concept (X,Y). (Dumitriu, 2005) 5: An abstract or generic idea, opinion, or thought generalized from particular instances by the selection of meaningful terms. The concept may be identiied by the use of textmining techniques, which are used to explore and examine the contents of talks, texts, documents, books, messages, and so forth. Concepts belong to the extra-linguistic knowledge about the world, representing real things in formal ways. (Antonio do Prado et al., 2005) 6: A mental construct, unit of thought, or unit of knowledge created by a unique combination of characteristics. (Gillman, 2006) 7: Simultaneously a result and an agent; concepts are formed within the discourse, however they lack meaning if isolated from it. It is the concepts that bring density and relief to a discourses content. A concept is an accumulation of meaning, and this meaning is produced within a discourse, through a metaphorization process, constitutive of all natural language, and thus inherent to philosophy itself. The density and thickness of a text depends on the combination and hierarchization of concepts. Philosophy is not a sophistication or a puriication of concepts; it is discourse and text, where concepts have a key role and can be searched for, never at the beginning but rather through the interpretation process itself. (Nobre, 2006b) 8: A sort of scheme produced by repeated experiences. Concepts are essentially each little idea that we have in our heads about anything. This includes not only everything, but every attribute of everything. (Amoretti, 2005)
Concept Abduction
Non-standard reasoning service provided by digital libraries. Abduction is a form of non-monotonic reasoning, modeling commonsense reasoning, usually aimed at inding an explanation for some given symptoms or manifestations. Concept abduction captures the reasoning mechanismnamely, making hypothesesinvolved when some constraints required by a resource request R are not speciied in a offered resource Othat obviously in later stages of the request/offer interaction might turn out to be fulilled or not. (Colucci et al., 2006)
Concept
1: A mental structure derived from acquired information which, when applied to a problem, clariies to the point of solving the problem. (Andrade, Ares, Garca, Rodrguez, & Silva, 2006) 2: A pair (A, B) of a set A of objects and a set B of features such that B is the maximal set of features possessed by all the objects in A, and A is the maximal set of objects that possess every feature in B. (Saquer, 2005) 3: Each category value of a categorical variable or a logical association of variables. For example, a concept can be simply a town or a type of unemployment, or in a more complex way, a socio-professional category (SPC) associated with an age category A, and a region R. (Murthy
Concept Contraction
Non-standard reasoning service provided by digital libraries. Contraction is the irst step in belief revision. Concept contraction captures the possibility to relax some of the constraints of a requested resource R when they
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are in conlict with those of an offered resource Othat is, when OR is an unsatisiable concept. (Colucci et al., 2006)
Conceptual Clustering
A type of learning by observations and a way of summarizing data in an understandable manner. (Oh et al., 2005)
Concept Drift
A phenomenon in which the class labels of instances change over time. (Maloof, 2005)
Concept Hierarchy
1: A directed graph in which the root node represents the set of all input instances and the terminal nodes represent individual instances. (Oh et al., 2005) 2: The organization of a set of database attribute domains into different levels of abstraction according to a general-to-speciic ordering. (Shen, 2005)
Concept Map
1: A graphic outline that shows the main concepts in the information and the relationship between the concepts. (Ally, 2005c) 2: A tool that assists learners in the understanding of the relationships of the main idea and its attributes; also used in brainstorming and planning. (Judd, 2005) 3: A visual representation of knowledge of a domain consisting of nodes representing concepts, objects, events, or actions interconnected by directional links that deine the semantic relationships between and among nodes. (Alpert, 2006)
Conceptual Diagrams
Schematic depictions of abstract ideas with the help of standardized shapes such as arrows, circles, pyramids, matrices, and so forth. (Eppler & Burkhard, 2006)
Conceptual Framework
Structuring a portfolio around a speciic idea, theme, or strategy. (Shaw & Slick, 2005)
Concept-Based Search
Search over a corpus of documents or databases can proceed using a search that matches concepts rather than matching words. The value of concept-based search increases with the technical complexity of the domain of search. (Kapetanios, 2005)
Conceptual Graph
Graph representation described by a precise semantics based on irst-order logic. (Holder & Cook, 2005)
Conceptual Maps
Semiotic representation (linguistic and visual) of the concepts (nodes) and their relationships (links); represent the organization process of the knowledge When people do a conceptual map, they usually privilege the level where the prototype is. They prefer to categorize at an intermediate level; this basic level is the irst level learned, the most common level named, and the most general level where visual shape and attributes are maintained. (Amoretti, 2005)
Concept-Based System
An information system that uses conceptual structures to organize and present the information content; typical systems are data intensive, retrieve content dynamically from a repository, and use hypermedia to present the output. (Houben et al., 2006)
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Conceptual Model
1: A model concerned with the real-world view and understanding of the data. It suppresses non-critical details in order to emphasize business rules and user objects. (Pardede et al., 2005) 2: Abstraction of the real world/domain, and a mechanism for understanding and representing organizations and the information systems that support them. The most important types of models are: Object ModelDescribes objects by data and operations on the data. The objects identity encapsulates its state (attributes and relationships with other objects) and its behavior (allowed operations on/with that object). Process ModelDescribes (sub)processes by the activities they involve, the activity order, decision points, and pre-/postconditions for the activity execution. Functional Model Describes the information low and transformation, as well as the constraints and functional dependencies among the activities in a process. Organizational ModelDescribes the worklow (activities for the creation and movement of the documents) within an organization, the peoples roles, and the communication among people for performing the activities. (Galatescu, 2005) 3: An abstraction of the problem as well as a possible model of a possible conceptual solution to the problem. (Andrade et al., 2006a) 4: Semiformal framework (usually a language and a diagram notation) used to capture information about the structure and organization of things, properties, and relations in a fragment of the real world, called the domain, usually one of interest to a (software) system. The model represents the semantics of the domain to the system. (Mani & Badia, 2005) 5: The abstraction of relevant aspects of a targetusually physicalsystem into a representation system consisting of symbols, logic, and mathematical constructs. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005) 6: A formal or semiformal description of the actual world elements (objects, persons, organizations) to be included in the future software artifact. (Doorn, 2005) 7: An action describing a domain with the help of some artiicial or formalized language. (Fettke, 2005) 8: High-level modeling; modeling at a high level of abstraction. (Barca et al., 2005) 9: Process of forming and collecting conceptual knowledge about the Universe of Discourse, and documenting the results in the form of a Conceptual Schema. (Marjomaa, 2005) 10: Starting point for database design that consists of producing a conceptual model. (Mani & Badia, 2005) 11: The use of concepts and their relationships to deal with and solve a problem. (Andrade et al., 2006a) 12: Tools to achieve a good design of information systems. These tools are used to express information system requirements speciication,
and their principal characteristic is easy and intuitive use. (Cuadra et al., 2005)
Conceptual Schema
1: A completely or partially time-independent description of a portion of the (real or postulated) world in the sense that a conceptual schema contains the deinition of all concepts and all relationships between concepts allowed to be used in the description of that portion of the world. (Marjomaa, 2005) 2: A structured technology-independent description of the information about an application domain such as a company or a library. By extension, it is also an abstract representation of the existing or project database that is made up of the data of this domain. (Hainaut et al., 2005) 3: Speciication of the structure of a business domain using language and terms easily understood by a non-technical domain expert. A conceptual schema typically declares the fact types and business rules that are relevant to the business domain. (Halpin, 2005)
Conceptual/Functional Equivalence
Refers to whether a given construct has similar meaning across cultures. (Karahanna, Evaristo, & Srite, 2005)
Conceptualism
An ontological position that entity classes exist only in the mind of the modeler. (Artz, 2005c)
Conceptualization
1: A model of reality, a generalized abstraction of particular items. Example: A radio exists physically, but when conceptualized it exists symbolically as some form of knowledge representation: a word, picture, diagram, graph, or formula. (Buchholz, 2006) 2: The process of constructing conceptual structuresthat is, structures of concepts and their relationships that represent a subject domain. (Houben et al., 2006)
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Concern of Commercialization
A negative factor that the implantation and use of distance education may create. (B. Martz & V. Reddy, 2005)
and their frequencies. Their condensed representations can be several orders of magnitude smaller than the collection of the frequent itemsets. (Boulicaut, 2005)
Condition
1: A predicate that evaluates a situation with respect to circumstances. (Ale & Espil, 2005) 2: Part of a trigger that is evaluated when the event in the trigger takes place. It is usually a predicate in SQL that evaluates to true or false. (Badia, 2005b)
Concordancer
A text-manipulation tool originally used by lexicographers but nowadays popularly promoted among foreign-language teachers and learners. Such a program displays character strings before and after a key word or phrase based on the computer text corpus the program is fed. (Liou, 2005)
Condition Number
Ratio between the largest and smallest condition number of a matrix, often employed to assess the degree of collinearity between variables associated to the columns of the matrix. (Galvo et al., 2005)
Concurrency Control
1: A control method that secures that a transaction is executed as if it were executed in isolation (the I in the ACID properties) from other concurrent transactions. (Frank, 2005b) 2: The task of the concurrency control is to coordinate the concurrent execution of several transactions so that the chosen consistency properties (e.g., ACID properties) are not violated. (Meixner, 2005)
Conditional
The formal algebraic term for a rule that need not be strict, but also can be based on plausibility, probability, and so forth. (Kern-Isberner, 2005)
Conditional Distribution
Probability distribution of a parameter, given the values of other parameters and/or the data. (Rippon & Mengersen, 2005)
Conditional Independence
1: A generalization of plain statistical independence that allows one to take a context into account. Conditional independence is often associated with causal effects. (Kern-Isberner, 2005) 2: Consider two random variables X and Y. It will be said that X and Y are independent conditionally on a third random variable (or random vector) Z, if the joint probability distribution of X and Y, conditionally on Z, can be decomposed in the product of two factors, the conditional density of X given Z and the conditional density of Y given Z. In formal terms, X and Y are independent, conditionally on Z (in symbols: XY|Z) f(x, y|Z = z) = f(x|Z = z) f( y|Z = z) (Giudici & Cerchiello, 2005) 3: Let X, Y, and Z be three sets of random variables; then X and Y are said to be conditionally independent given Z, if and only if p(x|z,y)=p(x|z) for all possible values x, y, and z of X, Y, and Z. (Ramoni & Sebastiani, 2005) 4: Two sets X
Concurrent Engineering
An integrated team approach (e.g., by design, production, and marketing departments) to produce and sell either a service or tangible good. (Jeffery & Bratton-Jeffery, 2005)
Condensed Representation
An alternative representation of the data that preserve crucial information for being able to answer some kind of queries. The most studied example concerns frequent sets
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and Y of variables are conditionally independent given a third set Z, if knowledge on Z (what value Z takes) makes knowledge on Y irrelevant to guessing the value of X. (Xiang, 2005)
Conditional Probability
Probability of some event A, assuming event B, written mathematically as P(A|B). (Bashir et al., 2005)
Conditional Structure
An algebraic expression that makes the effects of conditionals on possible worlds transparent and computable. (Kern-Isberner, 2005)
Conditioning
Revision process of a belief by a fact accepted as true. (Smets, 2005)
Condominium Fiber
A unit of dark iber installed by a particular contractor (originating either from the private or the public sector) on behalf of a consortium of customers, with the customers to be owners of the individual iber strands. Each customerowner lights the ibers using his or her own technology, thereby deploying a private network to wherever the iber reaches, that is, to any possible terminating location or endpoint. (Chochliouros et al., 2005a)
antecedent of the rule X that also support the consequent of the rule Y in the set of data cases D. (Swierzowicz, 2005) 2: An asymmetric index that shows the percentage of records for which A occurred within the group of records and for which the other two, X and Y, actually occurred under the association rule of X, Y A. (Ito, 2005) 3: Given an association rule X Y, the conidence of a rule is the number of transactions that satisfy X Y divided by the number of transactions that satisfy X. (Imberman & Tansel, 2006) 4: The conidence of a rule is the support of the item set consisting of all items in the rule (A B) divided by the support of the antecedent. (Denton & Besemann, 2005) 5: The conidence of a rule X Ij, where X is a set of items and Ij is a single item not in X, is the fraction of the transactions containing all items in set X that also contain item Ij. (Wong, & Fu, 2005) 6: The proportion of records that belong to the target class from those that satisfy the antecedent of the rule. This is also often called the accuracy of the rule. An alternative deinition is the proportion of records for which the rule makes the correct prediction of the target class. (Richards & de la Iglesia, 2005) 7: The rule A=>B has conidence c, if c% of transactions that contain A also contain B. (Daly & Taniar, 2005a)
Conidence in Vendor
Trust or faith in a vendor, especially trust or faith in the vendors guarantees of a safe shopping environment. (Shan et al., 2006a)
Conduit Metaphor
A metaphor about communication which suggests that an addressers ideas are objects contained in packages, known as words, that are directly sent to the addressee. (Zappavigna-Lee & Patrick, 2005)
Conidence of a Rule
Percentage of the rows that contain the antecedent that also contain the consequent of the rule. The conidence of a rule gives us an idea of the strength of the inluence that the antecedent has on the presence of the consequent of the rule. (Ale & Rossi, 2005)
CONE
A new lifecycle in which development process occurs in iteration cycles, each one having many activities grouped together in phases. (Furtado, 2005)
Conidence of Rule XY
The fraction of the database containing X that also contains Y, which is the ratio of the support of XY to the support of X. (Shen, 2005)
Conferencing System
A system speciically designed to facilitate synchronous virtual meetings by phone or computer. Teleconferencing utilizes computer-controlled audiovisual transmission. Computer conferencing uses computer-enabled conferencing to work together in real time using free proprietary software. (Ferris & Minielli, 2005)
Conidential Information
Sensitive organizational information that should be disclosed only to authorized users. Usually stored in the database or data warehouse, this information needs to kept secure from hackers and snoopers. (Wilson et al., 2006b)
Conidence
1: A parameter used in the association-rules method for determining the percent of data cases that support the
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Conidentiality
Confusion Matrix
Contains information about actual and predicted classiications done by a classiication system. (Yeo, 2005)
1: A status accorded to information based on a decision, agreement, obligation, or duty. This status requires that the recipient of personal information must control disclosure. (Mullen, 2005) 2: Assures that the exchange of messages between parties over wireless access networks or global networks is not being monitored by non-authorized parties. (Pierre, 2006b) 3: Ensures that information is accessible only to those authorized to have access; typically ensured through encryption. (Mitrakas, 2006) 4: Guarantees that shared information between parties is only seen by authorized people. (Lowry, Stephens, et al., 2005) 5: Nonoccurrence of the unauthorized disclosure of information. The term conidentiality indicates aspects of secrecy and privacy. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 6: Prevention of unauthorized disclosure of information. (Tong & Wong, 2005a) 7: The claim, right, or desire that personal information about individuals should be kept secret or not disclosed without permission or informed consent. (Goodman, 2005) 8: The protection of information from exposure to others. (Buche & Vician, 2005)
Congestion Control
The algorithms used to detect and solve system-overload situations. (Iossiides et al., 2005)
Conjoint Analysis
Decompositional method of preference measurement. On the basis of holistic preference statements, the part worth of object characteristics are derived. (Voeth & Liehr, 2005)
Conjunctive Combination
The combination of the beliefs induced by several sources into an aggregated belief. (Smets, 2005)
Coniguration System
A software system in which the product components and the constraints existing between them are stored. A coniguration system allows consistent and completely structured product variants that can be produced by the manufacturing system. (Blecker & Abdelkai, 2006)
Connectedness
The feeling of being linked to or joined with an individual or group of individuals; this feeling is associated with the building of a relationship. (Gangeness, 2005)
Conlict
Connected Organization
An organization that serves the common good, serves constituents, creates a culture of service, collaborates, and engages in healthy internal communication. (Baer & Duin, 2005)
Refers to the conlicts between the addict and those around them (interpersonal conlict), conlicts with other activities (job, social life, hobbies, and interests), or from within the individual themselves (intrapsychic conlict) that are concerned with the particular activity. (Grifiths, 2005)
Connection Theme
The central purpose of social communication consisting of links of closeness, understanding, or access. (Molinari, 2005)
Conluence
A rewrite system is conluent if, no matter in which order rules are applied, they lead to the same result. (Fischer, 2005)
Conforming Learner
A complying learner who prefers to more passively accept knowledge, store it, and reproduce it to conform; follows simple steps to complete assigned tasks; and pleases others. (Raisinghani & Hohertz, 2005)
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processing elements that are connected through weighted connections. The knowledge in these systems is represented by these weights. The topology of the connections are explicit representations of the rules. (R., 2005)
in the belief that the indings of those sciences offer a more robust foundation for the proper investigation of all phenomena. (Atkinson & Burstein 2006)
Connectivity
1: The ability to access various media via the necessary equipment and channels. (Reilly, 2005) 2: The ability to link to the Internet via a computer. (Braun, 2005a) 3: The interconnections that employees and users have through the use of the Internet or other knowledge management tools. (Borders & Johnston, 2005)
Connectivity Phenomena
A term drawn from computational linguistics. In the presence of several logically linked elementary events, it denotes the existence of a global information content that goes beyond the simple addition of the information conveyed by the single events. The connectivity phenomena are linked with the presence of logicosemantic relationships like causality, goal, indirect speech, coordination, and subordination, as in a sequence like: Company X has sold its subsidiary Y to Z because the proits of Y have fallen dangerously these last years due to a lack of investments. These phenomena cannot be managed by the usual ontological tools; in NKRL, they are dealt with using second-order tools based on reiication. (Zarri, 2006c)
Consistent Answer
1: A set of tuples, derived from the database, satisfying all integrity constraints. (Flesca, Greco, et al., 2005) 2: Data satisfying both the query and all integrity constraints deined on the given database. (Flesca, Furfaro, et al., 2005)
Consensus Building
Also known as collaborative problem solving or collaboration, it includes techniques such as brainstorming, focus groups, techniques for managing meetings, negotiation techniques, Delphi, and NGT, and is used as a resolution process mainly to settle complex disputes or issues. (Janes, 2005)
Consistent Database
A database satisfying a set of integrity constraints. (Flesca, Furfaro, et al., 2005)
Consolidation Consequent
A logical conclusion to an event. For example, in the relationship When it is hot, Mary buys an ice cream, buys an ice cream is the consequent. (Beynon, 2005b) Work models developed from individual observations are combined to identify both commonalities and uniquenesses. The third step in contextual design. (Notess, 2005)
Consortia Consilience
The reconciliation of all knowledge with the historical and scientiic observations of biology, chemistry, and physics An organization formed from several businesses or enterprises joining together as a group for a shared purpose. (Kung-Ming, 2005)
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A collaborating venture between several universities or between universities and other partners joining forces to offer distance teaching programs together. (Guri-Rosenblit, 2005a)
to push the constraints, or at least part of them, deeply into the data-mining algorithms. (Boulicaut, 2005) 2: Data mining obtained by means of evaluation of queries in a query language allowing predicates. (Meo & Psaila, 2005)
Consortial Agreement
Allows students to access library resources at a library that is closer to their home, but one that is not afiliated with the college or university that they are attending. (Raisinghani & Hohertz, 2005)
Construct
1: A not directly observable hypothetical concept whose existence must be inferred by actions, behavior, or observable characteristics. (Real et al., 2006) 2: Constructs represent the research participants interpretations of the elements. Further understanding of these interpretations may be gained by eliciting contrasts resulting in bi-polar labels. Using the same example, research participants may come up with bi-polar constructs such as high user involvementlow user involvement to differentiate the elements (i.e., IS projects). The labels represent the critical success factors of IS projects. (Tan & Hunter, 2005)
Consortium
A group of companies within a particular industry establishing an exchange connecting each of them and their suppliers. (Mockler et al., 2006)
Consortium Exchange
A group formed by companies in the same industry, bringing their supply chains together for the purpose of facilitating transactions among themselves over the Internet. (Aigbedo, 2005)
Construct Bias
Occurs when a construct measured is not equivalent across cultures both at a conceptual level and at an operational level. (Karahanna et al., 2005)
Constrained Movement
Movement (of a moving object) that is conined according to a set of spatial restrictions. (Vassilakopoulos & Corral, 2005)
Constraint
1: As basic knowledge units, the constraints in engineering design are referred to the documents-related engineering design decision, which encompasses source, motivation, rationale, consequences, and a log of the various changes and updates they have undergone. (Ma, 2006) 2: Extensions to the semantics of a UML element. These allow the inclusion of rules that indicate permitted ranges or conditions on an element. (Gur u, 2005) 3: A way to restrict certain kinds of user interaction that can take place at a given moment. (Yong, 2005)
Constructionism
1: A pedagogy based on learners designing and creating some of their own learning materials and representations. (Collis & Moonen, 2005b) 2: A set of theories that deines the human beings as active constructors of their own learning and development. This learning and development of knowledge happens more effectively when individuals are involved in the construction of something external, something that can be shared, or both. (Ramos & Carvalho, 2005) 3: Asserts that (social) actors socially construct reality. (Carlsson, 2005) 4: An educational theory arguing
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that the student constructs his/her own knowledge on the domain, rather than acquiring certain behaviors on how to interact with it. (Athanasis & Andreas, 2005) 5: Knowledge is constructed by the learner through experiential learning and interactions with the environment and the learners personal workspace. (Ally, 2005b) 6: A form of learning in which students construct their own unique understanding of a subject through a process that includes social interaction, so that the learner can explain understandings, receive feedback from teachers and other students, clarify meanings, and reach a group consensus. (Grasso & Leng, 2005) 7: A learning theory based on the premise that students construct their own learning based on their own experiences. (Burrage & Pelton, 2005) 8: A learning theory that knowledge is constructed by the learner through experience-based activities. (Judd, 2005) 9: A learning theory that posits people construct knowledge by modifying their existing concepts in light of new evidence and experience. Development of knowledge is unique for each learner and is colored by the learners background and experiences. (Stodel et al., 2005) 10: A theory of learning and knowing that holds that learning is an active process of knowledge construction in which learners build on prior knowledge and experience to shape meaning and construct new knowledge. (Bieber et al., 2005) 11: A theory of learning based on the idea that knowledge is constructed as learners attempt to make sense of their experiences. It is assumed that learners are not empty vessels waiting to be illed, but rather active organisms seeking meaning: regardless of what is being learned, learners form, elaborate, and test candidate mental structures until a satisfactory one emerges. (Vat, 2005a) 12: A theory of learning that asserts that learning results from learners actively interacting with their learning environment rather than passively receiving information. (Pelton & Pelton, 2005) 13: A very prominent learning theory that postulates that learning is a process essentially involving activity and involvement through which learners construct their own knowledge and skills. This naturally seems to imply that overhearers cannot learn from a learning dialogue. The theory of vicarious learning does not reject constructivism, but suggests that activity and involvement can arise cognitively through phenomena of empathy, and hence that vicarious participation in dialogue can also foster constructive processes. (J.R. Lee, 2005) 14: An educational approach that takes the view that knowledge must be constructed within the cognitive structure of each individual. (Banks, 2005) 15: An educational theory arguing that students construct their own knowledge on the domain, rather than acquiring
certain behaviors on how to interact with it. (Karoulis & Pombortsis, 2005a)
Constructivist
Relating to a learning environment where the learner interacts with objects and events, thereby gaining an understanding of the features held of such objects or events. (Blicker, 2005)
Constructivist Learning
1: A learning philosophy that contends that learning occurs in incremental steps, leveraging on the previous knowledge of the learner about the topic. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005b) 2: A model for learning based on the widely held notion that individuals construct their own knowledge of, and meaning for, the world around them. (Pritchard, 2005b)
Constructivist Methodology
A teaching method based on the works of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky by which the instructor helps the student construct meaning rather than simply lecturing. This method is learner centered and learner driven. (Trammell, 2005)
Constructivist Perspective
A perspective on learning that places emphasis on learners as building their own internal and individual representation of knowledge. (Torrisi-Steele, 2005)
Constructivist Theory
A theoretical framework developed by Jerome Bruner where learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current or past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. (Sala, 2005b)
Consultancy
The process of helping organizations to better understand complex processes through their knowledge and experience, and provide solutions to achieve the objectives.
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Consum e r Cont e nt
Consultants may help organizations in the whole ERP lifecycle. The usage of external consultants will depend on the internal know-how that the organization has at the moment. (Esteves & Pastor, 2005)
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Interactions between customers/consumers of a businesss product/service are said to follow a C2C format. In common usage of the term C2C, the distinction between customers (purchasers of a product/service) and consumers (end users of a product/service) is not rigorously made. (Baim, 2006a)
Consumer
1: A person who buys goods/services and uses them personally instead of selling them. (Shan et al., 2006a) 2: Of an e-service is a user of the service, possibly by paying a fee. (Yee & Korba, 2006) 3: The consumer in the health care system is the patient. (Rada, 2006)
Consumption Mode
Determines which event instances are considered for iring rules. The two most common modes are recent and chronicle. (Cilia, 2005)
Consumer Context
The setting in which certain consumer behavior occurs. It can be classiied conceptually into need context and supply context, and physically into internal context, proximate context, and distal context. (Sun & Poole, 2005)
Contact
The ability to exchange information directly with another individual. (St.Amant, 2005d)
Contact Point
Used to describe a reference from one medium to another. (Uden, 2005)
Consumer Credit
A loan to an individual to purchase goods and services for personal, family, or household use. (de Carvalho et al., 2005)
Container Model
Knowledge lows directly from the teacher to the learner, independently of the learners environment. (Frank et al., 2005)
Consumer Experience
Such as increased customization, convenience in purchasing, responsiveness in product delivery, and so on. (Shih & Fang, 2006)
Containment Query
A query based on the containment and proximity relationships among elements, attributes, and their contents. (Chen, 2005b)
Consumer Religio-Centrism
Individuals who are so strongly committed to their speciic religious group (Christian, Muslim, etc.) that their buying preferences consist of purchases from companies owned or operated by individuals with their same religious beliefs. (Carstens, 2005)
Content
1: An amount of well-presented subject information in text, graphics, or multimedia formats (portals, Web sites, e-mailings, news lines, etc.) built around a speciic structure, based on established information standards, and targeted to a speciic online audience. (Arkhypska et al., 2005) 2: Corporate knowledge stored in any form (paper, data, reports, correspondence, e-mail, multimedia, etc.). (Sarmento, 2005) 3: High-quality online content is considered to be comprehensive, authentic/industrydriven, and researched. (MacDonald et al., 2005) 4: Online material or services that are relevant, useful, and timely for the community and that are made available in appropriate and affordable ways. (Williamson, 2005) 5: The information, such as thoughts, ideas, and so forth, that someone wishes to communicate. Importantly, content is what is to be communicated but not how it is to be communicated. (Polovina & Pearson, 2006) 6: The
Consumer-to-Administration (C2A)
Data interchange between citizens and government bodies, typically using an Internet Web site; a component of egovernment. (Whiteley, 2006)
Consumer-to-Business
An e-commerce system that deals with the carrying out of commercial transactions with businesses or with individual customers by using the Internet as an electronic medium. Requires an extensive infrastructure of which the main features are a catalogue, online ordering facilities, and status checking facilities. See Business-to-Consumer (B2C). (Mller, 2005)
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various genres of information available on the Internet. For instance, local content is information that is speciic to a community, neighborhood, or area, such as businesses, housing, neighborhood services, and recreation activities. Community content is information about the neighborhood that promotes community development and facilitates community building. Examples include a listing of places where GED courses are offered, or a newsletter. Culturally relevant content is information that is signiicant to people with different cultural backgrounds. (Kvasny & Payton, 2005)
training content for specialists only may be an assembly. (Honkaranta & Tyrvinen, 2005)
Content Compression
A term that describes approaches in which parts of a continuous media ile are removed in order to speed up replay and data browsing or to automatically generate summaries or abstracts of the ile. In relation to speech signals, content-compression techniques often shorten the signals by removing parts that have been identiied as less relevant or unimportant based on pause detection and analysis of the emphasis used by the speakers. (Hrst & Lauer, 2006)
Content Aggregation
A set of existing content units collected together for a speciic use purpose. An aggregation may contain several versions of the same unit of content, and its creation may require human involvement. (Honkaranta & Tyrvinen, 2005)
Enjoyment of message speciics. Content can mean information, and often does, though it also includes entertainment in the form of medium-carried programming. (Stafford, 2005)
Content Gratiication
Content Aggregator
A business that transforms individuated content into speciic and customer-tailored forms. (Rlke et al., 2005)
Content Analysis
1: Identifying categories of statements and counting the number of items in the text that appear in the categories. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005a) 2: Objective, systematic, and quantitative analysis of communication content. The unit of measure can be the single words, sentences, or themes. In order to raise the reliability, two or more coders should apply. (Pace, 2005)
Content Management
1: Implementation of a managed repository for digital assets such as documents, fragments of documents, images, and multimedia that are published to intranet and Internet WWW sites. (Asprey & Middleton, 2005) 2: Management of Web pages as assisted by software; Web page bureaucracy. (N.C. Rowe, 2005a) 3: Tools, methods, and processes to develop, implement, and evaluate the management of content intended mainly for human comprehension. Content has a lifecycle, and its management involves associated metadata. (Honkaranta & Tyrvinen, 2005)
Content Assembly
A collection of existing or new units of content which may be manipulated to produce content for a publication or for a speciic target audience. May be produced (semi)automatically or involve manual processing. A portion of
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Content Server
Allows publication and management of Web content for portals and Web applications, with forms-based publishing, templates, and worklow. (Wojtkowski, 2006)
1: Software used to manage the content of a Web site. Typically a CMS consists of two elementsthe content management application and the content delivery application. Typical CMS features include Web-based publishing, format management, revision control, indexing, and search and retrieval. (Chapman, 2005a) 2: Software that enables one to add and/or manipulate content on a Web site. (Du Mont, 2005) 3: A system used to collect, manage, and publish the content of a Web site, storing the content either as components or as whole documents, while maintaining the links between components. (Arkhypska et al., 2005) 4: Provides tools for organizing, delivering, and sharing documents and images. Usually used in conjunction with CSCW systems or worklow systems. (Pinheiro, 2005) See also Document Management System.
Content Unit
The object with which the management metadata is associated. May be a document, a ile, a component, or a section of a document, among others. (Honkaranta & Tyrvinen, 2005)
Content Scalability
The removal or alteration of certain subsets of the total coded bit stream to satisfy the usage environment, while providing a useful representation of the original content. (Knight & Angelides, 2005)
Content-Based Retrieval
1: An application that directly makes use of the contents of media rather than annotation inputted by the human to locate desired data in large databases. (Wei & Li, 2005) 2: An important retrieval method for multimedia data which uses the low-level features (automatically) extracted from the data as the indexes to match with queries. Content-based image retrieval is a good example. The speciic low-level features used depend on the data type: color, shape, and texture features are common features for images, while kinetic energy and motion vectors are used to describe video data. Correspondingly, a query also can be represented in terms of features so that it can be matched against the
Content Seeding
Adding identiiers and metadata to content units or their parts to enable computerized assemblies and aggregations on the content. (Honkaranta & Tyrvinen, 2005)
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data. (Li, Yang, & Zhuang, 2005) 3: Method for automatic multimedia content features extraction. (Hentea, 2005c) 4: Retrieval based on image content. This includes retrieval based on image color, texture, shape and position of salient objects, dominant edges of image items, and regions. (Chang, 2005) 5: The search for suitable objects in a database based on the content; often used to retrieve multimedia data. (Bretschneider & Kao, 2005)
Context
1: An individual construct that emerges as an individual encounters a situation, including others and artifacts, as it is the individuals interpretation of a situation that results in context. (Shariq & Vendel, 2006) 2: Describes the working environment and atmosphere including policies, work hours, work climate, and work goals. (Schoenfeld & Berge, 2005) 3: Everythingsocial, cultural, political, and historical factorsthat surrounds a particular event. These are the forces of inluence at play when the event actually occurs. Greater knowledge of the context of a thing leads to a deeper understanding of and a more balanced perspective on its nature. (Kasi & Jain, 2006) 4: A mathematical model or group of mathematical models within which a piece of mathematical knowledge is understood. (Farmer, 2006) 5: The information that characterizes the interaction between humans, applications, and the surrounding environment. Context can be decomposed into three categories: (1) computing context (e.g., network connectivity, communication cost); (2) user context (e.g., user proile, location, nearby people); and (3) physical context (e.g., lighting, noise levels). (Maamar, 2005) 6: A triple (G, M, I) where G is a set of objects, M is a set of features, and I is a binary relation between G and M such that gIm, if and only if object g possesses the feature m. (Saquer, 2005) 7: A triple (T, I, D) where T and I are sets and DTI. The elements of T are called objects, and the elements of I are called attributes. For any tT and iI, note tDi when t is related to i, that is, (t, i)D. (Dumitriu, 2005) 8: All information about the current users situation. (Abramowicz, Bana kiewicz, Wieloch, & ebrowski, 2006)
Context Lens
A visual classiication scheme for a set of documents that can be dynamically updated. The classiication scheme is arranged in a tree hierarchy to facilitate browsing. (Corral, LaBrie, & St. Louis, 2006)
Content-Centric Networks
A network where various functionalities such as naming, addressing, routing, storage, and so forth are designed based on the content. This is in contrast with classical networks that are node-centric. (Shahabi & BanaeiKashani, 2005)
Context Query
Represents the short-term user information needs. It is created each time a business user launches a data warehouse report. The context query consists of three parts: subject constraints, time constraints, and semantic constraints. Subject constraints deine the warehouse objects that are part of the report. Time constraints are represented by the actual time range grasped by the most current state of the report. Semantic constraints are represented as a set of CSL-based weighted keywords. The context query is
Content-Driven Service
A television service to be provided depending on the content. (Hulicki, 2005)
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executed on the data warehouse library, and personalized results are immediately returned to the user. (Wecel et al., 2005)
Context-Speciic Aspects
Covers the most important factors that shaped and become characteristics of organizational dynamics such as culture, business strategies, organization of work, management practices, current technology, workforce competency level, and working processes, among others. (Rentroia-Bonito, Jorge, & Ghaoui, 2006)
Context-Aware Computing
A system that has information about the circumstances under which it is operating and can react/make assumptions accordingly. A Vehicular Telematics System (VTS) has a lot of information about its context, such as localization, user behaviors, vehicle operative state, and so forth. (Costagliola, Di Martino, & Ferrucci, 2006a)
Context-Aware Technology
Technology that enables the collection, delivery, and utilization of user context information. As key enablers of a system-initiated wireless emergency service, contextaware technologies mainly include sensor-device and sensor-network technologies. (Sun, 2005)
Contextual Design
A human-centered methodology for designing information systems from a rich understanding of customer work practice. (Notess, 2005)
Context-Awareness
Makes applications aware of the dynamic changes in the execution environment. The execution context includes but is not limited to mobile user location, mobile device characteristics, network condition, and user activity. (Kunz & Gaddah, 2005)
Contextual Information
Refers to several possible aspects of the core message: the situation in which the message was produced, the situation in which it is anticipated to be received, an explanation about a statement, an explanation of how to go about executing a request for action, or the underlying assumptions about an argument. (Teeni, 2006)
Context-Dependent Learning
The learning both of knowledge and of the way one behaves in speciic scenarios in a realistic life context (preferably one that relates directly to past and future experiences of the learner). It allows the learning of terrain, procedures and processes, events, and almost anything else by doing rather than a priori. (Ariely, 2006b)
Contextual Inquiry
1: A ield research method for observing real work practice in its natural environment and then co-interpreting the data with the person observed. The irst step in contextual design. (Notess, 2005) 2: Interviewing users in the context of their activities while they work and learn. (Neale et al., 2005) 3: This interface design method employs an ethnographic approach such as observing user activities in a realistic context. (Chan & Fang, 2005)
Context-Mechanism-Outcome Pattern
Realist evaluation researchers orient their thinking to context-mechanism-outcome (CMO) pat ter n conigurations. A CMO coniguration is a proposition stating what it is about an IS initiative that works, for whom, and in what circumstances. A reined CMO coniguration is the inding of IS evaluation research. (Carlsson, 2005)
Contextual Knowledge
Knowledge of the contexts in which organizational tasks are performed. Depending on the task, this knowledge may be entirely internal to the organization or it may require acquaintance with many extra-organizational contextsfor example, markets, legal contexts, and legislative contexts. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Context-Sensitive HCI
Human-computer interaction in which the computers context with respect to nearby humans (i.e., who the current user is, where the user is, what the users current task is, and how the user feels) is automatically sensed, interpreted, and used to enable the computer to act or respond appropriately. (Pantic, 2005a)
Contextual Metadata
Information describing the context where the object of the contextual metadata is created. The contextual metadata can cover, for example, information about the producers
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education. A tool to support professional development in changing work life based on the principle of life-long learning. (Lammintakanen & Rissanen, 2005b)
Contextualism
Integrates process, content, and context to study organizational decision making. (Chou et al., 2005)
Continuous Animation
Animated objects deployed on a Web site to catch a visitors attention to an advertising message or to attempt to entertain visitors. (Gao et al., 2006)
Contextualizing Logic
Method to formally represent knowledge associated with a particular circumstance on which it has the intended meaning. (Alonso-Jimnez et al., 2005)
Continuous Auditing
Type of auditing that produces audit results simultaneously, or a short period of time after, the occurrence of relevant events. (Garrity et al., 2005)
Continuous Data
Data that can assume all values on the number line within their value range. The values are obtained by measuring. An example is temperature. (Yang & Webb, 2005)
Continuation Pattern
A pattern in technical analysis that suggests, on the balance of probabilities, that price trend will continue in its current direction. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Continuing Education
1: Any form of learning provided for adults to supplement previous education or knowledge. (Ryan, 2005) 2: The process of learning that continues beyond the formal years of education and/or outside the formal curriculum. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005b) 3: Education after professional
Continuous System
A system whose state variables show its behavior change continuously with respect to time. Hence, the behavior of the system is seen as changing continuously over time. Such
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systems are usually modeled using differential equations. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005)
Contribution-Oriented Pedagogy
1: An approach to learning in which students regularly contribute material they have found, created, or adapted to a common Web environment, where the contributions are assessed as part of the course requirements and where the contributions are further made use of by other students in further learning activities. (Collis & Moonen, 2005b) 2: Learning scenario in which learners ind or create products and make these available as learning resources to others. (Collis & Moonen, 2005a)
Continuous-Time Signal
Deined along a continuum of time t and thus represented by continuous independent variables, for example xc(t). Continuous-time signals are often referred to as analog signals. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005b)
Contour Map
A line connecting points of equal elevation on topographic surface. The contour map depicts continuous distribution of the phenomena on earth surface. (Ali et al., 2005)
Contract Right
The right that an individual has by reason of a valid contract that imposes duties on the other contracting party or parties. Enforceable under legal systems, but not the same as a citizen right. (Gilbert, 2005)
Control Measure
A response taken by e-marketplace irms to manage, reduce, mitigate, and eliminate a risk. (Ratnasingam, 2005)
Contract Theory
A theory dealing with aspects of negotiation and contracting between two or more parties. (Heucke et al., 2005)
Contrast Set
Similar to an Emerging Pattern, it is also an itemset whose support differs across groups. The main difference is the methods application as an exploratory technique rather than as a classiication one. (Butler & Webb, 2005)
Contribution
A piece of knowledge about an issue. Represents a participants view, idea, perspective, thought, or opinion. A contribution should be about 4-10 words in length, to ensure it is understandable when read, but not too wordy. (Shaw, 2006)
Control Packet
A control packet is sent in a separated channel and contains routing and scheduling information to be processed at the electronic level before the arrival of the corresponding data burst. Also called Burst Header Packet or Setup Message. (Rodrigues et al., 2005)
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Control Room
A special location in a plant where operators can monitor a process in great detail without having to physically be looking at it. This is particularly useful in dangerous environments. (Adam & Pomerol, 2005)
Controlled Indexing
Objects may be indexed using controlled vocabularies, hierarchies, or classiications. (Gaedke et al., 2005)
(Blomqvist, 2005) 2: The occurrence taking place with computing and telecommunications that emphasizes the preeminence of computer-based information and telecommunications networks. (Ochoa-Morales, 2005) 3: The process of coming together or the state of having come together toward a common point. (M. Mitchell, 2005a) 4: Uniting the functions of heterogeneous technologies with different features to form a homogeneous service bundle. (Blecker, 2006a)
Controlled MA
A class of coordinated centralized or distributed collisionfree multiple-access protocols. (Markhasin et al., 2005)
Convergence Factor
Measures the rate at which cross-platform populations increase as penetration of platforms increases. The convergence factor is derived from the penetrations of the three platforms multiplied by each other. (Pagani, 2005b)
Controlled Vocabulary
1: A limited menu of words from which metadata like captions must be constructed. (N.C. Rowe, 2005b) 2: A set of standard terms that restricts synonyms to allow for maximum results when used with automated searching. (Leath, 2005)
Convergence Index
An index representing the critical digital mass of consumers; it estimates the number of consumers likely to be present across all three platforms by the simple expedient of taking the population of each territory and multiplying it by the triple-platform penetration factor. (Pagani, 2005b)
Controlling
Monitoring performance, comparing results to goals, and taking corrective action. Controlling is a process of gathering and interpreting performance feedback as a basis for constructive action and change. (Cragg & Suraweera, 2005)
Controls
Countermeasures for vulnerabilities. (Tong & Wong, 2005a)
Converged Network
A network that carries diverse types of trafic, such as real-time voice and video, Web browsing, trafic generated in grid computing, networked virtual environments, and so forth. (DaSilva, 2005)
Convergence
1: In the ICT industry, convergence at the irm level means that irms cooperate to combine their different knowledge bases. Also industries, such as communications and media industries can be said to converge if focal actors leverage knowledge from two previously separated industries.
Conversational System
A system that can communicate with users through a conversational paradigm. (Lorenzi & Ricci, 2005)
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COO Cell/Origin
A positioning technique that determines a mobile users location by identifying a cell in which the persons mobile device is registered. Also known as Cell Global Identity (CGI). (Fraunholz et al., 2005)
Cookie
1: A message generated and sent by a Web server to a Web browser after a page has been requested from the server. The browser stores this cookie in a text ile, and this cookie then is sent back to the server each time a Web page is requested from the server. (Nasraoui, 2005) 2: A small amount of information that the Web site server requests the users browser to save on the users machine. (Sockel & Chen, 2005) 3: A general mechanism that server-side connections (such as CGI scripts) can use to both store and retrieve information on the client side of the connection. The addition of a simple, persistent, client-side state signiicantly extends the capabilities of Web-based client/server applications. (Chim, 2006) 4: Information, usually including a username, Internet address, and the current date and time, placed on the hard drive of a person using the World Wide Web by a Web site that one has visited. This information can be used to identify visitors who have registered or viewed the site, but also to report the visitors unrelated Web activity, or worse, personal information stored by the user. (Friedman, 2005) 5: A short string of text that is sent from a Web server to a Web browser when the browser accesses a Web page. The information stored in a cookie includes the cookie name, the unique identiication number, the expiration date, and the domain. (Mullen, 2005) 6: A string of text that a Web browser sends to you while you are visiting a Web page. It is saved on your hard drive, and it saves information about you or your computer. The next time you visit this Web site, the information saved in this cookie is sent back to the Web browser to identify you. (T. Stern, 2005) 7: A text ile created by a Web server and stored on a users hard disk that contains data about a Web site that has been visited. (Szewczak, 2005)
group dividing the work so that each member of the group completes a portion of the project. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005b) 4: Acting together, in a coordinated way at work or in social relationships, in the pursuit of shared goals, the enjoyment of the joint activity, or simply furthering the relationship. (Sala, 2005b) 5: Occurs when one species works with another in order to achieve an outcome beneicial to one or both. Proto-cooperation is the situation in which both beneit by the cooperation, but can survive without it. Mutualism occurs when each beneits and cannot otherwise survive. Commensalism occurs when two species habitually live together, one species being beneited by this arrangement and the other unharmed by it. (Tatnall & Davey, 2005)
Cooperative Agent
Usually each agent participating in an agent system does not solve the whole problem by itself, but only a small subproblem for which it has the required competence. By means of cooperation with other agents, the whole problem is inished. While cooperating, an agent has to bid for solving some aspect of the problem or negotiates with other agents for the distribution of tasks. (Barolli & Koyama, 2005b)
Cooperative Learning
1: A structure of interaction designed to facilitate the accomplishment of a speciic end product or goal through people working together in groups. (Berg, 2005f) 2: A learning situation in which students work together in small groups and receive rewards or recognition based on their groups performance. (Sala, 2005b) 3: Learning where students are required to work in small groups, usually under the direct guidance of the instructor, who may set speciic tasks and objectives for each session. (McInnerney & Roberts, 2005)
Cooperation
1: A group of people working on a common global task. (Villemur & Drira, 2006) 2: Cooperative groups work together on group projects in ways that do not necessarily result in high-quality interaction, and new products and knowledge. A typical cooperative strategy is to divide up the work among the members and stitch the various contributions together at the end of the project. (Ingram, 2005) 3: Group effort characterized by individuals in a
Cooperative Marketing
The act of working together to conduct activities associated with buying and selling products or services. (Hornby, 2005)
Coopetition
1: A situation where organizations, usually SMEs, are cooperating with each other and at the same time they are
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also competing against each other. (Mason et al., 2006) 2: Simultaneous existence and relevance of cooperation and competition. (Loebbecke & Angehrn, 2006)
Coopetive Network
A structured network of N organizations that are in simultaneous competition and cooperation (e.g., the VISA network). This network type is characterized by a decentralized structure, high competition, and a common scope of operations among members. (Priestley, 2006)
between human agents and the overall organization of work. Organizations should understand the nature of coordination, establish what kinds of structures of organizations already exist, and discover the appropriate coordination processes. (Nichols & Chen, 2006)
Coordinate System
A reference system used to gauge horizontal and vertical distances on a planimetric map. It is usually deined by a map projection, a spheroid of reference, a datum, one or more standard parallels, a central meridian, and possible shifts in the x- and y-directions to locate x, y positions of point, line, and area features (e.g., in ARC/INFO GIS system, a system with units and characteristics deined by a map projection). A common coordinate system is used to spatially register geographic data for the same area. (Al-Hanbali & Sadoun, 2006)
Coordination
1: Enabling and controlling the cooperation among members of a group of human or software-distributed agents. It can be considered as software glue for groupware tools, including architectural and behavioral issues. Coordination includes several synchronization and management services. (Villemur & Drira, 2006) 2: The act of working together harmoniously. It consists of the protocols, tasks, and decision-making mechanisms designed to achieve concrete actions between interdependent units. (Daassi & Favier, 2006) 3: The activity and effort associated with the information processing tasks of an organization. (Nissen & Levitt, 2006)
Copresence
1: Copresence can only take place with a system where you have the sense of being in another place or environment other than the one you are physically in, and being there with another person. (Champion, 2006a) 2: The coming together of people (face-to face), people with objects (faceto-object), or people with places (face-to-place) in time and space. (Jain & Lyons, 2005)
Copyleft
1: A non-exclusive, publicly accorded legal license backed by copyright law that permits derivative works from the copyright holders licensed works, on the condition that licensees relicense their works to the public under a similarly liberal copyleft. (Okoli & Carillo, 2006) 2: A term coined by Richard Stallman, leader of the free software movement and creator of the General Public License, or GPL. The key tenet of the GPL, which copyleft describes, is that software licensed under it can be freely copied, distributed, and modiied. Hence, this software is copyleft, or the opposite of copyright. It insures that there are no protections or restrictions when copyright insures the opposite. (St.Amant & Still, 2005) 3: Provision in the GNU General Public License that forces any derived work based on software covered by the GPL to be covered by the GPL; that is, the author of a derived work must make
Coordination of Commitments
The actions by humans leading to the completion of work. Coordination is described in terms of contracts and promises consisting of recurring loops of requesting, making, and fulilling commitments. (Janssen, 2005)
Coordination of Tasks
The management of dependencies between tasks. (Janssen, 2005)
Coordination Theory
Assumes that the introduction and use of information technology will modify both the structure of the interaction
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all source code available and comply with the terms of the GPL. (Fleming, 2005b)
Core Group
The repository of knowledge, inluence, and power in an organization. (Partow-Navid & Slusky, 2005)
Copyright
1: A legal term describing rights given to creators for their literary and artistic works. See World Intellectual Property Organization at www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/copyright.html. (Lowry, Grover, et al., 2005) 2: The bundle of rights that control the copying and use of original works ixed in tangible form. The details of the exact rights granted, their duration, and their ownership all vary between different jurisdictions, but in its simplest form, copyright allows creators of original works control over whether or not their work is copied (either directly or through a derived work) and under what circumstances, including whether or not it is published or made available to the public. In most countries copyright comes into existence automatically when a work is ixed in some tangible form and is not conditional on any notice or formal process. The rights that are granted under copyright can be separated, licensed, sold, or waived entirely at the discretion of the owner (except moral rights in some countries). (Marshall, 2005) 3: Protected right in many jurisdictions that controls ownership over any material of a creative nature originated by an individual or organization. (Fleming, 2005b) 4: The exclusive right given to the creator of an intellectual work of text, audio, video, or software to restrict and control how their work and its derivatives are distributed or exploited for inancial or other beneit. (Okoli & Carillo, 2006)
Core Knowledge
A highly structured, fact-based curriculum based on the work of E.D. Hirsch. (Glick, 2005b)
Corporate Communications
The use by organizations of technology infrastructure and software solutions that empower them to create and deliver communication messages, both internally among employees and externally (outside the organization), to support their business needs and goals; operationally less costly. (Nandavadekar, 2005)
Corporate E-Image
An overall impression held of an e-vendor by its customers at a particular point in time. This, in turn, is the net result of consumers experiences with an organization, both online and off-line, and from the processing of information on the attributes that constitute functional indicators of image. (Yeo & Chiam, 2006)
Copyright Protection
A mechanism to ensure that no additional replication takes place if the entity/work is sold or licensed with a ixed number of copies. (Sattar & Yu, 2006)
Corporate I.Q.
An enterprises capability of connectivity (internal link and link with its partners), sharing (data and information shared among its personnel and its partners), and structuring (ability to extract knowledge from information and raw data). (Joia, 2005)
Corporate Knowledge
The knowledge owned by an organizationits databases, technology, beliefs, culture, structure, processes, and procedures. The organization has access to, but does not own, the knowledge of employees, and through research acquires knowledge of the external environment. (Mitchell, 2005a)
Core Competency
Organizational capabilities or strengthswhat an organization does best. (Petska & Berge, 2005)
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under the form of a general and shared corporate memory, that is, of an online, computer-based storehouse of expertise, experience, and documentation about all the strategic aspects of the organization. Given that this corporate knowledge is mainly represented under the form of narrative documents, the possibility of having at ones disposal tools for an effective management of these documents becomes an essential condition for the concrete setup and for the intelligent exploitation of non-trivial corporate memories. (Zarri, 2006c)
Correction Symbol
A symbol used to indicate a speciic grammatical error. (Wu & Chen, 2005)
Corrective Feedback
Visual, auditory, or tactile indications that the student stated the incorrect response. This type of feedback supplies the correct response, reteaches skills, and retests student learning. It also includes some type of encouragement, such as Try again! (Lazarus, 2005a)
Correlation
1: Amount of relationship between two variables, how they change relative to each other, range: -1 to +1. (Morantz, 2005) 2: Describes the strength or degree of linear relationship. That is, correlation lets us specify to what extent the two variables behave alike or vary together. Correlation analysis is used to assess the simultaneous variability of a collection of variables. For instance, suppose one wants to study the simultaneous changes with age of height and weight for a population. Correlation analysis describes how the change in height can inluence the change in weight. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005b)
Corporate Portal/Corportal
An online corporate Web site based on the model of an enterprise information portal. An enterprise information portal acts as a single gateway to a companys information and knowledge base for employees, and sometimes its customers and business partners as well. (Ruhi, 2006)
Correlation Coeficient
A statistical method of measuring the strength of a linear relationship between two variables. (Benrud, 2005)
Correspondence Course
1: A course in which instruction and assessment are conducted through the postal mail. (Lazarus, 2005b) 2: Am education course typically offered via postal service. (Schifter, 2005)
Corporate University
A university-style campus set up by a company to provide tailored learning, training, and development activities for its staff. Corporate universities typically offer qualiications at various levels. (Gordon & Lin, 2005)
Correspondence Education
1: Delivery of class lessons by mail. (Witta, 2005) 2: The form of distance education that is paper based; communication between teacher and students is by correspondence, not face-to-face. (Rogers & Howell, 2005)
Corporeal Mobility
Bodily movement between places such as by car, rail, or foot. (Jain & Lyons, 2005)
Corrupted Party
A party that participates in a protocol while under the control of the adversary. (Lindell, 2005)
Corpus
Any systematic collection of speech or writing in a language or variety of a language. A corpus is often large and diverse, and can be classiied according to contexts or styles tagged and indexed for speciic features. (Ahmad & Al-Sayed, 2006)
Cosine Measure
The vector angle between two documents that is used as a measure of similarity. (Chang, 2005)
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Cost Center
Administrative unit of an institution identiied in terms of its responsibility for a given set of costs (rather than identiied in terms of its functions per se). Cost center costing looks at aggregate charges to individual units rather than costs for particular activities which, per ABC costing, may be distributed across numerous cost centers. (Fisher, 2005)
South Paciic Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), the Paciic Island Development Program (PIDP), the South Paciic Tourism Organization (SPTO), the University of the South Paciic (USP), the Fiji School of Medicine (FSchM), the South Paciic Board for Educational Assessment (SPBEA), and the Forum Secretariat which acts as CROPs permanent chair. (Hassall, 2005)
Cost-Beneit Study
A kind of policy study that aims to identify the ratio of costs to beneits for a given activity or set of activities, and so indicate whether the beneits merit the costs. (Fisher, 2005)
Coupling
1: A measure of strength of association established by the communication link between two objects. (Polgar, 2005b) 2: Used to measure the extent to which interdependencies exist between software modules: the higher the interdependencies, the higher the coupling. It implies that if you want to reuse one component, you will also have to import all the ones with which it is coupled. (Wan et al., 2006)
Cost-Effectiveness Study
A kind of policy study that aims to identify the ratio of costs to effectiveness for a given set of alternative activities or interventions, and to indicate whether that ratio is more favorable for one alternative or another. (Fisher, 2005)
Coupling Mode
The mode specifying the transactional relationship between a rules triggering event, the evaluation of its condition, and the execution of its action. (Cilia, 2005)
Cost-Sensitive Classiication
The error of a misclassiication depends on the type of the misclassiication. For example, the error of misclassifying Class 1 as Class 2 may not be the same as the error of misclassifying Class 1 as Class 3. (Zhou & Wang, 2005)
COTS: See Commercial Off-the-Shelf. Course Content Council for Higher Education Agency (CHEA)
A private, nonproit national organization. It is the largest institutional higher education membership organization in the United States with approximately 3,000 colleges and universities. (Rhoten, 2006b) The main themes covered in a course. (Martz & Reddy, 2005)
Course Design
Decisions regarding objectives and the most effective methods of ensuring that students accomplish the objectives. (C. Cavanaugh, 2005)
Course Development
The actual production of the software version of a course for online delivery and the supporting instructional
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materials. Faculty involved in the development of online courses are often required to have technology-speciic knowledge and skillsdigitizing, converting ile formats, operation of speciic software programs, and programming. (Sales, 2005)
of the functions associated with offering and managing an online course, so students and faculty members have only one program to use. (Johnstone, S.M., 2005) 6: An integrated course environment (e.g., WebCT, Blackboard) that includes components such as e-mail, discussion group, chat, grade book for delivery, and management of instruction. (Hazari, 2006) 7: An integrated learning tool or package that facilitates the tracking and monitoring of student online learning in a technology setting. (Bonk et al., 2005)
Course Partnership
Course-based industry-university partnerships, where a course is designed so that the concepts and theory discussed in class are applied in team course projects geared at solving immediate problems at the company partner. (Kock, 2005)
Course-Material Structure
As the course materials can be stored in XML (extensible markup language) format, which offers a tree-like or hierarchical structure, the prevailing relationships inside the course materials are of parent-to-child, which facilitates easier addition or removal of the course-material nodes or documents. Through techniques like Synchronized Media Integration Language (SMIL), multimedia data can not only be played on the Internet, but can also run in a synchronized manner. (Leung & Li, 2005)
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Course-Withdrawal
CPM: See Corporate Performance Management. CPN: See Capacity Provisioning Network. CPS: See Creative Problem Solving. CQ: See Continuous Query. CQI: See Continuous Quality Improvement.
The act of a student who withdraws from a course after the oficial drop-out deadline. (Chyung, 2005)
Courseware
Any type of instructional or educational course delivered via a software program or over the Internet. (SnchezSegura et al., 2005)
Courseware Technology
The set of tools and packages that facilitate student learning either as individuals or as members of groups. (Bonk et al., 2005)
CQL: See Continuous Query Language. CR: See Computed Radiography. Crackers
Coined in the 1980s by hackers wanting to distinguish themselves from someone who intentionally breaches computer security for proit, malice, or because the challenge is there. Some breaking-and-entering has been done ostensibly to point out weaknesses in a security system. (Tassabehji, 2005a)
Covariance Matrix
The square n x n of which the entries are the pairwise correlations of the variables of a random vector of length n; the (i,j)th entry is the correlation between the ith and the jth variables. (Zelasco et al., 2005)
Cover Story
A lie that is used to hide the existence of high classiied data. (Gabillon, 2005)
Craft/Alchemy
The intuitive and holistic grasp of a body of knowledge or skill relating to complex processes, often without the basis of rational explanation. (Nicholls, 2006)
Cover Work
The host media in which a message is to be inserted or embedded. (K. Chen, 2005)
Crawler/Spider Cover-Medium
A medium that does not contain any message. (Lou et al., 2006) 1: A program that automatically scans various Web sites and collects Web documents from them. It follows the links on a site to ind other relevant pages and is usually used to feed pages to search engines. (Hu, Yang, Lee, et al., 2005) 2: Program that downloads and stores Web pages. A crawler starts off with the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for an initial page, extracts any URLs in it, and adds them to a queue to scan recursively. (Fernndez & Layos, 2005)
Covering Constraint
A constraint that states that the entity types that compose a category, taken together, contain all the elements of the category. (Mani & Badia, 2005)
Covert Channel
1: An unintended communications path that can be used to transfer information in a manner that violates the security policy. (Gabillon, 2005) 2: A channel that is not meant to route information, but nevertheless does. (Haraty, 2005b)
Creation
1: An interaction between individuals that includes the exchange of tacit and explicit knowledge. (Lindsey, 2006) 2: The ability and opportunity for communities to create and publish their own online content that actively relects their own position and that is inherently counter-hegemonic. (Williamson, 2005)
CPE: See Customer Premise Equipment. CPFR: See Collaborative Planning, Forecasting, and
Replenishment.
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Creative Abrasion
The meeting of minds on common ground to explore and negotiate different opinions and, as a result, generate new ideas. (Chua, 2006)
and temporarily store candidate assets until a inal decision can be made. (Subramanian, 2005)
Creativity
1: The ability to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others. (Sala, 2005b) 2: The production of something new or original that is useful; the act of creating recombining ideas or seeing new relationships among them. Creativity is usually deined in terms of either a process or a product and at times has also been deined in terms of a kind of personality or environmental press. These are four Ps of creativity: process, product, person, and press. (TorresCoronas & Gasc-Hernndez, 2005) 3: In the context of discovery, creativity is the ability to generate or recognize ideas and alternatives that might be useful in solving problems. There are several aspects of creativity, including creative product or value, creative person/people, creative environment, creative symbols, and creative process. (Aurum, 2005)
Creative Learning
A type of learning that improves the ability to be creative and to develop original, diverse, or elaborate ideas. (Sala, 2005b)
Creative Observation
A phenomenon that pertains to Field Creation. This form of observation involves conventional notions of participant observation, with one important difference: that which is being observed has, in fact, been created by the observer, either alone or in conjunction with collaborators. See CoConstruction. (Forte, 2005)
Credibility
1: A characteristic of information sources that inluences message persuasiveness, attitudes toward the information source, and behaviors relevant to message content, consisting of two primary attributes: expertise and trustworthiness. (Danielson, 2006c) 2: The quality of being believable or trustworthy. (Wong, 2005)
Credit
Delivery of a value in exchange of a promise that this value will be paid back in the future. (de Carvalho et al., 2005)
Credit Scoring
A numerical method of determining an applicants loan suitability based on various credit factors, such as types of established credit, credit ratings, residential and occupational stability, and ability to pay back loan. (de Carvalho et al., 2005)
Creative Worklow
Workf low that is more discovery-oriented, hence more volatile and browse intensive. This worklow is characterized by the need to do many interactive searches
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Criteria
Critical Mass
1: A point at which a suficient number of individuals have adopted an interactive communication technology to cause a rapid acceleration in its diffusion. (Chen & Lou, 2005) 2: A subset of the collective that makes the majority of the contributions to the production and maintenance of the public good. (Wasko & Teigland, 2006b) 3: A generative metaphor derived from the natural sciences (in particular nuclear physics) that describes a situation in which a chain reaction is self-sustaining. This metaphor acts as an aide, rather than a proximal cause, to assist the identiication of contributing factors in humanities-based case studies. (Gibbs et al., 2005) 4: The minimal number of adopters of an interactive innovation for the ongoing rate of adoption to be self-sustaining. (Gibbs et al., 2005)
Each goal within the alternative assessment that ties into the instructional objectives of the lesson, unit, or course. (B.L. MacGregor, 2005)
Criterion
The expressed characteristics of an interactive system. The criterion must be valuable, and it denies or supports options. (Lacaze et al., 2006)
Criterion Path
1: A representation of an ideal path to go through a speciic learning environment. It speciies for each possible step in the program what the most ideal subsequent steps are. (Clarebout et al., 2005b) 2: A representation of an ideal path to go through a speciic learning environment. It speciies for each possible step in the program the most ideal subsequent steps. (Clarebout et al., 2005a)
Critical Pedagogy
Focuses on political and economic issues of schooling such as the representation of texts and construction of subjective states of mind in the student; when applied to media education, it begins with an assessment of contemporary culture and the function of media within it. (Berg, 2005a)
Critical Realism
1: Asserts that the study of the social world should be concerned with the identiication of the structures and mechanisms through which events and discourses are generated. (Carlsson, 2005) 2: One branch of social science that developed in the 1970s and which poses fertile intellectual challenges to current understanding of communities, organizations, and other social structures. It argues that without the concept of a social structure, we cannot make sense of persons as any predicate which applies to individuals, apart from a direct physical description, and presupposes a social structure behind it. Though we need the notion of a social structure, the only way to acknowledge it is through the social practices that it incarnates and reiies, which in turn are embedded in the actions of its members. A social structure is not visible or witnessable, only its social practices are. Though implicit and invisible, structures are enabling or constraining, as they open up or else severely restrict the actions of its members. However, structures are not simply a medium for social practices, as these practices also change and inluence the structures themselves. This implies that structures are both a medium and a product of its practices. Social structures are reproduced and transformed by
Critical Incident
1: An observed or experienced episode in which things go surprisingly well or badly. (Carroll et al., 2005) 2: Signiicant positive or negative incidents that can be used to evaluate behavioral data and system performance. (Neale et al., 2005)
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the practices of its members. Thus individuals have an agency capacity to interfere back, and thus promote social changenot isolated individuals, however, but units and collectivities of individuals. Individuals are persons, and their acts are situated in a world constituted by past and present human activity, thus a humanized natural and social world. Because social structures are incarnate in the practices of its members, this means that they do not exist independently of the conceptions of the persons whose activities constitute, and thus reproduce or transform them. It is because persons have beliefs, interests, goals, and practical and tacit knowledge, not necessarily cognitively available, acquired in their early stages as members of a society, that they do what they do and thus sustain, or transform, the structures to which they belong. Critical realism thus proposes a transformational model of social activity. It states that reality exists independently of our knowledge about it, and it takes science as a social practice, and scientiic knowledge as a social product. Communities of practice theory implicitly incorporates a critical realism perspective. (Nobre, 2006a) 3: The careful or critical application of the scientiic approach to the social sciences. (Dobson, 2005)
Critical Theory
The branch of social theory, grounded on Kant and pursued by the Frankfurt School. The best known contemporary critical theorist is Jurgen Habermas (1929- ). (Clarke, 2006)
Critical Thinking
1: Encompasses the belief that the function of the researcher is to provide warnings about the fallibility of current orthodoxies by pointing to the power and politics implicit in the process of knowledge creation and utilization. (Land, Nolas, et al., 2006) 2: In academic contexts, this phrase usually refers to complex intellectual reasoning that questions assumptions, and seeks to assess evidence and examine claims made by others. More simply, it can also refer to logical thinking based on facts and evidence. (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005)
Critical Relection
Questioning of moral, ethical, and equity issues that relate directly or indirectly to institutional and broader social and political contexts of schooling, and relection oriented toward development of emancipatory strategies to resolve inequities identiied; stems from a belief system that education can serve as an agent for social change, and teachers are professionals constantly engaged in the evaluation and resolution of a large number of competing variables using poorly understood processes (not a set of speciic, identiiable technical skills). (Wieseman, 2005b)
CRM: See Customer Relationship Management. CROP: See Council of Regional Organizations in the
Paciic.
Critical Research
Critique of the status quo through the exposure of what are believed to be deep-seated, structural contradictions within social systems. (Trauth, 2005b)
Critical Stance
Any approach to an accepted system that intentionally highlights issues of power structures supported by it, often emancipatory in nature and always political. (Kettley, 2006b)
Cross-Border Linkage
An active connection, relation, or association between two or more institutions separated by a geographic distance or boundary. (Poda & Brescia, 2005)
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Cross-Classiication of Maps
A method that overlays two thematic maps of binary attributes to come up with an output theme containing attributes of both the themes. (Ali et al., 2005)
Cross-Correlation
The sum of the chip-by-chip products of two different sequences (codes). A measure of the similarity and interference between the sequences (or their delayed replicas). Orthogonal codes have zero cross-correlation when synchronized. (Iossiides et al., 2005)
Cross-Media Adaptation
Conversion of one multimedia format into another one, for example, video to image or image to text. (Knight & Angelides, 2005)
Cross-Cultural
A situation where individuals from different cultures interact with or exchange information with one another; interchangeable with the term intercultural. (St.Amant, 2005c)
Cross-Cultural Environment
The coexistence of more than one cultural inluence in different segments of a society, or the simultaneous adoption of different cultural practices at work, social events, and family life. (Law, 2005)
Cross-Validation
Resampling method in which elements of the modeling set itself are alternately removed and reinserted for validation purposes. (Galvo et al., 2005)
Cross-Culture Communication
A process of communicating among different cultures. (Targowski & Metwalli, 2005)
Cross-Disciplinary
The merging of disciplines in an effort to discover emergent and interconnected processes, models, and frameworks. Similar terms are multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary, each with slightly different connotations. (Schaffer & Schmidt, 2006)
Crossposting
Posting the same message on multiple threads of discussion, without taking into account the relevance of the message or every discussion thread. (Gur u, 2006a)
Cross-Disciplinary Knowledge
The degree to which team members from different disciplines learn and share knowledge as a result of working together on a project. Ideally, team members evolve from a discipline-centric view of working to a cross-disciplinary view, in which team members use models and terminology from other disciplines. (Schaffer & Schmidt, 2006)
Crosstalk
Interference present in a signal propagating through a communication produced by other signals present at an adjacent channel. (Perez-Meana & Nakano-Miyatake, 2005)
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Cryptography
1: A study of making a message secure through encryption. Secret key and public key are the two major camps of cryptographic algorithms. In secret key cryptography, one key is used for both encryption and decryption; in public key cryptography, two keys (public and private) are used. (K. Chen, 2005) 2: Protecting information by transforming it into an unreadable format using a number of different mathematical algorithms or techniques. (Tassabehji, 2005a) 3: The art of protecting information by encrypting it into an unreadable format, called cipher text. Only those who possess a secret key can decipher (or decrypt) the message into plain text. (Guan, 2005a) 4: The conversion of data into secret codes for transmission over a public network to prevent unauthorized use. (Wang, Cheng, & Cheng, 2006)
Cube
1: A collection of data aggregated at all possible levels over the dimensions. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005) 2: A data structure of aggregated values summarized for a combination of preselected categorical variables (e.g., number of items sold and their total cost for each time period, region, and product). This structure is required for high-speed analysis of the summaries done in online analytical processing (OLAP). Also called a MultiDimensional Database (MDDB). (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005b) 3: A group of data cells arranged by the dimensions of the data. Assigning a value to each dimension of a cube, the measure is obtained by a mapping from this assignment. (Pourabbas, 2005b) 4: A multi-dimensional representation of data that can be viewed from different perspectives. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005)
CS: See Computer Science. CSC: See Computer Support Committee. CSCL: See Computer-Supported Collaborative
Learning.
Cube Cell
Represents an association of a measure m with a member of every dimension. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
Cubegrade
A 5-tuple (source, target, measures, value, delta-value) where source and target are cells; measures is the set of measures that are evaluated both in the source as well as in the target; value is a function, value: measuresR, that evaluates measure mmeasures in the source; and delta-value is a function, delta-value: measuresR, that computes the ratio of the value of mmeasures in the target versus the source (Abdulghani, 2005b)
CSF: See Critical Success Factor. CSG: See Constructive Solid Geometry.
Cuboid CSLC: See Customer Services Life Cycle. CSMA: See Carrier-Sense Multiple Access. CSS: See Content Scrambling System. CT: See Category Theory; Computed Tomography;
Contingency Theory; Collaborative Technology. A group-by of a subset of dimensions, obtained by aggregating all tuples on these dimensions. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
Cue
A clue to a psychological phenomenon, often nonverbal. (N.C. Rowe, 2006b)
Cultural Algorithm CTR: See Click-Through Rate. CTSD: See Contingency T heoretic Soft ware
Development. Another kind of evolutionary algorithm that adds a belief space to the usual population space from the genetic algorithms in order to improve the search. It is inspired from human societies and cultural evolution. (Lazar, 2005)
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knowledge structures and ultimately impacts the design and development of interactive systems, whether software or Web sites. (Faiola, 2006)
Cultural Metadata
Metadata obtained from the analysis of corpora of textual information, usually from the Internet or other public sources (radio programs, encyclopedias, etc.). (Pachet, 2006)
Cultural Readiness
The preparedness of an organizations culture of its people and processes (past and present) to facilitate or inhibit change. (Ash & Burn, 2006)
(Cagiltay et al., 2005) 8: Integrated system of spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of society or a social group that encompasses, among other things, art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs, and artifacts. (M. Mitchell, 2005a) 9: Multiple deinitions exist, including essentialist models that focus on shared patterns of learned values, beliefs, and behaviors, and social constructivist views that emphasize culture as a shared system of problem solving or of making collective meaning. The key to the understanding of online cultureswhere communication is as yet dominated by textmay be deinitions of culture that emphasize the intimate and reciprocal relationship between culture and language. (Macfadyen, 2006b) 10: The collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another. (Limayem, 2005) 11: The ideals, values, symbols, and behaviors of human societies that create a distinctive identiication. (Sharma & Mishra, 2005)
Culture
1: A set of multi-layered characteristics, beliefs, and values shared by a group of people that are consistently held over time. (Petter et al., 2005) 2: A societal manifestation inluenced by traditions, religion, history, acceptable behavior, and many other factors. (Mandal et al., 2005) 3: A value-guided, continuous process of developing patterned human behavior within and across cultures and civilizations. (Targowski & Metwalli, 2005) 4: Common meaning and values of a group. Members of such a group share and use the accorded signs and roles as a basis for communication, behavior, and technology usage. Mostly, a country is used as a compromise to refer or deine rules and values, and is used often as a synonym for users culture. (Rse, 2006b) 5: Covers the pattern of basic assumptions accepted and used about behaviors, norms, and values within an organization. (Disterer, 2005) 6: Expresses shared beliefs and ritualized habits of social agents toward each other and their environment via artifacts and language. (Champion, 2006b) 7: The background set of assumptions and values that structure our existence and orient us through the events of our lives.
Culture-Oriented Design
Speciic kind of user-oriented design that focuses on the user as a central element of development and also takes into account the cultural diversity of different target user groups. (Rse, 2006b)
Current Cost
The cost of the network investment over time, considering issues like amortization. (Hackbarth et al., 2005)
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Customer
Refers to the entity that procures goods and services. (Barima, 2006a)
Current Eficiency
The percentage of the electrical current (drawn into the reduction cell) that is utilized in the conversion of raw materials (essentially alumina and aluminum luoride) into the end product, aluminum. The remaining percentage is lost due to complex reactions in the production process and the physical nature of reduction cells. (Nicholls, 2006)
Customer Attraction
The ability to attract customers at the Web site. (Forgionne & Ingsriswang, 2005)
Curriculum
1: A comprehensive overview of what students should learn, how they will learn it, what role the instructor is playing, and the framework in which learning and teaching will take place. (Partow-Navid & Slusky, 2005) 2: The content, structure, and format of an educational course or program. (Kung-Ming, 2005)
Customer Confusion
The difficulties and uncertainties encountered by customers when they have to make an optimal choice out a product assortment with large product variety. (Blecker & Abdelkai, 2006)
Customer Experience
The target customers overall outcome, which includes both results and image factors, after using a product or visiting a retail store or a Web site. (Roberts & Schwaab, 2006)
Customer Knowledge
Knowledge derived through relationships from consumers, suppliers, partners, joint ventures and alliances, and competitors. It is knowledge located externally to the irm and is not owned by the organization. It can be composed of a combination of consumer knowledge, supply chain knowledge, joint venture speciic knowledge, and so forth. This knowledge is created within a two-way low of knowledge which creates value for both parties. (Paquette, 2006b)
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customer knowledge. It is within these processes that an organization and its customers work together to combine existing knowledge to create new knowledge. It differs from managing internal knowledge as it must facilitate the low of knowledge across an external boundary. (Paquette, 2006b)
Customer Loyalty
1: Because there is no existing ownership to service products, suppliers have to make a special effort to get long-standing customers. (Seitz, 2005) 2: The ability to develop and maintain long-term relationships with customers by creating superior customer value and satisfaction. (Forgionne & Ingsriswang, 2005)
1: Selecting customers you want to ind, going after them, and keeping them. (Borders & Johnston, 2005) 2: Usage of the Web site to get information about the speciic interests and characteristics of a customer. (Seitz, 2005)
Customer Proiling
3: Methodologies, softwares, and capabilities that help an enterprise manage customer relationships in an organized way. (Morabito & Provera, 2005) 4: Refers to retaining and using information about customers in databases to develop customer loyalty and increase sales. (Bridges et al., 2006) 5: Systems with technological tools related to the implementation of relationship marketing strategies. (Flavin & Guinalu, 2006) 6: The methodologies, software, and Internet capabilities that help a company manage customer relationships in an eficient and organized manner. (Nemati & Barko, 2005) 7: The technology, services, and processes that connect an organization with its customers in the most reliable, eficient, and cost-effective manner while striving to create long-term, proitable relationships. (Van Dyke et al., 2006) 8: The process of attracting, retaining, and capitalizing on customers. CRM deines the space where the company interacts with the customers. At the heart of CRM lies the objective to deliver a consistently differentiated and personalized customer experience, regardless of the interaction channel. (Pagani, 2005b) 9: A term describing how a company interacts with its customers, gathers information about them (needs, preferences, past transactions), and shares these data within marketing, sales, and service functions. (Burke et al., 2005) 10: Management, understanding, and control of data on the customers of a company for the purposes of enhancing business and minimizing the customers churn. (Meo & Psaila, 2005) 11: An approach that manages in an integrated manner all business processes that directly involve customers, in an effort to build long-term and sustainable relationships with customers. A CRM system is a central repository of customer information that records information from all contact points with customers, and generates customer proiles available to everyone who wishes to know the customer. (Tarafdar, 2005) 12: An approach that recognizes that customers are the core of the business and that a companys success depends on effectively managing its relationship with them. CRM is about locating and attracting customers, and thereby building long-term and sustainable relationships with them. (Y.D. Wang, 2005) 13: An enterprise-wide strategy enabling organizations to optimize customer satisfaction, revenue, and proits, while increasing shareholder value through better understanding of customers needs. (Rahman, 2005e)
Customer Retention
The ability to retain customers and their allegiance to the Web site. (Forgionne & Ingsriswang, 2005)
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Customer Satisfaction
1: Based on the consumption, a consumer would be satisied if perceptions match expectations or if conirmations are reached. (Hsu & Kulviwat, 2006) 2: Measure or determination that a product/service meets a customers expectations, considering requirements of both quality and service. (Markellou et al., 2006)
Customerization
The personalization of a Web site. (Samuel & Samson, 2006)
Customization
1: Fundamental characteristic of a Web site regarding personalization of information or tailoring special requirements from a speciic user. (Almazn & Gil-Garca, 2006) 2: Customizable applications are those applications that can adapt themselves to the context in which they execute; applications (in particular, Web applications) can be adapted to the user proile, the location, the network connection, and so forth. Building applications that can adapt themselves to the current context involve many different software and information representation problems. In the context of Web applications, we can adapt the application behavior to the user proile, we can change the hypermedia topology for different users tasks, or we can adapt the user interface for different appliances. (Rossi & Schwabe, 2005) 3: The adjustment of products or services to individual needs. Basic characteristics are implemented in the product or service and may be controlled by parameters. (Seitz, 2005)
Customer-Based/Customized Products
A virtual organization provides the unique opportunity to provide their customers with highly specialized products as per their speciic needs. This can be accomplished through outsourcing work to a separate organization or through the use of a virtually connected interorganizational node located closer to the customer. Either way, it becomes simple to add a function based on the customers request and seamlessly integrate that function into the existing framework. (J. Lee, 2005)
Customized Protocol
A speciic set of treatment parameters and their values that are unique for each individual. Customized protocols are derived from discovered knowledge patterns. (Kusiak & Shah, 2005)
Customer-Centric Approach
Organizational strategy that aims to explore and understand customers needs and motivations, and to restructure all organizational processes to provide superior value to consumers. (Gur u, 2006b)
Customer-Supplier Perspective
Refers to the linked interrelation between the requirements (needs, wants, etc.) of the customer to the provision of these by the supplier to their mutual beneit. (Barima, 2006a)
Cutoff Frequencies
The frequencies that determine the pass-band (the frequencies that are passed without attenuation) and the stop-band (the frequencies that are highly attenuated). (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005c)
Customer-to-Customer (C2C)
In this method, participants bid for products and services over the Internet, such as in an online auction. See Consumer-to-Consumer. (Shih & Fang, 2006)
Cut-Point
A value that divides an attribute into intervals. A cut-point has to be included in the range of the continuous attribute
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CV Cybe rspa c e
to discretize. A discretization process can produce none or several cut-points. Also called a split-point. (Muhlenbach & Rakotomalala, 2005)
Cyberculture
As a social space in which human beings interact and communicate, cyberspace can be assumed to possess an evolving culture or set of cultures (cybercultures) that may encompass beliefs, practices, attitudes, modes of thought, behaviors, and values. (Macfadyen & Doff, 2006)
CV: See Computer Vision. CVA: See Continuous Value Assumption. CVE: See Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures. CWA: See Closed-World Assumption. Cyber Elite
A section of the population who has the disposable income, knowledge, and language for exploiting the many possibilities presented by ICTs. (Mwesige, 2005)
Cyberlanguage
The collection of communicative practices employed by communicators in cyberspace, and guided by norms of cyberculture(s). (Macfadyen & Doff, 2006)
Cyberloaing
Any voluntary act of employees using their organizations Internet access during ofice hours to surf non-work-related Web sites for non-work purposes and to access non-workrelated e-mail. (Mahatanankoon, 2005)
Cyber Ethics
A branch of ethics that focuses on behaviors that are speciically related to information technology. (Artz, 2005a)
Cybermediary
An online company specializing in electronic transactions and digital intermediation. (Scarso et al., 2006)
Cyber Gambling
Gambling that takes place using an interactive technology such as the Internet or digital television. (Brindley, 2006)
Cybersex
1: The act of computer-mediated sex either in an online or virtual environment. Examples include two consenting adults engaging in an e-mail or real-time chat sex session. The advantages to this are that two people who are at opposite ends of the globe can maintain a relationship. (Grifiths, 2005) 2: Two or more individuals using the Internet as a medium to engage in discourses about sexual fantasies. (Whitty, 2005)
Cyber Security
Techniques used to protect the computer and networks from threats. (Thuraisingham, 2005)
Cyber-Identity Theft
The online or electronic acquisition of personal information with the purpose of utilizing such information for deceitful activity either on the Internet or off-line. (Close et al., 2006)
Cyberslacking
The process of using the Internet to waste time during a workday, similar to how an employee might spend time in a colleagues ofice or on the telephone. (Urbaczewski, 2005)
Cyber-Societies
The set of natural, artiicial, and virtual agents connected and interacting with each others through natural and artificial infrastructures within virtual institutions. (Falcone & Castelfranchi, 2005)
Cyberspace
1: The term used to describe the range of information resources available through computer networks. (Stodel et al., 2005) 2: The boundaryless virtual world accessed through computer networks, whether ones access device is ixed or mobile. (Galloway, 2006) 3: The default or mandatory space in which the members of a virtual community interact. (Signoret, 2006) 4: While the Internet refers more explicitly to the technological infrastructure of networked computers that make
Cybercaf
A caf that makes available a number of personal computers that are connected to the Internet for the use of the general public. (Ajiferuke & Olatokun, 2005)
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worldwide digital communications possible, cyberspace is understood as the virtual places in which human beings can communicate with each other and that are made possible by Internet technologies. (Macfadyen, 2006b)
Cyberworld
An information world created in cyberspace either intentionally or spontaneously, with or without visual design. Cyberworlds are closely related to the real world and have a serious impact on it. (Sourin, 2006)
Cyborg
Literally, a hybrid of cybernetics and organism. Generally it refers to humans as modiied by technoscientiic implants and drugs. (Srinivasan, 2006)
Cycle
The time period required for each student to enter and complete all courses required for an academic degree; for example, MBA. (Murray & Efendioglu, 2005)
Cyclic Graph
A directed graph that contains at least one cycle. (Y. Chen, 2005a)
Cyclical Process
An event or operation within a project that can occur and lead project teams back to areas that resemble the starting point of the project. (Nash et al., 2005b)
Cyclomatic Complexity
A broad measure of soundness and conidence for a program. This measure was introduced by Thomas McCabe in 1976. (Polgar, 2005b)
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DAC Dat a
D
DAC: See Discretionary Access Control. DAG: See Directed Acyclic Graph. DAI: See Digital Access Index; Distributed Artiicial
Intelligence. Spatial data represent tangible features (entities). Moreover, spatial data are usually an attribute (descriptor) of the spatial feature. (Al-Hanbali & Sadoun, 2006) 2: A set of discrete and objective facts concerning events. (Joia, 2005) 3: Binary (digital) representations of atomic facts, especially from inancial transactions. Data may also be text, graphics, bit-mapped images, sound, or analog or digital live-video segments. Structured data are the raw material for analysis using a data-driven DSS. The data are supplied by data producers and are used by information consumers to create information. (Power, 2005) 4: Combination of facts and meanings that are processed into information. (Yoon et al., 2005) 5: Data are carriers of knowledge and information. They consist mostly of signs and are the raw material to be further processed. Data represent observations or facts out of context that are not directly meaningful. Both information and knowledge are communicated through data. (Haghirian, 2006) 6: Highly explicit knowledge derived from the data in databases and data warehouses used for strategic decision making after summarizing, analyzing, mining, and so forth. (Kulkarni & Freeze, 2006) 7: Something given or admitted as a fact on which an inference may be based. Simple observations of the world, which are often quantiied, and easily structured, captured on machines, and transferred. The number of baby boomers born in a given year is data. (Mockler & Dologite, 2005) 8: The generic term for signs, symbols, and pictures. Data can be saved, processed, printed, and so on. They are not bound to individuals. (Hofer, 2006) 9: The raw material that feeds the process of information generation. (Hoxmeier, 2005) 10: The set of samples, facts, or cases in a data repository. As an example of a sample, consider the ield values of a particular credit application in a bank database. (de Carvalho et al., 2005) 11: Often deined as the raw facts and information data. Knowledge is about the application of data and information for a given task so that the given task can be effectively performed. (R. Zhang, 2005)
DAISY: See Digital Accessible Information System. DAM: See Digital Asset Management. DAML: See DARPA Agent Markup Language. Dark Fiber
Optical iber for infrastructure (cabling and repeaters) that is currently in place but is not being used. Optical iber conveys information in the form of light pulses, so dark means no light pulses are being sent. (Chochliouros et al., 2005a)
DARM: See Distributed Association Rule Mining. DARPA Agent Markup Language (DAML)
An extension of XML and the Resource Description Framework (RDF) providing constructs with which to create ontologies and to mark up information so that it is machine readable and understandable. (Jain & Ramesh, 2006)
Data
1: A collection of attributes (numeric, alphanumeric, igures, pictures) about entities (things, events, activities).
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Data Accountability
The ability to trace back all the actions and changes made to information. (Wang, Cheng, & Cheng, 2006)
this proile is then auctioned off to the highest bidder(s). (St.Amant, 2006b)
Data Center
A centralized repository for the storage and management of information, organized for a particular area or body of knowledge. (Ashrai et al., 2005)
Data Actuality
An aspect of () data quality consisting in its steadiness despite the natural process of data obsolescence increasing in time. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Checking
Activity through which the correctness conditions of the data are veriied. It also includes the speciication of the type of the error or condition not met, and the qualiication of the data and its division into the error-free and erroneous data. Data checking may be aimed at detecting errorfree data or at detecting erroneous data. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
Data Aggregation
The process in which information is gathered and expressed in a summary form. In case the aggregation operator is decomposable, partial aggregation schemes may be employed in which intermediate results are produced that contain suficient information to compute the inal results. If the aggregation operator is non-decomposable, then partial aggregation schemes can still be useful to provide approximate summaries. (Roussos & Zoumboulakis, 2005)
Data Allocation
The process of determining what data to store at which servers in a distributed system. (Chin, 2005)
Data Cloud
Collection of data points in space. (Cottingham, 2005)
Data Architecture
The underlying set of rules and descriptions of relationships that govern how the major kinds of data support the business processes deined in the business architecture. (Yoon et al., 2005)
Data Completeness
Containing by a composite data all components necessary to full description of the states of a considered object or process. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Assimilation
Statistical and other automated methods for parameter estimation, followed by prediction and tracking. (Ganguly et al., 2005)
Data Conidentiality
The ability to ensure the data is inaccessible to unauthorized users. (Wang, Cheng, & Cheng, 2006)
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Data Content
Data Deinition
An elaborate statement of the representation of each piece of data, its source, storage method, and intended usage. (Law, 2005)
The attributes (states, properties, etc.) of a real or of an assumed abstract world to which the given data record is referred. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Conversion
A process involving moving existing data from legacy systems, performing an integrity check, and then transporting them to an ERP system that has been implemented. There are diverse tools available to reduce the effort of the conversion process. In some instances, there is the need to introduce manually the data into the system. Due to this effort, the conversion process must be planned at the beginning of the ERP project in order to avoid delays. (Esteves & Pastor, 2005)
Data Dependency
One of the various ways that data attributes are related, for example, functional dependency, inclusion dependency, and so forth. (Tan & Zhao, 2005b)
Data Credibility
An aspect of () data quality: a level of certitude that the () data content corresponds to a real object or has been obtained using a proper acquisition method. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Dictionary
A part of a database that holds deinitions of data elements, such as tables, columns, and views. (Sethi & Sethi, 2006b)
Data Dissemination/Broadcasting
Periodical broadcast of database information to mobile clients through one or more wireless channels. (Waluyo et al., 2005)
Data Cube
1: A collection of aggregate values classiied according to several properties of interest (dimensions). Combinations of dimension values are used to identify the single aggregate values in the cube. (Tininini, 2005c) 2: A data cube is a type of multi-dimensional matrix that lets users explore and analyze a collection of data from many different perspectives, usually considering three factors (dimensions) at a time. (Sethi & Sethi, 2006b) 3: A data set is conceptually modeled as being embedded in a multidimensional hyper-rectangle, or data cube for short. The data cube is deined by its dimensions, and stores the values of measure attributes in its cells. (Riedewald et al., 2005) 4: A preselection of aggregated data at several levels of detail according to several dimensions in a data mart. A data cube establishes the resolution and basic projection where selections can be made. The data cube aggregation detail can be modiied through OLAP operators such as drill and roll, and their dimensions can be modiied by slice & dice and pivot. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005a)
Data Driven
If the data drive the analysis without any prior expectations, the mining process is referred to as a data-driven approach. (Amaravadi, 2005)
Data Editing
The activity aimed at detecting and correcting errors (logical inconsistencies) in data. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
Data Encryption
The process of scrambling the data for transmission to ensure that it is not intercepted along the way. (Wang, Cheng, & Cheng, 2006)
Data Exchange
The situation that the local source schemas, as well as the global schema, are given beforehand; the data integration
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problem then exists in establishing a suitable mapping between the given global schema and the given set of local schemas. (Balsters, 2005)
Data Imputation
1: Substitution of estimated values for missing or inconsistent data items (ields). The substituted values are intended to create a data record that does not fail edits. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005) 2: The process of estimating missing data of an observation based on the valid values of other variables. (Brown & Kros, 2005)
Data Extraction
1: A process in which data is transferred from operational databases to a data warehouse. (Kontio, 2005) 2: The process of creation of uniform representations of data in a database federation. (Balsters, 2005)
Data Integration
1: A process providing a uniform integrated access to multiple heterogeneous information sources. (Flesca, Furfaro, et al., 2005) 2: A process of unifying data that share some common semantics but originate from unrelated sources. (Buccella et al., 2005) 3: The problem of combining data from multiple heterogeneous data sources and providing a uniied view of these sources to the user. Such uniied view is structured according to a global schema. Issues addressed by a data integration system include specifying the mapping between the global schema and the sources, and processing queries expressed on the global schema. (Aldana Montes et al., 2005) 4: Unifying data models and databases so that all departments of an enterprise use the same data entities, with the same values. (Kurbel, 2005)
Data Fragmentation
The technique used to split up the global database into logical units. These logical units are called fragment relations, or simply fragments. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Data Fusion
1: Combining evidence for a conclusion from multiple sources of information. (N.C. Rowe, 2006b) 2: The fully automated method of merging diverse data into a single, coherent representation of the tactical, operational, or strategic situation. (Ozer, Lv, & Wolf, 2005)
Data Integrity
1: Guarantees that data in transmissions is not created, intercepted, modified, or deleted illicitly. (Lowry, Stephens, et al., 2005) 2: Preventing forgeries, corruption, impairment, or modiication of resources like information, services, or equipment. Data integrity is the quality or condition of being whole and unaltered, and it refers to the consistency, accuracy, and correctness of data. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 3: The ability to prevent information from being modiied by unauthorized users. (Wang, Cheng, & Cheng, 2006)
Data Hiding
Important data being embedded into a host image. (Chen, Chen, & Cheng, 2005)
Data Hijacking
Process in which an individual charged with a data processing activity demands more money for the task in exchange for not publicizing the data with which he or she is working. (St.Amant, 2006b)
Data Interchange
The process of sending and receiving data in such a way that the information content or meaning assigned to the data is not altered during the transmission. (Vardaki, 2005)
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Data Irredundancy
The lack of data volume that by data recoding could be removed without information loss. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Item
Database record or tuples. (Waluyo et al., 2005)
Data Mart
1: A data warehouse focused on a particular subject or department. Data warehouses may consist of several data marts. (Barca et al., 2005) 2: A data warehouse designed for a particular line of business, such as sales, marketing, or inance. (Serrano et al., 2005) 3: A data warehouse that is limited in scope and facility, but for a restricted domain. (Yao et al., 2005) 4: A logical subset of the complete data warehouse. We often view the data mart as the restriction of the data warehouse to a single business process or to a group of related business processes targeted towards a particular business group. (Simitsis et al., 2005) 5: A small database with data derived from a data warehouse. (Chen, Zhang, et al., 2005a) 6: A database containing data extracted and often summarized from one or more operational systems or from a data warehouse, and optimized to support the business analysis needs of a particular unit. (Raisinghani & Nugent, 2005) 7: Part of a data warehouse which gathers the information about a speciic domain. Each data mart is usually viewed at the conceptual model as a multi-dimensional star or snowlake schema. Although each data mart is specialized on part of the organization information, some dimensions can be redundantly replicated in several data marts. For instance, time is usually a dimension shared by all data marts. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005a) 8: A scaled-down version of an enterprise-wide data warehouse that is created for the purpose of supporting the analytical requirements of a speciic business segment or department. (Hirji, 2005)
Data Latency
An experienced time delay when a system or an agent sends data to a receiver. (Chen & McLeod, 2006)
Data Laundering
Process in which international outsourcing is used to circumvent different national privacy laws when compiling personal data on individuals. (St.Amant, 2006b)
Data Legibility
An aspect of () data quality: a level of data content ability to be interpreted correctly due to the known and well-deined attributes, units, abbreviations, codes, formal terms, and so forth used in the data records expression. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Management
The use of techniques to organize, structure, and manage data, including database management and data administration. (Thuraisingham, 2005)
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databases which can be used to predict future behavior. (Li et al., 2006) 4: A component of the business intelligence decision-support process in which patterns of information in data are discovered through the use of a smart program that automatically searches the database, inds signiicant patterns and correlations through the use of statistical algorithms, and infers rules from them. (Raisinghani & Nugent, 2005) 5: A database research area that aims at automated discovery of non-trivial, previously unknown, and interesting regularities, trends, and patterns in large data sets. (Manolopoulos et al., 2005) 6: A discovering process aimed at the identiication of patterns hidden in the analyzed dataset. (Santos et al., 2005) 7: A form of information extraction activity whose goal is to discover hidden facts contained in databases; the process of using various techniques (i.e., a combination of machine learning, statistical analysis, modeling techniques, and database technology) to discover implicit relationships between data items and the construction of predictive models based on them. (Rahman, 2005e) 8: A process by which information is extracted from a database or multiple databases using computer programs to match and merge data, and create more information. (T. Stern, 2005) 9: A process by which previously unknown patterns, rules, and relationships are discovered from data. (Sadeghian et al., 2006) 10: A process of seeking interesting and valuable information from a large database using a combination of methods. (Kumar, 2005) 11: A research ield that investigates the extraction of useful knowledge from large datasets. Clustering and Association Rule Mining are two examples of data-mining techniques. (Kontaki et al., 2005) 12: A set of tools, techniques, and methods used to ind new, hidden, or unexpected patterns from a large collection of data typically stored in a data warehouse. (Bala et al., 2005)
manipulations with instances, and models, queries, and constraints. A typical example of a well-developed data model is the relational model. The ER data model, though less formal, is another example. (Diskin & Kadish, 2005) 2: Deines which information is to be stored in a database and how it is organized. (Bounif, 2005) 3: Part of the run-time environment described in SCORM. The data model speciication is needed to standardize what is communicated to the learning management system about the learner (i.e., score on quizzes, name, ID, time in content). (Stavredes, 2005b)
Data Modeling
1: Implementing data management in engineering information systems with information technology and, in particular, database technology. The complex data semantics and semantic relationships are described in data modeling. (Ma, 2005a) 2: The process of producing a model of a collection of data which encapsulates its semantics and hopefully its structure. (Delve, 2005)
Data Multi-Dimensionality
The set of dimensions of a table or a data cube. (Rafanelli, 2005)
Data Node
An entity containing virtue attributes used to describe and aggregate knowledge in a knowledge network. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Data Operability
An aspect of () data quality: a level of data record ability to be used directly, without additional processing (restructuring, conversion, etc.). (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Partitioning
A storage technique through which each data item is assigned to exactly one node. Data operations accessing different data partitions can be executed in parallel. However, if one operation needs to access more than one data partition, the execution is more complicated. (Pinheiro, 2005)
Data Perturbation
1: Involves modifying conidential attributes using random statistical noise. The objective of data perturbation is to prevent disclosure of conidential attributes while maximizing access to both confidential and nonconidential attributes within a database. (Wilson et al.,
Data Model
1: A speciication language where we can model and talk about models of a given class and their instances,
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2006b) 2: Modifying the data so that original conidential data values cannot be recovered. (Saygin, 2005)
Data Planning
The projection of expected future needs for data, with speciications on data sources, data collection and storage, data processing and presentation, data distribution, and data security. (Law, 2005)
Data Precision
An aspect of numerical () data quality: the maximum error between a real parameter and its value given by the data, caused by the data values discretization. Data precision is inversely proportional to this error. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Data Preprocessing
1: The application of several methods preceding the mining phase, done for improving the overall data-mining results. Usually, it consists of: (1) data cleaninga method for ixing missing values, outliers, and possible inconsistent data; (2) data integrationthe union of (possibly heterogeneous) data coming from different sources into a unique data store; and (3) data reductionthe application of any technique working on data representation capable of saving storage space without compromising the possibility of inquiring them. (Buccafurri & Lax, 2005) 2: The data-mining phase that converts the usage, content, and structure information contained in various data sources into data abstractions necessary for pattern discovery. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005b)
Data Privacy
Current United States laws provide protection to student data, including performance data. Online distance education environments need to address privacy issues through design of courses and security features built into recordkeeping systems. (Sales, 2005)
et al., 2005) 2: A multi-faceted concept in information systems research that focuses on the itness for use of data by consumers. Data quality can be viewed in four categories: intrinsic (accuracy, objectivity, believability, and reputation), contextual (relevancy, timeliness, and appropriate amount of data), representational (format of the data), and accessibility (ease of access). (Borchers, 2005) 3: A set of data properties (features, parameters, etc.) describing their ability to satisfy the users expectations or requirements concerning data using for information acquiring in a given area of interest, learning, decision making, and so forth. (Kulikowski, 2005) 4: Data have good quality if they are it for use. Data quality is measured in terms of many dimensions or characteristics, including accuracy, completeness, consistency, and currency of electronic data. (Marchetti et al., 2005) 5: Ensuring that data supplied is it for use by its consumer. Elements of data quality can extend to include the quality of the context in which that data is produced, the quality of the information architecture in which that data resides, the factual accuracy of the data item stored, and the level of completeness and lack of ambiguity. (Schwartz & Schreiber, 2005) 6: Interchangeably used with information integrity, it can refer to an organizational data-quality program as well as quality of a data element. When applied to the latter, a data elements quality is measured against the dimensions of information integrity (accuracy, completeness, validity, uniqueness, precision, timeliness, accessibility, consistency, clarity, and suficiency). (Malik, 2006) 7: Most large databases have redundant and inconsistent data, missing data ields, and/or values, as well as data ields that are not logically related and that are stored in the same data relations. (Owrang O., 2006)
Data Reconciliation
The process of resolving data inconsistencies in database federations (such as constraint conlicts). (Balsters, 2005)
Data Processing
The operation performed on data in order to derive new information according to a given set of rules. (Vardaki, 2005)
Data Reduction
A process of removing irrelevant information from data by reducing the number of features, instances, or values of the data. (Liu & Yu, 2005)
Data Quality
1: A dimension or measurement of data in reference to its accuracy, completeness, consistency, timeliness, uniqueness, and validity. Data are considered to be of high quality if they have all of the above attributes. (Yoon
Data Relevance
An aspect of () data quality: a level of consistency between the () data content and the area of interest of the user. (Kulikowski, 2005)
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Data Replication
A storage technique through which some nodes have copies of the same data. Replication of data is a common method to improve read performance, but is rather problematic if data are often updated. (Pinheiro, 2005)
sequential pattern mining process is a (usually large) set of data sequences. (Masseglia et al., 2005)
Data Set
A set of instances of target concepts. (Maloof, 2005)
Data Repository
A complex catalog of a set of sources organizing both their description and all associated information at various abstraction levels. (De Meo & Ursino, 2005)
Data Source
An external provider of information; the information is accessible either in a passive or active way. (Abramowicz et al., 2006)
Data Retrieval
Denotes the standardized database methods of matching a set of records, given a particular query (e.g., use of the SQL SELECT command on a database). (Peter & Greenidge, 2005a)
Data Stream
1: A continuous low of data. The most common use of a data stream is the transmission of digital data from one place to another. (Sayal, 2005) 2: A data set distributed over time. (Maloof, 2005) 3: Data items that arrive online from multiple sources in a continuous, rapid, timevarying, possibly unpredictable fashion. (Chatziantoniou & Doukidis, 2005) 4: Opposite to the stationary view of a database, a data stream focuses on the continuous processing of newly arriving data (i.e., joining and comparing of streams). (Fiege, 2005)
Data Schema
Collection of data types and relationships described according to a particular type language. (Marchetti et al., 2005)
Data Segment
A set of data items. (Waluyo et al., 2005)
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Data Tag
A quality indicator attached to a ield, record, or table in a database to make decision makers aware of the level of data quality. (Chengalur-Smith et al., 2005)
Data Tampering
The threats of data being altered in unauthorized ways, either accidentally or intentionally. (Butcher-Powell, 2005)
Data Transformation/Translation
Transformation of data stored in one format (meta-model) to another format. (Diskin & Kadish, 2005)
Data Type
The characteristic of a data element or a ield that speciies what type of data it can hold. SQL classiies three main data types: predeined data type, constructed data type, and user-deined type. (Pardede et al., 2005)
Data Validation
An activity aimed at verifying whether the value of a data item comes from the given (inite or ininite) set of acceptable values. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
Data Visualization
1: Presentation of data in human understandable graphics, images, or animation. (S. Wang & H. Wang, 2005) 2: The method or end result of transforming numeric and textual information into a graphic format. Visualizations are used to explore large quantities of data holistically in order to understand trends or principles. (Kusiak & Shah, 2005) 3: The visualization of the data set through the use of techniques such as scatter plots, 3D cubes, link graphs, and surface charts. (Viktor & Paquet, 2005) 4: The transformation and analysis to aid in formation of a mental picture of symbolic data. Such a picture is simple, persistent, and complete. (Daassi et al., 2006)
Data Warehouse
1: A database that is speciically elaborated to allow different analysis on data. Analysis exists generally to make aggregation operations (count, sum, average, etc.). A data warehouse is different from a transactional database since it accumulates data along time and other dimensions. Data of a warehouse are loaded and updated at regular intervals from the transactional databases of the company. (Schneider, 2005) 2: A central repository for all or signiicant parts of the data that an enterprises various
business systems collect. (Mendes-Filho & Ramos, 2005) 3: A database that is subject-oriented, integrated, timevariant, and non-volatile. (Chen, Zhang, et al., 2005a) 4: A database, frequently very large, that can access all of a companys information. It contains data about how the warehouse is organized, where the information can be found, and any connections between existing data. (Bose, 2005) 5: A form of data storage geared towards business intelligence. It integrates data from various parts of the company. The data in a data warehouse is read-only and tends to include historical as well as current data so that users can perform trend analysis. (Raisinghani & Nugent, 2005) 6: A place where managed data are situated after they pass through the operational systems and outside the operational systems. (Jeong, Abraham, & Abraham, 2006) 7: A platform consisting of a repository of selected information drawn from remote databases or other information sources which forms the infrastructural basis for supporting business decision making. (Hirji, 2005) 8: A repository of information coming mainly from online transactional processing systems that provides data for analytical processing and decision support. (Barca et al., 2005) 9: A repository of nonvolatile temporal data used in the analysis and tracking of key business processes. (Artz, 2005d) 10: A subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile collection of data used to support the strategic decision-making process for the enterprise. It is the central point of data integration for business intelligence and the source of data for data marts, delivering a common view of enterprise data. (Simitsis & Theodoratos, 2005) 11: A system for storing, retrieving, and managing large amounts of data using some sophisticated techniques of cleaning, iltering, hashing, and compression. (Pourabbas, 2005a) 12: An instantiated view of integrated information sources to build mediators. In a spatial data warehouse, data can be combined from many heterogeneous sources to obtain decision support tools. These sources have to be adjusted because they contain data in different representations. Therefore, the construction of a data warehouse requires many operations such as integration, cleaning, and consolidation. (Faz, 2005)
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system. However, there are three distinctive features that make a DWL something more than a typical DL: temporal indexing, CSL-based indices, and direct links to warehouse business metadata. All these features provide novel possibilities of sub-setting the collection of documents to be searched and establishing links among documents and data. (Wecel, Abramowicz, & Kalczynski, 2005)
Data Warehousing
1: A compilation of data designed for decision support by executives, managers, analysts, and other key stakeholders in an organization. A data warehouse contains a consistent picture of business conditions at a single point in time. (Pang, 2005a) 2: A form of data storage geared towards business intelligence. It integrates data from various parts of the company. The data in a data warehouse are readonly and tend to include historical as well as current data so that users can perform trend analysis. (Raisinghani, Klassen, et al., 2005) 3: Refers to the process of extraction of data from different information sources (e.g., databases, iles) and their integration in a single data warehouse. (Pourabbas, 2005b) 4: The gathering and cleaning of data from disparate sources into a single database, optimized for exploration and reporting. The data warehouse holds a cleaned version of the data from operational systems, and data mining requires the type of cleaned data that lives in a data warehouse. (Nicholson & Stanton, 2005) 5: The gathering and cleaning of data from disparate sources into a single database, which is optimized for exploration and reporting. The data warehouse holds a cleaned version of the data from operational systems, and data mining requires the type of cleaned data that live in a data warehouse. (Nicholson & Stanton, 2005)
Data-Mining Guidelines
A set of standards by which medical data mining, in particular, might be conducted. This is a framework that adopts a forward-looking responsibility in the evaluation of methods and explanation of conclusions, especially in the context of heuristic methods (with outcomes that may be ill-deined). This extends not only to the methods of the data-mining procedure, the security and privacy aspects of data, but also to where and how the results of data mining are utilized, requiring that an ethical reference be made to the inal purpose of the mining. (George, 2005a)
Data-Mining Model
A high-level global description of a given set of data which is the result of a data-mining technique over the set of data. It can be descriptive or predictive. (Zendulka, 2005a)
Data-Driven Design
A data warehouse design that begins with existing historical data and attempts to derive useful information regarding trends in the organization. (Artz, 2005b)
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meaningful insights or knowledge from large volumes of information. (Khan et al., 2006)
Database Federation
Provides for tight coupling of a collection of heterogeneous legacy databases into a global integrated system. The main problem is achieving and maintaining consistency and a uniform representation of the data on the global level of the federation. (Balsters, 2005)
Data-Mining Tool
A software application that extract predictive information from large databases, which can then be analyzed to enhance corporate data resources and generate predictions regarding business trends and customer behavior. (Gur u, 2006b)
Database Gap
Processing demand for database applications is twofold in 9-12 months, but it takes 18 months for the processor speed to increase that much according to Moores Law. (Thomasian, 2005a)
Database
1: A collection of facts, igures, and objects that is structured so that it can easily be accessed, organized, managed, and updated. (Pang, 2005a) 2: A collection of related information. The information held in the database is stored in an organized way so that speciic items can be selected and retrieved quickly. (Duan & Xu, 2005) 3: A database (instance) is a set of inite relations over a ixed database schema. Each relation consists of a set of ground facts, that is, variable free facts. (Greco & Zumpano, 2005b) 4: A self-describing collection of data that represents a model of an information domain. (Hoxmeier, 2005) 5: An organized collection of data and information stored in a computer medium that can be easily accessed and manipulated. (Hornby, 2005)
Database Index
An auxiliary physical database structure that is used to speed up the retrieval of data objects from the database in response to certain search conditions. Typically, indexes are based on ordered iles or tree data structures. (Manolopoulos et al., 2005)
Database Item
An item/entity occurring in the database. (Daly & Taniar, 2005b)
Database Maintenance
The task of updating a database and enforcing constraints. (Schmidt et al., 2005)
Database Benchmark
A benchmark specifically aimed at evaluating the performance of DBMSs or DBMS components. (Darmont, 2005)
Database Clustering
The process of grouping similar databases together. (Zhang & Zhang, 2005)
Database Computer
A specialized computer for database applications which usually works in conjunction with a host computer. (Thomasian, 2005a)
Database Consistency
Means that the data contained in the database is both accurate and valid. (Ibrahim, 2005)
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of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. (Doorn, 2005)
Database Marketing
A branch of marketing that applies database technology and analytics to understand customer behavior and improve effectiveness in marketing campaigns. (Lo, 2005)
Database Modeling
The irst step of database design, where the database designers deine the data objects and their relationships to other data objects. Data modeling involves a progression from conceptual model to logical model to physical schema. (Pardede et al., 2005)
Database Status
The structure and content of a database at a given time stamp. It comprises the database object classes, their relationships, and their object instances. (Sindoni, 2005a)
Database Paradigm
The rational and theoretical framework or archetype used to formulate and support a database. (Doorn, 2005)
Database Synchronization
When a database is being synchronized, no new update transactions are allowed, and all open update transactions are inished. After that, all updated blocks are written to disk. (Bose et al. 2005)
Database Quality
Includes dimensions of data, process, model, information, and behavioral characteristics. (Hoxmeier, 2005)
Database Trigger
A procedure that gets invoked by the database management system whenever a speciic column gets updated or whenever a row gets deleted or inserted. (Millet, 2005)
Database Repair
Minimal set of insert and delete operations which makes the database consistent. (Flesca, Furfaro, et al., 2005)
DataMIME
A prototype system designed and implemented on top of vertical database technology and a multi-layered software framework by the DataSURG group at North Dakota State University, USA. (Perrizo, Ding, Serazi, et al., 2005)
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identify source agents and their relationships, and is used to draw a compliance analysts attention to a particular event or group of events that indicate possible anomalies. (Goldschmidt, 2005)
Deadlock
A situation in which a transaction in a set of transactions is blocked while waiting for another transaction in the set, and therefore none will become unblocked (unless there is external intervention). (Haraty, 2005a)
DBMS: See Database Management System. DC: See Distributed Constructionism. DCOM: See Distributed Component Object Model. DCV: See Document Cut-Off Value. DDI
Digital Divide Index. (Tarnanas & Kikis, 2005)
Decentralized Model
The dispersion of decision making in which different independent decisions are made simultaneously. (Peterson, 2005)
DDIR: See Duplicate Document Image Retrieval. DDL: See Data Deinition Language. DDLM: See Demand-Driven Learning Model. DDT: See Distributed Desktop Training. DE: See Distance Education.
Decentralized Strategy
The structure of the information technology organization encompassing supporting units that are located at the school or college level. (Poda & Brescia, 2005)
Decimation Filter
The ilter used in decimation to avoid aliasing caused by downsampling. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005b)
Deadlink
Text or a graphic that can be clicked on and then should lead to other information. When accessed, either an error message is returned or the link leads to an underconstruction page. (Falk & Sockel, 2005)
Decision Content
1: Content refers to the particular decision under study; it explores the basic nature and scope of decisions. (Chou, Dyson, & Powell, 2005) 2: The context includes the outer
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context, which refers to the national economic, political, and social context for an organization, and the inner context that is the ongoing strategy, structure, culture, management, and political process of the organization. Context helps to shape the process of decision making. (Chou et al., 2005)
Decision Explorer
Software often used in Journey Making events that supports the representation and analysis of maps. The Decision Explorer maps are projected onto a public screen for all participants to read and use to illustrate their opinion during the workshop. (Shaw, 2006)
Decision Rule
1: An automatically generated standard that indicates the relationship between multimedia features and content information. (Hurson & Yang, 2005) 2: In (U,A,d) is any expression of the form {a=va : aA and vaVa} d=v where d is the decision attribute and v is a decision value. This decision rule is true in (U,A,d) if for any object satisfying its left-hand side, it also satisies the right-hand side; otherwise, the decision rule is true to a degree measured by some coeficients such as conidence. (Pawlak et al., 2005) 3: Speciication of the relationship between a collection of observations (conditions) and an outcome (a decision). (Grzymala-Busse & Ziarko, 2005) 4: The result of an induction procedure providing the inal assignment of a response class/value to a new object so that only the predictor measurements are known. Such a rule can be drawn in the form of a decision tree. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005)
Decision Set
Ordered or unordered set of decision rules; a common knowledge representation tool (utilized in the most expert systems). (Bruha, 2005)
Decision Support
1: Evolutionary step in the 1990s with characteristics to review retrospective, dynamic data. OLAP is an example of an enabling technology in this area. (DeLorenzo, 2005) 2: The tools, techniques, and information resources that can provide support to the decision maker in improving the eficiency and effectiveness of his/her decisions. Many of these decision support tools may employ ICTs and be part of the management information system itself. (Ritchie & Brindley, 2005)
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knowledge, and/or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions. (Raisinghani et al., 2005) 12: An information system that interactively supports the users ability to evaluate decision alternatives and develop a recommended decision. (Forgionne, 2005) 13: Typically, a business application that analyzes large amounts of data in warehouses, often for the purpose of strategic decision making. (Das, 2005) 14: A system and tools that affect the way people make decisions. (Anke & Sundaram, 2006) 15: Software designed to facilitate decision making, particularly group decision making. (Roibs, 2006b)
models. (Gehrke, 2005) 6: A method of inding rules or rule induction which divides the data into subgroups that are as similar as possible with regard to a target variable. (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005c) 7: Each decision-tree algorithm creates rules based on decision trees or sets of if-then statements to maximize interpretability. (Kusiak & Shah, 2005) 8: A tree-shaped structure that represents sets of decisions. Different types of decisions trees, such as a Classiication and Regression Tree (CART), allow experts to create validated decision models that can then be applied to new datasets. (Athappilly & Rea, 2005)
Decision System
Is a tuple (U,A,d), where (U,A) is an information system with the set A of condition attributes and the decision (attribute) d: UVd, where dA. Informally, d is an attribute whose value is given by an external source (oracle, expert) in contradiction to conditional attributes in A whose values are determined by the user of the system. (Pawlak et al., 2005)
Decision-Making Process
1: The process and act of making decisions. (Goldsmith & Pillai, 2006) 2: The process whereby managers make decisions, including the stages described by Herbert Simon: intelligence, design, choice, and review. (Pomerol & Adam, 2005) 3: The process of developing a general problem understanding, formulating the problem explicitly, evaluating alternatives systematically, and implementing the choice. (Forgionne, 2005) 4: The actions, reactions, and interactions of the various interested parties as they seek to make a commitment to allocate corporate resources. Process incorporates both the formulation and evaluation processes. (Chou et al., 2005)
Declarative Constraint
A schema object in the database that deines whether a state of the database is consistent or not. (Ale & Espil, 2005)
Declarative Knowledge
1: Knowledge that is based on facts, is static, and is concerned with the properties of objects, persons, and events and their relationships. (Raisinghani, 2005) 2: Knowledge of basic facts, generally referred to in computerized systems as data. Examples are the number of items in a storage bin, the balance of the account of a customer, or the date of birth of a person. It is one pole of the factual-procedural dimension. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Declarative Mode
Declaration oriented languagessuch as Prologusing declarative statements such as: x is greater than y. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005c)
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Deep Discussion
Discourse that involves critical analysis and debate. (Lam et al., 2006)
Deep Learning
1: Learning that goes beyond the bare minimum. Deep learners come to understand rather than simply know the subject matter and are able to make valid generalizations based upon it. (Pritchard, 2005a) 2: An approach to learning that is contrasted with surface learning. Someone who adopts a deep learning approach may ind the subject of study intrinsically motivating or very engaging. (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005)
DecNotes
An early bulletin board system providing threaded discussions. Developed inside Digital Equipment Corporation and eventually transformed into a product. (Isaak, 2006)
Defense in Depth
The multiple levels of security controls and safeguards that an intruder faces. (Mattord & Whitman, 2005)
Defense Mechanisms
Freud used this term in 1894 to classify the set of manifestations through which the ego protects itself from internal as well as external aggressions. As different branches of psychoanalysis developed, there has been a signiicant distinction between approaches that interpreted psychoanalysis as the effort to reinforce the ego and the conscious through its adaptation to the external environment (e.g., ego psychology and self-psychology), and strong critics of this approach, considered to be hygienic and social orthopedic by Lacan, who develops a return to Freud approach, and thus a focus and preponderance of the unconscious and of the id. Lacan investigated the conditions of possibility of psychoanalysis and studied Heideggers ontology and questioning process, and Saussures and Levy-Strauss works on symbolism, which inspired his notion of the unconscious organized as a language. The epicenter of this polemic is located around the question of whether defense
Deductive Database
An extension of relational database that allows relations to be implicitly deined by rules. (Grant & Minker, 2006)
Deductive Veriication
Technique that, based on models of systems deined as sets of axioms and rules, veriies them by mathematically proving propositions and theorems. (Fisteus & Kloos, 2006)
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mechanisms may be manipulated and indoctrinated in order to adapt to the demands of society, versus defense mechanisms that witness the huge complexity of the unconscious life that may be explored in order to create fuller meaning and further development. Defense concepts include projection, introjection, delection, idealization, splitting, and denial, and all have the common aim of overcoming anxiety. Groups and organizations develop their own defense mechanisms which may be explored through psychoanalytic-oriented consulting, aiming at social change. (Nobre, 2006b)
Degree of Abnormality
A probability that represents to what extent a segment is distant to the existing segments in relation with normal events. (Oh et al., 2005)
Degree of Reach
How the involved companies are linked within the metabusiness in order to transmit data and information among themselves. (Joia, 2005)
Degree of Structuring
The ability that the companies have to extract knowledge from the data, and information retrieved and shared by them. (Joia, 2005)
Deferred Maintenance
The policy of not performing database maintenance operations when their need becomes evident, but postponing them to a later time. (Sindoni, 2005a)
Deixis
A linguistic expression whose understanding requires understanding something besides itself, as with a caption. (N.C. Rowe, 2005b)
Deferred Option
The option to defer a project or an investment, giving a irm an opportunity to make an investment at a later point in time. (W. Li, 2005)
Delay Jitter
Variance of the network delay computed over two subsequent audio packets. (Roccetti & Ferretti, 2005)
Deinable Set
A set that has a description precisely discriminating elements of the set from among all elements of the universe of interest. (Grzymala-Busse & Ziarko, 2005)
Delay Spike
Sudden, large increase in the end-to-end network delay, followed by a series of audio packets arriving almost simultaneously. (Roccetti & Ferretti, 2005)
Defrag
A disk defragmenter rearranges the iles stored on hard disk drives so that they are not spread over the surface of the disk, and so access to the iles is faster. (D. Stern, 2005)
Degree
An index measured by the number of linkage incidents with an actor. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006)
1: A form of democracy in which citizens share a commitment to the resolution of problems of collective choice through free public deliberation, and in which the basic democratic institutions provide a framework for this. (A.R. Edwards, 2005) 2: Based on a decisionmaking consensus-oriented process, where parties can freely participatethe outcome of which is the result of
Deliberative Democracy
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reasoned and argumentative discussions. This model aims to achieve an impartial solution for political problems. (Magnani et al., 2006) 3: Refers to citizen participation in the context of cultivating a public discourse regarding governmental issues, policies, and courses of action. (Holzer & Schweste, 2005)
Delivery-vs.-Payment (DVP)
A securities-industry procedure in which the buyers payment for securities is due at the time of delivery; that is, security delivery and payment are simultaneous. (Saha, 2006b)
Demand Forecasting
Projection of the estimated level of goods or service demand during the months or years covered by a marketing plan. (Cho, 2005)
Deliberative Procedure
A discussion that is governed by the norms of equality and symmetry in participation, and the right of the participants to question the agenda and the discussion rules, as well as the way in which the agenda and rules are applied. (A.R. Edwards, 2005)
Deliberative Process
A careful discussion, pondering, and weighing of facts. (OLooney, 2006)
Delivery
High-quality online delivery is deined as delivery that carefully considers usability, interactivity, and tools. (MacDonald et al., 2005)
Delivery Mechanism
Process for delivering course material. (Hunter & Carr, 2005)
Demand-Side Stakeholder
A person or agency desirous of the services offered by any e-government system and who will have an impact on it in a practical sense. (De, 2005)
Demat Form
The move from physical certificates to electronic bookkeeping. Actual stock certiicates are slowly being
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removed and retired from circulation in exchange for electronic recording. (Saha, 2006b)
Demographics
1: Involves the statistical study of characteristics within any population such as age, gender, marital status, address, occupation, mobility, health or disease rate, and so on. (De Weaver, 2005) 2: Refers to the changing population proile of the United States, to its implications for higher education, to the reasons for the explosive growth of distance learning. (D.B. Johnstone, 2005)
Density
1: An index used to indicate how actors are closely or loosely connected in a network. It is measured by the proportion of possible lines that are actually present in a network. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006) 2: The ratio of realized to possible ties. In a network with a density of one, every member of a network is connected to every other. In a sparse network, there are few connections between people. The overall density of a network or a networks sub-region is closely related to every other network dimension. (Nelson & Hsu, 2006)
Dendrogram
1: A tree-like diagram that summarizes the process of clustering. Similar cases are joined by links whose position in the diagram is determined by the level of similarity between the cases. (Oh et al., 2005) 2: A graphical procedure for representing the output of a hierarchical clustering method. It is strictly deined as a binary tree with a distinguished root that has all the data items at its leaves. (Chen & Liu, 2005)
Density-Biased Sampling
A database sampling method that combines clustering and stratiied sampling. (Lutu, 2005)
Deontic Effect
The establishment of an obligation or the fulillment of an obligation. (Johannesson, 2005a)
Dependability Denormalization
A step backward in the normalization processfor example, to improve performance. (Kontio, 2005) A broader concept that includes availability, reliability, safety, integrity, and maintainability, but not conidentiality. A system is available if it is ready to perform a service; it is reliable if it continues providing a correct service. Safety refers to the absence of catastrophic consequences for users and the environment. A systems integrity guarantees no unauthorized modiications. When systems can be modiied and repaired easily, they are maintainable. Conidentiality means that information is not disclosed to unauthorized subjects. (Weippl, 2006)
Denotational Semantics
The meaning is given in terms of mathematical functions. (Dasso & Funes, 2005)
Dependence Relation
Relates to data cube query, where some of the group-by queries could be answered using the results of other. (Tan, 2005a)
Dense Data
Data that has metric values for a substantial percentage of all possible combinations of the dimension values. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005)
Dependency
The relation between data items or ields, or occasionally, tables. Detecting dependencies is the key to putting tables
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in the various normal forms and, hence, is the key to avoiding anomalies. (Schultz, 2005)
Dependent Variable
A value representing the presumed effect or consequence of various states of related independent variables. In other words, a dependent variable is the condition for which an explanation is sought. (McHaney, 2005)
Deployment Cost
The IP-multicast requires additional knowledge in the routers to the basic unicast communication and extra work from the administrators of the routers; the ALM needs the traditional unicast IP infrastructure only. (Hossz, 2005a)
Depot
An intermediate server to choose a proxy server for a client request. (Tse, 2006)
assertions and deinitions, which impose restrictions on possible interpretations according to the knowledge elicited for a given domain. Each description logic has its set of constructors. (Colucci et al., 2006) 3: Considered to be the most important knowledge representation formalism unifying and giving a logical basis to the well-known traditions of frame-based systems, semantic networks and KL-ONE-like languages, object-oriented representations, semantic data models, and type systems. (Roldn-Garca et al., 2005) 4: Logical formalism to represent structured concepts and the relationships among them. Formally, it is a subset of FOL dealing with concepts (monadic predicates) and roles (binary predicates) which are useful to relate concepts. Knowledge databases in description logic are composed of a Tbox (the intentional component) and an Abox (the box of asserts, the extensional component part). (Alonso-Jimnez et al., 2005)
Descriptive Taxonomy
In educational theory and practice, an organizational scheme for classifying the structure of conditions for learning, describing the approaches, types, events, methods, and goals of instruction. While affective and psycho-motor capabilities are also important, classic instructional design theory has focused on the cognitive domain. (Lasnik, 2005)
Deseasonalization
Sometimes also called seasonal adjustment, a process of removing seasonality from the time series. Most governmental statistics are seasonally adjusted to better relect other components in a time series. (G.P. Zhang, 2005)
Depth-First
The method of generating candidates by adding speciic items at the end of the sequences. See also GeneratingPruning. (Masseglia et al., 2005)
Design
1: The intentional creation of objects. (Knight, 2006b) 2: The structured composition of an object, process, or activity. (Murphy, 2005c)
Design Framework
An open-ended design methodology that combines research and design activity. (Knight & Jefsioutine, 2006)
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De sign M e t hod De st inat ion M a rke t ing Orga nizat ion (DM O)
Design Method
Design Variables
Characteristics of an organization, its processes, control, and coordination structures that can be varied to produce a speciic organization design. (Morris et al., 2005)
A method, tool, or technique employed during research, design, and development. (Knight & Jefsioutine, 2006)
Design Model
A model developed to represent the optimal technical solution of a speciied user need (as represented in a requirements model). (Krogstie, 2005a)
Designation
Representation of a concept by a sign that denotes it. (Gillman, 2006)
Design Perspective
A designer can abstract characteristic types of the modeling object and exploit only one characteristic type, such as behavior; and using that dimension she/he develops a model that represents that object. (Tobar et al., 2006)
Designer
A user who collaborates with designers as domain experts, envisioning new work practices and tools. This is the third stage in the developmental theory of participatorydesign relationships between users and designers. (Carroll, 2005)
Design-for-All Principle
Design principle in which services are able to be used by all members of society. This includes multi-lingual and services for the disabled. (Knepper & Chen, 2006)
Design Recovery
Recreates design abstractions from a combination of code, existing design documentation (if available), personal experience, and general knowledge about problem and application domains. (Tan & Zhao, 2005b)
Desirable/Undesirable Coevolution
A heuristic with which to talk about knowledge management as a process along a continuum. (Land, Amjad, et al., 2006)
Design Research
1: A methodology developed as a way to carry out formative research to test and reine educational designs based on principles derived from prior research. Design research is an approach of progressive reinements in design, with the design revisions based on experience, until all problems are worked out. It has dual goals of reining both theory and practice. (Woodruff & Nirula, 2005) 2: Exploratory activity employed to understand the product, process of design, distribution and consumption, and stakeholders values and inluence. (Knight & Jefsioutine, 2006)
Desktop Delivery
Using electronic formats to send articles to users. (Burke et al., 2005)
Desktop Publishing
Creating pages for print media using a standard home or ofice computer and commercial software, and then outputting them on a simple desktop printer. (Snyder, 2005)
Desktop Search
The functionality to index and retrieve personal information that is stored in desktop computers, including iles, e-mails, Web pages, and so on. (Hua et al., 2006)
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or national level, and often includes membership from private-sector organizations. (Carson, 2005)
Developing Country
1: A country in which the average annual income is low, most of the population is usually engaged in agriculture, and the majority live near the subsistence level. In general, developing countries are not highly industrialized, dependent on foreign capital and development aid, whose economies are mostly dependent on agriculture and primary resources, and do not have a strong industrial base. (Rahman, 2005d) 2: One of the group of countries generally accepted as containing the poorer nations of the world. It is often used interchangeably with the term third world, i.e., belonging neither to the irst world (developed countries) nor the second world (former countries with command economies). (Escalante, 2005) 3: A country in the process of becoming industrialized, but having constrained resources with which to combat its economical problems. (Shareef & Kinshuk, 2005) 4: A country with a relatively low per capital gross national product (GNP). (Ajiferuke & Olatokun, 2005) 5: A country in the process of converting to a capitalist model in which the economy is founded mainly upon manufacturing and service vs. agricultural production. (St.Amant, 2005b) 6: One of the nations, particularly in Asia and Latin America, that is are not as industrially developed as countries in Europe and North America. A developing country is are characterized by an underdeveloped and uneven infrastructure in the areas of telecommunications, roads, transportation, and electricity distribution. Other features of such societies include low-cost labor, and a large portion of the population living in rural areas and employed in the agriculture sector. (Tarafdar, 2005)
Developing Project
Creation of a small group of people that work on an existing problematic theme and design solutions where information and communication technologies make sense. (Giorgi & Schrch, 2005)
Development Literature
Literature about impoverished countries of the world that are trying to modernize or to ind different ways of supporting their populations. (McPherson, 2005)
Detrending
A process of removing trend from the time series through either differencing of time series observations or subtracting itted trends from actual observations. (G.P. Zhang, 2005)
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Development Process
Diagram Operation
An operation over objects and morphisms that takes a certain coniguration of them as an input, input diagram, and augments it with a few newderivedobjects and morphisms matching the shape of the output diagram. (Diskin, 2005)
The process for the improvement of society and community, through diversiied means, creating demands and solutions at the appropriate dimension of necessity. (Rahman, 2006)
Developmental Theory
Theory of learning that involves growth and other qualitative changes in skills, knowledge, and capacities. Developmental theory is contrasted to accretive theory in which learning is conceived of as a matter of quantitative improvementmore knowledge or faster performance. (Carroll, 2005)
Diagram Predicate
A property of a certain coniguration, diagram, of objects and morphisms. (Diskin, 2005)
Diagrammatic System
A computerized system that adopts different diagrammatic representation forms. Many different systems are currently used in a wide variety of contexts: logic teaching, automated reasoning, specifying computer programs, reasoning about situations in physics, graphical user interfaces to computer programs, and so on. (Ferri & Grifoni, 2006)
Deviation Analysis
Locates and analyzes deviations from normal statistical behavior. (Yeo, 2005)
Method of using telephone lines to call in to a server that then allows the individual to access the Internet and the World Wide Web. (St.Amant, 2005e)
Device
1: A piece of equipment used in a network. Devices include, but are not limited to, workstations, servers, data storage equipment, printers, routers, switches, hubs, machinery or appliances with network adapters, and punch-down panels. (Maris, 2005) 2: An entity that does not deal with information storage, retrieval, or transmission, but only deals with the exchange and transmission of data. (Benyon, 2006)
Diaspora
1: A dispersion of a people from their original homeland, such as the Jewish Diaspora after WWII or the Vietnamese diaspora in the early 1970s. The Khmer diaspora was the result of the civil war and displacement of people due to the Khmer Rouge regime in the 1970s. Cambodian refugees mostly settled in the U.S., Canada, Australia, France, and Thailand. (Hutchinson, 2005) 2: Immigrant communities that live in nation-states other than their original homelands. (Harris, 2005)
Device Proile
A model of a device storing information about both its costs and capabilities. (De Meo, Quattrone, et al., 2005)
DFD: See Data Flow Diagram. DFT: See Discrete Fourier Transformation. DHT: See Distributed Hash Table. DHTML: See Dynamic Hypertext Markup Language.
Selecting a range on multiple dimensions to select a subcube of the original space. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005)
Didactical Situation
A set of circumstances of a teaching situation that can be linked in a way that is coherent, regular, reproducible, and
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speciic to the targeted knowledge. It is not a theory of learning but a process of guiding other peoples learning (i.e., the dissemination and transposition of knowledge). (Pelton & Pelton, 2005)
division, as well as behavioral attributes of the members of organizational subsystems. (Peterson, 2005)
Differentiation Agent
Comparison-shopping agent specializing in collecting price-related, impersonal information, for example, Pricewatch.com. (Wan, 2006)
Differencing
Removes trend from a time series. This is an effective way to provide a clearer view of the true underlying behavior of the series. (Cho, 2005)
Differential Correction
The effects of atmospheric and other GPS errors can be reduced using a procedure called differential correction. Differential correction uses a second GPS receiver at a known location to act as a static reference point. The accuracy of differentially corrected GPS positions can be from a few millimeters to about ive meters, depending on the equipment, time of observation, and software processing techniques. (Olla, 2005b)
Differential/Incremental Evaluation
To re-evaluate a CQ on the changes that have been made in the base data since its previous evaluation. (Khan, 2005)
Diffusion of Innovation
1: The process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. (Lertwongsatien & Wongpinunwatana, 2005) 2: The spread of abstract ideas and concepts, technical information, and actual practices within a social system. In the context of small and medium enterprises (SMEs): low or movement of innovation from a source to an adopter, typically via communication and inluence. (Pease & Rowe, 2005)
Differentiation
The state of segmentation or division of an organizational system into subsystems, each of which tends to develop particular attributes in relation to the requirements posed by the relevant environment. This includes both the formal
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Digital
Information represented as discrete numeric values, for example in binary format (zeros or ones), as opposed to information in continuous or analog form. Binary digits (bits) are typically grouped into words of various lengths8-bit words are called bytes. (Cosemans, 2005b)
Digital Audio
Digital representation of sound waveform, recorded as a sequence of discrete samples, representing the intensity of the sound pressure wave at a given time instant. Sampling frequency describes the number of samples recorded in each second, and bit resolution describes the number of bits used to represent the quantized (i.e., integer) value of each sample. (Wieczorkowska, 2005)
Digital Camera
A camera that stores images in a digital format rather than recording them on light-sensitive ilm. Pictures then may be downloaded to a computer system as digital iles, where they can be stored, displayed, printed, or further manipulated. (Garrett, 2006a)
Digital Cash
Classiied into electronic wallet (IC card) or online type (network). Note that both types of digital cash have appeared recently. The distinction between the two types has been disappearing. (Kurihara, 2006)
Digital Certiicate
1: An electronic passport that can be used to establish identity in an electronic environment. (Mundy & Otenko, 2005) 2: A unique digital ID used to identify individuals (personal certiicates), software (software certiicates), or Web servers (server certiicates). They are based on a hierarchy of trust. (Sockel & Chen, 2005) 3: An electronic data ile issued by a Certiication Authority (CA) to a certiicate holder. It contains the certiicate holders name, a serial number, the certiicate holders public key, expiration dates, and the digital signature of the CA. It can be used to establish the holders credentials when doing transactions through the Internet. (Xu & Korba, 2005) 4: Used to authenticate both parties. CAs must issue these certiicates. These are trusted third parties that have carried out identity checks on their certiicate holders and are prepared to accept a degree of liability for any losses due to fraud. CAs also issue the public and private keys. (Lei et al., 2005b)
Digital Asset
1: Any asset that exists in a digitized form and is of intrinsic or commercial value to an organization. (Subramanian, 2005) 2: An electronic media element that may be unstructured such as an image, audio, or video, or structured such as a document or presentation, usually with associated metadata. (Verhaart & Kinshuk 2006) 3: The information (in digital form) a company collects about its customers. Companies that create value with digital assets may be able to reharvest them through a potentially ininite number of transactions. (Lee et al., 2006)
Digital City
1: This concept encompasses a diversiied number of approaches to the co-evolution spatial development and
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the diffusion ICT. (Moutinho & Heitor, 2005) 2: Usually a Web site that is centered on a city, where public authorities, business, and citizens can communicate and exchange information. (Jaeger, 2005)
Digital Community
A city, town, or community that actively applies interactive communication technologies to enhance all aspects of its culture, community, and commerce. (Geiselhart & Jamieson, 2005)
Digital Darwinism
An ideology framing economic and social situations which argues that only the economically and socially it will survive because of their ability to adapt to the digital world. (Skovira, 2005)
Digital Deliberation
The process of thoughtful discussion regarding an issue or course of action through the use of ICTs. Digital deliberation in government is characterized by access to balanced information, an open agenda, time to consider issues expansively, freedom from manipulation or coercion, a rule-based framework for discussion, participation by an inclusive sample of citizens, broader and freer interaction between participants, and the recognition of differences between participants. (Holzer & Schweste, 2005)
Digital Democracy
Encompasses the use of ICTs in the practice of democracy, whereby emphasis is placed on the processes and structures that deine the relationships between government and citizens, between elected oficials and appointed civil servants, and between the legislative and executive branches of government. (Holzer & Schweste, 2005)
existing between communities regarding their ability or the possibility to effectively access information and communication technologies. (Costagliola, Di Martino, Ferrucci, & Gravino, 2006) 5: Refers to segments of the population lacking Internet access or Internet-related skills. (Holzer & Schweste, 2005) 6: A term used to describe the disparity between persons who have access to information and computing technology, and those who do not. Often used to describe the lack of Internet accessibility to those living in rural or remote areas or who lack computing knowledge and skills. (Becker, 2005a) 7: The discrepancy between people who have access to and the resources to use new information and communication tools, such as the Internet, and people who do not have the resources and access to the technology. It can exist between rural and urban areas, between the educated and uneducated, between economic classes, and between more and less developed nations. (Neumann, 2005) 8: The disparity in access to technology that exists across certain demographic groups. Also, a term used to describe the discrepancy between those who have the skills, knowledge, and abilities to use technology and those who do not. (Sharma, 2006a) 9: The gap between countries or communities with and without access to technology, usually because of a combination of economic, socio-political, and historical causes. The differences relate to ICT infrastructure and human resources and skills, although it is usually used in the context of the inadequate Internet connectivity in developing countries or in underdeveloped regions. (Arellano et al., 2005) 10: The gap created between those using ICT and those who do not, for a range of reasons, including a lack of access to ICT as a result of social or economic factors, a lack of technical and keyboard skills to use ICT, and a lack of basic skills or computer literacy skills to understand the requirements and interpret the information of ICT. (Sutcliffe, 2005)
Digital Divide
1: Refers to individuals or members of communities and groups whose social, cultural, political, economic, or personal circumstances constrain access to electronic communications or limit beneit to their lives from contemporary electronic technologies. (Malina, 2005) 2: A term used to describe the gap between the technology haves and have-nots. It is a gap in opportunities experienced by those with limited accessibility to technology. (Rahman, 2005b) 3: Unequal access and use of data, information, and communication. More speciically, digital divide means unequal access to ICT infrastructure or lacking skills in using it. (Heinonen, 2005) 4: Gap
Digital Economy
1: Accepts as its foundation ICT developments and represents the impact that these have had on the conduct of business and commercial activities. Changes in markets and supply chains as well as increasing global competition all represent what is encapsulated within the term the digital economy. (Ritchie & Brindley, 2005) 2: The economy based more in the form of intangibles, information, innovation, and creativity, to expand economic potential; based on the exploitation of ideas rather than material things using digital infrastructure. (Sharma, 2006a) 3: Economic system using Internet technology for business
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transactions. (Efendioglu, 2006) 4: Economy based on digital technologies such as computer, software, and digital networks. (Tian & Stewart, 2006) 5: The economy for the age of networked intelligence. The digital economy is also a knowledge economy. Information, in all forms digital, is the input of an organizational transformation or value-creation process. (Lee et al., 2006)
Digital Gap
The disparity or breach among countries generated by the lack of communication infrastructure and computerbased power that contribute to accentuate socioeconomic differences. (Ochoa-Morales, 2005)
Digital Government
1: Digital government has different possible deinitions, from online services to any use of ICTs in the public. In general terms, digital government refers to the use of ICTs in government for at least three purposes: providing public services, improving managerial effectiveness, and promoting democracy. (Sharma, 2006b) 2: The development, adoption, or use of ICT by government organizations and actors. (Hinnant & Sawyer, 2005) 3: The use of information and communications technology to improve the relations between government and its employees, citizens, businesses, nonproit partners, and other agencies by enhancing access to and delivery of government information and services. (Knepper & Chen, 2006)
Digital Equity
The social-justice goal of ensuring that everyone in our society has equal access to technology tools, computers, and the Internet. Even more, it occurs when all individuals have the knowledge and skills to access and use technology tools, computers, and the Internet. (Schrum, 2005)
Digital Filter
The digital system that performs digital signal processing, that is, transforms an input sequence into a desired output sequence. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005a)
Digital Fingerprint
A larger document is not signed in its entirety. Generally a digital ingerprint of the larger document is computed and signed. For this purpose hash functions are used. They should be collision resistant and not invertible. Then two different meaningful messages have different ingerprints and it is not possible to construct a meaningful message, given a ingerprint. (Stickel, 2005)
Digital Forensics
Techniques to determine the root causes of security violations that have occurred in a computer or a network. (Thuraisingham, 2005)
Digital Inclusion
1: The obverse of digital divide; seeks to proactively focus on including people in the use of ICT for local and personal beneit either directly or through distributed
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application of information, knowledge, practice, and process derived from such technologies. (Erwin & Taylor, 2005) 2: Strategies and actions to assure more equal access to digital technologies and Web facilities, and to strengthen effective, meaningful, and beneicial use for all members of the public in their day-to-day lives. (Malina, 2005)
Digital Map
1: A data set stored in a computer in digital form. It is not static, and the lexibility of digital maps is vastly greater than paper maps. Inherent in this concept is the point that data on which the map is based is available to examine or question. Digital maps can be manipulated easily in GIS package environments. (Al-Hanbali & Sadoun, 2006) 2: Any form of geographic boundaries or spatially referenced drawings that have been captured, or digitized, into an electronic form. Each element of the map is or may be linked to various descriptive or identifying types of information in a database. (Crossland, 2005)
Digital Interactivity
Despite the fact that interactivity as a blanket concept cannot be precisely deined, the quality of interactivity deined by the user generally depends on the amount of common ground, the users perceived ability to control and inluence form and content of the mediated environment, to be engaged in mediated space (in terms of belief and/or in terms of sensory stimulation or displaced physical enactment or embodiment), and to participate in multi-dimensional feedback which offers choice in real time. (Thomas & Roda, 2006b)
Digital Literacy
A term used to describe the ability of users to perform in digital environments. (Eshet, 2005)
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including end users and any intermediaries such as dealers, distributors, and system administrators. (Wang, Cheng, Cheng, & Huang, 2006) 4: A set of technologies whose purpose is to restrict access to, and the possible uses of, digital media objects, for example, by scrambling the data on a DVD to prevent unauthorized copying. (Hughes & Lang, 2005) 5: The limitation of the access of users to information in a repository through the use of technical protection measures. (Hassan & Hietanen, 2006) 6: A concept for managing and controlling the access and utilization of digital assets. (Karnouskos & Vilmos, 2006) 7: Refers to methods and technologies designed to control access to or use of copyrighted data. (Gaedke et al., 2005) 8: A platform to protect and securely deliver content on a computer. (Upadhyaya et al., 2006)
can be checked by anyone and, if properly used, assures integrity of the signed message, as well as the identity of the signer. (Stickel, 2005)
Digital Signal
A discrete-time signal whose amplitude is also discrete. It is deined as a function of an independent, integer-valued variable n. Consequently, a digital signal represents a sequence of discrete values (some of which can be zeros) for each value of integer n. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005a)
Digital Signature
1: An electronic signature can be deemed the digital equivalent of a handwritten signature. Electronic signatures can be used to authenticate the identity of the signer of the document and to also conirm the data integrity of the document. (Mundy & Otenko, 2005) 2: Extra data appended to the message in order to authenticate the identity of the sender and to ensure that the original content of the message or document that has been sent is unchanged. (Guan, 2005c) 3: A digital signature may be used to electronically sign a document. The signature
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(Chochliouros et al., 2005b) 2: The new generation of broadcast television transmissions. These are of better quality than the traditional analogical broadcasts and will presumably replace them. (Prata, 2005) 3: Broadcasting of television signals by means of digital techniques, used for the provision of TV services. (Hulicki, 2005)
and audiofor the purposes of copyright protection, authentication, content integrity veriication, and so forth. (Si & Li, 2006) 4: The practice of hiding a message in digital media, such as a digital image, audio, and/or video. Digital watermarking only gained enormous popularity as a research topic in the latter half of the 1990s. (Sattar & Yu, 2006) 5: Sometimes also known as digital data hiding, a technique for inserting secret information into digital content in a seemingly innocuous and standards-compliant manner for applications of content authentication, covert communications, copyright control or protection, and so forth. In the case of covert communications, it is also called steganography. (Wang, Cheng, Cheng, & Huang, 2006) 6: The act of inserting a message into a cover work. The resulting stego-object can be visible or invisible. (K. Chen, 2005)
Digitality
The proportion of a companys business that is online. (Borders & Johnston, 2005)
Digitization
Measures that automate processes. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005a)
Dimension
1: A business perspective useful for analyzing data. A dimension usually contains one or more hierarchies that can be used to drill up or down to different levels of detail. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005) 2: A category of information relevant to the decision-making purpose of the data warehouse (Scime, 2005b). 3: A dimension attribute of an entity is a functional attribute that describes an aspect of the entity such as location or product. Dimension attributes can be hierarchical, for example, year-quartermonth-day for the time dimension. (Riedewald et al., 2005) 4: A property of a fact that speciies or explains one aspect of said fact. Usually a dimension has information associated with it. (Badia, 2005c) 5: A property of the
Digital Watermark(ing)
1: An image or a logo in digital format embedded in a host image. The embedded data can later be used to prove the rightful ownership. (Chen, Chen, Ma, et al., 2005) 2: A process that secretly embeds a message, such as a logo or data about the authorship, into multimedia. The watermark information still can be detected or extracted after suffering from attacks. Its major intent is establishing an identity of multimedia to prevent unauthorized use. (Lou et al., 2006) 3: A method of embedding secret information (watermark) into a host mediasuch as image, video,
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data used to classify it and navigate the corresponding data cube. In multi-dimensional databases, dimensions are often organized into several hierarchical levels, for example, a time dimension may be organized into days, months, and years. (Tininini, 2005b) 6: Corresponds to a perspective under which facts can be fruitfully analyzed. It is a structural attribute of a fact, that is, a list of members (variables), all of which are of a similar type in the users perception of the data. (Rafanelli, 2005) 7: Refers to the determinants of quality of each of the three componentsnamely, system quality, information quality, and service quality. (Wilkin, 2005) 8: A set of members (criteria) allowing to drive the analysis (example for the Product dimension: product type, manufacturer type). Members are used to drive the aggregation operations. (Schneider, 2005) 9: An axis along which the facts are recorded. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005) 10: Static, fact-oriented information used in decision support to drill down into measurements. (DeLorenzo, 2005)
Dimensionality Modeling
A logical design technique that aims to present data in a standard, intuitive form that allows for high-performance access. (Kontio, 2005)
Dimensionality Reduction
1: A phase of classiier construction that reduces the number of dimensions of the vector space in which documents are represented for the purpose of classiication. Dimensionality reduction beneicially affects the eficiency of both the learning process and the classiication process. In fact, shorter vectors need to be handled by the learner and by the classiier, and often on the effectiveness of the classiier too, since shorter vectors tend to limit the tendency of the learner to overit the training data. (Sebastiani, 2005) 2: A technique used to lower the dimensionality of the original dataset. Each object is transformed to another object that is described by less information. It is very useful for indexing purposes, since it increases the speed of the iltering step. (Kontaki et al., 2005) 3: Process of extracting a signature of low dimensionality from the original data while preserving some attributes of the original data, such as the Euclidean distance. (Sayal, 2005) 4: The process of transformation of a large dimensional feature space into a space comprising a small number of (uncorrelated) components. Dimensionality reduction allows us to visualize, categorize, or simplify large datasets. (Aradhye & Dorai, 2005) 5: The removal of irrelevant, weakly relevant, or redundant attributes or dimensions through the use of techniques such as principle component analysis or sensitivity analysis. (Viktor & Paquet, 2005)
Dimension Dependency
Presents when there is an interaction of the different dimensions with one another. (Tan, 2005a)
Dimension Table
1: A database table that stores the different possible values for a dimension, the attributes for those values, and the hierarchical values to which it maps. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005) 2: A table containing the data for one dimension within a star schema. The primary key is used to link to the fact table, and each level in the dimension has a corresponding ield in the dimension table. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005) 3: A dimension table contains the textual descriptors of the business process being modeled, and its depth and breadth deine the analytical usefulness of the data warehouse. (Delve, 2005)
Diploma Mill
An organization that offers university diplomas that do not relect learning. (Kostopoulos, 2005)
Dimensional Attribute
One dimension of an m-dimensional context. (Feng & Dillon, 2005)
Dimensional Model
1: A data model that represents measures of a key business process in the form of facts and the independent variables that affect those measurements. (Artz, 2005d) 2: The data model used in data warehouses and data marts, the most common being the star schema, comprising a fact table surrounded by dimension tables. (Delve, 2005)
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Direct Impact
Information technology investments that can be evaluated as causally related to reduced cost or increased proits. For example, more effective management of inventory leads to reduced inventory carrying costs. (Dykman, 2005)
Direct-to-Customer
An e-commerce business model that connects manufacturers with customers directly by bypassing intermediaries with Internet-related technology. (Wang, Ding, et al., 2006)
Direction
1: Refers to specialists issuing rules, directives, and operating procedures to guide the behavior of nonspecialists, less mature specialists, and specialists in other ields. Rules and directives can be interpreted as translations into a limited instruction of a wider body of explicit and tacit knowledge on a subject. (Berends et al., 2006) 2: A stage of the intelligence cycle. In the direction stage, one determines the strategic (external) information requirementsthat is, one determines what environmental data should be collected. (Achterbergh, 2005a)
Direct Sale
The sale of a product or service made over a Web site and directly payable to the product/service provider (who is also the Web site owner). (Shan et al., 2006b)
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Directory
Other than search engines, directories provide another approach of Web searches. A directory is a subject guide, typically organized by major topics and subtopics, which is created based on the submissions from either Webmasters or editors who have reviewed the pages. (Hu, Yang, Yeh, et al., 2005)
Directory Resources
Individuals who can get you in touch with other immediately unknown knowledge stakeholders or experts. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Discourse
1: Characterized by linguists as units of language longer than a single sentence, such that discourse analysis is deined as the study of cohesion and other relationships between sentences in written or spoken discourse. (Macfadyen & Doff, 2006) 2: Closely associated with the notion of a text, discourse refers to meaning making. This meaning making may be of many forms such as written, spoken, written to be spoken, and spoken to be written. (Zappavigna, 2006)
Disability
1: There are two basic approaches. The medical model sees disability as a personal tragedy or deicit located within an individual. The social model argues that it is society that creates disability, with barriers to participation needing to be addressed systemically. (Newell & Debenham, 2005) 2: Under the ADA, an individual with a disability is a person who: (1) has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; (2) has a record of such an impairment; or (3) is regarded as having such an impairment. (Bursa, et al., 2005)
Discourse Analysis
Generally looks at aspects of texts above the clause or sentence level, and approaches them in their social contexts rather than as isolated aspects of grammar. (Zappavigna, 2006)
Disabled Student
From the U.S. Federal Register: the child/student has been evaluated as having mental retardation, a hearing impairment including deafness, a speech or language impairment, a visual impairment including blindness, serious emotional disturbance (hereafter referred to as emotional disturbance), an orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, another health impairment, a speciic learning disability, deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities, and who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services (IEP or 504). (T. Cavanaugh, 2005)
Discovery Informatics
1: Knowledge explored in databases with the form of association, classiication, regression, summarization/ generalization, and clustering. (Wu & Lee, 2005) 2: The study and practice of employing the full spectrum of computing and analytical science and technology to the singular pursuit of discovering new information by identifying and validating patterns in data. (Agresti, 2005)
Disablism
Similar to sexism and racism as a concept. (Newell & Debenham, 2005)
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Discovery Tool
A program that enables users to employ different discovery schemes, including classification, characteristics, association, and sequence for extracting knowledge from databases. (Owrang O., 2006)
An attribute is a quantity describing an example (or instance); its domain is deined by the attribute type, which denotes the values taken by an attribute. An attribute can be discrete (or categorical, indeed symbolic) when the number of values is inite. A continuous attribute corresponds to real numerical values (for instance, a measurement). The discretization process transforms an attribute from continuous to discrete. (Muhlenbach & Rakotomalala, 2005)
(Giudici, 2005)
Discrete-Event Simulation
Models a system by changing the systems state at discrete points in time. (Janssen, 2005)
Discrete Data
Assuming values that can be counted, the data cannot assume all values on the number line within their value range. An example is: number of children in a family. (Yang & Webb, 2005)
Discrete-Time Signal
Deined at discrete time values, and thus the independent variable has discrete values n, for example x(n). (JovanovicDolecek, 2005b)
Discretization
1: A process that transforms quantitative data to qualitative data. (Yang & Webb, 2005) 2: Conversion of a numeric variable into a categorical variable, usually though binning. The entire range of the numeric values is split into a pre-speciied number of bins. The numeric value of the attributes is replaced by the identiier of the bin into which it falls. (Perlich & Provost, 2005)
Discrete System
A system where the state variables showing its behavior change only at isolated, discernible points of time. Hence, the behavior of the system is seen as changing in distinct, separate moments of time. Such systems can be modeled using difference equations or incremental event analysis. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005)
Discriminant Analysis
1: A multivariate statistical method that separates the data into categories. (Kumar, 2005) 2: Statistical methodology used for classiication that is based on the general regression model, and uses a nominal or ordinal dependent variable. (Garrity et al., 2005)
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Disc rim ina nt Func t ion Algorit hm Disjunc t ive Dat a o l g Progra m
A term developed for Edward Altman in describing his Z Score analytical tool in determining the likelihood of an enterprise going into bankruptcy on a prospective basis. Used as a method for determining inlection pointschanges in corporate health vs. for bankruptcy prediction. (Nugent, 2005)
Disembodied
Separated from or existing without the body. (Macfadyen, 2006c)
Disintermediation
1: The reduction or elimination of the role of the middlemen in transactions between the producer and the customer, as in new electronic marketplaces, consumers interact directly with producers. (Sharma, Carson, et al., 2005) 2: The removal of intermediaries from the supply chain. The possibility of disintermediation is said to occur when there is market transparency and the inal buyers become aware of manufacturers price intermediaries. (Fraser, 2005) 3: Going around a player in a supply chain, as in rendering that player redundant. (Foley & Samson, 2006) 4: The elimination of agents, like wholesale dealers or brokers, who built the former relationship between producer and consumer. Disintermediation allows the direct supply of the consumer. (Seitz, 2005) 5: The process of eliminating intermediaries in the channels of distribution. (Borders & Johnston, 2005)
Discussion Board/Group
1: A Web site, or part of a Web site, that allows individuals to post messages, but does not have the capacity for interactive messaging. (Whitty, 2005) 2: An intranet site where members can post their thoughts in writing. (Baugher et al., 2005) 3: Also known as a message board, this term refers to a Web site component that enables users to participate in topics of discussion by posting and replying to comments electronically. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005) 4: Many-to-many asynchronous communication in which a group of people exchanges messages and information on a speciic topic. Members of the group send messages and reply to messages of other members. (Erlich, 2005)
Discussion Thread
1: A series of posts related to a single topic in a discussion board. (Baugher et al., 2005) 2: A set of sequential response messages to an original message in a discussion group. (Erlich, 2005) 3: A string of messages that follow a common theme and consist of responses and replies to previous messages. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005a)
Disjunctive Database
A database that allows indeinite information. (Grant & Minker, 2006)
Discussion Tool
A Web-based tool that supports multimedia asynchronous communication among individuals in a learning community. (Morphew, 2005)
Disease Mapping
The visual display of geographical patterns of disease in a map. The maps typically show standardized mortality or incidence ratios for geographic areas such as countries, counties, or districts. (Vidal-Rodeiro et al., 2005)
Disease Rates
The level of disease in a given time period, population, and geographic area. It represents the proportion of disease
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a constraint or denial rule, that is, a rule which is satisied only if Body(r) is false. (Greco & Zumpano, 2005b)
Disruptive Innovation
An innovation that typically presents a different package of performance attributesones that, at least at the outset, are not valued by existing customers. (C.-S. Lee, 2005)
Dissemination
1: Because information is not created equally, it must be codiied and aggregated such that one producer of knowledge is not privileged over another. For example, a city portal where all community information is collated or republished. (Williamson, 2005) 2: Stage of the intelligence cycle. In this stage, the intelligence produced in the analysis stage is presented and forwarded to strategic decision makers. (Achterbergh, 2005a)
Disorientation
The sensation of feeling lost in a hypermedia document, characterized by three categories of the users experience: (1) the user does not know where to go next, (2) the user knows where to go but not how to get there, or (3) the user does not know where he or she is in relation to the overall structure of the document. (Boechler, 2006a)
Distal Context
The physical scope of a consumer context that is outside the direct perception of the consumer. Most context-aware applications intend to help mobile consumers obtain useful and interesting information about their distal context. (Sun & Poole, 2005)
Disparity
The inequality or difference in access to media and technology. (Reilly, 2005)
Distance
A function from pairs of objects into non-negative real numbers. It can be zero only if the two arguments are the same. It must be symmetric and obey the triangle inequality. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
Distance Communication
Communication under conditions of geographic separation that minimize the possibility of face-to-face and synchronous interactions. (Murphy, 2005c)
Dispersed/Distributed Team
A team separated by some degree of physical distance. (Connaughton, 2005)
Disposal
Even disconnected computers may lead to cyber-identity theft. Careless handling or disposal of discarded computers can lead to identity theft. Furthermore, disposed hardware and software may lead to cyber-identity theft. If a user fails to take precautions such as data deletion or physical destruction of a machine, the data are readily accessible for the next userwhoever may ind it. (Close et al., 2006)
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Dist a nc e Educ at ion a nd Tra ining Counc il (DETC) Di s t a nc e Te a ching U nive rsit y
2005) 4: A teaching method in which students do not have to come to a speciic location in order to hear lectures or study. The learning materials reach them either by mail, through the Internet, or through other means (satellite, cable). The main component of the method is usually written material together with additional components such as assignments, face-to-face (or computer-mediated) tutorials, and examinations. It involves learning outside of the traditional avenues of attendance at educational institutions. (Erlich & Gal-Ezer, 2005) 5: Education that takes place when an instructor and student are separated by physical distance, and various technologies (e.g., the Internet, videoconferencing, etc.) are used to bridge the distance. These types of instructional delivery systems can provide non-traditional students with a second chance at a college education, and reach those disadvantaged by time constraints, physical disability, or remote geographical locations. It is sometimes called distance learning. (Paraskevi & Kollias, 2006) 6: Also known as correspondence education, refers to the alternative approach to traditional classroom instruction, whereby learning packages are delivered to the learners via multiple channels. The term is used to designate any learning that takes place between a teacher and a learner when they are not in the same place at the same time. Distance learning has evolved into Web-based education due to information technology, especially the Internet. (Rahman, 2005f) 7: Learners are connected with educational resources beyond the conines of a traditional classroom, and instructed via computer-mediated communication and different types of electronic technologies that can overcome the constraints of distance, time, physical presence, or location that separate instructors and students. Learning may be synchronous or asynchronous. (Malina, 2005)
the range [0,1], with values close to 0 for similar elements. (Chang et al., 2005) 2: Used to express the similarity between two objects. It is usually normalized in the range between 0 to 1. Examples of distance functions used for time series data are the Euclidean Distance and the Time Warping Distance. (Kontaki et al., 2005)
Distance Measure
One of the calculation techniques to discover the relationship between two implicit words in a large corpus or labels in a large database from the viewpoint of similarity. (Ito, 2005)
Distance Function
1: A function used to compute the similarity between two multimedia elements. In particular, it returns a number in
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through communication technologies. It allows its students to study wherever convenient, and requires special methods of course and instructional design, as well as special organizational and administrative arrangements. (Erlich & Gal-Ezer, 2005)
of the remote procedure-calling mechanism and allows calls to remote objects interacting with COM services. (Kasi & Young, 2006)
Distributed Computing
The process of using a number of separate but networked computers to solve a single problem. (Zwitserloot & Pantic, 2005)
Distanced Leadership
Leadership of a team or organizational members that are separated by some degree of time and distance from their leader. (Connaughton, 2005)
A subset of Artiicial Intelligence that is concerned with the study of issues related to knowledge distribution and problem solving involving a society of decentralized but connected entities. (Tang & Sivaramakrishnan, 2005)
Distributed Database
A collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over a computer network. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Distributed Chase
A kind of recursive strategy applied to a database V, based on functional dependencies or rules extracted both from V and other autonomous databases, by which a null value or an incomplete value in V is replaced by a new, more complete value. Any differences in semantics among attributes in the involved databases have to be resolved irst. (Ras & Dardzinska, 2005)
Distributed Delivery
A system whereby information or course content is delivered through several media, accessible to anyone regardless of their locations and platforms. (Aworuwa & Owen, 2005)
Distributed Cognition
Cognition is understood as being derived from the environment. It is based on an assumption of equality between people and artifacts in structuring practice. (Munkvold, 2006)
Distributed Environment
An environment in which different components and objects comprising an application can be located on different computers connected to a network. (Guan, 2005d)
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Distributed Expertise
Cognition and knowing are distributed over individuals, their tools, environments, and networks. (Muukkonen et al., 2005)
of learning situations in which the students and instructor are located in different localities. A bit broader than distance education, as it can be used to refer to both education and training. (Turoff et al., 2005b) 4: A set of pedagogical strategies that integrate face-to-face with online methodologies. (Ketelhut et al., 2005) 5: Using a wide range of information technologies to provide learning opportunities beyond the bounds of the traditional classroom. (Dixon et al., 2005)
Distributed Organization
An organization that works across physical boundaries and time zones with multiple sites or ofices. (Huq et al., 2006)
Distributed Learning
1: A student-centered approach to learning that incorporates the use of technology in the learning process and emphasizes four educational characteristics: (1) supports different learning styles by using mixed media, (2) builds on the learners perspective through interactive educational experiences, (3) builds learning skills and social skills through collaboration among learners and with the community, and (4) integrates the learning into daily life by doing authentic tasks. (Rahman, 2005a) 2: A type of learning made possible by technology that is dependent neither on place nor time. Distributed learning allows students and instructors to be at different locations at the same or different times. (Klein, 2005) 3: Consists
Distributed System
A system made up of components that may be obtained from a number of different sources, which together work as a single distributed system providing the run-time infrastructure supporting todays networked computer applications. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005)
Distributed Work
Collaborative work carried out by several persons at different geographical locations. (Wiberg, 2005)
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Distribution Channel
The sum of all organizations or parts of an organization that are involved in making a product or service available to a customer. Distribution channels can also apply media (e.g., the Internet or TV) in order to address customers. Also called Channel of Distribution. (Madlberger, 2006)
Diversity/Flexibility/Tension
Diversity, both in terms of the work assignments offered and the people one interacts with, and a tolerance of differences. In order to be tolerant of differences, lexibility is needed. Both diversity and lexibility can lead to creative tension. (Torres-Coronas & Gasc-Hernndez, 2005)
Divide-and-Conquer
A well-known algorithm design strategy where the dataset is partitioned into blocks and each block is processed independently. The resulting block-level (local) kernels are merged to realize the global output. It increases the eficiency of the algorithms in terms of both space and time requirements. (Murthy & Diday, 2005)
Distribution List
An e-mail list of all participants in the virtual environment who can be contacted as a totality or divided into speciied sub-groups. (Coakes & Willis, 2005)
Division of Knowledge
The way in which knowledge is dispersed over organization members, groups, and departments. The division of knowledge varies from a low degree of differentiation (a high degree of redundancy) to a high degree of differentiation (a low degree of redundancy). (Berends et al., 2006)
Distributive Function
An aggregate function F is called distributive if there exists a function g such that the value of F for an n-dimensional cuboid can be computed by applying g to the value of F in (n + 1)dimensional cuboid. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
DK/NF: See Domain Key/Normal Form. DL: See Distance Learning. DM: See Data Mining. DMG: See Data-Mining Group. DML: See Data Manipulation Language. DMO: See Destination Marketing Organization. DMSS: See Decision-Making Support System. DMT: See Data-Mining Technology. DNA
Distributive Proile
A part of a users proile that deines which documents (from the relevant ones) and how should be presented to him/her in a particular time moment. (Abramowicz et al., 2006)
Distributor
A self-employed individual or a company engaged in network marketing on behalf of a manufacturer. (D. Wright, 2005)
1: Deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA molecules carry the genetic information necessary for the organization and functioning of most living cells, and control the inheritance of characteristics. (Galitsky, 2005a) 2: Nucleic acid, constituting the genes, codifying proteins. (Liberati et al., 2005) 3: A speciic sequence of deoxyribonucleotide units covalently joined through phosphodiester bonds. (Tsunoda et al., 2005)
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Document Database
1: A collection of documents associated with a system to manage the documents and their content. (Lyytikinen et al., 2005) 2: A database designed for managing and manipulating XML documents or even more generic SGML documents. (Chen, 2005b) 3: A collection of documents with a uniform user interface. (Schmidt et al., 2005)
Doctrine
A category endowed with a certain collection of diagram operations that allow one to perform certain logical manipulations with objects and morphisms. For example, in a category called logos, one can join and meet objects, take images and co-images of objects under given morphisms, and consider graphs (binary relations) of morphisms. In a transitive logos, one can, in addition, consider transitive closures of binary relations. Like relational algebra is an algebraic counterpart of some version of irst-order predicate calculus, a categorical doctrine is a diagramalgebraic counterpart of some sort of logical calculus. Correspondingly, a hierarchy of logical calculi ranging from propositional to irst-order predicate to higher-order predicate calculi gives rise to the corresponding hierarchy of categoriesdoctrines. (Diskin, 2005)
Document Frequency
The number of documents in the document collection that the term appears in. (Fan & Pathak, 2005)
Document Imaging
Scanning and conversion of hard-copy documents to either analog (ilm) or digital image format. (Asprey et al., 2005)
Document Capture
Registration of an object into a document, image, or content repository. (Asprey et al., 2005)
Document Categorization
A process that assigns one or more of the predeined categories (labels) to a document. (Mladeni, 2005)
Document Clustering
1: A process that groups documents, based on their content similarity, using some predeined similarity measure. (Mladeni, 2005) 2: An unsupervised learning technique that partitions a given set of documents into distinct groups of similar documents based on similarity or distance measures. (Kim, 2005) 3: The automatic organization of documents into clusters or group so that documents within a cluster have high similarity in comparison to one another, but are very dissimilar to documents in other clusters. (Fung et al., 2005)
Document Ranking
A function that scores documents in a collection according to their relevance to a given query so that the more relevant a function is, the higher score it has. (Meng & Chen, 2005)
1: An XML DTD is a mechanism to deine the structure of XML documents. It lists the various elements and attributes in a document and the context in which they
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are to be used. It can also list any elements a document cannot contain. (Passi et al., 2005) 2: Provides guidelines about how speciic elements in a document are represented or which segments of data may coexist or are mutually exclusive. (Hawk & Zheng, 2006) 3: A formal description in XML declaration syntax of a particular type of document It begins with a <!DOCTYPE keyword and sets out what names are to be used for the different types of markup elements, where they may occur, the elements possible attributes, and how they all it together. For example, a DTD may specify that every person markup element must have a name attribute and that it can have an offspring element called id whose content must be text. There are many sorts of DTDs ready to be used in all kinds of areas that can be downloaded and used freely. (Zarri, 2005b) 4: A set of rules deining the element types that are allowed within an XML document, and specifying the allowed content and attributes of each element type. Also deines all the external entities referenced within the documents and the notations that can be used. (Pallis, Stoupa, & Vakali, 2005) 5: The capability of XML to specify constraints for a class of documents. A DTD deines element and attribute names and the hierarchic structure of the elements for the documents of a class. (Lyytikinen et al., 2005)
actual data in a ield are a subset of the ields domain. (Koeller, 2005)
Domain Knowledge
1: A set of small domain knowledge elements makes up domain knowledge. Domain knowledge represents all topics in teaching domain and forms a complete course structure. (Wu & Chen, 2005) 2: Expertise in a given application area. (Hoxmeier, 2005)
Domain Language
1: The language, including speciic technical terms, phrases, and shortcuts/abbreviations of speech that are unique and speciic to the sphere of knowledge. (Coakes & Clarke, 2006b) 2: Used to learn about some speciic subject domain, for example, in an academic discipline. This contrasts with more general learning of discussion strategies, metacognition, learning to learn, and so forth. Vicarious learning has thus far been more effectively shown to work in the latter type of area than in domain learning, but this may be quite sensitive to the choice of domain. (J.R. Lee, 2005)
Document Vector
Each document is represented by a vector of frequencies of remaining items after preprocessing within the document. (Fung et al., 2005)
Document Warehouse
A document database consisting of documents gathered from various independent sources. (Schmidt et al., 2005)
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Domain Name
Any name representing any record that exists within the domain name system (DNS), the system that attributes a domain name to an IP address and hence to an Internet host. Three main typologies of top-level domain (TLD) names exist that characterize the ending part of each WWW address: Generic Top-Level Domain (gTLD), Country Code Top-Level Domain (ccTLD), and infrastructure top-level domain. (Maggioni & Uberti, 2005)
Domain of Rule
The set of attributes listed in the IF part of a rule. (Ras, Tzacheva, & Tsay, 2005)
Domain Ontology
Either a domain-specific or an application-specific ontology. (Cristani & Cuel, 2006)
An engineering object deining the model of knowledge in a speciic domain. The level of speciicity may be very deep, but the name is reserved for those ontologies that are not dependent on speciic applications. (Cristani & Cuel, 2006)
Domain-Speciic Ontology
Domain Restriction
A condition, usually formulated in irst-order logic, that deines the set of values that an attribute or variable may have. In database terminology, a domain restriction is a kind of integrity constraint. (Aldana Montes et al., 2005)
Dot Map
A map in which the geographic locations of events, people, or other entities are depicted as points or dots. (Garb & Wait, 2005b)
Domain-Name Hijacking
Obtaining a domain-name transfer of ownership through fraud. (Owen, 2006d)
Domain-Name Squatting
Registering a trademark, an organizations name, or a persons name as a domain name with the intention to proit from trafic to an unrelated Web site or by reselling
Dot-Com
1: A company with operations that are entirely or primarily Internet based or, more speciically, a company with a business model that would not be possible if the Internet
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did not exist. Dot-coms often deliver all their services over an Internet interface, but products might be delivered through traditional channels as well. Dot-coms are often divided into two categories: those that provide products and services for consumers (B2C) and those that provide products and services to other businesses (B2B). (Sharma & Wickramasinghe, 2005) 2: An electronic retailer that operates exclusively through one distribution channel. By nature, dot-coms are non-store-based retailers. Also known as pure player. (Madlberger, 2006)
taxation happens when comparable taxes are imposed by two or more taxing jurisdictions on the same taxpayer in respect of the same taxable income or capital. (Raisinghani & Petty, 2005)
Double-Knit Organization
An organization where people work in teams for projects, but importantly also belong to a much more enduring and lasting community of practice in order to keep their skills sharp. (Ray, 2006)
Dot-Com Bubble
1: Refers to the late 1990s during which countless dot-com companies were booming with a frenzy of investment in Internet-related technical stocks and enterprises. (Hwang & Stewart, 2006) 2: The exaggerated enthusiasm in Internet companies with the overvaluation of high-technology stocks in the late 1990s. (Tian & Stewart, 2006)
Double-Loop Learning
Together with single-loop learning, describes the way in which organizations may learn to respond appropriately to change. Single-loop learning requires adjustments to procedures and operations within the framework of customary, accepted assumptions, but fails to recognize or deal effectively with problems that may challenge fundamental aspects of organizational culture, norms, or objectives. Double-loop learning questions those assumptions from the vantage point of higher order, shared views, in order to solve problems. (Vat, 2005b)
Dot-Com Bust
Refers to the years 2000 to 2002, when dot-com industry collapsed and hundreds of dot-com companies went bankrupt due to the NASDAQ crash starting in March 2000. (Hwang & Stewart, 2006)
Down-Sampling
Discarding every M-1 sample (retaining every Mth sample). (Mili, 2005)
Dot-Com Company
1: A company that conducts its primary business on the Internet. It is called dot-com company because the companys URL ends with .com. (Tian & Stewart, 2006) 2: A company using the Internet as its primary means to conduct business. The companies typically use the .com sufix in company name. (Hwang & Stewart, 2006)
Downlink
The communication link from a satellite to an Earth station. (Statica & Deek, 2006)
Download
To move a digital ile (such as a media ile) from a server where it is stored to a local system for viewing or editing. (Cosemans, 2005a)
Dot-Com Crash
The stock market crash of Internet companies in 2000 and 2001, many of which failed during the crash. Those companies were overvalued before the crash. (Tian & Stewart, 2006)
Double Talk
An interference produced when the speakers at both ends of a telephone line simultaneously speak. This phenomenon greatly disturbs the echo canceller performance. (PerezMeana & Nakano-Miyatake, 2005)
Drama Serial
An ongoing story told in dramatic form incorporating sound effects, music, dialogue, and/or narration. It may be broadcast once, twice, or several times in a week, and it is usually from 15 to 30 minutes in duration. Sometimes, it is referred to as a soap opera. (Craddock & Duncan, 2005)
Double Taxation
When the same taxable item is taxed more than once by either the same or by different government agencies, there is said to be double taxation. The juridical type of double
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Drama Series
A story told in dramatic form with a ixed number of episodes. (Craddock & Duncan, 2005)
IPMP system and is assigned by a registration authority. (Wang, Cheng, Cheng, & Huang, 2006)
DSA: See Data Staging Area. DSL: See Digital Subscriber Line; Digital Subscriber
Loop.
Drawing Program
A software program that creates digital images. (Judd, 2005)
DSMS: See Data Stream Management System. DRE: See Digital Rights Expression System. DSS: See Decision Support System. DRE System: See Direct Recording Electronic
System.
DSSS: See Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum. DSV-IS: See Design, Speciication, and Veriication of
Interactive Systems.
Drill Down/Roll Up
1: A method of exploring multi-dimensional data by moving from one level of detail to the next. (Sethi & Sethi, 2006b) 2: The process of navigating from a top-level view of overall sales down through the sales territories, to the individual salesperson level. This is a more intuitive way to obtain information at the detail level. Drill-down levels depend on the granularity of the data in the data warehouse. Roll up is the opposite function. (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005b) 3: User interface technique to navigate into lower levels of information in decision support systems. (DeLorenzo, 2005) 4: Typical OLAP operation by which aggregate data are visualized at a iner (coarser) level of detail along one or more analysis dimensions. (Tininini, 2005c) 5: A cube operation that allows users to navigate from summarized cells to more detailed cells. (Abdulghani, 2005b) 6: Opposite operation of the previous one. (Schneider, 2005)
DTOA: See Differential Time of Arrival. DTV: See Digital Television. DTW: See Dynamic Time Warping. Dual-Channel Assumption
Based on the notion that working memory has two sensory channels, each responsible for processing different types of input. The auditory or verbal channel processes written and spoken language. The visual channel processes images. (Boechler, 2006b)
Dual-Mode Institution
1: An organization that delivers some courses on-site and some courses off-site using distance delivery methods. (Ally, 2005d) 2: An institution that simultaneously offers
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on-campus courses and distance education courses. (Graham, Allen, et al., 2005)
DVB: See Digital Video Broadcasting. DVC: See Desktop Video Conferencing; Document Cut-
Dual-Task Study
A study in which two tasks are performed concurrently to observe changes in task interference. Usually the participant is expected to or asked to focus on the primary task so that interference is observed only in the secondary task, but this is not necessarily always the objective. Observations of task interference are taken to suggest that the limits of the processing system are being reached. (Owen, 2006c)
Off Value.
DVD: See Digital Versatile Disc. DVP: See Delivery-vs.-Payment. DWL: See Data Warehouse Library. DWT: See Discrete Wavelet Transformation. Dyadic Communication
Refers to communication between two people: the source and the receiver. A dyadic approach to communication stresses the role of the relationship between the source and the receiver. (Jacobson, 2006)
Duality of Structure
The concept in structuration theory that structure is the medium and the outcome of the conduct it recursively organizes. (Saunders, 2006)
Dublin Core
1: A set of 15 metadata ields, such as title and author, commonly used by library systems to manage digital assets. All ields are optional. (Verhaart & Kinshuk 2006) 2: A widely accepted standard for metadata about electronic documents. Maintained by the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. (Hnisch, 2005)
Dynamic Complexity
How much the communication process depends on time constraints, unclear or deicient feedback, and changes during the process. (Willis, 2005)
Dutch Auction
1: A descending-bid auction in which the price of an item is lowered until it gets the irst bid, which is the highest price the customer is willing to pay. (Blecker & Abdelkai, 2006) 2: A popular kind of auction at many sites, commonly used when a seller has a number of the same items to sell, for example, 10 posters. The auctioneer starts with a high asking price. The seller then gradually decreases the offer price, and the irst person to bid is the winner. (Lei et al., 2005b)
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Dynamic E-Business
Dynamic Personalization
End-user tailoring that occurs during the regular use of the system within a context of a user task, as opposed to a speciic context-free activity directed at the selection of customization options. (Babaian, 2005)
The next generation of e-business focusing on the integration and infrastructure complexities of B2B by leveraging the beneits of Internet standards and a common infrastructure to produce optimal eficiencies for intra- and interenterprise computing. (Jain & Ramesh, 2006)
Dynamic Graph
Graph representing a constantly changing stream of data. (Holder & Cook, 2005)
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Dynamic Weighting
Reassigning weights on the data points in each iteration of an iterative algorithm. (B. Zhang, 2005)
Dynamic Topology
Due to the node mobility, the network topology of mobile multi-hop ad hoc networks are changing continuously in time. (Erbas, 2005)
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E- E-Certiicate
E
EOftentimes used without the hyphen, the e originally stood for electronic, as in online. Today the term is used rather freely to describe any situation or solution that has made the migration from real world to the Internet. (Passi et al., 2005)
E-Business Model: See Electronic Business Model. E-Business Opportunity: See Electronic Business
Opportunity.
E-Business Option: See Electronic Business Option. E-Business Outcome: See Electronic Business
Outcome.
E-Business System: See Electronic Business System. E-Business Technology: See Electronic Business
Technology.
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E-Channel: See Electronic Channel. E-Citizen: See Electronic Citizen. E-Cluster: See Electronic Cluster. E-Collaboration/Collaborative Commerce: See
Electronic Collaboration/Collaborative Commerce.
E-CRM
1: A subset of CRM that focuses on acquiring a thorough understanding of an organizations online (via the Internet) visitors and customers to create and maintain online loyalty. (Van Dyke et al., 2006) 2: The fusion of a process, a strategy, and a technology to blend sales, marketing, and service information to identify, attract, and build partnerships with customers. (Borders & Johnston, 2005) 3: A strategy that companies use to identify, manage, and improve relationships with their most proitable online customers to create long-term value for the irm when a companys customer service operations are on the Internet, using e-mail, fax, Internet call centers, FAQs, online chats, and Web-based forums. (Gupta & Iyer, 2005)
E-CRM Analytics
The process of analyzing and reporting online visitor and customer behavior patterns with the objective of acquiring and retaining customers. (Van Dyke et al., 2006)
Technique.
E-Document: See Electronic Document. E-Dyad: See Electronic Dyad. E-Education: See Electronic Education.
E-Enrollment: See Electronic Enrollment. E-Fluentials: See Electronic Inluentials. E-Folio: See Electronic Portfolio. E-Forum: See Electronic Forum. E-Fulillment: See Electronic Fulillment. E-Fulillment Capability: See Electronic Fulillment
Capability.
E-Communication: See Electronic Communication. E-Community: See Electronic Community. E-Consultation: See Electronic Consultation. E-Course: See Electronic Course. E-Crime: See Electronic Crime.
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E-Learning Development Team: See Electronic E-Government: See Electronic Government. E-Government Integration Stage: See Electronic
Government Integration Stage. Learning Development Team.
E-Learning Platform: See Electronic Learning E-Hierarchy: See Electronic Hierarchy. E -H I M: See Elect ronic Health Infor mation
Management. Platform.
E-Learning Program Strategic Plan: See Electronic E-Journal: See Electronic Journal. E-Journalism: See Electronic Journalism. E-Knowledge: See Electronic Knowledge. E-Learning Support and Development Team: See E-Knowledge Network: See Electronic Knowledge
Network. Electronic Learning Support and Development Team. Learning Program Strategic Plan.
E-Learning System: See Electronic Learning E-Lab: See Electronic Lab. E-Learner: See Electronic Learner. E-Learning: See Electronic Learning. E-Lib: See Electronic Libraries Program. E-Learning Application: See Electronic Learning
Application. System.
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E-Loyalty: See Electronic Loyalty. E-Policy: See Electronic Policy. E-Mail: See Electronic Mail. E-Politics: See Electronic Politics. E-Mail Aliasing: See Electronic Mail Aliasing. E-Portfolio: See Electronic Portfolio. E-Mail Bomb: See Electronic Mail Bomb. E-Press: See Electronic Press. E -Mai l Management: See Elect ronic Mail
Management.
E-Procurement: See Electronic Procurement. E-Questionnaire: See Electronic Questionnaire. E-R Model: See Entity-Relationship Model. E-Readiness: See Electronic Readiness. E-Research: See Electronic Research. E-Retailer: See Electronic Retailer. E-Rollment: See Electronic Enrollment. E-Sales Cycle: See Electronic Cycle. E-Science: See Electronic Science. E-Service: See Electronic Service.
E-Mail Newsletter: See Electronic Mail Newsletter. E-Mail Protocol: See Electronic Mail Protocol. E-Mall
A number of e-shops that serve as a gateway through which a visitor can access other e-shops. (Tatnall et al., 2006)
E-Market: See Electronic Market. E-Marketing: See Electronic Marketing. E-Marketplace: See Electronic Marketplace. E-Marketplace Portal: See Electronic Marketplace
Portal.
E-Service Catalog: See Electronic Service Catalog. E-Service Quality: See Electronic Service Quality. E-Social Contract: See Electronic Social Contract. E-Society: See Electronic Society. E-Store: See Electronic Store. E-Strategy: See Electronic Strategy. E-Supply Chain: See Electronic Supply Chain.
E-Meeting: See Electronic Meeting. E-Mentor: See Electronic Mentor. E-Model: See Electronic Model. E-Negotiation: See Electronic Negotiation. E-OTD: See Enhanced Observed-Time-Difference
Method.
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Eavesdropping
The ability for one to access a call and, either in real time or after, reconstruct the conversation. (Wilsdon & Slay, 2005)
EBBSC E-Text: See Electronic Text. E-Ticket: See Electronic Ticket. E-Trust: See Electronic Trust. EBPG: See E-Business Policy Group. E-Tutor: See Electronic Tutor. EBS: See Electronic Brainstorming System. E-Vite: See Electronic Invitation. EBXML: See Electronic Business XML. E-Voting: See Electronic Voting. EC: See Electronic Commerce. E-WOM: See Electronic Word-of-Mouth. EC Techno-Structure: See Electronic Commerce E-Work: See Electronic Work. EAI: See Enterprise Application Integration. EAI Technology
Software systems that provide business-to-business integration functionality by sending and receiving messages, and retrieving and storing them in back-end application systems. (Bussler, 2005b) Techno-Structure. A balanced scorecard-based framework to formulate and evaluate e-business strategy consisting of four perspectives: business model, analytic e-CRM, process structure, and e-knowledge network. (Wang & Forgionne, 2006)
ECA Rule
A (business) rule expressed by means of an event, a condition, and an action. (Cilia, 2005)
ECMS: See Enterprise Content Management System. EAP: See Extensible Authentication Protocol. ECN: See Electronic Communication Network. Earcon
Abstract, synthetic sounds used in structured combinations whereby the musical qualities of the sounds hold and convey information relative to application objects or activities. (Lumsden, 2005)
Ecological Fallacy
The relationship between geographical variation in disease incidence or mortality and explanatory covariates (e.g., environmental agents or lifestyle characteristics) measured on groups is often interpreted as a proxy of the relationship between disease and exposure in individuals. However, the association observed at the group or ecological level will not necessarily represent the association between the corresponding variables at the individual level. This type of bias is known as ecological fallacy. (Vidal-Rodeiro et al., 2005)
Early Adopter
One who embraces change and is the most likely to adopt technological innovations quickly. (Salter, 2005c)
Easy PHP
Software application written in the dynamic PHP language that combines an Apache Web server and a MySQL database to create lexible Web development tools. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006a)
Ecological Metaphor
A way of describing a complex situation, such as IS curriculum development, by providing a way of allowing
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for the inclusion of complexity, and a language and set of analytical and descriptive tools from the ecological sciences. (Tatnall & Davey, 2005)
Economies of Scale
1: The achievement of lower average cost per unit through increased production, or the decrease in the marginal cost of production as a irms extent of operations expands. (D. Kim, 2005) 2: The notion of increased eficiency for the production and/or marketing of goods/products by pooling or sharing resources. (Braun, 2006) 3: Supply-side economies of scalereductions in unit costs resulting from increased size of operations. Demand-side economies of scalethe value of a technology or product increases exponentially as the number of users increase (network effects lead to demand-side economies of scale). (C.-S. Lee, 2005) 4: The notion of increased eficiency for the production and/or marketing of goods/products by pooling or sharing resources. (Braun, 2005a)
Ecological Niche
A place where a particular species that is well suited to this environment is able to thrive, where other species may not. (Tatnall & Davey, 2005)
Ecological System
The organization and interactions of communities of living things, together with the chemical and physical factors in their environment. (OLooney, 2006)
Economic Evaluation
This approach to evaluation views IT/IS as an investment or a business facilitation project. Therefore, the focus of evaluation shifts from the performance of the IS per se to the quality of its outputs (e.g., information) and their utilization (e.g., customer satisfaction, creation of business value). Here the evaluation of IT investments is based on an organizational analysis that emphasizes the achievement of predetermined outcomes as a measure of effectiveness (e.g., critical success factors, business objectives/strategy). In other words the worth of an IS is sought in the systems performance and inancial proitability. (Serafeimidis, 2005)
Economies of Scope
Supply-side economies of scopecost of the joint production of two or more products can be less than the cost of producing them separately. Demand-side economies of scopea single set of digital assets can provide value for customers across many different and disparate markets. (C.-S. Lee, 2005)
Ecosystem
1: The ecosystem represented by the curriculum in a university information systems department contains (at least) the following species: lecturers, researchers, students, professional bodies, university administrators, and representatives of the computer industry. (Tatnall & Davey, 2005) 2: The entire ecological community composed of all living organisms interacting with the physical environment as one system. (Targowski, 2005)
EDA: See Exploratory Data Analysis. EDGE: See Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution. EDI: See Electronic Data Interchange. EDIFACT: See Electronic Data Interchange for
Administration, Commerce, and Transport.
Economic Risk
A risk derived from increased transaction costs that lead to reduced inancial returns. (Ratnasingam, 2005)
Edit Distance
A measure of string similarity that counts the number of character insertions, deletions, and substitutions needed to convert one string into the other. (Navarro, 2005)
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Edit Restraint
A logical restraint such as a set of business rules that assures that an employees listed salary in a job category is not too high or too low, or that certain contradictory conditions, such as a male hysterectomy, do not occur. (Winkler, 2005)
programs, adding courses, and asking questions of the instructor. (Bagwell, 2005)
Educational Evaluation
Assessment of the educational value of a piece of educational software. (Karoulis & Pombortsis, 2005a)
Edit Script
A set of instructions that walk and update a document database node by node. (Schmidt et al., 2005)
Educational Hypermedia
A Web-based learning environment that offers learners browsing through the educational content supported by lexible user interfaces and communication abilities. (Magoulas, 2006)
Editing Procedure
The process of detecting and handling errors in data. It usually includes three phases: the deinition of a consistent system of requirements, their veriication on given data, and elimination or substitution of data that is in contradiction with the deined requirements. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
Editorial Metadata
Metadata obtained manually, by a pool of experts. (Pachet, 2006)
Education
Formation or instruction process of an individual by means of the interiorization and assimilation of new assets of knowledge and capabilities. (Andrade, Ares, Garca, Rodrguez, Seoane, et al., 2006)
Educational Panacea
The view that technology might be the cure-all or holy grail of education. (Salter, 2005a)
Educational Software
Software packages supporting speciic goals in the education of target groups, for example, primary school tutees or impaired children. (Utsi & Lowyck, 2005)
Education Process
The use of learning models and supporting learning technologies to deliver the learning experience and/or training with students. (LeRouge & Webb, 2005)
Educational Task
One of several tasks directly associated with the delivery of the educational component to students (e.g., lecturers, tutorials, assessment, and so forth). (Darbyshire & Burgess, 2005)
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Educational Technology
1: A ield of study grounded in theories of learning and instructional design. Educational technology draws inspiration from other fields and disciplines, such as psychology, communications, management, and technology, and focuses on determining the most effective and eficient methods for positively impacting knowledge, learning, and human performance. (Schaffer et al., 2006) 2: Application of one or more electronic or computerbased devices used in delivering education. (Hantula & DeRosa, 2005) 3: Systematic identiication, development, organization, or utilization of educational resources, and the management of these processes. The term is occasionally used in a more limited sense to describe the use of multimedia technologies or audiovisual aids as tools to enhance the teaching and learning process. (Kinuthia, 2005) 4: Technology used in formal educational contexts, such as classrooms. Recent examples are television, personal computers, and the Internet. (Carroll, 2005) 5: The use of technology to enhance individual learning and achieve widespread education. (Magoulas, 2006)
incorporating new technology. It has as its principal objective the successful integration of company objectives with the needs of employees and customers. (Singh & Kotze, 2006)
Effective Use
1: The capacity and opportunity to integrate information and communication technology into the accomplishment of self- or collaboratively identiied goals. What is most important is not so much the physical availability of computers and the Internet, but rather peoples ability to make use of those technologies to engage in meaningful social practices. (Kvasny & Payton, 2005) 2: The use of communication technology that is fully adaptive and responsive to local needs and goals. Closely related to community development. (Geiselhart & Jamieson, 2005)
Effectiveness
1: A measure of performance that speciies whether the system achieves its longer-term goals or not. (AbuSamaha, 2005) 2: A very general goal that refers to how good a system is at doing what it is supposed to do. (Yong, 2005) 3: Explores whether it is an appropriate approach to assess the learning outcomes. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005) 4: In the context of IT, this is the measurement of the capacity of the outputs of an information system or of an IT application to fulill the requirements of the company and to achieve its goals, making this company more competitive. In a few words, effectiveness can be understood as the ability to do the right thing. (Barbin Laurindo et al., 2005) 5: The ability to accomplish a task with fewer errors. (Hunter, 2005)
Educational Television
Generally refers to a television program that has a broad cultural purpose, such as Sesame Street in America. (Berg, 2005d)
EduPortal
A portal geared toward education that provides single sign-on access to academic and administrative resources for students, staff, and faculty. (Hazari, 2006)
Effective Practice
An online practice that is replicable and produces positive outcomes in each of the pillar areas. (Moore et al., 2005)
Eficacy
A measure of performance that establishes whether the system works or notif the transformation of an entity from an input stage to an output stage has been achieved. (Abu-Samaha, 2005)
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Eficiency
Eigenvalue
The quantity representing the variance of a set of variables included in a factor. (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005)
1: A measure of performance based on comparison of the value of the output of the system and the resources needed to achieve the output; in other words, is the system worthwhile? (Abu-Samaha, 2005) 2: From an IT viewpoint, this usually relates to improvements within the business, so for a business it may mean IT systems that reduce costs or perform tasks more reliably or faster. (Darbyshire & Burgess, 2005) 3: Related to the time spent for assessors to accomplish the assessment task. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005) 4: The ability to accomplish a task with few resources. (Hunter, 2005) 5: The way a system supports users in carrying out their tasks, and a measure of how quickly users can accomplish goals or inish their work when using the system. (Yong, 2005)
EIS: See Executive Information System. EISP: See Enterprise Information Security Policy. EKM: See Enterprise Knowledge Management. Elaboration
Issue- or message-relevant cognition. Elaboration is typically conceptualized as a continuum ranging from high elaboration to low elaboration. It is thought to be inluenced by an individuals motivation and ability to cognitively process a message. (Duthler, 2005)
Eficient
Full eficiency is attained by any DMU if and only if none of its inputs or outputs can be improved without worsening some of its other inputs or outputs. (Chen, Mottiwalla, et al., 2005)
Eficient Market
A market in which any relevant information is immediately impounded in asset or security prices. (Roofe, 2005)
EFM Fiber
Deined by IEEE 802.3ah. It features a point-to-point iberto-the-home network, typically deployed as an active star, that uses active electronics and Ethernet as its transmission protocol. (Kelic, 2005)
Elastic Application
A kind of network application that will always wait for data to arrive rather than proceed without it. (Yang et al., 2005a)
Egress Filtering
Process of checking whether outgoing packets contain valid source IP addresses before sending them out to the Internet. Packets with forged IP addresses are discarded on the router that connects to the Internet. (Syed et al., 2005)
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the object are a function of the length of this connection, thus following the rubber-band metaphor. (Hrst & Lauer, 2006)
fails. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005a) 2: The process of selling online, with the highest bidder winning the product. (Guan, 2006a)
Elastic Panning
An approach for navigation in visual data which has proven to be feasible not only for the visual browsing of static, time-independent data, but for continuous, time-dependent media streams as well. Similar to the FineSlider, it builds on the concept of elastic interfaces and therefore solves the scaling problem, which generally appears if a long document has to be mapped on a slider scale that is limited by window size and screen resolution. (Hrst, 2006)
Electronic Board
A classic groupware tool that supports the functionalities of a traditional whiteboard (sharing sketches, pointing, annotating) through a set of distributed computers. (Villemur & Drira, 2006)
Electronic Administration
E-government initiatives that deal particularly with improving the internal workings of the public sector. (Olatokun, 2006)
Electronic Administrator
Online course or program administrator. (Whateley et al., 2005)
Electronic Auction
1: A centralized protocol for redistributing resources among agents. Each agent attaches a value to each resource. The seller asks a price for a resource, the buyer offers a price, and they negotiate over the Internet to achieve a desired outcome satisfying to both, else the negotiation
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addition to or as a substitute for a physical location (bricks and mortar). In its simplest form, the conduct of business on the Internet. It is a more generic term than e-commerce because it refers to not only buying and selling, but also servicing customers and collaborating with business partners. (Sanzogni & Arthur-Gray, 2005) 6: Any inancial or non-inancial transaction involving an electronic process using the Internet or Internet technologies (OBuyonge & Chen, 2006) 7: Derived from such terms as e-mail and e-commerce, the conduct of business on the Internet or extranet, not only buying or selling, but also servicing customers and collaborating with business partners. (Malik, 2006) 8: Business or business activities integrated with business processes and usually carried out onlinefor example, over the Internet. (Mizell & Sugarman, 2005) 9: Refers to commerce that is conducted via the Internet. This also applies to e-inance, e-marketing, e-design, and e-management. (Reynolds, 2005)
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or administrative transaction or information exchange that is executed using information and communications technology. This may be a transaction performed in a peerto-peer fashion between companies or organizations, or with a customer. Electronic business impacts on the way business is perceived. (Richards et al., 2005)
Electronic Cluster
Digitally enabled communities of organizations that come together on a needs basis, in varying formations of virtual organizations, to meet a temporary business opportunity. (Mason et al., 2006)
Electronic Capability
The abilities that an organization is able to leverage off in order to deliver online products and services. These are often described in terms of their maturity levels. (Clegg & Tan, 2006)
Electronic Capacity
The limit of the e-business companys ability to produce or perform that is imposed by the equipment and/or available personnel, and the network technology and performance. (Wang & Forgionne, 2006)
Electronic Catalog
1: A graphical user interface that presents product and/or service information to users, typically using the World Wide Web. (Gangopadhyay & Huang, 2005) 2: Vendors catalogs offered either on CD-ROM or on the Internet to advertise and promote products and services. (Singh, 2005)
Electronic Channel
An online marketing channel where companies and customers conduct business, no matter where they are. Since the e-commerce revolution, many brick-and-mortar businesses have expanded their marketing channel to include e-channel. (I. Lee, 2005)
Electronic Citizen
An e-government initiative that deals particularly with the relationship between government and citizenseither as voters/stakeholders from whom the public sector should derive its legitimacy, or as customers who consume public services. (Olatokun, 2006)
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workings within a business. (Peszynski, 2005) 7: The buying and selling of information, products, and services via computer networks and especially the Internet. (Scupola, 2005) 8: Selling and buying of products and services via the Internet. (de Medeiros et al., 2006) 9: A concept capturing the essence of carrying out commerce by electronic means. E-commerce refers to the buying and selling of goods and services on the Internet, especially the World Wide Web. In practice, this term and a newer term, e-business, are often used interchangeably. (Sanzogni & Arthur-Gray, 2005) 10: Any business done electronically. The electronic business where information technology is applied to all aspects of a companys operations. (Dholakia, Bang, et al., 2005) 11: Commercial activities taking place over electronic networks (primarily the Internet); e-commerce is a subset of general commerce. (Craig, 2005) 12: Conducting business and inancial transactions online via electronic means. (T.S. Chan, 2005) 13: Conducting commercial transactions on the Internet, where goods, information, or services are bought and then paid for. (Raisinghani & Petty, 2005) 14: Connection, electronic data exchange, and transaction capability via the Internet. (Braun, 2005a) 15: Consists of techniques and algorithms used to conduct business over the Internet. Trading processes such as supply-chain management, strategic purchase planning, and market mechanisms for trading commodities online are implemented using e-commerce. (Dasgupta et al., 2006) 16: Doing business electronically, including buying and selling information, products, and services over a digital infrastructure via computer networks. (Rhodes, 2005) 17: Using the Internet and related technologies and software to support business activities in general. It ranges from simple setup such as e-mail and ile transfer to complex systems such as supply chain management and enterprise resources-planning systems. (Poon, 2005) 18: The process of buying and selling goods and services online. (Gordon & Lin, 2005) 19: Financial business transaction that occurs over an electronic network such as the Internet. (Liu & Tucker, 2005) 20: Means selling items over the World Wide Web. Consequently, enterprises must incorporate new technology information and communication means. (Pires et al., 2006)
It consists of three main parts: the architecture for the low of products, services, and information; the generation of value; and the source of revenue. (Madlberger, 2006)
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Electronic Communication
1: A vital concept to the virtual organization is the ability to communicate through purely electronic means, eliminating the need for physical contact and allowing the geographical dispersion of organization members. Online collaboration via e-mail, discussion boards, chat, and other methods, as well as telephone and facsimile communications, are primary contributors to the removal of time and space in this new organizational concept. (J. Lee, 2005) 2: From a human perspective, it is the transfer of informationtextual, graphic, oral, or visualfrom one point/person to another via electric, electromagnetic, or photonic means. Machine-to-machine communications deals in bits and bytes only. (McManus & Carr, 2005)
especially the proliferation of self-service channels like the Web and WAP phones, has changed consumer buying behavior and forced companies to manage electronically the relationships with customers. The new CRM systems are using electronic devices and software applications that attempt to personalize and add value to customer-company interactions. (Gur u, 2005)
Electronic Community
1: A group of people sharing common interests, ideas, and feelings on the Internet or other collaborative networks. E-communities exist in discussion groups, chat rooms, newsgroups, and so forth. (Markellou et al., 2006) 2: An online forum to discuss topics of mutual interest. (Coakes & Willis, 2005)
Electronic Consultation
An e-democracy technique used for research of stakeholders views, and evaluation of proposed rules regulatory impact by ICT usage. (Pazyuk, 2005)
Electronic Course
An online educational program that introduces and explains a speciic educational subject (Paraskevi & Kollias, 2006)
Electronic Crime
The illegal exploitation of computer technologies, such as the Internet. (Kyobe, 2006)
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EDI and Internet technology can be recently observed by the upcoming Web-based EDI solutions, where on EDI partner does not have to install EDI, but uses common Web browsers to communicate via EDI. (Kotzab, 2005) 10: The computer-to-computer exchange of intercompany business documents and information through standard interfaces; requires hardware, software, and communications technology that permit those computers to transfer the data electronically (such as purchase orders, invoices, medical claims, and price lists). (Ratnasingam, 2006) 11: The electronic exchange of business documents using standardized document formats. (Harris & Chen, 2006) 12: The interchange of a data message structured under a certain format between business applications. (Mitrakas, 2005) 13: The movement of specially formatted standard business documents, such as orders, bills, and conirmations sent between business partners. (Lertwongsatien & Wongpinunwatana, 2005)
Electronic Deliberation
Online public engagement with emphasis on the deliberative element. (Kozeluh, 2005)
in which to engage the community to participate in and contribute to the governance process generally, and to facilitate and enhance the capability of a citizen to have a say in the impact of governance on themselves and their communities. (Sutcliffe, 2005) 4: Depending on what type of democracy it should support, ICT can be used for electronic voting, online referendums, or to support the political parties in their dialogue with the voters. It can also be used to support political debate in a local community or in other political processes. (Jaeger, 2005) 5: A democracy in which e-government is involved in the development of direct forms of political deliberation and decision making through electronic referendums and similar devices. (Sharma, 2006b) 6: A tool-oriented conception of democracy referring to new democratic practices in which ICTs and innovative institutional arrangements are utilized (cf. teledemocracy). (Anttiroiko, 2005a) 7: Refers to relations of two-way and horizontal powerusing technologies to enhance democratic practice. It is about: interconnecting citizens among themselves, participation, empowering those in the margins, inclusion, creating and maintaining responsiveness, accountability, maintaining universality, and openness. (Yigitcanlar & Baum, 2006a) 8: The electronic process through which citizens engage with government and its agents (and vice versa), including consultation and voting. E-democracy is a two-way process that can be driven by either government or citizens. (Williamson, 2005) 9: The use of electronic communications to support and increase democratic engagement, and deepen and widen citizen participation. (Malina, 2005) 10: The use of electronic media such as the Internet to enhance democracy. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006b) 11: The utilization of electronic communications technologies, such as the Internet, in enhancing democratic processes within a democratic republic or a representative democracy. It is a political development still in its infancy, as well as the subject of much debate and activity within government, civic-oriented groups, and societies around the world. E-democracy also includes within its scope electronic voting. (Chochliouros & SpiliopoulouChochliourou, 2006) 12: The use of ICT, such as the Internet or WWW, to foster democratic processes such as citizen participation. (Hinnant & Sawyer, 2005)
Electronic Discourse
Text-based conversation and discussion generated by computer-mediated communication asynchronously and synchronously. (Han & Hill, 2006)
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Electronic Document
A digital object that stores something of use to someone. More general than paper documents, electronic documents can take various forms, including word processing iles, spreadsheet iles, graphics, audio and video iles, and so forth. (Corral et al., 2006)
are not uniformly adopted by provider organizations. (Alexander & Burn, 2006)
Electronic Dyad
Teacher/student and student/student interaction through electronic media. (Lerch et al., 2005)
Electronic Education
A concept capturing the essence of carrying out education by electronic means. (Sanzogni & Arthur-Gray, 2005)
Electronic Enrollment
Online student enrollment. (Whateley et al., 2005)
Electronic Forum
Another name for a forum, which is an area on a Web site where you can read and post messages on a particular topic, allowing debate. (Coakes, 2006b)
Electronic Fulillment
1: A company meets the needs of its customers with whom it carries out some transactions through the Internet. It is most often associated with B2C e-commerce. (Aigbedo, 2005) 2: The activities required to ensure that a product ordered through an online retailer is delivered to a consumer, and may also include reverse logistics (return of goods) activities. E-fulillment providers provide services derived from those offered by traditional logistics, delivery and warehousing providers, as well as an emerging range of new capabilities. Such services may be provided by in-house departments or increasingly by third-party outsourcers who offer a wide range of supply chain services to online retailers. (Alexander & Burn, 2006)
E-fulillment providers may be identiied from a welldeined set of capabilities they utilize in offering their services. These incorporate traditional logistical, delivery, and warehousing services, as well as picking and packing, kit delivery, and payment-taking systems. Increasingly, capabilities are incorporating knowledge-based skills and resources, and include such services as online retail Web site development or hosting, supplier management, and customer relationship management. These capabilities
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sometimes called e-services); the conduct of government business where the activities are of those involved in the process of government itself (such as legislators and the legislative process), and where some electronic or online aspect is under consideration; voting where some technological aspect is under consideration. (Kozeluh, 2005) 11: Reengineering the current way of doing business, by using collaborative transactions and processes required by government departments to function effectively and economically, thus improving the quality of life for citizens, and promoting competition and innovation. To put it simply, e-government is about empowering a countrys citizens. (Singh, 2006) 12: Public administration infrastructure of a government on the Internet; a range of services needed by citizens and businesses can be accessed here. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005c) 13: Refers to relations of top-down powergoverning populations through use of online information and services. It is more about transforming government services to provide more effective and more eficient services, and also coming to the realization that those services have to be customer-centric. (Yigitcanlar & Baum, 2006a) 14: Set of activities that aim to improve relationships between government institutions and citizens with the help of information systems and technologies. (Crdoba, 2006b) 15: The application of information technology by public sector organizations to provide services and information to individuals and business organizations. (Toland, Purcell, et al., 2005)
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Electronic Hub
A virtual market among companies (B2B marketplaces or B2B information brokers). (de Medeiros et al., 2006)
Electronic Innovation
An innovation encouraging users of new communications technologies to develop dependable and viable business plans or systems that can be used for an economic (business) or social (healthcare, education, etc.) enterprise. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006a)
Electronic Gradebook
Maintaining a record of a students progress in a Webbased education class by posting grades on the course Web pages. General gradebooks show all enrollees; personalized gradebooks can only be viewed by the individual student. (Marold, 2005)
Electronic Journal
Electronic form with a series of questions (e.g., seven to eight) that help to document students progress throughout a course, pertaining to the students thought processes as they progress through the multimedia instructional material. (Bradley et al., 2005)
Electronic Health
1: A concept in which Internet-based technologies are used to enhance access, delivery, quality, and effectiveness of health services, as well as information utilized by patients, physicians, health care organizations, and related partners such as pharmacies, vendors, and insurance providers. (Cannoy & Iyer, 2006) 2: Refers to the market, companies, and initiatives for conducting health carerelated transactions electronically using the Internet and/or wireless communications. (Wang, Cheng, & Cheng, 2006) 3: The use of emerging technologies, especially the Internet, to improve or enable health and health carerelated services. (OBuyonge & Chen, 2006) 4: Used to characterize not only Internet medicine, but also virtually everything related to computers and medicine. (Kabene, Takhar, et al. 2005)
Electronic Journalism
The use of every Internet resource to disseminate information on an ongoing, updating basis. (Daz-Andrade, 2005)
Electronic Knowledge
The fusion of perpetual, technology-assisted learning with access to vast knowledge resources that are continuously changing. E-knowledge is knowledge as it exists in a profoundly networked world. (Norris, 2005)
Electronic Lab
The same as a virtual lab, but mainly delivered through the Web. (Chu & Lam, 2006)
Electronic Hierarchy
A market that entails few suppliers as an intermediate step, from hierarchical, ownership strategies toward electronic markets. (Setzekorn et al., 2005)
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Electronic Learner
A student who takes advantage of learning that is usually Internet-based learning, but could be any electronically enhanced learning; e-learners are technology savvy, motivated, and self-directed. (Langer, 2005)
developed, delivered, and monitored through synchronous or asynchronous communication. (Vitolo et al., 2005) 10: An approach to facilitate and enhance learning through the use of devices based on information communication technologies and the Internet. (Ng, 2006) 11: Any form of education or training that utilizes online media and remote connectivity for all or part of its curricula. This model includes both purely online courses and those in brickand-mortar universities facilitated by e-mail, the Internet, newsgroups, or chat. (Durrett et al., 2005) 12: Discipline that applies current information and communications technologies to the educational ield. This discipline tries to facilitate the learning process, since its methods do not depend on physical location or timing circumstances of the pupil. (Andrade et al., 2006b) 13: The delivery of a learning, training, or education activity by electronic means. E-learning covers a wide set of applications and processes such as Web-based learning; computer-based learning; virtual classrooms; and delivery of content via satellite, CD-ROM, audio, and videotape. In the last few years, e-learning tends to be limited to a network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge. (Esmahi, 2005) 14: Any online framework that brings education or training to an individual who may access this learning from the computer. (Iannarelli, 2005) See also Distance Learning; Web-Based Learning; Online Learning.
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Ele c t ronic Le a r ning Eva luat ion Fra m e w ork Ele c t ron ic Life st yle
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Electronic Lifestyle
An online environment in which citizens have equal access to information communication technology (ICT)
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regardless of age, language, social background, or ability. (Weber & Lim, 2005)
Electronic Loyalty
1: A deeply held intention to repurchase a preferred product/service consistently from a particular e-vendor in the future, despite the presence of factors or circumstances that may induce switching behavior. (Yeo & Chiam, 2006) 2: The degree to which online consumers are predisposed to stay with a speciic e-shop and resist competitive offers. (Markellou et al., 2006)
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allowing them to agree on and fulill commitments. (Janssen, 2005) 5: An market free from inhibiting constraints and affordable for all businesses in any shape, form, or size, and to allow them to easily take part in ebusiness with beneicial returns. It is a market in which trust, security, and dependability apply, and in which regulatory and legal issues are uniied. It is a market where buyers and sellers ubiquitously execute business transactions online. These may include searching and identifying competence; ability to identify the right product or service together with quality, price, and quantity; and virtual auctions. It is also based on an open, secure, and reliable collaborative platform for knowledge exchange, joint product design, production planning, and logistics in stable customersupplier relationships. (Richards et al., 2005)
Electronic Media
Interactive digital technologies used in business, publishing, entertainment, and arts. (Baralou & Stepherd, 2005)
Electronic Meeting
An electronically facilitated meeting allowing participants to share and work on documents remotely. (Elshaw, 2006b)
Electronic Marketing
1: Conducting marketing activities on any electronic device, including cell phones, PDAs, laptop computers, and fax machines. (Singh, 2006a) 2: Using electronic means and the Internet to market products/services. (Markellou et al., 2006) 3: Achieving marketing objectives through use of electronic communications technology. (Wang, 2006)
Electronic Mentor
A term for an online guide, system, or person that provides information, resources, assistance, and direction for learners. (Langer, 2005)
Electronic Marketplace
1: An e-commerce environment that offers new channels and business models for buyers and sellers to trade goods and services over the Internet. (Fortino et al., 2006) 2: A business model for a particular kind of e-business which aggregates potentially large numbers of business partners (including buyers, sellers, and intermediaries) and allows them to interact according to a variety of market structures, such as a commodity market, an auction, or an exchange. The result can be signiicant cost savings. (Ghenniwa & Huhns, 2005) 3: An interorganizational system through which multiple buyers and sellers interact to accomplish one or more of the market-making activities. (Ratnasingam, 2005) 4: An online marketplace where many buyers and sellers barter and conduct transactions. They are frequently owned and operated by a third party. (Toland, 2006) 5: A Web-based system that enables automated transactions, trading, or collaboration between business partners. It is an interorganizational information system that allows the participating buyers and sellers to
Electronic Mentoring
Also called cyber-mentoring or telementoring, in which the traditional mentoring relationship between a mentor and a protg occurs via an electronic format such as the Internet, videoconferencing, and so forth. (Day, 2005)
Electronic Model
The designing of a prototype of electronic business or a system that illustrates how digital technology can be used in any enterprise. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006a)
Electronic Negotiation
Standard practice in purchasing or sales consisting of using a networked environment to negotiate in order to reach an agreement (price, delivery, warranty, etc.) between a customer and a merchant. (Pierre, 2006a)
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members focus on a shared practice. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006) 2: A relatively large, emergent social collective in which individuals working on similar problems selforganize to help each other and share perspectives about their work practice through text-based computer-mediated means, for example, listservs, discussion boards, and so forth. (Wasko & Teigland, 2006a) 3: An emergent group of an unlimited number of dispersed individuals working on similar tasks using a similar competence whose communication channel is purely electronic. (Teigland & Wasko, 2005)
Electronic Newsgroup
A collection of messages posted online by individuals on a speciied subject matter. (Coakes & Willis, 2005)
Electronic Participation
The engagement of an individual or a group in speciic decision making and action by using ICT means. It aims to encourage those not normally involved in a particular process or decision-making system to be involved. (Yigitcanlar & Baum, 2006b)
Electronic Prescription
A prescription created and handled in electronic form in an integrated information system. (Suomi, 2005)
Electronic Press
A publishing service with a strong emphasis on the publishing of digital courseware. This does not mean that print and traditional media, such as ilm, are not used. However, the courseware packs are predominantly electronic. (Ching et al., 2005)
Electronic Partnership
A partnership relying on electronic (information) technologies to communicate and interact amongst partners. It is mostly associated with e-commerce or ebusiness partnerships. (Zhao, 2005)
Electronic Petition
An e-democracy technique used for citizens appeal to public bodies by ICT usage (e-mail, online forums, public bodies online interface). (Pazyuk, 2005)
Electronic Policy
The policy formulation and legal function of government. E-policy refers not only to the use of ICTs in government settings, but also to the leading role of government in promoting the information society through an adequate regulatory framework. (Sharma, 2006b)
Electronic Politics
The use of ICT such as the Internet and WWW by political actors to inform and facilitate public participation in the political process. (Hinnant & Sawyer, 2005)
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participating expect to be able to control parts inventories more effectively, reduce purchasing agent overhead, and improve manufacturing cycles. E-procurement is expected to be integrated with the trend toward computerized supplychain management. (Mockler et al., 2006) 4: The means for the realization of online purchases, by using appropriate electronic communications services and infrastructures. (Chochliouros & Spiliopoulou-Chochliourou, 2006) 5: The online provision of goods and services by government agencies. E-procurement includes online requests for proposal (RFPs), online requests for bids (RFBs), online bid acceptance, and online monitoring of contracts. (Schelin, 2005) 6: The use of the Internet by government to procure or purchase goods and services, advertise their needs, select vendors, manage services, organize fulillment of contracts, and effect payments. (Toland, 2006) 7: Using the Internet and related technologies to facilitate procurement. (Foley & Samson, 2006)
An e-readiness assessment normally takes into account education levels, infrastructure, the accessibility of ICT, and legal and regulatory issues. (Toland et al., 2005b) 4: Available technological, legal, institutional, and human resources infrastructures and political will to engage in online activities. (Misuraca, 2005) 5: The capacity to participate in the global digital economy. (Finquelievich, 2005) 6: The state of being prepared to operate and utilize electronic technology. (Poda & Brescia, 2005) 7: E-readiness may be deined in terms of availability of ICT infrastructure, the accessibility of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to the general citizen and business organization population, and the effect of the legal and regulatory framework on ICT use. (Averweg, 2006)
Electronic Research
Research that takes advantage of Internet-based tools and techniques. (Janes, 2005)
Electronic Reserve
1: A digitized collection of reading materials, accessible via a Web browser. A common ile format is .pdf, read through Adobe Acrobat Reader. (Buchanan, 2005) 2: The electronic storage and transmission of course-related information distributed by local area networks (LANs) or the Internet. Also known as e-reserves; in addition to displaying items on a screen, printing to paper and saving to disk are often allowed. (Burke et al., 2005)
Electronic Retailer
A collective term applied to any Web site that sells a product or service, accepts payments, and fulills orders; a retailer who has an online storefront. (Scarpi & DallOlmo-Riley, 2006)
Electronic Questionnaire
A questionnaire in an electronic form that can be completed via the Internet. (Paraskevi & Kollias, 2006)
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Electronic Science
Electronic Signature
1: The Electronic Signature Act that President Clinton signed into law on June 30, 2001, facilitates electronic contractual arrangements involving cryptography principles, resulting in a digital approval process, allowing for a handwritten signature or digital certiication. (Inoue & Bell, 2005) 2: This term refers to all electronic authentication technologies and methods of signing a digital document that serves the same purpose as manual signatures. (Escalante, 2005)
The large-scale science that will increasingly be carried out through distributed global collaborations enabled by the Internet. (Liu, 2005)
Electronic Service
1: A collection of network-resident software programs that collaborate for supporting users in both accessing and selecting data and services of their interest handled by a provider site. Examples of e-services are e-commerce, e-learning, and e-government applications. (De Meo, Quattrone, et al., 2005) 2: An electronic service accessed via a network such as the Internet. Example e-services include online banking, online stock broker, online tax information, and online learning. (Yee & Korba, 2006) 3: The provision of a service using ICTs, especially the Internet and the World Wide Web. (Sharma, 2006b) 4: The provision of government services via the Internet, including online information, online forms, online transactions, and online referral processes. (Schelin, 2005)
Electronic Society
E-government initiatives that deal particularly with the relationship between public agencies and other institutionsother public agencies, private sector companies, nonproit and community organizations. (Olatokun, 2006)
Electronic Store
A portal for purchasing and accessing Internet-delivered materials. (Ryan, 2005)
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voting, mobile phones, plus a wide variety of face-to-face meetings. The focus of the process is on problem issues or on involved planning or envisioning processes. ETM can be conducted at local, regional, or national levels. (Keskinen & Kuosa, 2005)
Electronic Survey
A survey based on answers of an e-questionnaire. (Paraskevi & Kollias, 2006)
Electronic Trust
A set of speciic beliefs dealing primarily with integrity (trustee honesty and promise keeping), benevolence (trustee caring and motivation to act in the trusters interest), competence (ability of trustee to do what truster needs), and predictability (trustees behavioral consistency of a particular e-vendor). (Yeo & Chiam, 2006)
Electronic Tailer
An online retail store. (Wang, Ding, et al., 2006)
Electronic Technology
1: Encompasses information technology, but also includes any equipment or interconnected system or subsystem of equipment that is used in the creation, conversion, or duplication of data or information. Electronic technology includes telecommunications products such as telephones, and ofice equipment such as fax machines. (Burgstahler, 2005b) 2: Technology including hardware and software, and their development using Internet, multimedia, mobile, wireless, and security technologies, and so forth. (Youn & McLeod, 2006)
Electronic Tutelage
Learning of new complex concepts (sometimes called scientiic concepts), not with the intervention of a physical tutor, but via electronically delivered materials; the basic theory behind Web-based education. (Marold, 2005)
Electronic Tutor
Off-campus, online academic tutor. (Whateley et al., 2005)
Electronic Voting
1: A term used to describe any of several means of determining peoples collective intent electronically. Electronic voting includes voting by kiosk, Internet, telephone, punch card, or optical scan ballot. (Kozeluh, 2005) 2: An e-democracy technique used for direct expression of voters will in collective decision making by ICT usage. (Pazyuk, 2005)
Electronic Tendering
Another term for e-procurement. (Demediuk, 2005)
Electronic Ticket
A paperless electronic document used for ticketing passengers, particularly in the commercial airline industry. Virtually all major airlines now use this method of ticketing. (Mendes-Filho & Ramos, 2005)
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EM Algorithm
An iterative method for estimating maximum likelihood in problems with incomplete (or unlabeled) data. EM algorithm can be used for semi-supervised learning since it is a form of clustering algorithm that clusters the unlabeled data around the labeled data. (Kim, 2005)
Social communication on the Internet. Web surfers either transmitting or receiving product-related information online. (Goldsmith, 2006)
Emancipatory Learning
Learning under conditions that do not bind the learner to traditions, and provides a freedom to pursue learning needs and demands as determined or established by the learner. (Taylor et al., 2005)
EMAS
Community Web site operated by Sabah State Library. (Gilbert, 2005a)
Elementary Entity
A data entity that semantically represents basic objects. (Hurson & Yang, 2005)
Embedded Device
A full-featured computer integrated into a machine. (Blecker & Graf, 2006)
Element
One object of attention within the domain of investigation. An element defines the entities upon which the administration of the RepGrid is based. For example, to explore the critical success factors of IS projects, IS researchers can use IS projects as elements in the RepGrid. (Tan & Hunter, 2005)
Embedded PI Submodel
A full or partial PI model over a proper subset of domain variables. The most general PI models are those over large problem domains that contain embedded PI submodels. (Xiang, 2005)
ELM: See
Emergence ELMS: See Enterprise Learning Management System. Elongated Diffusion Pattern
A pattern of IT diffusion in which, due to a reduction in the reputation effect, there is a hiatus prior to the arrival of a late minority of adopters. (Grifin, 2005) 1: In the context of natural computing, an emergent phenomenon can be understood as the one whose global properties are neither possessed by, nor directly derivable from, any of its component parts. For instance, a single ant is a very simple insect with limited capabilities, but an ant colony is capable of performing complex tasks, such as nest building and organization. (de Castro, 2005) 2:
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The process by which often unexpected outcomes result from the interaction of different activities and occurrences within an organization. (Land, Amjad, et al., 2006)
Emoticon
1: A text (ASCI) character used to indicate an emotional state in electronic correspondence. Emoticons or smileys, as they are also called, represent emotional shorthand. For example :-) represents a smile or happiness. (Garrett, 2006b) 2: The word emoticon is probably derived from the words emotion and icon, suggesting that emoticons are iconsor imagesexpressing emotions. In written conversations, such as chats, IMs, or Post-It notes, the lack of visual and aural support often needs to be compensated. (Dunkels, 2005) 3: A combination of punctuation marks and other special characters from the keyboard used to convey the tone of a computer-mediated communication message. (Link & Wagner, 2006) 4: A graphical icon that represents one of various emotions in a chat-based environment. (Champion, 2006a) 5: A graphic-like icon created using characters available on the standard keyboard. Emoticons are used to convey emotion or states of being, which are often communicated through facial expressions such as smiling, frowning, looking puzzled, and so forth. (Newberry, 2005) 6: An icon created from ASCII text used to express an emotion. The most simple of these is the smiley, created using a colon and bracket :) (Roberts et al., 2006a)
Emergence Index
Image retrieval where the hidden or emergence meanings of the images are studied and based on those hidden meanings as well as explicit meanings. Where there is no hidden meaning at all, an index of search is deined to retrieve images, called emergence index. (Deb, 2005)
Emergent Behavior
The behavior that results from the interaction between a multitude of entities, where the observed behavior is not present in any single entity in the multitude comprising the system that shows emergent behavior. (Zwitserloot & Pantic, 2005)
Emergent Narrative
Aims at solving and/or providing an answer to the narrative paradox observed in graphically represented virtual worlds. Involves participating users in a highly lexible real-time environment, where authorial activities are minimized, and the distinction between authoring-time and presentationtime is substantially removed. (Hall & Woods, 2006)
Emotion Icon
A combination of keyboard characters or small images meant to represent a facial expression. (Xu et al., 2006c)
Emotion Synthesis
The process of representing emotions in computing devices using cognitive appraisal or other emotion classiication theories. (Byl & Toleman, 2005)
Emergent Properties
A systems concept from which it is proposed that a whole system contains properties which are not seen within any of its components or subsystems. It gives rise to the idea that a system is more than the sum of its parts. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2006)
Emotion-Extraction Engine
A software system that can extract emotions embedded in textual messages. (Xu et al., 2006a)
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adaptability, emotional self-control, initiative, achievement orientation, trustworthiness, and optimism. Social competencies include social awareness, empathy, service orientation, and organizational awareness. Relationship management competencies include inspirational leadership, development of others, change catalyst, conlict management, inluence, teamwork, and collaboration. (Wong-MingJi, 2005)
combining multiple sections of a course into one large section, and heavy reliance on computer-based learning resources and an instructional staff of varying levels of skills and expertise. (Twigg, 2005)
Empirical Evaluation
Evaluation methodology which employs users to interact with the system. (Athanasis & Andreas, 2005)
Empirical Method
Method in which a system is evaluated based on observed performance in actual use. (Danielson, 2006b)
Enabler
A factor that makes something possible, for example, alignment is an enabler for organizations to cut production costs by half. (Lubbe, 2005)
Employability
The extent to which employees have skills that the market and employers regard as attractive. (Scholarios et al., 2005)
Enabling Technology
A sphere of concern; consists of those technologies that are under development at a certain moment and that have potential to become part of the global infrastructure in the future. Currently, new 3G terminals and 4G network technologies are typical examples. (Veijalainen & Weske, 2005)
Employee Abuse
Employees, especially those employees who believe that they are treated unjustly, may provide the data necessary for cyber-identity theft. With e-mail and databases full of consumer information, an employee or other insider can pass spreadsheets along to thieves. Employees may divulge personal information unintentionally or intentionally. Also related to cyber-identity theft and the workplace is the possibility of phony job listings online in order to obtain consumer information. (Close et al., 2006)
Enactment
Knowledge only takes on meaning as it interacts with the learners environment. (Frank et al., 2005)
Encoding
1: The process by which the content and meaning that is to be communicated is transformed into a physical form
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suitable for communication. It involves transforming thoughts and ideas into words, images, actions, and so forth, and then further transforming the words or images into their physical form. (Polovina & Pearson, 2006) 2: The bit pattern to use for each symbol in a character set. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005b) 3: The process of using codecs to convert video iles to different distribution ile formats. The codecs used for encoding iles for CD-ROM and DVD are MPEG-1 and MPEG-2, respectively. (Vitolo et al., 2005) 4: To input or take into memory, to convert to a usable mental form, or to store into memory. (Atkinson & Burstein 2006)
End
Results, consequences, impact, and payoffs. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005)
End User
1: An individual who uses software packages or computer systems that do not require programming. (Jawahar, 2005) 2: Tutee, working with dedicated educational software packages. (Utsi & Lowyck, 2005)
Encrypting
The process of scrambling data such that it appears meaningless to an average user. An authorized user can later restore the data back to its original. (Chen et al., 2005a)
Encryption
1: A modiication process that transforms data into a nonreadable format to protect against unauthorized viewing. Encryption can be handled by special applications, but it is often included as a feature of a database system or as a utility application as part of the operating system. Depending on the encryption/decryption method, information transmitted in encrypted format may be decrypted routinely and without user intervention by e-mail software or commodity Web viewers, products such as Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, or Mozillacompliant browsers. (Horiuchi, 2005a) 2: A transformation of data from an original readily understandable version (plaintext) to a dificult-to-interpret format (ciphertext) as a way of protecting conidentiality until changed back to the original. Images can also be encrypted to prevent recognition. (Friedman, 2005) 3: Concealing data by encoding it in a form that requires a secret key to decode. (N.C. Rowe, 2006c) 4: Data coding schemes to protect information privacy. (Quah, Leow, & Ong, 2006) 5: The transformation of plaintext into an apparently less readable form (called ciphertext) through a mathematical process. The ciphertext may be read by anyone who has the key that decrypts (undoes the encryption of) the ciphertext. (Mezgr, 2005) 6: Scrambling of data into an unreadable format as a security measure. (Lawson-Body et al., 2005) 7: The act of protecting information by transforming it. (Guan, 2006h)
End-User Development
The development of information systems by end users rather than information system specialists. (Chen, Holt, et al., 2005)
End-User Performance
Performance of end users. (Jawahar, 2005)
End-User Training
Teaching end users to learn and use organizational computing technology. (Jawahar, 2005)
Endemic
The usual level of disease in a geographic area in a given period of time. (Garb & Wait, 2005a)
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Ent e rprise Re sourc e Pla nning (ERP) Enha nc e d Obse r ve d-T im e -Diffe re nc e M e t hod (E-OT D)
The set of processes of voluntary (conscious) control of attention. These processes are also referred to as top-down or goal-driven. An example of an endogenous attentional mechanism is the attention you are paying to this page as you are reading. Endogenous attention is voluntary; it requires explicit effort, and it is normally meant to last. (Thomas & Roda, 2006a)
Energetic Engagement
Active participation that refers to members ability to suggest changes on the policies, the structure, and the environment/system. (N.C. Rowe, 2006d)
Engagement
Becoming involved with a topic at more than a simple and supericial level; a time when individuals come to know and understand the detailed content of what they are studying. (Pritchard, 2005b)
Engagement-Supporting Technology
One of a number of technologies that enable people to learn and communicate with fellow citizens about a speciic policy-related event or challenge. (OLooney, 2006)
Engineering Design
Encompasses a variety of activities aiming at generating and reining detailed product descriptions prior to their physical realization. (Ma, 2006)
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the real-time differences between base stations to correct the measurements). (Ververidis & Polyzos, 2006)
Ensemble-Based Method
A general technique that seeks to proit from the fact that multiple rule generation followed by prediction averaging reduces test error. (Muruzbal, 2005)
Enterprise
A business organization. (Henry, 2006)
Enterprise Application
Provides computer application support for the full lifecycle of business application development and system support. Involves in-depth understanding of business processes and worklow. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005)
Enrollment
1: The initial acquisition and registration of biometric data for an individual. Dependent on the type of biometric system, this data may be registered in association with the identity of the user or against some pseudonym that preserves anonymity. (Fleming, 2005a) 2: The initial process of collecting biometric data from a user and then storing it in a template for later comparison. There are two types: positive enrollment and negative enrollment. (Vatsa et al., 2005)
Ensemble
1: A combination, typically weighted or unweighted aggregation, of single induction estimators able to improve the overall accuracy of any single induction method. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005) 2: A function that returns a combination of the predictions of multiple machine learning models. (Oza, 2005)
Ensemble Learning
A machine learning paradigm using multiple learners to solve a problem. (Zhou, 2005)
Enterprise Architecture
A business and performance-based framework to support cross-agency collaboration, transformation, and organization-wide improvement. (Pang, 2005a)
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Enterprise Collaboration
Application of systems and communications technologies at the enterprise level to foster the collaboration of people and organizations to overcome varying levels of dispersion to accomplish a common goal. This term, when applied to the use of technologies, is also known as e-collaboration or distributed collaboration. (Morris-Jones & Carter, 2005)
Enterprise Integration
Refers to the plans, methods, and tools aimed at modernizing, consolidating, and coordinating software applications among a group of businesses or organizations that interact as consumers and suppliers. Enterprise integration might involve developing a total view of the organizations businesses and applications, seeing how existing applications it into the new model, and then devising ways to eficiently reuse what already exists, while adding new applications and data. Enterprise integration is done for the mutual beneit of all organizations involved. (Ghenniwa & Huhns, 2005)
Enterprise Deployment
Term used in the computer industry to describe hardware and software conigurations. These are aimed at addressing the corporation as a whole, as opposed to a single department. (Raisinghani & Nugent, 2005)
Education Multimedia
The use of multimedia for designing educational software. (Uden, 2005)
Enterprise Function
Comprises the typical functions of a business such as human resources, marketing and sales, manufacturing, accounting, and inance. (Carstens, 2005)
Enterprise Miner
Data-mining software developed by SAS Corporation that is used to create predictive models to solve business challenges. (Athappilly & Rea, 2005)
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Enterprise Model
A diagrammatic representation of an enterprise or part of an enterprise. An enterprise usually focuses on certain aspects of the enterprise, such as its goals and strategies, its business processes, its organization structure, its information and knowledge, and so forth. (Opdahl, 2005)
an enterprise. (Feuerlicht & Vorisek, 2006) 7: Typically, ERP systems are software packages composed of several modules, such as human resources, sales, inance, and production, and providing cross-organization integration of transaction-based data throughout imbedded business processes. These software packages can be customized to the speciic needs of each organization. (Esteves & Pastor, 2005) 8: An integrated information system that supports most of the business processes and information system requirements in an organization. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005b) 9: Conigurable enterprise software that integrates business processes across functions. (Hwang, 2005) 10: An off-the-shelf accounting-oriented information system that meets the information needs of most organizations. A complex and expensive information tool to meet the needs of an organization to procure, process, and deliver customer goods or services in a timely, predictable manner. (Bradley, 2005) 11: An information system that spans organizational boundaries with various organizational functional modules and systems, integrated and managed by one system application. (Sarkis & Sundarraj, 2005) 12: A business software package for running every aspect of a company, including managing orders, inventory, accounting, and logistics. Well-known ERP software providers include BAAN, Oracle, PeopleSoft, and SAP, collectively known to industry insiders as the BOPS. (Colmenares & Otieno, 2005) 13: An information technology tool with capacity to integrate a irms business functions or facets (e.g., planning, manufacturing, marketing, human resources, inance, procurement, etc). (Barima, 2006b) 14: An integrated system that supports a wide range of transaction processing functions common to most organizations. Applications are designed around modules, which are linked to a central database in such a manner that data entered once through one module are available to applications of all other modules. (Tarafdar, 2005) 15: An integrated software system processing data from a variety of functional areas such as inance, operations, sales, human resources, and supply-chain management. (Troutt & Long, 2005) 16: An enterprise-wide group of software applications centered on an integrated database designed to support a business process view of the organization, and to balance the supply and demand for its resources. This software has multiple modules that may include manufacturing, distribution, personnel, payroll, and inancials, and is considered to provide the necessary infrastructure for electronic commerce. (Dunn & Grabski, 2005) 17: Enables the company to integrate data used throughout the organizations in functions such
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Ent e rprise Re sourc e Pla nning Com m unit y Ent e rprise Re sourc e Pla nning I I (ERP I I )
as inance, operations, human resources, and sales. This system extends the pool of information for business intelligence. (Raisinghani & Nugent, 2005)
A tailoring option that involves setting or coniguring a generic/industry-speciic ERP system using the switches/ tables provided by the vendor in order to personalize the ERP system to support an organizations business practices and requirements. (Ng, 2005)
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provide deep, vertical-speciic functionality coupled with external connectivity. (Sammon & Adam, 2005) 3: Opening up ERP systems beyond the enterprise level to exchange information with supply chain partners. ERP II extends beyond the four walls of the business to trading partners. (Bradley, 2005)
Entity Set
1: Similar entities or objects with common properties are summarized into entity sets or entity types; graphically represented in rectangles. (Bagui, 2005) 2: An entity is a non-lexical object that in the real world is identiied using a deinite description that relates it to other things (e.g., the Country that has CountryCode US). Typically, an entity may undergo changes over time. An entity type is a kind of entity, for example, Person, Country. In UML, an entity is called an object, and an entity type is called a class. (Halpin, 2005)
Entity-Based Query
A probabilistic query that returns a set of objects. (Cheng & Prabhakar, 2005)
Entity-Relationship (ER)
A conceptual data model that deines the domain in terms of entities, attributes, and relationships. ERD is an ER diagram in which entities are represented as rectangles, attributes as ellipses, and relationships between entities as diamonds. (Shoval & Kabeli, 2005)
Entity-Relationship Diagram
1: A graphical representation of the entities and the relationships between them. Entity relationship diagrams are a useful medium to achieve a common understanding of data among users and application developers. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005a) 2: The most widely used model to express the database conceptual schema. (De Antonellis et al., 2005)
Enterprise-Wide Innovation
Includes leveraging successful innovations so they affect the entire enterprise; provides greater value toward competitive advantage than isolated, individual innovations. (Norris, 2005)
Entity
1: Anything that can be conceived as real and can be named. (Marjomaa, 2005) 2: The basic element in a conceptual model that represents an abstraction with modeling purposes. (Cuadra et al., 2005)
Entrepreneurial Identity
There is a view that individuals become entrepreneurs as they are relexively constituted by the discourse of
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enterprisethat is, they begin to characterize themselves as entrepreneurs as they adopt the norms, practices, and values of the entrepreneurial community with which they engage. (Warren, 2006)
Environment Variable
One of a number of system variables whose value contains data about a users system coniguration and Web site last visited. (Szewczak, 2005)
Environmental Constraint
A factors in the environment with potential to inhibit or constrain ones behavior and/or performance. (Jawahar, 2005)
Environmental Factor
Relects the pressure to adopt an innovation that is external to the organization. Such pressure may be exerted by competitors, clients, trading partners, government initiatives, and other characteristics of the marketplace. (Cragg & Mills, 2005)
Entrepreneurial Orientation
The practices and decision-making styles managers use to keep the irms competitive. (Kyobe, 2006)
Entrepreneurial University
A wide-ranging term, used in IT to describe universities associated with high rates of knowledge transfer through the formation of spin-out companies, and the exploitation of intellectual property rights by faculty and students. (Warren, 2006)
Environmental Inluence
A factor external to an entity (i.e., in its environment) that affects its conduct of knowledge management. (Holsapple & Joshi, 2006)
The systematic gathering of information in order to reduce the randomness of the information low into the organization, and to provide early warnings of changing conditions in both the external and internal environment. (Parker & Nitse, 2006)
Environmental Variable
(Giudici, 2005) The context within which career decisions are made, such as the school and work environment. (Beise et al., 2005)
Entropy
1: A measure of the degree of disorder or tendency toward the breakdown of any system. In physics this term is deined in the second law of thermodynamics, which states in part that the entropy of the universe tends to a maximum. (Targowski, 2005) 2: Measures the indeterminateness inherent to a probability distribution and is dual to information. (Kern-Isberner, 2005)
E1
One of the links used for the physical interconnection between different networks. (Frempong & Braimah, 2005)
EOQ: See Economic Order Quantity. EPC: See Electronic Product Code.
Envelopes
Are calculated as upper and lower envelopes above and below the global baseline. These are the connected pixels that form the external points of the signature obtained by sampling the signature at regular intervals. (Chakravarty et al., 2005a)
EPCglobal
A joint venture between EAN International in Europe and the Uniform Code Council in the United States to administer the numbering and data standards for EPC. (Loebbecke, 2006)
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Equal-Depth Discretization
A technique that divides the attribute value range into intervals of equal population (value density). (Shen & Horiguchi, 2005)
Equal-Width Discretization
A technique that divides the attribute value range into intervals of equal width (length). (Shen & Horiguchi, 2005)
Equivocality
An expression or term liable to more than one interpretation. Equivocality refers to ambiguity, confusion, a lack of understanding, or the existence of multiple and conlicting interpretations about a particular situation. Equivocality is addressed by the exchange of existing views among individuals to deine problems and resolve conlicts through the enactment of shared interpretations that can direct future activities. It is used to decide which questions to ask to reach agreement and gain commitment. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Episode
1: A combination of events with a partially speciied order. The episode ordering is parallel if no order is speciied and serial if the events of the episode have a ixed order. (Harms, 2005) 2: A subset or subsequence of a session composed of semantically or functionally related pageviews. (Mobasher, 2005b)
Episodic Knowledge
Declarative memory consists of two types of knowledge topic or semantic, and episodic. Episodic knowledge consists of ones experience with knowledge. These are learned through experience once the topic knowledge is obtained from textbooks, formal training, and education. (Raisinghani, 2005)
ER
See Entity-Relationship.
EPM: See Enterprise Performance Management. EPON: See Ethernet PON. Equal Employment Opportunity Classiication
A job classification system set forth by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) for demographic reporting requirements. (Troutt & Long, 2005)
ERP: See Enterprise Resource Planning. ERP Community: See Enterprise Resource Planning
Community.
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Coniguration.
algorithm is used to determine the minimal set of ields to impute so that the inal (corrected) record will not fail edits. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
ERP
Planning Customization.
ESD: See Electronic Service Delivery. ESS: See Extended Service Set.
Essentialism
The view that some properties are necessary properties of the object to which they belong. In the context of IT, essentialism implies a belief that an individuals cultural identity (nationality, ethnicity, race, class, etc.) determines and predicts that individuals values, communicative preferences, and behaviors. (Macfadyen, 2006a)
Estimation-Maximization Algorithm
An algorithm for computing maximum likelihood estimates from incomplete data. In the case of itting mixtures, the group labels are the missing data. (Burr, 2005b)
ERP II: See Enterprise Resource Planning II. ERP Utilization Stage: See Enterprise Resource
Planning Utilization Stage.
Ethernet
1: A communications standard for a Local Area Network (LAN). When a device wishes to transmit, it waits until the link is empty and then transmits. In the event that two or more devices transmit simultaneously (collision), all devices stop transmitting and wait a random time period before attempting to retransmit. (Ruppel & Ruppel, 2005) 2: A popular LAN technology that supports transmission rates at 10 Mbps and serves as the basis for the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.3 standard and its extensions. Newer and faster versions of Ethernet include Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps), and 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps). (Littman, 2006)
Error Control
Selection of a classiication rule in such a way to obtain a desired proportion of false positive and false negative. (Felici & Truemper, 2005)
Error Localization
The (automatic) identiication of the ields to impute in an edit-failing record. In most cases, an optimization
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Ethernet Frame
A standardized set of bits, organized into several ields, used to carry data over an Ethernet system. Those ields include the preamble, a start frame delimiter, address ields, a length ield, a variable size data ield that carries from 46 to 1,500 bytes of data, and an error-checking ield. (Freire et al., 2005)
of principles of right conduct. The rules or standards governing the conduct of a person or the members of a profession. (Wang, Chen, et al., 2006) 3: The branch of philosophy that concerns itself with the study of morality. (Goodman, 2005) 4: The philosophy of morality. (Knight, 2006b) 5: The study of social or interpersonal values and the rules of conduct that follow from them. (Gilbert, 2005) 6: The study of the general nature of morals and values as well as speciic moral choices; it also may refer to the rules or standards of conduct that are agreed upon by cultures and organizations that govern personal or professional conduct. (Cook, 2005)
Ethical
Conforming to standards of professional or social behavior agreed to by all members of a virtual enterprise. (Wong, 2005)
ETHICS: See Effective Technical & Human Implementation of Computer-Based Systems. Ethics of Knowledge Management
The study of the impact of knowledge management on society, the organization, and the individual, with a particular emphasis on the damaging effects knowledge management can have. (Land et al., 2006b)
Ethical Behavior
Receives greater attention today, partly due to reported cases of questionable or potentially unethical behavior and the associated dysfunctions that emerge. Because ethics involves the study of moral issues and choices, it is concerned with moral implications springing from virtually every decision. As a result, managers are challenged to set the standards and act as role models for other employees. (Grieves, 2006a)
Ethnocentric Content
Pieces of information provided by local journalists of particular interest for locals who ind suficient elements for understanding it. On the contrary, local and speciic content could be strange to overseas readers. (DazAndrade, 2005)
Ethical Climate
Indicates whether an organization has a conscience. The more ethical the perceived culture of an organization, the less likely it is that unethical decision making will occur. (Grieves, 2006a)
Ethnography
1: An approach to research that involves in-depth study through observation, interviews, and artifact analysis in an attempt to gain a thorough understanding from many perspectives. (Roibs, 2006b) 2: Research characterized by an extended period in the ield and which involves the researcher being immersed in the community being studied. (Trauth, 2005b) 3: The branch of anthropology that provides scientiic description of individual human societies. (Zaphiris et al., 2005) 4: The work of describing a culture. The essential core aims to understand another way of life from the native point of view. (DeLorenzo, 2005) 5: While its Greek etymological origins mean description of a people, ethnography has two separate meanings. One refers to the process of doing ield research with a host community. The second refers to the writing of a documentary text based on that research. Ethnography has been the mainstay of qualitative research in anthropology. (Forte, 2005)
Ethical Design
Attempts to promote good through the creation of products that are made and consumed within a socially accepted moral framework. (Knight, 2006b)
Ethics
1: A branch of moral philosophy that examines the standards for proper conduct. (Artz, 2005a) 2: A set
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Ethnomethodology
In the context of work, this is an approach to study how people actually order their working activities through mutual attentiveness to what has to be done. Ethnomethodology refuses any epistemological or ontological commitments, and limits its inquiry to what is directly observable and what can be plausibly inferred from observation. (Farooq et al., 2006)
department (ISD), application service providers, outsourcing parties, and off-the-shelf vendors. (Shayo & Guthrie, 2005)
Ethos
The credibility, authority, or presence of an individual. (St.Amant, 2006a)
Ethos Condition
One of several factors individuals use to asses the credibility or the worth of a presentation. (St.Amant, 2005c)
Etic
1: A universal framework developed from universal constructs. (Hunter, 2006b) 2: An outsiders (strangers) view of a culture. More speciically, it is used to describe the anthropologists method of describing cultures from his or her own external cultural perspective. (Champion, 2006a)
(X
n r =1
fr
X gr )
(Giudici, 2005) 4: The straight-line distance between two points in a multi-dimensional space. It is calculated by summing up the squares of distances in individual dimensions and taking the square root of the sum. (Sayal, 2005)
ETL: See Extraction, Transformation, Load System. ETM: See Electronic Town Meeting. ETSI: See European Telecommunications Standards
Institute.
Eustress
A change in biophysical or psychological variables that is considered good. (Molinari et al., 2005b)
EUC Satisfaction
An affective measure of an end users opinion about the net beneits derived from EUC activities in an organization. (Shayo & Guthrie, 2005)
EUC Success
The degree to which the organizational EUC strategy contributes to individual, group, and organizational computing success in an environment that includes applications developed by the information system
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delivered (formative); and end-of-the-course/program/ training surveys and interviews with learners, course facilitators, and programs to determine course/program/ training redesign (summative). (MacDonald et al., 2005) 3: The gathering and observing of a broad range of evidence in order to gauge the impact and effectiveness of an object, program, or process. (Naidu, 2005a) 4: The assessment of the effectiveness of service delivery and the identiication of obstacles or barriers to service delivery. Some means of evaluation include understanding the perceptions of improvement in the organization in the manner in which it formalizes knowledge processes, knowledge structures, and underlying systems. These in turn will affect the operations, products, or services delivered. Another means of evaluation of the effectiveness of a KM strategy is through establishing increased awareness and participation in that strategy. (Zyngier, 2006) 5: The systematic determination of the merit or worth of an object. (Nash et al., 2005a)
known as primitive event). If the event involves correlation or aggregation of happenings, then it is called a complex or composite event. (Cilia, 2005) 4: Part of a trigger that refers to the occurrence of a certain situation. When the event occurs, the rule is triggered (i.e., is scheduled so that its condition is evaluated). In most systems, the event can mention only basic database actions (e.g., insertions, deletions, updates). (Badia, 2005b) 5: Something that happens at a point in time. (Ale & Espil, 2005) 6: A phenomena that changes the applications state. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005) 7: In contrast to request/reply, producers send unsolicited notiications about events they observe. Instead of delivering notiications directed to consumers, they are irst sent to an intermediary service. This service delivers the notiications according to the subscriptions consumers have issued. (Fiege, 2005)
Event Algebra
Composite events are expressed using an event algebra. Such algebras require an order function between events to apply event operators (e.g., sequence) or to consume events. (Cilia, 2005)
Evaluation Agent
Comparison-shopping agent specializing in collecting product and service rating information. (Wan, 2006)
Event Instance
An event is an instance of an event type associated to a point in time that belongs to the validity interval of its type. (Vargas-Solar, 2005)
Evaluation Strategy
A process designed to guide the collection and reporting of evaluation results. (Waddington et al., 2005)
Event Logger
A text ile used to record the timestamps, attributes, and types of navigation events invoked by the teacher during the recording stage. The log is treated as synchronization information for dynamic presentation. (Liu & Chen, 2005)
Evaluative Judgment
An assessment based on characteristics of an information object, independent of assessments based on information prior to encountering the object (predictive judgments). (Danielson, 2006c)
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include venue booking, delegate registrations, speaker requirements, transport, and accommodation management. (Carson, 2005)
Evolutionary Algorithm
An algorithm incorporating aspects of natural selection or survival of the ittest. (Guan, 2005e)
Event Sequence
A inite, time-ordered sequence of events. A sequence of events includes events from a single inite set of event types. (Harms, 2005)
Event Study
Event studies have long been used in inance market research to assess how capital markets respond to the release of new information contained in company reports to the market. Information event analysis can be used to frame and interpret quantitative aspects of forum conversation by providing a study timeframe around some particular event such as stock ramping. (Campbell, 2006)
Evolutionary Computation
1: A solution approach based on simulation models of natural selection which begins with a set of potential solutions and then iteratively applies algorithms to generate new candidates and select the ittest from this set. The process leads toward a model that has a high proportion of it individuals. (Hsu, 2005a) 2: A solution approach guided by biological evolution that begins with potential solution models, then iteratively applies algorithms to ind the ittest models from the set to serve as inputs to the next iteration, ultimately leading to a model that best represents the data. (Lingras et al., 2005) 3: A computerbased problem-solving system that uses a computational model of evolutionary processes as the key element in design and implementation. (Lazar, 2005) 4: The solution approach guided by artiicial evolution; it begins with random populations (of solution models), then iteratively applies algorithms of various kinds to ind the best or ittest models. (Muruzbal, 2005)
Event Type
1: A discretized partition identiier that indicates a unique item of interest in the database. The domain of event types is a inite set of discrete values. (Harms, 2005) 2: Represents a class of situations produced within an event producer and that is interesting for a consumer. In the context of active systems, an event type represents the class of signiicant situations that trigger an active rule. Such situations are produced within a validity interval, which is the time interval during which instances of the event type can be detected. (Vargas-Solar, 2005)
Event-Based System
A system in which clients (subscribers) must express (subscribe) their interest in receiving particular events. Once clients have subscribed, servers (publishers) publish events, which will be sent to all interested subscribers. (Kunz & Gaddah, 2005)
Evolutionary Design
System development methodology where an ongoing approach is taken to analyzing the requirements of the application. (Adam & Pomerol, 2005)
Event-Sharing Paradigm
Shared applications that are realized based on the eventsharing paradigm instantiate a copy of the application on each participating host, distribute an initial start state among all copies, and further distribute all future events among those copies that result in a state transition of the applications. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005)
Evidence-Based Medicine
Health care based on best practice which is encoded in the form of clinical guidelines and protocols. (Metaxiotis, 2006)
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Evolutionary Innovation
A type of innovation which contains narrow extensions or improvements of an existing product or process which is not substantially changed. The applied changes are rather small and incremental; the knowledge needed is inside the innovators domain. (Paukert et al., 2006)
the purchase agreement or other internally held reference standards developed as a result of interaction with other e-tailers or non-store retailers (competence), and (2) will not engage in opportunistic behavior at any time in the process of product or service delivery (benevolence). (Yeo & Chiam, 2006)
Evolutionary Process
The process of change in a certain direction regardless of external planning exerted upon the process. Related to the notion that a project can take on a life of its own. (Nash et al., 2005b)
Evolutionary Strategy
An evolutionary algorithm devoted to the parametric optimization. (Lazar, 2005)
Evolutionary System
Involves continuous adjustments of its functionalities and UI according to the user and/or technological changes. (Furtado, 2005)
Exact Learning
The set of learning approaches that are capable of inducing exact rules. (Dai, 2005a)
Exact Rule
A rule without uncertainty. (Dai, 2005a)
Exception Rule
A rule with low support and high conidence. (Daly & Taniar, 2005a)
Executive Judgment
A decision an executive makes when he or she does not have a full understanding of the decision problem, based on his or her mental model of the environment and vision for the organization. (Baker & Coltman, 2005)
Exceptional Pattern
A pattern that is strongly supported (voted for) by only a few of a group of data sources. (Zhang & Zhang, 2005)
Existence Time
The time when an object exists in the reality. It can be seen as the valid time of the existence of an objectthat is, the valid time of object o exists. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005b)
Exchange Interaction
Involves the interactive relationship between e-government and the construction industry for potential mutual gain. (Barima, 2006a)
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the circumstances of that universe, identiied or not, it will not be known in all its extension. (Analide et al., 2006)
Expectation Maximization
Process of updating model parameters from new data where the new parameter values constitute maximum posterior probability estimates. Typically used for mixture models. (Caelli, 2005)
Experience
1: A holistic account of a particular episode, which stretches over time, often with a deinite beginning and ending. Examples of (positive) experiences are: visiting a theme park or consuming a bottle of wine. An experience consists of numerous elements (e.g., product, users psychological states, beliefs, expectations, goals, other individuals, etc.) and their relation. It is assumed that humans constantly monitor their internal, psychological state. They are able to access their current state during an experience and to report it (i.e., experience sampling). Individuals are further able to form a summary, retrospective assessment of an experience. However, this retrospective assessment is not a one-to-one summary of everything that happened during the experience, but rather overemphasizes single outstanding moments and the end of the experience. (Hassenzahl, 2006) 2: Experience is a subset of tacit knowledge, but not all experiences are tacit. It can be either obtained through repeatedly performing a task in a similar way or through experimentation with new approaches to complete a task. (Fong, 2006b)
Exosomatic System
A computerized system that operates as an extension to human memory; the information spaces of it will be consistent with the cognitive spaces of its human users. (Liu & Koppelaar, 2005)
Expanded Filter
Expanded ilter G(zM) is obtained by replacing each delay z-1 in the ilter G(z) with M delays zM. In the time domain this is equivalent to inserting M-1 zeros between two consecutive samples of the impulse response of G(z). (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
Expansive Questioning
A questioning technique that asks the learner to consider how a remark might be applied, to more fully explain a remark or to respond to a what if question. The technique has the capacity to invite re-engagement or processing at a deeper level. (Bedard-Voorhees, 2005)
Expectance Theory
Expectation including two components: the probability of occurrence and an evaluation of the occurrence. The discrepancy of conirmation could be either positive or negative. (Hsu & Kulviwat, 2006)
Experience Design
The intentional creation of a time-based activity that includes physical objects, agents, and situations. (Knight, 2006b)
Experience-Based Learning
This learning model positions the learner and his or her experience in the center of all activities. This experience comprises all kinds of events in the life of the learner, including those that happened earlier, the current events,
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or those arising from the learners participation in activities implemented by teachers and facilitators. The experience analysis by relecting, evaluating, and reconstructing is a key element. It encompasses formal, informal, and nonformal learning, lifelong learning, incidental learning, and workplace learning. (Correia & Sarmento, 2005)
Expert Knowledge
Possessed by individuals who have acquired deep knowledge in some particular ield by training and experience. Examples are the specialized knowledge of physicians, vintners, or architects. Expert knowledge is opposite commonsense knowledge on their shared dimension. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Experienced Credibility
A credibility assessment based upon irst-hand experience with a system. (Danielson, 2006c)
Expert Reasoning
Implementing rules or procedures, often programmed to occur automatically, in order to make a decision. Background and heuristics that identify how to reach a conclusion are based on the knowledge of human experts in that ield. (Lenard & Alam, 2005)
Experiential Learning
1: A process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences. (Sala, 2005a) 2: Learning achieved through the everyday practice of an activity, rather than in a formal classroom setting or other directed training program; experience as a source of learning and development. (Warren, 2006) 3: Learning based on direct and unmediated instruction, or on physical interaction with people and materials. (Russell, 2005b) 4: Learning based on experiences rather than listening or reading. (Pendegraft, 2005) 5: Refers to knowledge generated from and situated in experience; for an experience to facilitate learning, the student must be able to identify and analyze speciic goals, needs, and outcomes. (McCracken, 2005)
Expert System
1: A special type of artiicial intelligence system that contains a limited domain knowledge base, an inference mechanism to manipulate this base, and an interface to permit the input of new data and user dialogue. (de Carvalho, & Ferreira, 2006) 2: A computer program that simulates the judgment and behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular ield. Typically, such a system contains a knowledge base of accumulated experience and a set of rules for applying the knowledge base to each particular situation that is described in the program. (R., 2005) 3: Computer program that uses coded knowledge to (help) solve problems of decision making of some complexity. (Svensson, 2005) 4: A computer system that attempts to replicate what human experts normally do. Human experts make decisions and recommendations, such as what company strategy to follow or who to give a bank loan to, and do tasks, such as adjust temperature controls in a manufacturing plant. They also assist (or help) and train others to do tasks and to make decisions. So do expert systems. (Mockler & Dologite, 2005) 5: A computer system that facilitates solving problems in a given ield or application by drawing inference from a knowledge base developed from human expertise. Some expert systems are able to improve their knowledge base and develop new inference rules based on their experience with previous problems. (Raisinghani et al., 2005) 6: A computer-based system that performs functions similar to those normally performed by a human expert. It has a knowledge base, an inference engine, and a user interface. (Duan & Xu, 2005) 7: Approach designed to mimic human logic to solve complex problems. (Hentea, 2005b) 8: An information system that contains and helps disseminate expert knowledge. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2006)
Experiment
Research method in which the researcher manipulates some independent variables to measure the effects on a dependent variable. (Pace, 2005)
Experimental Design
The process of deining dependent and independent variables of the underlying model and acceptable ranges for these variables. In terms of input, output, and model, the experimental design describes which input variables and parameters to manipulate, and according to what range of changes. As these elements are manipulated, speciic output variables will be assessed. The connection between the input- and output-set pairings is embodied in the description of the model. Identifying what items to manipulate and which correspondence should reveal the effect of the manipulation describes the plan of the experiment. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005)
Expert Jury
A method based on forecasting and planning using the expertise of a panel of the irms executives. (Pemberton & Stalker, 2006)
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make them more public and observable for other colleagues and pre-service teachers. (Keppell et al., 2005)
Explicit Edit
An edit explicitly written by a subject matter specialist. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
Explicit Goal
Similar to meta-management, each member of the organization is charged with an explicit task to complete as it relates to the overall function of the organization. Often times, after this single goal is completed, the link between the organization and the entity is dissolved until a further need for it is realized. At this point, the link is reestablished. (J. Lee, 2005)
Expert-Based Evaluation
Evaluation methodology which employs experts, mostly from different cognitive domain, to assess certain system aspects. (Athanasis & Andreas, 2005)
Explicit Knowledge/Information
1: Knowledge that is external in the form of documents, graphs, tables, and so forth. (Woods et al., 2006) 2: A type of knowledge that can be described, formalized, coded, and stored in documents, magazines, journals, and so forth. (Aurum & Demirbilek, 2006) 3: Also known as information, this is knowledge that is adequately and properly represented by facts, igures, symbols, and data. (Ray, 2006) 4: Can be expressed in words and numbers, and shared in the form of data, scientiic formulae, speciications, manuals, and the like. This kind of knowledge can be readily transmitted between individuals formally and systematically. (Zeleznikow, 2006) 5: Context-free knowledge that can be codiied using formal and systematic language. Explicit knowledge can be expressed using words (language) or as mathematical formulae, procedures, or principles. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and communicate. (Sivakumar, 2006) 6: Formal knowledgethat is, know-what represents knowledge that is well established and documented. (Wickramasinghe, 2006) 7: Information that has speciic meaning and that can be easily and clearly understood. (Neville & Powell, 2005) 8: Knowledge codiied into a formal and systematized language. It may be transmitted, preserved, retrieved, and combined. (Falivene & Kaufman, 2006) 9: Knowledge that can be codiied in words, numbers, or rules and can take the shape of documents, or perhaps result in the production of some type of equipment. (Qayyum, 2005)
Expertise
1: A sources perceived ability to provide information that is accurate and valid (based on attributes such as perceived knowledge and skill); with trustworthiness, it is one of two primary attributes of credibility. (Danielson, 2006c) 2: Highly tacit, domain-speciic knowledge gained through experience, formal education, and collaboration. (Kulkarni & Freeze, 2006)
Explanation
A sequence of statements of the reasons for the behavior of the model of a system. (Kontos & Malagardi, 2006)
Explication
The act of making clear or removing obscurity from the meaning of a word, symbol, expression, and such. (Marjomaa, 2005)
Explicit
This refers to the act of articulating our reasoning and the rationale for our teaching and learning theories. In effect we are attempting to articulate our tacit theories in order to
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atoma and roles and use it in its own context. (Lepouras et al., 2006)
Exploit
1: A program that uses a vulnerability to attack the systems security mechanisms. Exploits usually compromise secrecy, integrity, or availability and often lead to elevation of privilege. (Weippl, 2006) 2: Taking advantage of a software vulnerability to carry out an attack. To minimize the risk of exploits, security updates or software patches should be applied frequently. (Kayacik et al., 2005) 3: Weakness in a system through which hackers can gain entry into the system. (Friedman, 2005)
Export Restriction
A restriction on the type, quantity, or destination of goods that can be exported out of a country. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005b)
Export-Oriented Software
A unit is considered export oriented if at least 70% of its revenue comes from export. (Raisinghani & Rahman, 2005)
EXPRESS/STEP
To share and exchange product data, the Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP) is being developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). EXPRESS is the description method of STEP and can be used to model product design, manufacturing, and production data. (Ma, 2005a)
Expression
The utterance through any language system of prelinguistic emotion or understanding toward the creation of consensual meaning between people. (Kettley, 2006b)
Expressiveness
The ability of employees to use oral or facial expression and body language to clearly express what they know. (Chen, Duan, et al., 2006)
Exploratory Tree
An oriented tree graph formed by internal nodes and terminal nodes, the former allowing the description of the conditional interaction paths between the response variable and the predictors, whereas the latter are labeled by a response class/value. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005)
Extended Enterprise
The seamless Internet-based integration of a group or network of trading partners along their supply chains. (Sammon & Adam, 2005)
Exponentially Decaying
A quantity that decreases such that the momentary rate of decrease is directly proportional to the quantity. (Kushnir, 2006)
Extended ERP
Extends the foundation ERP systems functionalities such as inances, distribution, manufacturing, human resources, and payroll to customer relationship management, supply chain management, sales-force automation, and Internetenabled integrated e-commerce and e-business. (Rashid, 2005)
Export/Import
Information systems may deine atoma and roles and then export them to be used by other information systems. An information system may import any of the exported
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Extended Item
An item associated with the context where it happens. (Feng & Dillon, 2005)
Extended Organization
A knowledge-based organization with links to customers and suppliers across an electronic supply chain. (Burn & Ash, 2006)
Extended Transaction
A transaction associated with the context where it happens. (Feng & Dillon, 2005)
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data and documents interchange. (De Antonellis et al., 2005) 9: The novel language, standardized by the World Wide Web Consortium, for representing, handling, and exchanging information on the Web. (De Meo et al., 2005a) 10: A markup language for representing information as structured documents. Developed from an earlier language called SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) for the purposes of information management on the Internet. (Lyytikinen et al., 2005)
characterized by a ixed format but lets the user design his own customized markup languagesa speciic Document Type Description (DTD)for limitless different types of documents. XML is then a content-oriented markup tool. (Zarri, 2005b) 8: A meta-language deining the syntax for presenting and exchanging data in Web environments. It overcomes the limit of ixed tags in HTML and allows users to deine their document structures. W3C has designated XML as the standard for Web data. (Wang, Cheng, Cheng, et al., 2006) 9: An open standard, developed by the W3C, that involves formal syntax for adding structure and/or content information in a Web-based document. This subset of SGML deines data elements in a neutral way for easy interchange of structured data, such as markup tags, deinitions, transmission validation, and interpretations across applications and organizations. (Parikh & Parolia, 2005) 10: A language for creating markup languages. There are two kinds of XML documents: well-formed and valid. The irst respects the XML standard for the inclusion and the names of the tags. The second must be well formed and uses a grammar to deine the structure and the types of data described by the document. (Nicolle et al., 2005) 11: A meta-language directly derived from SGML but designed for Web documents. It allows the structuring of information and transmission between applications and between organizations. (de Campos et al., 2005) 12: A sublanguage of SGML that provides a way to structure and format data, especially in textual form. The data is represented as XML documents; an XML document may have an optional schema associated with it. XML is considered a semistructured data model because a schema is not always necessary, and even if a schema is present, it could be quite lexible. (Mani & Badia, 2005) 13: An easy-to-use dialect of SGML, this is a lexible technique for storage and interchange of data. One important aspect of XML is the combination of data and metadata in a single document. (Hnisch, 2005) 14: A markup language that is quite different from HTML in that XML gives document authors the ability to create their own markup. XML is lexible in creating data formats and sharing both the format and the data with other applications or trading partners, compared with HTML. (Suh & Kim, 2005) 15: A markup language for structured documents. Structure is represented with textual markup that intermixes with document content. XML is a recommendation from the World Wide Web Consortium. (Martnez-Gonzlez, 2005) 16: A W3C standard similar to HTML, but it allows creators to create their own tags. (Goh & Kinshuk, 2005) 17: A speciication for computer-readable documents. XML is actually a meta-language, a mechanism for representing
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other languages in a standardized way; therefore, XML provides a syntax to encode data. (Vardaki, 2005)
Extensible RDBMS
Relational DBMS implementing the concept of universal server. It allows the extension of the DBMS type system by enabling the deinition of user-deined data types (UDTs), and the associated user-deined manipulation functions (UDFs). (Chang et al., 2005)
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education and professional upgrade courses. Extensions are typical mainly to American universities. (Guri-Rosenblit, 2005a)
Extension, Deep
Of a concept C, denotes the shallow extension of C union the deep extension of Cs sons. (Sacco, 2006)
External Knowledge
The kind of knowledge that a irm needs in order to compete, but that is standard and available in an open market to any organization on the same conditions of price and functionality. Thus, it can be bought and sold, and therefore it is relatively easily integrated in a irm even if it is implicit and collective. (Andreu & Sieber, 2006)
Extension Mechanism
Speciies how model elements are customized and extended with new semantics. (Riesco et al., 2005)
Extension, Shallow
Of a concept C, denotes the set of documents classiied directly under C. (Sacco, 2006)
External Link
A URL address that connects to a site on an intranet or the Internet. (Baugher et al., 2005)
External Metric
A metric used to measure attributes of the product that can be measured only with respect to how the product relates to its environment. (Xenos, 2006)
External Data
1: A broad term indicating data that is external to a particular company. Includes electronic and non-electronic formats. (Peter & Greenidge, 2005a) 2: Data originating from other than the operational systems of a corporation. (Peter & Greenidge, 2005b) 3: Traditionally, most of the data in a warehouse have come from internal operational systems such as order entry, inventory, or human resource data. However, external sources (i.e., demographic, economic, point-of-sale, market feeds, Internet) are becoming more and more prevalent and will soon be providing more content to the data warehouse than the internal sources. (Owrang O., 2006)
External Stakeholder
Organizations exchange information and communicate with all external stakeholders, who can be divided into business partners and other stakeholders. (Boonstra & de Brock, 2006)
External Support
Assistance from persons outside the irm. Some irms pay for such support by employing a consultant. Other common forms of external support include IS vendors and advice from peersthat is, managers in other irms. (Cragg & Suraweera, 2005)
External Environment
1: Comprises factors external to an organizationsuch as new technology, product developments, or changing rates of market growthwhich an organization must respond to. (Baker & Coltman, 2005) 2: Includes relevant work structure variables (e.g., task complexity) and other external forces (e.g., organizational climate) within the sociotechnical system that both act on and are acted upon by the organizational unit. (Cuevas et al., 2005) 3: The set of conditions, trends, and forces essentially outside the control of organizational members. (Rowe et al., 2006)
Externalization
A knowledge transfer mode that involves new explicit knowledge being derived from existing tacit knowledge. (Wickramasinghe, 2005)
Extraction
To select the related ields from the Web logs. Traversal patterns typically require three ields: IP address, access time, and the page accessed. Other ields, such as referrer and user agent, can be used in cleansing and sessionization. (Yao & Xiao, 2005)
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Extran
An external transaction that is requested by a mobile host to be performed in another external computing environment, using message communication. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005b)
Extranet
1: A private network that uses Internet protocols and the public tele-communications system to share a businesss information, data, or operations with external suppliers, vendors, or customers. (Vaast, 2005) 2: Allowing an organizations external partners (i.e., pharmacies, insurance companies, vendors) to access a computer system via a username and password. (Cannoy & Iyer, 2006) 3: A set of Internet-based applications that use standard protocols, middleware, and browser software that fulill functional requirements to support supply-chain operations. (Ratnasingam, 2006)
Extreme Programming
An agile system development methodology that decomposes very large projects into many small projects with minimal requirements and taking just a few weeks to complete, characterized by pair programming and refractoring. (Steinbach & Knight, 2005)
Extrinsic Motivation
1: An external force that motivates a person. (Whitield, 2005) 2: Motivation that derives from what you obtain from engaging in an activity. An example of extrinsic motivation for using microcomputers is using it because you think it is useful for your job. (de Souza Dias, 2005) 3: Motivation through factors external to the person being motivated. (Wishart, 2005) 4: The motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end, based on the belief that participation will result in desirable outcomes such as a reward or avoidance of punishment. (Hendriks & Sousa, 2006) 5: Motivation that has a material or symbolic manifestation in the outside world, for example, a bonus, promotion, vacation, reputation, recognition, and so forth. (Ekbia & Hara, 2006)
Eye Tracker
Device used to determine point-of-regard and to measure eye movements such as ixations, saccades, and regressions. Works by tracking the position of various distinguishing features of the eye, such as relections of infrared light off the cornea, the boundary between the iris and sclera, or apparent pupil shape. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
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Eye Tracking
A technique whereby an individuals eye movements are measured so that the researcher knows where a person is looking at any given time and how the a persons eyes are moving from one location to another. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
Eye-Mind Hypothesis
The principle at the origin of most eye-tracking research. Assumes that what a person is looking at indicates what the person currently is thinking about or attending to. Recording eye movements, therefore, can provide a dynamic trace of where a persons attention is being directed in relation to a visual display such as a system interface. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
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F
F Value: See Fisher Value. FA: See Facial Animation. Face Detection
Given an arbitrary image, the goal of face detection is to determine whether or not there are any faces in the image, and if present, return the image location and extent of each face. (Tan & Zhang, 2006)
Face Synthesis
A process of creating a talking head that is able to speak, display (appropriate) lip movements during speech, and display expressive facial movements. (Pantic, 2005b)
Face-Based Interface
Regulating (at least partially) the command low that streams between the user and the computer by means of facial signals. This means associating certain commands (e.g., mouse pointing, mouse clicking, etc.) with certain facial signals (e.g., gaze direction, winking, etc.). Facebased interface can be effectively used to free computer users from classic keyboard and mouse commands. (Pantic, 2005b)
Face Localization
Given a facial image, the goal of face localization is to determine the position of a single face. This is a simpliied detection problem with the assumption that an input image contains only one face. (Tan & Zhang, 2006)
Face-to-Face Learning
Considered as a traditional environment in which the instructor and students meet in a classroom setting. (S.K. Wang, 2005)
Face Recognition
A technique for identity veriication or identiication based on the users facial features, such as positions of cheekbones, and positions and shapes of eyes, mouth, and nose. (Li, 2006)
Facet
One of several top-level (most general) concepts in a multidimensional taxonomy. In general, facets are independent and deine a set of orthogonal conceptual coordinates. (Sacco, 2006)
Face Space
The vector space spanned by the eigenfaces. (Lovell & Chen, 2005)
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derives from an analysis of the anatomical basis of facial movement. Using FACS, it is possible to analyze any facial movement into anatomically based minimal action units (AUs). (Andrs del Valle, 2005) 2: The most widely used and versatile method for measuring and describing facial behaviors which was developed in the 1970s by determining how the contraction of each facial muscle (singly and in combination with other muscles) changes the appearance of the face. (Tan & Zhang, 2006)
Facial Feature
One of the prominent features of the face, which includes intransient facial features such as eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth, chin, and so forth, and transient facial features such as the regions surrounding the mouth and the eyes. (Tan & Zhang, 2006)
Facilitation
1: A teaching style that is student centered. Encourages self-directed learning. The instructor is not a content transmitter, but rather a coach and partner in student learning. (Ordonez, 2005) 2: The leadership contributions of structuring, enabling, and encouraging good group interaction and process, normally with low reliance on positional authority and content expertise, but high reliance on communication, and interpersonal skills and presence. (Cargill, 2006a)
Facilitator
1: A faculty role that allows learners to take a more active role in learning and determining how they will learn. The role of a faculty member as a facilitator is to guide learners in connecting with the learners knowledge and experience. (Stavredes, 2005a) 2: A knowledgeable guide
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FACS Fa c ult y
for a discussion, activity, or course. In many cases, a course facilitator or faculty facilitator acts as a mentor for a course, providing guidance, assistance, or trusted advice to the student. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005) 3: A person who acts in such a way as to allow others to take an active role in learning, especially in groups. Teachers in this role typically assist students by asking probing questions and by stimulating discussion. (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005) 4: A community member who coordinates the activities within the communitys place. (Porto Bellini & Vargas, 2006) 5: An AHIMA member who volunteers to support and champion the success of a particular community. Such a volunteer monitors activity within the community, encourages member participation, organizes community events, posts resources, and reviews and approves all submitted resources. (Zender, 2006) 6: Someone helping people self-discover new approaches and solutions to problems. (Whitield, 2005) 7: An instructor who utilizes the facilitative method for course delivery, is focused on a student-centered environment, is attentive to students needs, and assists students in achieving self-actualization. (Ordonez, 2005)
process. (Tininini, 2005a) 4: The central table in a star schema, containing the basic facts or measures of interest. Dimension ields are also included (as foreign keys) to link to each dimension table. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005)
Faction
In the most basic form, faction is simply street creditability or worthiness in the eyes of NPCs, as it is inevitable that there will be enemies among the races. When players make friends with one particular race, this can consequently make you disliked or hated by another, so as your faction goes up with one race, it will go down with another. This effect is not an all or nothing, but a gradual process. (Grifiths et al., 2006)
Factor
The expressed requirement of the customer. (Lacaze et al., 2006)
Factor Analysis
1: A process used to identify statistically signiicant constructs underlying a set of data. (W.B. Martz, Jr. & V.K. Reddy, 2005) 2: Any of several methods for reducing correlational data to a smaller number of dimensions or factors; beginning with a correlation matrix, a small number of components or factors are extracted that are regarded as the basic variables that account for the interrelations observed in the data. (Colmenares & Otieno, 2005) 3: Method of grouping questions based on the correlation of each question to other questions. (Witta & Lee, 2005)
Factor Score
A measure of a factors relative weight to others; it is obtained using linear combinations of variables. (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005)
Factual Data
Data that include demographic information such as name, gender, and birth date. It also may contain information derived from transactional data such as someones favorite beverage. (Cook, 2005)
Fact Table
1: A database table that stores the base facts that consist of values of different metrics for different combinations of dimension values. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005) 2: A member of the star schema data model which records data about a set of phenomena of interest. (Pourabbas, 2005b) 3: A table of (integrated) elementary data grouped and aggregated in the multi-dimensional querying
Faculty
The collection of teachers at a school, college, or university. (Shaw, 2005)
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Faculty Development
A purposeful, institutionalized approach to doing that which helps faculty do their work better as individuals within an institution and within the collective enterprise of higher education. (Kinuthia, 2005)
and corrected, lead to failure of the system. A fault is the original cause of the error. (Zhao et al., 2005)
Failure Recovery
Recovery in a situation where log-iles and the current database or an old database copy are available. (Frank, 2005a)
Faculty Function
Basic functions of faculty in a cost analysis generally include preparation, presentation, and assessment of student work. (Berg, 2005c)
Faculty Satisfaction
The quality principle that recognizes faculty as central to quality learning. (Moore et al., 2005)
Fair Use
1: A term deined in the U.S. Copyright Act. It states the exemption for schools to some copyright regulations. (This exemption pre-dates many current educational applications of technology and may be not address some online learning situations.) (Sales, 2005) 2: The exception to the rights of the copyright owner set out under section 107 of the United States Copyright Act of 1976. This allows for a limited amount of personal copying in the context of activities such as criticism, teaching, scholarship, and research. The freedom to copy under this section is widely misunderstood, and it is important to note that the courts have quite tightly restricted the use of this exclusion. Generally, this exception will only hold if the use is noncommercial, relates to a factual work of a small amount, and is not done in a way that impacts on the commercial market for the original. Fair use only applies in the United States, and while some exceptions for similar uses exist in other jurisdictions, the details differ signiicantly. Despite this, the term is commonly used internationally to describe uses of copyright material that are considered defendable exceptions to the normal regime of protection. (Marshall, 2005)
Failed Project
A projects that is cancelled before completion, never implemented, or scrapped following installation. (Dalcher, 2005)
Failed-Out
A student who failed a course (or courses) and did not meet the academic standard. Therefore, he or she has been automatically removed from the program. Failedouts are different from no-shows since the failing grade resulted from the lack of academic competence rather than abandoning behavior. (Chyung, 2005)
Failure
The inability of a system or component to perform its required functions within speciied performance requirements. (Schneidewind, 2005)
Fairness
1: A subjective term deining the level to which a student feels he or she was treated fairly by the professor with respect to the class, including but not limited to test questions, grading, schedule lexibility, and so forth. (Martz & Reddy, 2005) 2: It is recognized that the greater the diversity in the methods of assessment, the fairer the assessment is to students. Therefore, assessment needs to embrace a variety of kinds of activity, so that candidates have a greater opportunity to demonstrate their skills on at least some of the assessment occasions they encounter. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005)
Failure Analysis
Computing the time it takes for a manufactured component to fail. (Chen, Oppenheim, et al., 2005)
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The philosophical view that the moral act is the one that treats similarly situated people in similar ways with regard to both process and outcome. (Gilbert, 2005)
More generally, a false negative occurs when the null hypothesis is erroneously accepted. Also called Type II error. (Mukherjee, 2005) 3: A mail message that the ilter tags as ham but is actually spam. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006a)
False Positive
1: A iltering system can make two types of errors: false acceptance and false rejection. The latter is a false positive. A spam ilter can wrongly let spam through, or wrongly ilter real e-mail as spam. In false acceptance, it is not doing its job, while in false positives, it is doing it too well. Decreasing one type of error tends to increase the other, as with Type I and Type II errors in experimental design. As the spam-ilter catch rate rises above 99.99%, the number of false positives also rises. (Whitworth, 2006b) 2: A prediction of a usability problem reported in a usability inspection that in reality is not a problem to the real users. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006) 3: The error committed when an object is selected as relevant when it is in fact irrelevant. More generally, a false positive occurs when the null hypothesis is erroneously rejected. Also called Type I error. (Mukherjee, 2005) 4: A mail message that the ilter tags as spam but is actually ham. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006a)
False Alarm
A case in which a candidate match is found during preprocessing step of a similarity analysis algorithm when a match does not really exist. Minimization of false alarms is important because extracting a large amount of false candidates in early steps of an algorithm causes performance degradation that will not improve the accuracy of the result. (Sayal, 2005)
False Drops
A property of signature iles. Since signature iles use hash to activate bits corresponding to the set elements, possibility exists for one or more set elements setting the same bits. When a query signature is evaluated using signatures in signature iles, there is a probability that the signatures might match, but the actual sets might not match. These are called false drops. (Ramasamy & Deshpande, 2005)
Falsiication Testing
A method for testing the accuracy of predictions made during usability inspections. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006)
False Negative
1: A potential usability problem discovered in a usability inspection that upon analysis is incorrectly eliminated by the analyst as an improbable problem. The discovered problem is conirmed in real use as causing dificulties to users. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006) 2: The error committed when a truly relevant object is not selected.
Familiarity-Based Trust
Knowing what to expect of the trusted party based on previous interactions with it. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006)
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Family PC Program
A program launched in Tunisia in April 2001 to help households acquire a PC and printer at a total cost of 1000 TD (US$700). (El Louadi, 2005a)
the bulk of the data-processing operations while the data itself is stored on the server. (Rashid, 2005)
FBA: See Facial and Body Animation. FCL: See Fostering Communities of Learners. FD: See Field Dependence. FDBS: See Federated Database Schema. FDI: See Foreign Direct Investment.
FAST: See Fast Algorithm for Splitting Trees. FDLP: See Federal Depository Library Program. Fast Algorithm for Splitting Trees (FAST)
A splitting procedure to grow a binary tree using a suitable mathematical property of the impurity proportional reduction measure to ind out the optimal split at each node without trying out necessarily all candidate splits. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005)
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sampled points, lengths, and the speed of the sketched trace. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006)
Feature Extraction
1: A subject of multimedia processing that involves applying algorithms to calculate and extract some attributes for describing the media. (Wei & Li, 2005) 2: The process to obtain a group of features with the characters we need from the original data set. It usually uses a transform (e.g., principal component analysis) to obtain a group of features at one time of computation. (Chu & Wang, 2005) 3: Use of one or more transformations of the input features to produce more useful features. (Hentea, 2005c)
Feature-Level Architecture
In this type of architecture, modality fusion operates at a low level of modality processing. The recognition process in one modality can inluence the recognition process in another modality. Feature-level architectures generally are considered appropriate for tightly related and synchronized modalities, such as speech and lip movements. (Bourguet, 2006)
FEC: See Forwarding Equivalence Class. Federal Depository Library Program (FDLP)
Feature Selection
1: A process of choosing an optimal subset of features from original features, according to a certain criterion. (Yu & Liu, 2005) 2: The process of selecting some features we need from all the original features. It usually measures the character (e.g., t-test score) of each feature irst, then chooses some features we need. (Chu & Wang, 2005) 3: The process of identifying the most effective subset of the original features. (Hentea, 2005c) 4: The task of identifying and selecting a useful subset of features from a large set of redundant, perhaps irrelevant features. (Jourdan et al., 2005) 5: The process of identifying the most effective subset of the original features to use in data analysis such as clustering. (Huang, 2005) 6: The process of identifying those input attributes that contribute signiicantly to building a predictive model for a speciied output or target. (Mani et al., 2005)
Federal program of disseminating government program information products in all media to participating libraries. (Inoue & Bell, 2005)
Federal Model
A hybrid coniguration of centralization and decentralization in which decision making is differentiated across divisional and corporate units. (Peterson, 2005)
Federated Database
A type of multi-database in which component databases preserve their autonomy. (Unal et al., 2006)
Feature Space
The higher dimensional space that results from mapping the input space, as opposed to the input space occupied by the training examples. (Awad & Khan, 2005)
Feature Vector
1: A vector in which every dimension represents a property of a 3D structure. A good feature vector captures similarity and dissimilarity of 3D structures. (X. Wang, 2005) 2: Data that describes the content of the corresponding multimedia object. The elements of the feature vector represent the extracted descriptive information with respect to the utilized analysis. (Bretschneider & Kao, 2005)
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schema, a global query language, a global catalog, and a global transaction manager. The underlying transaction model considers, in general, a set of transactions synchronized by a global transaction. Synchronization is achieved using protocols such as the Two-Phase Commit (2PC) Protocol. (Vargas-Solar, 2005)
Feedback Technique
One of a number of methods such as questionnaires used to acquire information or data on the question under study. (Martz & Shepherd, 2005)
FHSS: See Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum. FI: See Frequent Itemset. Fiankoma Method
An approach to community, working with ICTs emphasizing active authorship. (Pryor, 2005)
Fiber Optic
A technology that uses bundles of glass iber to transmit data at high speed by rapid laser light signal pulses. It can carry a much greater amount of data than metal cable. (D. Stern, 2005)
Feedback
A process whereby an input variable is fed back by the output variable. For example, an increased (or decreased) customer base leads to an increase (or decrease) in sales from word of mouth, which then is fed back to the customer base, increasingly or decreasingly. (QudratUllah, 2006)
Feedback Learning
Deals with learning based on the input-process-outputfeedback process in which three laws shape the learning process: (1) exercise law: reiteration strengthens the connection between response and stimulus; (2) effect law: the succession of stimulus-response is not enough for learning, and reinforcement is needed; and (3) disposition law: achieving goals is a reinforcement particular to every action that has a clear aim. (Xodo, 2005)
Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH)
The use of iber-optic cable, for the provisioning of narrowband and broadband services to the residential customer, rather than traditional copper wiring. (Kelic, 2005)
Fibration
A basic construct of category theory. Roughly, it is a triple (C, B, f ) with C a category (of, say, models), B another category (say, meta-models) called base, and f: CB a functor (mapping) between categories (that assigns to each model its meta-model). Given a base object (meta-
Feedback Loop
A self-perpetuating mechanism of change. (OLooney, 2006)
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MB, C objects (models, schemas) S for which S. f = M and C arrows between them s: SS for which s.f = id M (identity mapping of M), form a category (of models in the meta-model M ), CM. This category is called the iber over M. Fibers are mutually connected in the following way. Let m: M M be a base arrow (meta-model interpretation) and S be an object over M, S. f = M. Then there is an object S* over M, S*.f =M, and an arrow m*: S*S over m, m*.f =m, having some remarkable properties (their formulation is too technical to be presented here). In the MMt context, object S* is the same model S, but its elements are renamed in terms of meta-model M as governed by the interpretation m, and m* is the renaming mapping. The technical properties just mentioned abstract this intuition in terms of morphisms in C and B. (Diskin, 2005)
of automation devices, for example, assembly lines, production cells, or single machines. Depending on the nature of the business, different types of FANs are applied, which are either based on ield buses or Internet technologies. Well-known FANs are, for example, Proibus, DeviceNet, CAN Open, and SERCOS. (Blecker, 2006a)
Fieldwork
Often used interchangeably with ethnography (see deinition), it is, in fact, less precise and much broader as a concept. Fieldwork may be ethnographic or not, qualitative or quantitative, short term or long term. What deines ieldwork is a situation of doing research outside of the conines of a laboratory or a library, gathering primary data in person, and locating oneself within a given social formation (e.g., a neighborhood, political party, social club, school, hospital, etc.). Fieldwork in the ethnographic mode typically involves an anthropologist relocating to a distant society to learn and document another culture, usually involving periods of continuous stay of a year or more, and relying heavily on Participant Observation as a research method. (Forte, 2005)
Fidelity
The measure of how well the rules extracted from a complicated model mimic the behavior of that model. (Zhou, 2005)
Field Creation
In traditional ethnographic ield research (see ethnography, ieldwork), an anthropologist would spend time in a ield site (i.e., a village belonging to a tribe) that logically predated the existence of a research project. Field creation involves this process, only in reverse. In this case, an anthropologist or other researcher constructs a particular site that then attracts interest and generates a network of social interaction around itinformants come to the site created by the researcher. The creation of a Webbased information resource that fosters a community of interacting interests, and then becomes a site of research about itself, is one example of ield creation. (Forte, 2005)
Figuration
As deined in image theory, a complex construction comprising multiple images. Figurations are inherently less eficient for extracting information than images, according to image theory. (Crossland, 2005)
File Format
The way a ile stores informationthe way in which a ile is saved. The ile format depends on the content that is being stored, the application that is being used, and the compression algorithm that is being used. (Prata, 2005)
Field-Area Network
Real-time network on the ield level (shop loor) of industrial irms communication systems for the interconnection
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Internet. (Moreira & da Silva, 2005) 5: A convention for the transfer of iles across computer networks. (Murphy, 2005a) 6: Protocol that allows users to copy iles between their local system and any system they can reach on the network. (Kontolemakis et al., 2005)
Financial Distress
A company is said to be under inancial distress if it is unable to pay its debts as they become due, which is aggravated if the value of the irms assets is lower than its liabilities. (Galvo et al., 2005)
Filter
A saved set of chosen criteria that speciies a subset of information in a data warehouse. (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005b)
Filter Technique
Any technique for reducing the number of models, with the aim of avoiding overwhelming the user. (Butler & Webb, 2005)
Financial Intermediary
A bank, securities irm, or other inancial institution that collects deposits and makes loans, manages the risk associated with the loan process, and/or facilitates the low of capital between operating units and the economy. (Roofe, 2005)
Filter-Reinement Processing
A technique used in query processing composed of the ilter step and the reinement step. The ilter step discards parts of the database that cannot contribute to the inal answer and determines a set of candidate objects, which are then processed by the reinement step. Filtering is usually enhanced by eficient indexing schemes for improved performance. (Kontaki et al., 2005)
Financial Service
Providing users services of inancial issue (e.g., mobile banking, mobile shopping, etc.). (Lee & Pai, 2005)
Filtering
1: A collective term for techniques that automatically select product attributes that meet customer proiles and preferences by applying predeined rules, similarities, or clustering. (Blecker, 2006b) 2: A technique that selects speciic things according to criteria of similarity with particular patterns. (Nabuco et al., 2006)
Financing Models
A model that provides capital to the public sector. Exemplary inancing models are factoring, lending, or borrowing (inance market models); leasing, renting, or contracting out (reward models); and marketing of ones own resources or sponsoring (fundraising). (Knust & Hagenhoff, 2005)
Filtering Machine
Filtering is performed autonomously by a set of specialized source agents dispatched by the agent-based filter. We introduced a new automatic navigation technique: information ants. The ant-like agents carry the warehouse proiles. New documents are parsed, indexed, and matched with all proiles respectively. If a document matches the proile, it is downloaded and re-indexed in order to store it in a Data Warehouse Library (DWL). (Wecel et al., 2005)
Financing Round
One of a number of successive stages of inancing received by a new venture (seed, irst, second, etc.); also called tranch; may be an up round or a down round (in an up round, the value of the venture has increased since the previous round). (Craig, 2006b)
Fingerprint
Also called a label, this is a feature of the carrier and is used to distinguish it from other carriers. Moreover, it
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allows the copyrighted owner to trace pirates if the carrier is redisseminated illegally. The major difference between watermarking and ingerprinting is whether the identity of the transmitter or that of the recipient is embedded in the carrier. (Lou et al., 2006)
Firewall
1: A combination of hardware and software that prevents unauthorized access to network resourcesincluding information and applications. (Tassabehji, 2005a) 2: A set of related programs that reside on a network gateway server that protects the resources of a private network from users from other networks. (Dudding, 2005) 3: A system that implements a set of security rules to enforce access control to a network from outside intrusions. (Syed et al., 2005b) 4: Special software used to prevent unauthorized access to a companys conidential data from the Internet through iltering all network packets entering the irewall at one or more levels of network protocols. (Wang, Cheng, & Cheng, 2006a) 5: The set of related programs, located at a network gateway server, that protects the resources of a private network from users from other networks. Basically, a irewall, working closely with a router program, ilters all network packets to determine whether to forward them toward their destination. A irewall is often installed away from the rest of the network so that no incoming request can get directly at private network resources. (Vaast, 2005) 6: Hardware or software to prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to a computer or network. (Friedman, 2005)
Fingerprint Scanning
Enables the identiication of an individual based on the analysis of unique patterns and ridges found in a ingerprint. (Scott et al., 2006)
Fingerprinting
1: A technique for identity veriication or identiication based on the users ingerprint features, such as location and orientation of bifurcations and endings of ridges, peaks, and valleys. (Li, 2006) 2: A technique to associate a singleand smallrepresentation of an audio signal that is robust to usual audio deformations. Used for identiication. (Pachet, 2006) 3: Used for calling the hidden serial numbers or anything else that should allow the copyright owner to identify which reseller broke the license agreement. It is used for multi-level document distribution. (Nesi & Spinu, 2005)
First-Person Perspective
The visualization of the gaming environment through the eyes of the character. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
FIS: See Federated Information System. FIPA: See Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents. Fisher Exact Test FIPSE: See Fund for the Improvement of Post-Secondary
Education. A statistical test that can distinguish differences in data sets with binary categories and small sizes. In our case, 19 total students with two choices (agree-disagree). (Martz & Shepherd, 2005)
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computer to undertake tasks alone or in collaboration with others. (Chan & Fang, 2005)
Fixed Cost
One of the set of one-time costs that must be incurred for an activity to occur. (Fisher, 2005)
Fixed Weighting
Optimal weights are estimated and are used unchanged to combine forecasts for a number of periods. (C.K. Chan, 2005)
Fit/Alignment
Terms used to explain the relationship between IT and strategy. The IT strategy should work in synergy with the organizations strategy. These terms have their roots in the meta-theory contingency theory. (Baker & Coltman, 2005)
Flame War
The repetitive exchange of offensive messages between members of a discussion forum which can eventually escalate and degenerate an exchange of injuries. (Gur u, 2006)
Flaming
Posting a personally offensive message, as a response to an opinion expressed on a discussion forum. (Gur u, 2006)
Fitness Landscape
Optimization space due to the characteristics of the itness measure used to deine the evolutionary computation process. (Muruzbal, 2005)
Flaming Episode
An inappropriate, rude, or hostile exchange that occurs in an asynchronous discussion group. (Shaw, 2005)
Five Pillars
The Sloan-C quality elements of learning effectiveness, cost effectiveness, access, faculty satisfaction, and student satisfaction. (Moore et al., 2005)
Flash Memory
A kind of non-volatile storage similar to EEPROM, but updating can only be done either in blocks or for the entire chip, making it easy to update. (Hu, Yeh, et al., 2006)
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Flash Player
A multiple-platform client that Web users must download and install (a browser plug-in) in order to view and interact with Macromedia Flash content. (Barone, 2005)
some of their learning on campus and some of their learning off campus. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005b)
Flexibility
1: The ease with which a system or component can be modiied for use in applications or environments other than those for which it was originally designed. A lexible system may be transformed by IT professionals and customized by end users. (Vaast, 2005) 2: The host- and the IP-multicast are lexible, and it is easy to change the topology of the multicast tree. (Hosszu, 2005a) 3: Virtual organizations are, by their nature, lexible. Traditional organizational structures are rooted in the physical world and rely on structures, unalterable networks, and speciic locations to function properly. Because of this, when it becomes necessary to introduce change into a speciic organization, a barrier is reached where further alteration requires physical, costly modiications. A virtual organization is unhindered by these problems. These structures are designed so that they can operate regardless of time or place, independent of existing physical realities. (J. Lee, 2005)
Flexible Workplace
Organizational settings that can quickly take external and internal changes into account in their processes. (Oravec, 2005)
Flexography
A printing process that uses a raised or relief-type image on a lexible photoploymer or rubber plate. Commonly used for printing corrugated and lexible packaging, newsprint, and other media. (Snyder, 2005)
Flexible Attribute
An attribute is called lexible if its value can be changed in time. (Ras et al., 2005)
Floor Control
Functionality that allows for resolving concurrent access to common resources, such as mouse pointers in shared applications. A loor is usually assigned to such a resource together with a policy for access authorization. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005)
Flexible Learning
1: A combination of varied teaching practices, including applied research and investigative projects within a lexible learning mode, that is aimed at maximizing learner engagement through action learning methodologies and advanced technologies. The key focus driving educational design is meeting the learners needs. (Baskin et al., 2005) 2: A systems in which students may choose to complete
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variable over a speciied time unit. (Maani, 2005) 2: A psychological state experienced when there is a match between task requirements and a users skills, a state that involves high attention and leads to feelings of control and enjoyment. (Sas, 2006) 3: A psychological state in which one is so focused on an activity that one loses a sense of self and of the passage of time. (Bridges et al., 2006) 4: A representation of the rate of change in the condition of a variable in a system dynamics model. (Casado, 2005) 5: A set of packets associated with a single application and that share common requirements. (Gutirrez & Ting, 2005) 6: The holistic sensation that people feel when they act in total involvement. (Scarpi & DallOlmo-Riley, 2006)
Foreign Key
1: A key is a ield or set of ields in a relational database table that has unique valuesthat is, no duplicates. A ield or set of ields whose values form a subset of the values in the key of another table is called a foreign key. Foreign keys express relationships between ields of different tables. (Koeller, 2005) 2: A set of one or more attributes that correspond to a primary key in order to simulate a relationship. It links two tables. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005a)
Focus Group
A small group interview, conducted by a moderator, which is used to discuss one or more issues. (McPherson, 2005)
Foresight Methodology
Provides tools and systematic approaches to integrate various partners and views in order to provide the necessary framework for, for example, measures to improve economic development. It is closely connected with the Triple-Helix Model. (Hofer, 2006)
Focus+Context Technique
Allows one to interactively transfer the focus as desired while the context of the region in focus remains in view, with gradually degrading resolution to the rim. In contrast, allows the standard zoom+panning technique to select the magniication factor, trading detail, and overview, and involves harsh view cut-offs. (Walter, 2005)
Forking
Source code is said to fork when another group of developers creates a derivative version of the source code that is separate, if not incompatible, with the current road the source codes development is following. The result is source code that takes a different fork in the road. (St. Amant & Still, 2005)
For-Proit Business
A business enterprise or organization that exists to provide products and/or services to customers in exchange for delivering a proit to the owners and/or investors of the business. (Baim, 2006a)
Form Element
Any part of an HTML form, including input boxes, check boxes, pull-down menus, submit or reset buttons, or radio options. (Fagan, 2005)
Force Model
A model showing that a users motivation to exert effort into using an application is the summation of the products of the attractiveness of the application and the probability that a certain level of effort will result in successfully using the application. (Chen & Lou, 2005)
Form Factor
This platform or operating system runs on a handheld device. Major form factors include Palm, Pocket PC, and WAP. (Chan & Fang, 2005)
Forecasting Model
A computational and/or mathematical model that simulates time series behavior with the purpose of forecasting their future values. (Castro & Braga, 2006)
Formal Communication
Communication that is institutionally planned and functionally deined. (Beuschel et al., 2005)
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Formal Ontology
A formal representation of a shared conceptualization. In the context of the Semantic Web, ontologies provide shared vocabularies for metadata descriptions. (Sicilia & Garca-Barriocanal, 2006)
A mathematical framework that provides formal and mathematical treatment of the notion of a concept in a given universe. (Saquer, 2005)
Formal Leader
One who is formally appointed or authorized by either the group or an external party to hold an oficially designated leadership role for the group or team. Such a leader may or may not display strong leadership behavior. (Cargill, 2006a)
Formal Veriication
Act of proving or disproving the correctness of a system with respect to a certain property (speciication) using mathematical formalisms and methods. (Fisteus & Kloos, 2006)
Formal Mentoring
A deliberate pairing of a more skilled or experienced person with a lesser skilled or experienced one, with the agreed-upon goal of having the lesser skilled or experienced person grow and develop speciic competencies. (Long et al., 2005)
Formal Method
1: One of a set of rigorous techniques based on mathematical notation that can be used to specify and verify software models. (Kefalas et al., 2005) 2: A set of tools and notations (based on formal semantics) used for unambiguously specifying the requirements of computing systems that allow one to prove properties of speciications and to prove the consistency of implementations with their speciications. (Fisteus & Kloos, 2006) 3: The variety of mathematical modeling techniques that are applicable to computer system (software and hardware) design. Formal methods may be used to specify and model the behavior of a system, and to mathematically verify that the system design and implementation satisfy system functional and safety properties. These speciications, models, and veriications may be done using a variety of techniques and with various degrees of rigor. (Mauco & Riesco, 2005)
Formulary
A list of drugs that are approved for use under a given health insurance program. (Rosson, 2006)
Forum
The context or the setting in which information is presented to other individuals. (St. Amant, 2006a)
Forward Engineering
The process of transforming a model into code through a mapping to a speciic implementation language. (Favre et al., 2005)
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Forward-Looking Responsibility
Addresses the particular responsibilities of individuals, groups, and partners in advance of a products use or a systems implementation; it deines guidelines for creating quality products, measures the quality of the products, and deines the method of evaluation, the limitations, and the scope of the operation in advance of harmful incidents. (George, 2005a)
Fourth-Generation Language
Includes business application languages and tools such as database and decision supports tools such as SQL, ACCESS, and EXCEL; ERP and other reporting tools; and Web development environments such as ColdFusion and FrontPage. (Beise et al., 2005)
Fractal Geometry
The geometry of the irregular shapes found in nature; in general, fractals are characterized by ininite details, ininite length, self-similarity, fractal dimensions, and the absence of smoothness or derivative. (de Castro, 2005)
Fractional Factorial
A subset of the full factorial designthat is, a subset of all possible combinations. (Lo, 2005)
Fragile
After a message is embedded into a carrier, the hidden message is destroyed if the carrier is destroyed or modiied. The scheme is not suitable to prove a legal copyright, but useful to detect a carrier that has been tampered with. (Lou et al., 2006)
Fragile Watermarking
1: A method for embedding a secret message that is intended to be undetectable even after minor malicious or non-malicious manipulations on the host media in which it is embedded. (C.-T. Li, 2005) 2: Another category of digital watermarking which requires the embedded watermark to be un-extractable after any manipulation on the host media. It is widely used in the applications of authentication and content integrity veriication. (Si & Li, 2006) 3: A technique that does not guarantee the watermark presence after few document manipulations. (Nesi & Spinu, 2005)
Fragmentation
When the data packet is too large to transfer on a given network, it is divided into smaller packets. These smaller packets are reassembled on a destination host. Along with other methods, intruders can deliberately divide the data packets to evade IDSs. (Kayacik et al., 2005)
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Neither the buyer-driven nor the seller-driven model of the value chain dominates. (Jeffcoate, 2005)
network type is characterized by a centralized structure, low competition, and a common scope of operations among members. (Priestley, 2006)
Frame
A small piece of information or a statement to which the student is exposed, such as a page with a single question. In linear programmed instruction, a frame includes a stimulus, a response, and reinforcement (positive feedback). (Owen & Aworuwa, 2005)
Franchisee
The individual or business that receives the business rights and pays the royalties for using the rights. (Chen et al., 2005b)
Franchisee Lifecycle
The stages a franchisee goes through in the franchise system: Courting, We, Me, Rebel, Renewal. (Chen et al., 2005a)
Frame of Discernment
A inite, non-empty set of hypotheses. (Beynon, 2005a)
Frame Rate
The number of frames projected per second. (Vitolo et al., 2005)
Franchising
A business opportunity based on granting the business rights and collecting royalties in return. (Chen et al., 2005a)
Frame Relay
A form of packet switching based on the use of variablelength link layer frames. (Butcher-Powell, 2005)
Franchisor
The individual or business who grants the business rights. (Chen et al., 2005a)
Frame Size
The height and width of the video window according to the number of pixels. (Vitolo et al., 2005)
Frame-Based Representation
A way of deining the meaning of a concept by using a set of properties (frame) with associated classes of admitted valuesthis frame is linked with the node representing the concept. Associating a frame with the concept ci to be deined corresponds to establishing a relationship between ci and some of the other concepts of the ontology; this relationship indicates that the concepts c1, c2 cn used in the frame deining ci denote the class of illers (speciic concepts or instances) that can be associated with the slots (properties, attributes, qualities, etc.) of the frame for ci. (Zarri, 2005a)
Fraud
Criminal deception leading to unjust enrichment. (Rowe, 2006b)
Framework
1: A software foundation that speciies how a software system is to be built. It includes standards at all levels, both internal construction and external appearance and behavior. (D. Brandon, 2005a) 2: The underlying structure supporting or containing something. (Solberg, Oldevik, & Jensvoll, 2005)
Free (Random) MA
A class of non-coordinated distributed multiple-access protocols where collisions may occur. (Markhasin et al., 2005)
Franchise Network
A structured network of N organizations sharing a common brand or public identity (e.g., Holiday Inn hotels). This
Free Riding
1: Using person-to-person (P2P) ile-sharing networks to acquire iles by downloading without making any iles
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on ones own machine available to the network in return. (Hughes & Lang, 2005) 2: The act of enjoying the public good without contributing anything to its creation or maintenance. (Teigland & Wasko, 2005) 3: Consuming community resources without contributing, a well-known problem in peer-to-peer ile-sharing systems (and in many other public good provisioning settings) where certain users only download iles without sharing iles themselves. (Efstathiou & Polyzos, 2006) 4: The user behavior when a user contributes nothing or undesired content to the P2P network, while consuming the contributions of others. (Kwok et al., 2006)
ignore the other, and as such, can be used as a compromise term palatable to adherents of either movement. It also emphasizes the libre meaning of the word free rather than the free of charge or gratis meaning, which those unfamiliar with the subject might assume. This all-inclusive acronym has the extra advantage of being non-anglocentric: the F stands for Frei in German while the L stands for Libre in French and Spanish, Livre in Portuguese, and Libero in Italian, showing that the concepts and their implementation are not exclusive to the English-speaking world. (Y.-W. Lin, 2005)
Freeblock Scheduling
A disk arm scheduling method that uses opportunistic accesses to disk blocks required for a low-priority activity. (Thomasian, 2005a)
Freely Available
Wide distribution at no cost to the consumer. (Fleming, 2005b)
Freeware
Software provided at no charge to the user. Might be open source or proprietarythat is, the developer only permits redistribution and use, with no modiications permitted. In fact, most open source software is freeware, but most freeware is not open source. (Carillo & Okoli, 2006)
Free Tree
Let G be a connected acyclic labeled graph. Because of its acyclicity, each connected acyclic labeled graph has at least one node which is connected to the rest of the graph by only one edgethat is, a leaf. If we label the leaves with zero and the other nodes recursively with the minimal label of its neighbors plus one, then we get an unordered, unrooted tree-like structure, a so-called free tree. It is a well-known fact that every free tree has at most two nodes, which minimize the maximal distance to all other nodes in the tree, the so-called centers. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005b)
Freight Consolidation
The combining of small shipments into a composite truckload or other unit of volume that is sent to a destination point. (Tyan, 2006)
Frequency
Rate of signal oscillation in Hertz. (Statica & Deek, 2006)
Frequency Domain
The representation of a signal as a function of frequency, for example as the sum of sinusoidal waves of different amplitudes and frequencies. (Dixon, 2005)
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Fre que ncy H opping Spre a d Spe c t rum (FH SS) Front -End I nt e rope ra bilit y
When a broad slice of bandwidth spectrum is divided into many possible broadcast frequencies to be used by the transmitted signal. (Akhtar, 2005)
the itemset. A frequent itemset is an itemset with support above a pre-speciied threshold. (Zhou & Wang, 2005) 9: An itemsets that has support at least equal to minsup. (Daly & Taniar, 2005a)
Frequency Response
H(e ): The discrete-time Fourier transform of the impulse response of the system; it provides a frequency-domain description of the system. In general, it has a complex value. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005c)
j
Frequent Pattern
Pattern the support of which exceeds a user-speciied threshold. (Kryszkiewicz, 2005)
Frequent Subgraph
A subgraph that occurs in a certain percentage of all graphs in a database. (Fischer & Meinl, 2005)
Frictionless Capitalism
A view of economic/business relationships that suggests information and communication technologies can reduce or eradicate barriers to proit making, such as distance between businesses and markets, imperfect market knowledge, and low productivity. (Lepawsky & Park, 2006)
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
The process of subdividing a telecommunications line into multiple channels, with each channel allocated a portion of the frequency of the line. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005a)
Friendster(.com)
The original and still most popular online social networking application. Claims to have more than ive million registered users. (Mew, 2006)
Front-End Analysis
The process of collecting information before and in preparation for the design, development, and implementation of any innovation. This is also referred to as needs assessment. (Naidu, 2005a)
Front-End Interoperability
User-centric integration approach that presents consolidated information retrieved from different sources and enables the access to multiple application systems in order to perform a set of coherent transactions at once. (Werth, 2005)
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Front-End Processing
Computing the raw data and managing the pre-computed aggregated data in either in 3D data cube or n-dimensional table. (Tan, 2005b)
FRP: See Fantasy Role-Playing. FSF: See Free Software Foundation. FTE: See Full-Time Equivalent. FTP: See File Transfer Protocol. FTTH: See Fiber-to-the-Home. FTTx
Fiber to the cabinet (Cab), curb (C), building (B), or home (H). (Chochliouros et al., 2005a)
Function
A programming construct where code that does a particular task is segregated from the main body of a program; the function may be sent arguments and may return arguments to the body of the program. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a)
Functional Area
Companies that make products to sell have several functional areas of operations. Each functional area comprises a variety of business functions or business activities. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005a)
Full PI Model
A PI model where every proper subset of variables is marginally independent. Full PI models are the most basic PI models. (Xiang, 2005)
Functional Dependence
1: For attribute sets C, D, we say that D depends functionally on C, in symbols CD, in case IND(C)IND(D). Also non-exact (partial) functional dependencies to a degree are considered. (Pawlak et al., 2005) 2: Intuitively, one attribute is functionally dependent on a second attribute when you need to know the value of the second in order to ind out the value of the irst. More precisely, each value of the second attribute has no more than one value of the irst associated with it. (Schultz, 2005) 3: For any record r in a record type, its sequence of values of the attributes in X is referred to as the X-value of r. Let R be a record type, and X and Y be sequences of attributes of R. We say that the functional dependency, XY of R, holds at time t, if at time t, for any two R records r and s, the X-values of r and s are identical, then the U-values of r and s are also identical. (Tan & Zhao, 2005a)
Full REALLOCATE
A heuristic algorithm for computing a new data allocation, given some number of servers and a system optimization parameter. This heuristic is iterative, searching for stepwise solution reinement. This heuristic evaluates the effect of independently moving each database relation to the new server joining the distributed database system. It then holds this relation at the new server and reiterates with a reevaluation of moving an additional relation. (Chin, 2005)
Full-Text Index
An index supporting retrieval of identiiers from documents containing a particular word. (Nrvg, 2005)
Functional Genomics
The study of gene functions on a genomic scale, especially based on microarrays. (Fu, 2005)
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Functional Illiteracy
A person can read such things as menus or environmental print (signs, wrappers of food, labels, etc.), but cannot read a sentence or make meaning out of text. (Trammell, 2005)
development of new approaches to teaching and learning online. (S.M. Johnstone, 2005)
Fundamental Analysis
The use of company-reported inancial data to determine an intrinsic (or fair value) for a security. Used to identify cases where companies are undervalued, with a view to proiting from the future price movements. This style of analysis is generally long term. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Functional Information
Information, based on engineering knowledge, that describes how components and subsystems of a tangible product interact, and how these interactions give rise to different product features and varying levels of product performance. (McIntosh & Siau, 2005)
Funding Organization
Organization, either corporate or academic, that funds an e-learning project to meet some need within the organization. (Kapp, 2005)
Functional Margin
Geometrically, the Euclidean distance of the closest point from the decision boundary to the input space. (Awad & Khan, 2005)
Fusion System
A system based on an architecture that associates diverse sources of data, information, and knowledge. (Tauber & Schwartz, 2006)
Functional Model
A model concerned primarily with how to interact with a system, how it is operated. (Maceield, 2006)
Functional Product
A product having stable and predictable demand, a long lifecycle, and well-developed competition that results in a low proit margin. (Abraham & Leon, 2006)
Functionality
1: The external quality factor that refers to a set of functions and speciied properties that satisfy stated or implied needs. (Xenos, 2006) 2: The task that the parties wish to jointly compute. (Lindell, 2005)
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model, fuzzy nested relational database model, and fuzzy object-oriented database model. (Ma, 2005b)
fuzzy logic is that many classes in the natural environment are fuzzy rather than crisp. It deals with imprecise and uncertain data. (Begg, 2005)
Fuzzy Membership
Instead of specifying whether an object precisely belongs to a set, fuzzy membership speciies a degree of membership between [0,1]. (Lingras et al., 2005)
Fuzzy Number
Quantitative mathematical description of fuzzy information concerning a one-dimensional numerical quantity. (Viertl, 2005)
Fuzzy Estimate
Generalized statistical estimation technique for the situation of non-precise data. (Viertl, 2005)
Fuzzy Relation
In fuzzy relations, degrees of association between objects are represented not as crisp relations, but membership grade in the same manner as degrees of set membership are represented in a fuzzy set. (Kim, 2005)
Fuzzy Histogram
A generalized histogram based on non-precise data whose heights are fuzzy numbers. (Viertl, 2005)
Fuzzy Information
Information not given in the form of precise numbers, precise vectors, or precisely deined terms. (Viertl, 2005)
Fuzzy Set
1: A set that captures the different degrees of belongingness of different objects in the universe instead of a sharp demarcation between objects that belong to a set and those that do not. (Bala et al., 2005) 2: The set in which elements are associated with membership degrees in (0,1) to indicate how they belong to the set. Fuzzy-set theory was originated by L. A. Zadeh in 1965 and can be used for imprecise information processing. (Ma, 2005b) 3: Let U be a set of objects so called universe of discourse. A fuzzy set F in U is characterized by a function of inclusion m F taking values in the interval [0,1], i.e., F : U [0,1]; where F(u) represents the degree in which uU belongs to fuzzy set F. (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005c)
Fuzzy Logic
1: A mathematical technique that classiies subjective reasoning and assigns data to a particular group or cluster, based on the degree of possibility the data has of being in that group. (Lenard & Alam, 2005) 2: A procedure for analyzing approximate reasoning, which uses its imprecision and settles borderline cases with the concept of precision. Human reasoning is imprecise, and the ability to make reasonable decisions in such a clear environment of uncertainty is a major aspect that depends on the possibilities to obtain an approximate answer to some questions based on the acquired knowledge, which is normally inexact and not always reliable. (Xodo & Nigro, 2005) 3: A type of logic that does not rely on a binary yes or no. Instead, computer systems are able to rank responses on a scale of 0.0 to 1.0, with 0.0 being false to 1.0 being true. This allows computer systems to deal with probabilities rather than absolutes. (Athappilly & Rea, 2005) 4: Fuzzy logic is applied to fuzzy sets where membership in a fuzzy set is a probability, not necessarily 0 or 1. (Xu et al., 2006a) 5: Fuzzy logic provides an approach to approximate reasoning in which the rules of inference are approximate rather than exact. Fuzzy logic is useful in manipulating information that is incomplete, imprecise, or unreliable. (Hou, Sheng, et al., 2005) 6: The concept of
Fuzzy Statistics
Statistical analysis methods for the situation of fuzzy information. (Viertl, 2005)
Fuzzy Transformation
The process of transforming an observation with missing values into fuzzy patterns that are equivalent to the observation based on fuzzy set theory. (H. Wang & S. Wang, 2005)
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Generalized real valued function whose value is a set of fuzzy numbers. (Viertl, 2005)
Fuzzy Vector
Mathematical description of non-precise vector quantities. (Viertl, 2005)
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G
GA: See Genetic Algorithm. GA A P: See Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles.
Game Theory
Mathematical theory of rational behavior for situations involving conlicts of interest. (Heucke et al., 2005)
Game User Interface GADP: See General Additive Data Perturbation. Gait Analysis
Analysis of human walking patterns. It is used to analyze abnormality in lower limb problems and assess treatment or intervention outcomes. (Begg, 2005) Elements and devices through which the user interacts with the game. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
Game Using
Stage in Gaming and Simulation. During the using stage, game facilitators make preparations for playing the game, and participants actually play the game (given a certain scenario). (Achterbergh, 2005a)
Galaxy Structure
Structure of a warehouse for which two different types of facts share a same dimension. (Schneider, 2005)
Galois Lattice
Provides some meanings to analyze and represent data. Refers to two-ordered set. An ordered set (I,#) is the set I, together with a partial ordering # on I. (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005c)
Gantt Chart
A chart displaying schedule information in a graphical form. It may display tasks, duration, start/inish dates for activities and milestones, dependencies, and allocated resources. (Asprey, 2005)
Gambling
A leisure activity in which money is staked with the anticipation of making a gain and/or winning a prize. (Brindley, 2006)
Gap/Racial Gap
Inequality of access to media and technology based on ethnicity. (Reilly, 2005)
Game
A simulation in which people are part of the model and their decisions partially determine the outcome. (Pendegraft, 2005)
Gathering
An event where participants share their knowledge with the group on a particular topic. A gathering focuses exclusively on occupational knowledge and encourages an evaluation of the legitimacy of other peoples contributions. A gathering is unlike a brainstorm, which discourages evaluation and encourages wild and wacky ideas. Following a gathering, facilitated group discussion is conducted on the contributions shared. (Shaw, 2006)
Game Building
Stage in Gaming and Simulation. During the building stage, game constructors make a model of the problem they want to incorporate into the game. Next, they transform the model into a speciic game, and inally they deine different scenarios that can be played during the game. (Achterbergh, 2005a)
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Ga ze Ge ne ra l K now le dge
Gaze
An eye-tracking metric, usually the sum of all ixation durations within a prescribed area. Also called dwell, ixation cluster, or ixation cycle. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
physiology by controlling the production of proteins. Each individual has a unique sequence of genes, called genetic code. (Galitsky, 2005a)
GCI: See Growth Competitiveness Index; Group Competitiveness Index. GCSS: See Group Communication Support System. GDB: See Geographic Database. GDP: See Gross Domestic Product. GDSS: See Group Decision Support System. GDT: See Geographically Dispersed Team. Gender Divide
The term broadly used to indicate the difference between males and females that have ready accessibility to information and technology, and the skills to use information and technology, and those males and females who do not have the same or similar level of accessibility to information and technology, and the skills to use information and technology. (Arthur-Gray & Campbell, 2005)
Gene
1: A hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that contains all the information necessary to produce a molecule that performs some biological function. (Yu & Liu, 2005) 2: The unit of heredity. A gene contains hereditary information encoded in the form of DNA and located at a speciic position on a chromosome in a cells nucleus. Genes determine many aspects of anatomy and
General Knowledge
The contextual knowledge that goes across or is shared by particular individuals, groups, societies, times, and locations. General knowledge can be tacit or explicit. (Medeni, 2006a)
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of the source code to create new free programs. (Lowry et al., 2005a) 2: Speciically links source code to legally protected freedom to publish, distribute, and make use of derived works. (Fleming, 2005b)
Third party e-fulillment providers may choose to offer a large range of e-fulillment capabilities. These may be either Physco or Knowco in nature, though a greater proportion of GO providers are tending to concentrate on Knowco capabilities. GOs appear likely to compete in more open markets using innovation and cost-competition. Though these providers may have large customers, they are more likely to have a large range of customers. (Alexander & Burn, 2006)
Generality
A measure that quantiies the coverage of an explanation in the whole data set. (Yao & Zhao, 2005)
Generalization
1: The goal of neural network training is to develop a model that generalizes its knowledge to unseen data. Overtraining must be avoided for generalization to occur. (Smith, 2005) 2: When entities have similar basic attributes, they can be classiied into a generalized entity type. Generalization is the process of inding commonalities between entities to be able to abstract to a higher-level entity set. (Bagui, 2005) 3: A cubegrade is a generalization if the set of descriptors of the target cell are a subset of the set of attribute-value pairs of the source cell. (Abdulghani, 2005b)
Generalization-Specialization Hierarchy
A set of concepts organized by specialization and generalization relationships into an inverted tree-like structure, such that concepts higher in the tree are broader and encompass the concepts lower in the tree. (Woods et al., 2006)
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Generation
The basic unit of progress in genetic and evolutionary computation, a step in which selection is applied over a population. Usually, crossover and mutation are applied once per generation, in strict order. (Hsu, 2005a)
Pattern the support of which is not determinable from the supports of its proper subsets. (Kryszkiewicz, 2005)
Generation 1 Portfolio
A paper-based portfolio. (Wasko, 2005)
Generalized Division
A generalized version of the binary relational algebra division operation where the tuples of the left table are grouped by an attribute and only those groups whose set of values for another speciied attribute satisies a desired set comparison (e.g., equality) with a set of similar values from the right table are passed to the output table. The generalized division operator can be expressed in terms of the ive principal relational algebra operations. (Dadashzadeh, 2005)
Generation 2 Portfolio
Refers to any form of electronic portfolio. eFolio Minnesota is a current example of a Generation 2 portfolio. (Wasko, 2005)
Generation 3 Portfolio
A Generation 2 portfolio that includes tools to assist an individual in developing his or her individual education and/or career goals. (Wasko, 2005)
Generalized Icon
One of a set of icons used to describe multimedia objects such as images, sounds, texts, motions, and videos. It is a dual object with a logical part and a physical part. (Chang et al., 2005)
Generalized Reciprocity
Cooperative interchange of favors or obligations between individuals in a group, where return is not expected from the same speciic individual given to, but rather from anyone in the group or the group as a whole. (Ridings, 2006b)
Generative Strategy
Encourages learners to construct their own learning experience by allowing them to develop their own structure for acquiring knowledge and skills. (Stavredes, 2005a)
Generating-Pruning
The method of inding frequent sequential patterns by generating candidates sequences (from size 2 to the maximal size) step by step. At each step a new generation of candidates having the same length is generated and tested over the databases. Only frequent sequences are kept (pruning) and used in the next step to create a new generation of (longer) candidate sequences. (Masseglia et al., 2005)
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solutions are then used to solve the problem. (Athappilly & Rea, 2005) 12: An evolutionary algorithm that generates each individual from some encoded form known as a chromosome or genome. Chromosomes are combined or mutated to breed new individuals. Crossover, the kind of recombination of chromosomes found in sexual reproduction in nature, is often also used in GAs. Here, an offsprings chromosome is created by joining segments chosen alternately from each of two parents chromosomes, which are of ixed length. (Lazar, 2005)
Genetic Programming
1: A stochastic search algorithm based on evolutionary theory, with the aim to optimize structure or functional form. A tree structure is commonly used for representation of solutions. (Fan & Pathak, 2005) 2: Search method inspired by natural selection. The basic idea is to evolve a population of programs candidates to the solution of a speciic problem. (Yeo, 2005)
Genetic Tree
A variety of dendrogram (diagram) in which organisms are shown arranged on branches that link them according to their relatedness and evolutionary descent. (Galitsky, 2005a)
Genome
1: All the genetic information or hereditary material possessed by an organism. (Yu & Liu, 2005) 2: All the genetic material in the chromosomes of a particular organism; its size is generally given as its total number of base pairs. (Galitsky, 2005a) 3: The genetic information of an organism. (Tsunoda et al., 2005)
Genomic Database
An organized collection of data pertaining to the genetic material of an organism. (Segall, 2005)
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Genomic Medicine
Integration of genomic and clinical data for medical decision. (Fu, 2005)
usually handled by standard relational DBMSs. Spatial attributes need additional power in order to design, store, and manipulate the spatial part of geographic entities. (Faz, 2005)
Genotype
1: Anthony Dunnes alternative to the prototypea non-working yet complete product speciically aimed at provoking ictive, social, and aesthetic considerations in an audience. (Kettley, 2006a) 2: The exact genetic makeup of an organism. (Tzanis et al., 2005)
Genuine Miss
A usability problem that causes user dificulties that remains undiscovered in usability inspection. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006)
Geo-Field
An object class used to represent objects and phenomena that are continuously distributed over the space. Examples of phenomena that are represented using geo-ields are temperature, rainfall, topography, and soil type. (Davis et al., 2005)
Geo-Object
An object class that represents an individual, particular real-world geographic object. Such objects can usually be traced back to individually identiiable elements, such as houses, lakes, and trees. (Davis et al., 2005)
Geo-Reference
The relationship between page-coordinates on a planar map and known, real-world coordinates. (Rambaldi, 2005)
Geocoding
1: A function of the GIS through which the geographic location of an address is given a set of geographic coordinates by reference to a standard geographically referenced database. These coordinates are then used for mapping. (Garb & Wait, 2005b) 2: A generic term used to describe the GIS function of providing a speciic location to descriptive data. Geocoding applies to point data (e.g., alcohol outlet) as well as to area data (e.g., assaults in a census tract). (Lipton et al., 2005)
Geographic Data
Characterized by the fact that they are constituted of two kinds of attributes: descriptive or non-spatial attributes, and positioning or spatial attributes. Non-spatial data are not speciic of geographic applications, and they are
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road junctions, railway, land-use, or even terrain. The data is associated with the location of the entities to allow fast geo-referencing. (Leong, 2005a) 11: The geographic use of data to develop maps and statistical relationships that help describe processes like the relationship between alcohol outlets and violence or vehicle crashes and alcohol outlets. (Lipton et al., 2005) 12: A set of tools that rely on data management technologies to manage, process, and present geospatial data, which in turn can vary with time. (Ganguly et al., 2005) 13: A system composed of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel designed to capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced information. (Gilbert, 2005a) 14: A system to provide tools to provision and administer base map data such as built structures (streets and buildings) and terrain (mountain, rivers, etc.). (Fraunholz et al., 2005) 15: A computer system that permits the user to examine and handle numerous layers of spatial data. The system is intended to solve problems and investigate relationships. The data symbolize real-world entities, including spatial and quantitative attributes of these entities. (Sadoun, 2006) 16: A computer system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced information. (Faz & Mahmoudi, 2005) 17: An information system that manages geographic datathat is, data for which the geometric shape and spatial location are indispensable parts, which must be considered while working with them. (Davis et al., 2005)
objects, each of them implemented by a layer. Often a geographical database includes raster, topological vector, image processing, and graphics production functionality. (Ferri & Rafanelli, 2005)
Geographical Dispersion
The combination of virtual organization with IT allows groups of employees to make progress on one project while working in tandem with another group in a distant physical location. Because information can be shared and meetings can be held with the use of high-speed networks and computers, tasks can be carried out in the location that is most appropriate and germane to that function. (J. Lee, 2005)
Geometric Hashing
The technique identifying an object in the scene, together with its position and orientation. (Chan & Chang, 2005)
Geoprocessing
Operations in GIS for integrating, analyzing, computing, and presenting geospatial data. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005)
Georeferencing
Identifying the geographic location of features and their boundaries on the Earths surface, for example, derived from GPS, remote sensing, mapping, and surveying technologies. (Hendricks, 2005)
Geographical Database
A database in which geographical information is store by x-y coordinates of single points, or points that identify the boundaries of lines (or polylines, which sometimes represent the boundaries of polygons). Different attributes characterize the objects stored in these databases. In general, the storing structure consists of classes of
Geospatial Data
Data representing objects on or near the surface of the Earth. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005)
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1: An information system capable of storing, managing, computing, and displaying geospatial data for solving geospatial problems. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005) 2: A system that provides a common framework for jointly visualizing the world. (Morris-Jones & Carter, 2005)
Geospatial Problem
One of a number of problems involving geospatial data, objects, and phenomena. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005)
Gisting Geovisualization
Data representation using more than one dimension to convey meaning, including animation and dynamic cartography, and spatialization (using geographic metaphors to generate georeferenced displays of nonspatial data such as text, image, or sound archives). (Hendricks, 2005) Using computing technologies to provide a rough or imperfect but understandable translation of a text. (St. Amant, 2005e)
Global Baseline
The median value of pixel distribution along the vertical projection. (Chakravarty et al., 2005a)
Gesture
Refers in our case to digital-pen gestures, which are movements of the hands while writing onto digital screens that are interpreted as system commands. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006)
Gesture Tracking
The set of mechanisms allowing one to record and analyze human motion. Gesture may be tracked either in 2D or 3D. Gesture tracking ranges from the recording and analysis of postures (e.g., head, body) to that of more detailed elements such as hand-ine movement or facial expression. The aims of gesture tracking in HCI span from recognizing the users current activity (or lack of), to recognizing emotional states. Gesture tracking is often used in combination with gaze tracking. (Thomas & Roda, 2006a)
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Global Economy
Largely understood in terms of worldwide economic and political convergence around liberal market principles and the increasing real-time integration of business, technological, and inancial systems. (Targowski & Metwalli, 2005)
Global Infrastructure
A sphere of concern; consists of the wireless access and backbone networks, as well as servers and terminals that are necessary for e-commerce in general and m-commerce in particular at a certain moment. Global infrastructure is shaped by the organizational entities within the regulatory framework sphere, and controlled and operated by companies and governments. Global infrastructure consists of heterogeneous components (WLANs, 2G and 3G telecom network, wireline telecom networks, Internet, proprietary IP networks, and a great variety of wireless terminals) and evolves over time as new technologies are adopted from the enabling technologies sphere, where they are developed. (Veijalainen & Weske, 2005)
Global E-Marketing
Marketing efforts undertaken by companies outside their domestic market. (Ortega Egea & Menndez, 2006)
Global Outsourcing
1: The trend towards directing outsourcingcontracting with other irms to perform non-critical functions for a businesstoward countries with low workforce costs. (Trauth, 2005a) 2: The sourcing of IT jobs to foreign countries and corporations (outsourcing) or employment of foreign nationals in foreign countries by U.S. corporations (insourcing). (Mendonca, 2005)
Global Feature
One of a set of features extracted using the complete signature image or signal as a single entity. (Chakravarty et al., 2005b)
Global Popularity
Depends on the number of requests to the object. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
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A system of determining the absolute location of features by calculating x, y, z coordinates of ground locations from the signal of satellites orbiting the Earth. (Hendricks, 2005) 3: The worldwide satellite-based radio navigation system. The systems satellites transmit messages that a receiver uses to determine its own geographical position. (Giaglis, 2005) 4: Provides real-time, satellite-derived location information based on information received by an appropriate GPS receiver. GPS is funded by and controlled by the U.S. Department of Defense. While there are many thousands of civil users of GPS worldwide, the system was designed for and is operated by the U.S. military. A GPS may be employed in the original construction of the digital map information to be stored in a GIS. Or, if the GIS is already constructed, the GPS may be employed to accurately render the position of new elements to be added to the GIS or the current position of a mobile element to be referenced against the information stored in the GIS. A good example might be a freight truck moving on a highway. The GPS receiver on the truck can derive its current latitude and longitude, and then send that information to the GIS system in the truck cab, to a GIS in a central control center via radio, or to both for subsequent reporting and analysis. (Crossland, 2005) 5: Worldwide radio-navigation system formed from a constellation of 24 satellites and their ground stations that provide reference points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters, and with advanced forms, to less than a centimeter. GPS receivers are so miniaturized that they are becoming accessible to virtually everyone. Used in cars, boats, aircraft, construction equipment, farm machinery, and even laptop computers, they are predicted to become almost as basic as the telephone. (Latchem & Maru, 2005) 6: Satellite technology that locates people and objects on earth with high accuracy. (Szewczak, 2006) 7: A self-positioning, wave-based positioning system consisting of 24 satellites revolving around the Earth in six orbits, which send continuous radio signals using triangulation to determine an exact location. (Fraunholz et al., 2005) 8: A system developed by the U.S. Department of Defense to allow the military to accurately determine its precise location anywhere in the world. GPS uses a collection of 24 satellites positioned in orbit to allow a person who has the proper equipment to automatically have their position triangulated to determine their location. (Kontolemakis et al., 2005) 9: Utilizes a wide-reaching radio broadcasting system, originally produced to aid navigation, consisting of a group of 24 satellites plus terrestrial receiving devices. (Friedman, 2005) 10: A satellite-based, publicly available navigation system that can determine the position of a small
portable GPS receiver very accurately. (Strauss, 2005) 11: An MEO (medium earth orbit) public satellite navigation system consisting of 24 satellites used for determining ones precise location and providing a highly accurate time reference almost anywhere on Earth. (Dhar, 2005)
Global Schema
Schema obtained after integrating local schemas. (Passi et al., 2005)
Global Serializability
The correctness criterion for concurrent execution of global transactions over many database systems. It is a stronger correctness criterion than serializability. (Leong, 2005b)
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the three digital wireless telephone technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900-MHz or 1,800-MHz frequency band. (Olla, 2005a) 9: The dominant digital mobile phone standard that uses SIM cards that subscribers place inside their phones. It supports data transmission as well as voice. (D. Stern, 2005) 10: In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations founded a consortium for the coordination and standardization of a future pan-European telephone network called Group Spcial Mobile that was later renamed Global System for Mobile Communications. (Kaspar & Hagenhoff, 2005) 11: A worldwide standard for digital wireless mobile phone systems. The standard was originated by the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations, who was responsible for the creation of ETSI. Currently, ETSI is responsible for the development of the GSM standard. (Akhtar, 2005)
Globalization
1: The bypassing of traditional geographic borders using information technology to enable global orientation of business and remote curriculum delivery. (Russell, 2005a) 2: Commonly refers to the process whereby the capitalist economy becomes increasingly integrated and organized on a global scale. (Smith & Smythe, 2005) 3: International exchange or sharing of labor force, production, ideas, knowledge, cultures, products, and services across national borders. (He, 2006) 4: The marketing and selling of a product outside a companys home country. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005b) 5: The process of planning and implementing products and services so that they can be adapted to different local languages and cultures. (OHagan, 2005) 6: The trend towards thinking and acting globally, with multinational corporations, partners, and competitors across the globe. (Marshall & Gregor, 2005) 7: This term was irst applied to the world economy, which under conditions of global information and communication network can basically operate as a uniied system in the real-time mode. (Azarov, 2005) 8: Business issues associated with taking a product global. It involves both internationalization and localization. (T.S. Chan, 2005)
Global Test
Veriies that an update operation violates an integrity constraint by accessing data at remote sites. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Globalized Education
Educational programs in which both students and educators may be globally distributed. (Grasso & Leng, 2005)
Global Village
As computers all over the world become interconnected via the Internet, and the frequency of communication in and between organizations, countries, cultures, societies, and so forth has increased accordingly via these networks, we can now on a daily basis and quite easily maintain contact with anybody independent of time and space; that is, we are able to interact anytime, anywhere. (Wiberg, 2005)
Glocal
A portmanteau expression created from the combination of the expressions global and local to denote something that is simultaneously global and local. (Taylor et al., 2005)
Glocalization
Creation of products or services intended for the global market, but customized to suit the local culture. (He, 2006)
Global-As-View
The situation in which the global schema is deined directly in terms of the source schemas. GAV systems typically arise in the context where the source schemas are given, and the global schema is to be derived from the local schemas. (Balsters, 2005)
Glossing
The telling or retelling of a story in a way that emphasizes or excludes particular points of view. (Connell, 2006)
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Glycemic Control
Tells how well controlled are the sugars of a diabetic patient. Usually measured by HgbA1c. (Breault, 2005)
Goal Setting
1: Ability to articulate steps within a strategy and to accomplish them. (Crichton, 2005) 2: Deining goals, be they benign or corrupt; political processes are invoked. The goals themselves can be constructive or destructive, formally or informally arrived at, at the level of the organization or the individual, public or private. (Land, Amjad, et al., 2006)
Goal-Directed Behavior
The concept that individuals are motivated to expend time and energy to achieve some desired objective (the goal). A signiicant amount of online consumer behavior is goal directed. (Porter, 2006)
Goal-Oriented Representation
An application designed to solve rather than simply describe a problem or process. (OLooney, 2006)
GNU Project
1: Stands for Gnus Not Unix. Established by Richard Stallman in 1983 under the auspices of the Free Software Foundation. Its goal was, and still is, to create an open source Unix-based operating system. This goal was realized in 1991 by Linus Torvalds creation of Linux. (Carillo & Okoli, 2006) 2: Project launched by Richard Stallman with the goal of creating a complete free operating system: the GNU system. GNU is a recursive acronym for GNUs Not Unix. (Curti, 2005)
Goal-Setting Theory
This theory, developed by Locke and Latham, states that individuals make calculated decisions about their desired goals, and that these goals and intentions, once established, direct and motivate efforts to attain them. (Hendriks & Sousa, 2006)
Go-Live
The actual operation of an information system. (Sarkis & Sundarraj, 2005)
Goal
1: A high-level representation of the purpose of a multiagent system. (Sterling, 2006) 2: A speciication of the desired changes a work system attempts to achieve in an application domain. (Diaper, 2006)
Goals-Based Evaluation
A type of evaluation used to determine the extent to which programs are achieving their overall, predetermined objectives. (Nelson, 2005)
Goal Condition
A condition underlying application descriptions and related to external concepts to be considered by an application
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GOMS
A set of techniques for modeling human task performance. It stands for Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection rules. GOMS has become an important model for human-computer interaction studies. (Chen, Sockel, et al., 2005)
Governance Archetype
Archetypes typically involve various stakeholder constituencies and their decision rights within the purview of IT governance. (Saha, 2006a)
Governance Decision
Represents the most crucial domain of IT decisions that are key to good IT governance, and includes IT principles, IT architecture, IT infrastructure, business application needs, and IT investment management. (Saha, 2006a)
Good Governance
The exercise of the governance authority with the participation, interest, and livelihood of the governed as the driving force (UNDESA/DPADM). (Misuraca, 2005)
Government
The art of managing relationships between citizens to ensure their welfare and in general their personal, economic, and social development. (Crdoba, 2006b)
Goodwill
The amount of repeat business resulting from happy and loyal customers. (Forgionne & Ingsriswang, 2005)
Government-Led E-Democracy
Top-down change process. Governments create points of electronic interface in order to consult or capture opinion from citizens. This is most often a change processa new way of recreating existing communication and consultation models, for example, consultation on policy issues or planning processes and clinics with politicians. (Williamson, 2005)
Google AdWords
A plain, text-based advertisement displayed prominently on Google.com. For a fee, advertisers sponsor search words/terms entered by users of the Google.com search engine. The sponsored search words are predicted by the sponsor to relate to a product or service offered. (Duthler, 2005)
Government-to-Business (G2B)
Refers to government contracts and other services available online for businesses to bid for. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2006)
Government-to-Citizen (G2C)
1: Different citizen-centric services provided by the government for the beneits of the citizen. These include providing birth and death certiicates, records of rights of land, information on government Schemes, and so on. (Borbora & Dutta, 2005) 2: Refers to the various
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government services that citizens need access to. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2006) 3: Governments offering services to citizens online. (Toland, 2006)
Government-to-Government (G2G)
1: Online interactions between different government agencies. (Toland, 2006) 2: The digital-enabled collaboration and cooperation perspective among distinct government agencies. (Joia, 2006)
Government-to-Partners (G2P)
The type of relationship that exists in associative or network governance models between government and partners or stakeholders, and vice versa. (Kaufman, 2005)
Governmental Agency
A branch, division, or department of a local, regional, or national government that carries out one or more duties or activities in support of the public good. Such duties often involve regulating aspects of commerce, public health, safety, and so forth. (Baim, 2006a)
GPL: See General Public License. GPON: See Gigabit PON. GPRS: See General Packet Radio Service. GPS: See Geographic Position System; Global Positioning
System; Global Positioning Satellite.
Grammars
A set of formal rules that deine how to perform inference over a dictionary of terms. (Caelli, 2005)
concept associated with the relative degree of complexity of a component part to its aggregate, subsuming structure. Fine silt is more granular than sand, which is more granular than rock, and so forth. In taxonomic development, the smaller the relative size to the taxons (units) of classiication, the higher the degree of granularity. In instructional design, the concept of granularity is multi-faceted and can refer to the size of learning units or scope (e.g., degree or certiicate curricula, courses, lessons, modules, activities); learning element prioritization or sequencing (e.g., logical order of lessons, concept formation, and skill acquisition to optimize scaffolding in new knowledge construction); content domains architecture (e.g., superordinate concepts, subordinate concepts, rules, principles); teaching strategy (e.g., individual vs. group learning, passive learner/ expository vs. active leaner/discovery, inductive vs. deductive, tutorial vs. simulation, abstract vs. problem oriented, synchronous online chat vs. asynchronous threaded discussions, etc.); media design and utilization (e.g., relative size and complexity of single components or combined components; type of media element including text, graphics/visuals, audio, animation, degree of user control, etc.); and learner assessment (e.g., conventional declarative-convergent testing using multiple-choice, matching, and short-answer questions vs. holistic, constructivist-divergent portfolios with demonstration work-product artifacts from individual and group projects, internships, and service learning). (Lasnik, 2005) 3: Refers to the size of a shareable learning object. The smaller the learning object, the greater the granularity it has. Smaller learning objects have a greater opportunity for reusability. (Stavredes, 2005b) 4: The level of detail of the facts stored in a data warehouse, or a concept in the database. (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005b)
Granularity of Time
A concept that denotes precision in a temporal database. An example of progressive time granularity includes a day, an hour, a second, or a nanosecond. (Raisinghani & Klassen, 2005)
Granular Data
Data representing the lowest level of detail that resides in the data warehouse. (Peter & Greenidge, 2005b)
Granularity
1: The level of detail or complexity at which an information resource is described. (Lin et al., 2005) 2: A hierarchical
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Graph
1: A graph consists of vertices and edges. Each edge is connected to a source node and a target node. Vertices and edges can be labeled with numbers and symbols. (Fischer, 2005) 2: A set of vertices (nodes) connected in various ways by edges. (Caelli, 2005) 3: In mathematics, a set of vertices or nodes connected by links or edges. A pair of vertices that are connected by multiple edges yield a multi-graph; vertices that are connected to themselves via looping edge yield a pseudo-graph. (Banerjee et al., 2005)
and understandable graph-theoretic patterns in a graph representation of data. (Holder & Cook, 2005)
Graphical Content
Information represented by an image, perceived via the human visual system. (Rosenbaum et al., 2006)
Graphical Curiosity
Curious to see visually complex or multimedia effects. (Wishart, 2005)
Graph Encoding
A method to assign the nodes of a directed graph a number or a bit string, which relects some properties of that graph and can be used to facilitate computation. (Chen, 2005a)
Graphical Model
A family of probability distributions incorporating the conditional independence assumptions represented by a graph. It is speciied via a graph that depicts the local relations among the variables (that are represented with nodes). (Giudici & Cerchiello, 2005)
Graph Grammar
Grammar describing the construction of a set of graphs, where terminals and non-terminals represent vertices, edges, or entire subgraphs. (Holder & Cook, 2005)
Graph Invariants
Quantities to characterize the topological structure of a graph. If two graphs are topologically identical, they have identical graph invariants. (Li, 2005)
Graph Production
Similar to productions in general Chomsky grammars, a graph production consists of a left-hand side and a righthand side. The left-hand side is embedded in a host graph. Then it is removed and, in the resulting hole, the righthand side of the graph production is inserted. To specify how this right-hand side is attached into this hole, how edges are connected to the new nodes, some additional information is necessary. Different approaches exist of how to handle this problem. (Fischer, 2005)
Graph Rewriting
The application of a graph production to a graph is also called graph rewriting. (Fischer, 2005)
Graph Spectra
The plot of the eigenvalues of the graph adjacency matrix. (Caelli, 2005)
Gravity Model
A model that measures the interaction between social/ economic objects, similar to the gravity model in physics.
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In the model, the intensity of interaction (e.g., trips, migration, or communication) is positively related to the sizes of objects (e.g., population), but inversely related to the distance or travel time between them. (Wang & Lou, 2005)
Grounded Theory
1: A method used to systematically derive theories of human behavior from empirical data. (Trauth, 2005b) 2: A qualitative research methodology. (Molinari, 2005) 3: A mutual understanding about problems and tasks for groups of learners. (Berg, 2005f)
Gray Marketing
Occurs when products are sold through non-authorized channels of distribution. (Rosson, 2006)
Grayscale Image
Shades of gray or continuous-tone of gray representing an image. (Chen, Chen, Ma, et al., 2005)
Group
A number of individuals who interact for purposes of addressing some shared purpose or task. This differentiates human collectives from random clusters of people who happen to be co-located, or who have no purpose that requires interaction. (Cargill, 2006b)
Greedy Algorithm
An algorithm that always takes the best immediate, or local, solution while inding an answer. Greedy algorithms ind the overall, or globally, optimal solution for some optimization problems, but may ind less-thanoptimal solutions for some instances of other problems. (Chakraborty et al., 2005)
Greenstone
Widely used open source software for digital libraries developed in New Zealand. (McCarthy, 2005b)
Group Dynamics
Field of inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of groups. (Verburg et al., 2005)
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structured problems. It enables decision makers to analyze problem situations and perform group decision-making tasks. (Karacapilidis, 2005) 4: Information systems that support the work of groups (communication, decision making) generally working on unstructured or semistructured problems. (Duan & Xu, 2005) 5: A collective of computer-based technologies that are speciically designed to support the activities and processes related to multiparticipant decision making. (Xodo, 2005)
computer-based information systems that support and structure group interaction and facilitate group meetings. (Klein, 2005) 6: A system providing computer-based support for group communication, decision making, and work activities of co-located (same time, same place) or dispersed (same time, different place; or different time, different place) members of a group. (Chen & Lou, 2005)
Groupware
1: A generic term for specialized computer aids designed for the user of collaborative work groups. Typically, these groups are small project-oriented teams that have important tasks and tight deadlines. Groupware can involve software, hardware, services, and/or group process support. (Daassi et al., 2006) 2: Class of technologies that allow groups to communicate and coordinate activities. Typically network-driven software. (Green et al., 2005) 3: Computer software allowing groups, teams, and people in different locations to work together and share information. (Mitchell, 2005b) 4: ICT applications that support communication, coordination, cooperation, learning, and/or social encounters through facilities such as information exchange, shared repositories, discussion forums, and messaging. (Verburg et al., 2005) 5: Multi-user software for carrying out communication and collaborative activities. (Neale et al., 2005) 6: Software applications that help people work together virtually while being physically located at a distance from one another. Groupware applications and services include the sharing of work schedules, event calendars, electronic meetings, shared databases, and group e-mail accounts. (Ruhi, 2006) 7: Software that supports teams of individuals working together via network technology, facilitating communication, coordination, and collaboration among team members. (Dara-Abrams, 2006) 8: Software that supports the collaborative efforts of a team to communicate, cooperate, coordinate, solve problems, compete, or negotiate. Groupware technologies are typically categorized along two primary dimensions: time (synchronous or asynchronous) and place (collocated or face to face, or non-collocated or distant). (Wild, 2005) 9: Speciic software which allows groups of people to share information and to coordinate their activities over a computer network. (Metaxiotis, 2006) 10: The multiuser software supporting CSCW. Sometimes this term is broadened to incorporate the styles and practices that
Group Formation
The process of creating a suitable group of learners to increase the learning eficiency for both the individual peers and the group as a whole. (Devedi, 2006)
Group Map
A structured representation of the contributions of a range of people. The contributions are structured with links that are agreed by the group members during intensive, facilitated discussion of the issues that follow a gathering. (Shaw, 2006)
Group Potency
A collective belief in the capability of the group to meet a task objective. (Wong & Staples, 2005)
Group Query
It is representative of a group, and the result of grouped queries is computed from the group query. (Khan, 2005)
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are essential for any collaborative activity to succeed, whether or not it is supported by computer. (Karacapilidis, 2005) 11: The software and technological part of CSCW. It contains application studies and platforms adapted to groups and supporting group working. (Villemur & Drira, 2006 CSCW) 12: This software can be used by a group of people who are working on the same information at separate workstations. It includes features such as e-mail, shared calendar, task list, and address book, and is used for project management, brainstorming, and action planning. (Nightingale, 2005) 13: Type of software designed to help teams that are geographically dispersed who need to work together. (de Carvalho & Ferreira, 2006)
GSM: See Global System for Mobile Communication. GSS: See Group Support System. GSS Anonymity
A key feature usually available in most group support systems that allows group members to interact with each other while remaining unidentiied to each other. GSS anonymity masks status and gender cues, and reduces inhibitions. (Klein, 2005)
Groupware Application
A class of computer technologies designed to support communication, collaboration, and cooperation among a group of knowledge workers. (Chen & Lou, 2005)
G2C: See Government-to-Citizen. G2G: See Government-to-Government. G2P: See Government-to-Partners. GUI: See Graphical User Interface. GUI Sharing Paradigm
A shared application follows the GUI sharing paradigm if the output of a centralized application is shared among all participants of the conference. Feedback from the participants is sent to the centralized server to be incorporated in the control of the application, if desired. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005)
Groupz
Online groups. z indicates the easiness of language use in online communication. (Lambropoulos, 2006b)
Groupz Management
The organization of an online community by the moderator. (Lambropoulos, 2006b)
Groupz-Ware Technology
The groupz-ware needed depending on the nature and culture of each community. (Lambropoulos, 2006b)
Groupz-Ware Theory
Refers to the multidisciplinary nature of virtual communities and the interaction between disciplines such as learning, psychology of the individual and the masses, sociology, linguistics, communication studies, management, human-computer interaction, and information systems. (Lambropoulos, 2006b)
Guided Tour
1: Combination of links that guides a user along a collection of hypermedia nodes that have some topic or concept in common. In MESH, guided tours are generated dynamically at runtime, based on the type of previously followed links by a particular user. (Lemahieu, 2005) 2: A navigation type that leads users to a predeined trail of nodes without freely explorative navigation, using, for example, previous and next anchors. (Suh & Kim, 2005)
Guideline
Design and development principles that must be followed in order to achieve a good application. (Prata, 2005)
Growth Rate
The ratio of the proportion of data covered by the emerging pattern in one group over the proportion of the data it covers in another group. (Butler & Webb, 2005)
Guild
A collection of players who share a common principle or outlook. A guild is a specialized group. Guilds are popular among the variety of MMORPGs available. Often, guilds will have a deity alignment (good, evil, neutral) and carry
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out actions consistent with that alignment. However, any players caught behaving badly or against the policies of the guild will be dealt with appropriately, such as being expelled from the guild. (Grifiths et al., 2006)
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H .3 2 3 H a m m ing Dist a nc e
H
H.323
An ITU-T speciication that deines network protocols, operations, and components for transporting real-time video, audio, and data over IP networks such as the Internet and I2. (Littman, 2005) to describe individuals who gain unauthorized access to computer systems for the purpose of stealing or corrupting information or data. Hackers see themselves as the white hats or the good guys who breach security for the greater good. The media at large makes no distinction between a hacker and a Cracker. (Tassabehji, 2005a) 5: A computer expert who breaks into a network or computer system with (usually) malicious intent. (De, 2006)
Hacking
Hacking, or entering anothers computer, is a common method of the cyber-identity thief. (Close et al., 2006)
Hacktivism
Clandestine use of hacking for the advance of political causes. (De, 2006)
Halftone
A method to reproduce photographic images in printed media by creating a pattern of dots that change in size to create the perception of lighter and darker tones. (Snyder, 2005)
HAM
Legitimate e-mail communication. (Willis, 2005)
Hacker
1: A very knowledgeable computer user who uses his or her knowledge to invade other peoples computers through the computer network. (Chen, Holt, et al., 2005) 2: An entity outside of an organization that gains or attempts to gain access to a system or system resource without having authorization to do so. (Wilson et al., 2006b) 3: Someone who breaks into a computer system for fun. (Rowe, 2006c) 4: A slang term for a computer enthusiast or clever programmer, more commonly used
Hamming Clustering
A fast binary rule generator and variable selector able to build understandable logical expressions by analyzing the hamming distance between samples. (Liberati, 2005)
Hamming Distance
The distance between two binary strings (with the same length) given by the number of different bits. (Muselli, 2005)
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Handheld
A computer small and light enough to be held in a users hand. (Ketelhut et al., 2005)
Haptic
1: Relating to the sense of touch. (Murphy, 2005b) 2: The technology of touch which uses the tactile sense to send and receive data. (Ajiferuke & Markus, 2005)
Handheld Computer
Also called personal digital assistant (PDA); an electronic device small enough to hold in one hand and lightweight enough to carry in a pocket. (Woodruff & Nirula, 2005)
Haptic Device
Involves physical contact between the computer and the user, usually through an input and output device, such as a joystick or data gloves, that senses the bodys movements. (Yong & Choo, 2005)
Handheld Device
Also known as pen-based computing. (Garrett, 2006b)
Hard Case
A case that cannot be solved by simply applying formal rules, either because: (1) the characteristics of the case are not easily matched to the formal rules, (2) the formal rules do not deliver clear conclusions, and/or (3) applying the formal legal rules leads to unacceptable results. (Svensson, 2005)
Handheld Technology
A computing device that can be easily held in one hand while the other hand is used to operate it. (Parikh & Parolia, 2005)
Hard Clustering
Cluster analysis where each data object is assigned to a unique cluster. (Klawonn & Georgevia, 2005)
Hard Knowledge
Knowledge that is unambiguous and unequivocal, can be clearly and fully expressed, can be formalized and structured, can be owned without being used, and is both abstract and static: it is about, but not in, the world. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2005)
Hard Skill
One of several measurable capabilities and academic knowledge acquired through traditional tertiary study. Current MIS curriculum examples include communications and report writing, systems analysis and design, client/ server applications, and business applications. (Lowry & Turner, 2005)
Hands-Free Operation
Allows the user to interact with data and information without the use of hands. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006b)
Hard Technology
Examples include: computer equipment, software, networks, and so forth. (Graham et al., 2005)
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A unique identiier (e.g., a serial number) embedded in computer equipment and programs. (Szewczak, 2006)
Harmony
A pleasing combination of elements in a whole. The combination of elements intended to form a connected whole, as opposed to alignment where the elements remain separate. (Johnston, 2005)
Header
The beginning portion of a message. By design, it should contain the source and target address for the message. (Horiuchi, 2005b)
HASP: See High-Altitude Stratosphere Platform. Health Care Enterprise Memory HAVA: See Help America Vote Act. Hazard Communication Standard (HCS)
The OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Act) regulation on the Hazard Communication Standard states that chemical manufacturers and importers must research the chemicals they produce and import. If a substance presents any of the physical and health hazards speciied in the HCS, then the manufacturer or importer must communicate the hazards and cautions to their employees as well as to downstream employers who purchase the hazardous chemicals. (Jeong et al., 2006) A knowledge management info-structure which supports the functionality to acquire, share, and operationalize the various modalities of knowledge existent in a health care enterprise. (Metaxiotis, 2006)
Hazard Function
A time-to-failure function that gives the instantaneous probability of the event (failure) given that it has not yet occurred. (Chen, Oppenheim, et al., 2005)
HCI: See Human-Computer Interaction. Health Information Management (HIM) HCI Pattern
A pattern that focuses on how users interact with computers via the interface of the application. (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005) The practice of managing, analyzing, and utilizing data vital for patient care and making it accessible to health care providers when it is needed most. (Zender, 2006)
Health Information System HCS: See Hazard Communication Standard. HDM: See Hypermedia Design Methodology.
The system, whether automated or manual, that comprises people, machines, and /or methods organized to collect, process, transmit, and disseminate data that represent user information in health care. (Hyrinen & Saranto, 2005)
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Health Literacy
The capacity of an individual to obtain, interpret, and understand basic health information and services, and the competence to use such information and services in ways that are health enhancing. (Becker, 2005a)
Help Desk
A section that can respond to technical queries by users. (Demediuk, 2005)
Hedonic
Referring to the senses, feelings, and emotions. (Bridges et al., 2006)
Hedonic/Recreational Consumer
A consumer who enjoys shopping for his or her own sake, not just for the items purchased; such consumers are driven by fun, pleasure, curiosity, and exploration. (Scarpi & DallOlmo-Riley, 2006)
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and transformative process of dealing with human interpretation of reality, thus its potential for fertile change and development at the community and organizational levels. (Nobre, 2006a)
be drawn from previous examples of business successes and failures. Artiicial intelligence models rely on these rules to ind relationships, patterns, or associations among variables. (Athappilly & Rea, 2005)
Heterogeneity
Effects that unobserved variables can introduce in disease rates and that vary in an unstructured manner in either space or time. (Vidal-Rodeiro et al., 2005)
Heuristic Algorithm
An optimization algorithm that does not guarantee to identify the optimal solution of the problem it is applied to, but which usually provides good quality solutions in an acceptable time. (Calvo et al., 2005)
Heterogeneous Agent
Agent of a multi-agent system that differs in the resources available to it in the problem-solving methods and expertise it uses, or in everything except in the interaction language it uses. (Zwitserloot & Pantic, 2005)
Heuristic Evaluation
A technique for early evaluation of interactive systems designs. Heuristic evaluation involves systematic inspection of the design by means of broad guidelines for good practice. Typically, three to ive experts should perform the analysis independently, and afterwards combine and rank the results. A well-known set of heuristics is the one proposed by Nielsen: visibility of system status; match between the system and the real world; user control and freedom; consistency and standards; error prevention; recognition rather than recall; lexibility and eficiency of use; aesthetic and minimalist design; help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors; help and documentation. (Campos & Harrison, 2006)
Heterogeneous Network
A network where network clients run a variety of operating systems. An example would be a network of machines running Windows, Unix, and Mac OS X. (Ruppel & Ruppel, 2005)
Heuristic Sketch
An ad-hoc drawing used to assist the group relection and communication process by making unstable knowledge explicit and debatable. (Eppler & Burkhard, 2006)
HF
High-frequency or shortwave radio operating in 3-22 MHz range. (Chand & Leeming, 2005)
HF Radio Modem
A device for transmitting data between high-frequency (HF) radios. HF has the advantage of transmitting over thousands of kilometers. Although the data throughput is relatively low compared to other frequencies, it is free to air. (D. Stern, 2005)
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and the challenge is to determine the hidden parameters from the observable parameters, based on this assumption. (Song et al., 2005) 2: A variant of a inite state machine having a set of states, an output alphabet, transition probabilities, output probabilities, and initial state probabilities. It is only the outcome, not the state visible to an external observer, and therefore states are hidden to the outside; hence, the name Hidden Markov Model. (Chang & Hsu, 2005) 3: A statistical model of sequential data utilized in many machine learning applications (e.g., speech and gesture recognition). (Karpouzis et al., 2005)
Hierarchical Clustering
1: A clustering method characterized by the successive aggregation (agglomerative hierarchical methods) or desegregation (divisive hierarchical methods) of objects in order to ind clusters in a dataset. (Santos et al., 2005) 2: A hierarchy of partitions is generated as output; it may be depicted as a tree of partitions or a pyramid of overlapping clusters. (Murthy & Diday, 2005)
Hidden Neurons
The name given to the layer of neurons between the input variables and the output neuron. If too many hidden neurons are used, the neural network may be easily overtrained. If too few hidden neurons are used, the neural network may be unable to learn the training data. (Smith, 2005)
Hidden Node
A node may be hidden or out of range from a sender, but within range of its intended receiver. (Erbas, 2005)
Hierarchy of Learning
The concept that learning can be sequentially ordered along a continuum from lower order to higher order. Blooms Taxonomy is one of many that have been proposed. (Owen & Aworuwa, 2005)
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A special platform to support overlay coverage in large geographical areas with the advantage of a closer distance than satellites. They operate in the stratosphere at altitudes of up to 22 km, exploiting the best features of both terrestrial and satellite systems. They are usually implemented though the use of unmanned aeronautical vehicles. (Louvros, Karaboulas, et al., 2005)
High-Vote Pattern
A pattern supported (voted for) by most of a group of data sources. (Zhang & Zhang, 2005)
High Tech
A colloquial phrase meaning more use of technology than human resources and people. (Laws et al., 2005)
Higher Education
1: Education opportunities offered post-K-12 public education. (Schifter, 2005) 2: Education at degree level and above. Higher education courses are those leading to the award of a bachelors degree, graduate certiicate, graduate diploma, masters degree, or doctoral degree. Some courses leading to the award of a diploma or advanced diploma may also be accredited as higher education. In the Republic of Ireland, a majority of all higher education is offered by universities and colleges of technology. (Donnelly, 2005)
High Technology
Includes space and aviation, computers and office machinery, electronics and telecommunication equipment, pharmaceuticals, scientific instruments, electrical machines and equipment, chemicals, non-electrical machines, and weapons. (Watson, 2005)
High Touch
A colloquial phrase meaning more use of human resources and people than technology. (Laws et al., 2005)
High-Context Culture
This is when one looks for information in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is coded, explicit, or transmitted as part of the message. (Zakaria & Yusof, 2005)
Highest Weighting
Use the individual forecast procedure that is given the highest weight in the ixed weighting method. This is not a combination. This method is equivalent to choosing the forecasting technique, which is the best on the weight estimation period. (C.K. Chan, 2005)
HIM: See Health Information Management. HIPAA: See Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act.
Histogram
1: A data structure that maintains one or more attributes or columns of a relational database management system to assist the query optimizer. (Thomasian, 2005b) 2: A
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set of buckets implementing a partition of the overall domain of a relation attribute. (Buccafurri & Lax, 2005) 3: A vector whose components represent similar colors in an image. The value of a component is the number of image pixels having that color. (Sural et al., 2005) 4: Approximation, obtained by sampling, of a distribution (e.g., a distance distribution). (Chvez & Navarro, 2005) 5: The original term refers to a bar graph that represents a distribution. In information retrieval, it also refers to a weighted vector that describes the properties of an object or the comparison of properties between two objects. Like a feature vector, a good histogram captures similarity and dissimilarity of the objects of interest. (X. Wang, 2005) 6: Typically used for representing one-dimensional data, though multi-dimensional histograms are being researched in the database ield. A histogram is a division of the domain of a one-dimensional ordered attribute into buckets, where each bucket is represented by a contiguous interval along the domain, along with the count of the number of tuples contained within this interval and other statistics. (Das, 2005)
History Retrieval
In Web browsing, it is the act of recalling Web sites that have been previously visited. (Guan, 2005b)
Hit Rate
1: Any request for data from a Web page, a way to compare the popularity/trafic of a site. (Waterson, 2006) 2: The ratio of requests served by the cache (hits) over the total number of requests made by the clients. (Danalis, 2005)
Hit Ratio
The number of times an item is found in the cache divided by the number of times an item is being matched. (Tse, 2006)
Hit Request
An HTTP request made by a Web client agent (e.g., a browser) for a particular Web resource. It can be explicit (user initiated) or implicit (Web client initiated). Explicit Web requests are sometimes called clickthroughs. (Mobasher, 2005b)
Historical Cost
This type of cost relects the price of the network equipment at the time of acquisition. (Hackbarth et al., 2005)
Historical XML
A sequence of XML documents, which are different versions of the same XML document. It records the change history of the XML document. (Zhao & Bhowmick, 2005)
HMD: See Head-Mounted Display. HMDS: See Hyperbolic Multi-Dimensional Scaling. HMI in Manufacturing
Relation between a human operator and one or more machines via an interface for embracing the functions of machine handling, programming, simulation, maintenance, diagnosis, and initialization. (Blecker & Graf, 2006)
HMM: See Hidden Markov Model. HMRF: See Hidden Markov Random Field.
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representation of an integer has to be right-shifted to make two numbers equal. In another dimension, it is the maximum of the HOBBit distances in the individual dimensions. (Perrizo, Ding, Ding, et al., 2005)
Holdout Technique
A ilter technique that splits the data into exploratory and holdout sets. Rules discovered from the exploratory set then can be evaluated against the holdout set using statistical tests. (Butler & Webb, 2005)
Homologous Point
The point in the DEM and the point in the R-DEM modeling the same point in the real surface. Their distance is the error of the DEM point, assuming the point in the R-DEM is without error. (Zelasco et al., 2005)
Holistic Function
An aggregate function F is called holistic if the value of F for an n-dimensional cell cannot be computed from a constant number of aggregates of the (n+1)-dimensional cell. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
Homology
Relationship by evolutionary descent from a common ancestral precursor. (Tsunoda et al., 2005)
Homoscedasticity
A statistical assumption for linear regression models. It requires that the variations around the regression line be constant for all values of input variables. (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005)
Homeostasis
The condition of stability that an organization can obtain by being cognizant of and responsive to environmental changes. Homeostasis is one of the most typical properties of highly complex open systems. Such a system reacts to every change in the environment, or to every random disturbance, through a series of modiications of equal size and opposite direction to those that created the disturbance. The goal of these modiications is to maintain the internal balances. (Hall & Croasdell, 2006)
Honeypot
A deceptive computer system that entraps attackers into revealing their methods. (Rowe, 2006c)
Homepage
A textual and graphical display that usually welcomes users to a Web site and provides a point of access to other static and dynamic Web pages. (Handzic & Lin, 2005)
Homogeneity
The degree of similarity or uniformity among individuals of a population. (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005)
Horizon of Observation
Based in distributed cognitive theory, it is the portion of the workspace that a participant can observe or monitor. It addresses how learning in a collaborative environment takes place, and how technologies expand the 4 by allowing for the identiication of different knowledge sources that can contribute to learning within communities. (Paquette, 2006a)
Homogeneous Agent
One of the set of agents of a multi-agent system that are designed in an identical way and have a priori of the same capabilities. (Zwitserloot & Pantic, 2005)
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Horizontal Integration
In information management systems, traditionally addresses information sharing across systems, which often means across functions or departments. In the context of organizational structure, horizontal integration typically refers to cross-business-unit integration in pursuit of scope economies. (Gordon & Mulligan, 2005)
x =1
y =1
where m = width of the image and n = height of the image. (Chakravarty et al., 2005a)
Horizontal ASP
Horizontal ASPs provide online applications for a speciic business function such as human resource management, procurement, customer relations, and so forth. (D. Kim, 2005)
Horizontal Partitioning
Distributing the rows of a table into several separate tables. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005)
Horizontal Portal
A multi-functional space used for information, navigation, communication, and e-commerce that offers broad content to the mass market. (Vrazalic & Hyland, 2005)
Classiication systems can be divided into horizontal and vertical classiication systems. Horizontal classiication systems try to cover all areas of a certain domain. Wellknown examples are the ECl@ss-system and UNSPSC, which try to provide classes for all manufactured products. (Abels & Hahn, 2006)
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H or n Cla use H 2 DV
Horn Clause
HSI Model
A color model in which a color is described by three characteristics: hue (H), saturation (S), and intensity (I). They form a 3D color space. The HSI model is quite coherent with human perception. A closely related model is HSV model, in which value (V) takes the place of intensity. (Zhang, 2005c)
One of a set of clauses in conjunctive normal form (i.e., a conjunction of disjunctions of literals) is a Horn set of clauses if each clause contains at most one positive predicate. That is, all literals are positive when written as Prolog clauses (Head:-Body), since the negated literals become a conjunction of positive predicates when put into the Body of the clause. When resolved with positive facts, such clauses can only result in new positive facts, and the complete set of such results is enumerable for Horn clauses and is a unique initial (i.e., smallest) model for the clauses. (Buehrer, 2005)
Host
A computer connected directly into a network such as the Internet. Whenever one dials into the Internet, one makes a connection through a host computer. (Magagula, 2005)
Host-Multicast
Application-layer multicast technology that does not require any additional protocol in the network routers, since it uses the traditional unicast IP transmission. (Hossz, 2005b)
A document embedded with HTML codes or tags that specify how the document will be displayed when viewed on the Internet. (Cooper, 2005)
Hot-Chatting
Two or more individuals engaging in discourses that move beyond light-hearted lirting. (Whitty, 2005)
HTTP Session
A program executed upon accessing a Web page. This is a security risk, because users end up running programs they do not know and/or trust. (Chim, 2006)
H2 Hotspot
Traditionally, an area where people congregate that would be appropriate for setting up a Wi-Fi access point. Now synonymous with an area where a Wi-Fi access point already exists. (Efstathiou & Polyzos, 2006) Two-dimensional hyperbolic space (plane). (Walter, 2005)
H2DV
The Hybrid Hyperbolic Data Viewer incorporates twostage browsing and navigation using the HSOM for a coarse thematic mapping of large object collections and the HMDS for detailed inspection of smaller subsets in the object level. (Walter, 2005)
HPSA: See Health Professional Shortage Area. HPT: See Human Performance Technology. HR: See Human Resources.
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Hub Company
A lead company in a supply chain or value network that organizes and manages the work for end products and/or services. This is, for example, an automotive manufacturer, an aircraft manufacturer, a clothing manufacturer, or major food supplier. These are usually large companies, but can be small if the end product is in building construction, for instance. Usually the manufacturing and services chain is complex and contains many sub-products that have to be drawn together with processes and services to meet designto-manufacture targets and delivery excellence. In a value network the tier N suppliers are part of the collaborative network. It is to be noted that communication in the old economy was EDI and in the new economy will be fully open system interoperable ICT. (Richards et al., 2005)
minds of employees. (Hsu & Mykytyn, 2006) 2: Relects a human potential in knowledge, skills, and attitude that can provide better solutions (meaning), eficiency (time), and effectiveness (money) of work. (Targowski, 2005) 3: The attributes, competencies, and mindsets of the individuals that make up an organization. (Smith, 2006b) 4: The knowledge and knowing that exists within a particular unit which could be a team, an organization, an industry, or even a society. (Newell, 2006) 5: The knowledge, skills, abilities, and experiences of employees that provide value-added contributions for a competitive advantage in organizations. (Wong-MingJi, 2005) 6: The unique capabilities and knowledge of individuals that aid productivity. (Ridings, 2006b) 7: Individual skills and capabilities that allow actors to act in new and innovative ways, and to respond to new challenges with creative solutions. (von Wartburg et al., 2006)
Human Ecology
In a holistic vision of the environment, human ecology is an approach to read changes and transformation in action; a way of integration of history, culture, and work in peripheral regions in a communicative and distanceexchange perspective; a tool for creating conditions for sustainable development. (Giorgi & Schrch, 2005)
Hub Page
One of the pages that contain a large number of links to pages that contain information about the query topics. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005a)
Human Factor
A user characteristic in terms of personality and cognitive factors that impact the task performance and the quality of interaction with any artifact. (Sas, 2006)
Human Capital
1: The combination of knowledge, skill, innovativeness, and ability of a companys individual employees to meet the task. It refers to the tacit knowledge embedded in the
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reliability, consistency, portability, naturalness, and users subjective satisfaction. (Pantic, 2005a) 5: The study of how humans interact with computers, and how to design computer systems that are usable, easy, quick, and productive for humans to use. (Janvier & Ghaoui, 2006) 6: The study, planning, and design of what happens when humans and computers work together. (Laghos & Zaphiris, 2005a)
Human-Computer Interface
1: A software application, a system that realizes humancomputer interaction. (Pantic, 2005a) 2: Integrated computing environment that allows the data miner to access the data visualization instruments, select data sets, invoke the query process, organize the screen, set colors and animation speed, and manage the intermediate datamining results.(S. Wang & H. Wang, 2005)
Human-Centered Design
1: An alternative name for user-centered design (UCD) used in ISO process standards. (Knight & Jefsioutine, 2006) 2: The process of designing sociotechnical systems (people in interaction with technology) based on an analysis of how people think, learn, perceive, work, and interact. (Sharples, 2006)
Humanistic Value
OD promotes humanistic values through empowerment that is, by articulating values designed to facilitate visioning, organizational learning, and problem solving in the interests of a collaborative management. Values are seen to be central to promoting trust, collaboration, and openness. (Grieves, 2006a)
Human/Problem-Sensitivity
The proximity to the human-centered/problem-oriented concepts, as opposed to the computer-centered/softwareoriented concepts (i.e., computer/software solutionsensitivity). (Andrade et al., 2006a)
Humanoid
An automaton that resembles a human being. (Yong & Choo, 2005)
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Animation (H-Anim), an abstract representation for modeling three-dimensional human igures. (Sappa et al., 2005)
Hybrid Filtering
A combination of iltering techniques in which the disadvantages of one type of iltering are counteracted by the advantages of another. (Parmar & Angelides, 2005)
Humanware
With more information- and knowledge-intensive issues driving economies, people or humanware become invaluable for their contribution to societys development and growth. (Kamel, 2005b)
Hybrid Learning
Learning that involves both computer-mediated and faceto-face communication. (Ketelhut et al., 2005)
Hybrid Course
1: A course taught using a combination of online and inclass instruction. (Baugher et al., 2005) 2: Another name for a blended course. Typically, a course that replaces some face-to-face instructional time with computer-mediated activities. (Graham et al., 2005) 3: University or college classes that contain a reduced number of face-to-face class meetings between the instructor and students while concurrently offering signiicant learning activities though the Internet. (Bahn, 2006)
Hybrid E-Retailer
A click-and-mortar company that conducts retailing through e-channel as well as physical stores and other distribution channels. Compared to its pure e-commerce competitors, a hybrid e-retailer can leverage existing physical stores, brand recognition, distribution network, existing customer base, and so forth. (I. Lee, 2005)
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that adopt this structure typically maintain a general afinity towards a dominant form (e.g., uniied), but they temporarily create contrasting organizational relationships (e.g., allied or portal) that do not it with the current organizational design. Much like evolution, the transition between dominant forms occurs over an extended period of time and as the result of numerous hybridizations. (Gordon & Mulligan, 2005)
Hybridization
The phenomenon occurring at universities where there is an increasing overlap of the boundaries of traditional oncampus courses and distance education courses. (Graham et al., 2005)
HyperClass 1
1: Classes, lectures, seminars, and tutorials that take place in a co-action ield in HyperReality. This means an interaction between virtual teachers and students and objects, and physically real teachers and students and objects to learn how to apply a speciic domain of knowledge. It allows for the use of artiicially intelligent tutors. Such systems are currently experimental, but have the potential to be used on the Internet. (Rajasingham & Tifin, 2005) 2: Intermixing a real classroom and a virtual classroom where a real teacher and students and a virtual teacher and students come together and hold a class. (Terashima, 2005)
Hybrid Replication
A replication technique using protocols that may either behave as eager or as lazy, depending on the given system coniguration. (Muoz-Esco et al., 2005)
Hyperlink
1: A structural unit that connects a Web page to a different location, either within the same Web page or to a different Web page. A hyperlink that connects to a different part of the same page is called an intra-document hyperlink, and a hyperlink that connects two different pages is called an inter-document hyperlink. (Mobasher, 2005a) 2: A link in a document to information within the same document or another document. These links are usually represented by highlighted words or images. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005a) 3: A selectable connection from one word, phrase, picture, or information object to another. By clicking on a hyperlink, a Web user can move easily from one Web page to another page. The most common form of hyperlink is the highlighted word, phrase, or picture. (Hu , Yang, Yeh, et al., 2005) 4: Text or graphics that can be clicked on to view other information. (Falk & Sockel, 2005)
Hybrid System
1: The integration of two or more artiicial intelligence tools to improve eficiency or system performance. (Begg, 2005) 2: This systems evolution in time is composed by both smooth dynamics and sudden jumps. (Liberati, 2005)
Hybrid Technique
A combination of two or more soft computing techniques used for data mining. Examples are neuro-fuzzy and neuro-genetic. (Bala et al., 2005)
Hybrid Transformer
Device used to connect two one-directional with one bidirectional channel, keeping uncoupled among them the two one-directional channels. (Perez-Meana & NakanoMiyatake, 2005)
Hyperlink Analysis
Also called link analysis, this is the analysis of Web hyperlinks for the purpose of identifying communities
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underlying the Web pages or hyperlinking practices within Web communities. (Thelwall, 2006)
brought together through the communication networks, and work or play together as if they were at the same place. (Terashima, 2005)
Hypermedia
1: Often taken as synonymous with hypertext, though some authors use hypermedia to refer to hypertext systems that contain not just text data, but also graphics, animation, video, audio, and other media. Principal deining features of a hypermedia system are a highly interactive, visual, media-rich user interface and lexible navigation mechanisms. Hypermedia is a specialized type of interactive digital multimedia. (M. Lang, 2005) 2: A term used to describe the interlinking of textual information and other forms of media, such as audio, video, and photographic images. (Theng, 2005) 3: A computer-based information retrieval system that enables a user to gain or provide access to texts, audio and video recordings, photographs, and computer graphics related to a particular subject. (Rahman, 2005c) 4: An extension of hypertext that supports linking graphics, sound, and video elements, in addition to text elements. (Sala, 2005b) 5: The style of building systems for information representation and management around the network of multimedia nodes connected together by typed links. (Garca et al., 2006) 6: A way of organizing data as a network of nodes and links. (Lemahieu, 2005)
HyperSchool/HyperCollege/HyperUniversity
The term hyper means that these institutions could exist in HyperReality. HyperReality is where virtual reality and physical reality seamlessly intersect to allow interaction between their components, and where human and artiicial intelligences can communicate. The technological capability for this is at an experimental stage, but could be made available with broadband Internet. (Rajasingham & Tifin, 2005)
Hyperspace
1: Information spaces interlinked together with hypermedia structures. Concerning the World Wide Web, the term cyberspace is sometimes used instead of hyperspace. (Suh & Kim, 2005) 2: Space with more than three dimensions. (Murphy, 2005b) 3: Users view of the Semantic Web environment, which provides information and action services mainly through hypermedia pages. (Liu & Koppelaar, 2005)
Hypertext
1: Any text that contains links to other documents. (LeePost & Jin, 2005a) 2: A collection of documents containing cross-references that, with the aid of a browser program, allow the reader to move easily from one document to another. (Vician & Buche, 2005) 3: A collection of electronic texts connected through electronic links. In addition to text, the documents also may contain pictures, videos, demonstrations, or sound resources. With the addition of such media, hypertext often is referred to as hypermedia. (Shapiro, 2006) 4: A term conceived and coined by Ted Nelson, who described it as interactive branching of text information structured into non-sequential format into nodes and links. The nonlinear nature of hypertext provides freedom to readers who enjoy associational thinking and reading. (Theng, 2005) 5: An approach to information management in which data is stored as a network of inter-related nodes (also commonly known as documents or pages) that may be purposefully navigated or casually browsed in a nonlinear sequence by means of various user-selected paths, following hyperlinks. These hyperlinks may be hardcoded into the system or dynamically generated at run-time. (Lang, M., 2005) 6: The presentation of information as a linked network of nodes that readers are free to navigate in a nonlinear fashion. It allows for multiple authors, a blurring of the
Hypermedia-Based Learning
Learning in hypermedia environments, allowing nonlinear access to information through links provided within text, images, animation, audio, and video. It is considered lexible, where varied instructional needs can be addressed. (Chambel & Guimares, 2005)
HyperReality
Providing a communication environment where inhabitants, real or virtual, at different locations, are
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author and reader functions, extended works with diffuse boundaries, and multiple reading paths. (Sala, 2005a) 7: The organization of information units as a network of associations, which a user can choose to resolve. Hypertext links are the instances of such associations. (MartnezGonzlez, 2005)
Hypertext Structure
Organization structure described by Nonaka, distinguishing a functionally organized, hierarchical, and bureaucratic business system layer for regular knowledge exploitation; a project layer for development work; and a knowledge base layer connecting the irst two layers. (Hendriks, 2006)
Hypervideo
1: Indexed video enriched with hypertextual and multimedia elements. It is a fast and effective way to navigate in long video clips and to ind out the main content of the video. (Bochicchio & Fiore, 2005) 2: Refers to the integration of video in truly hypermedia spaces, where it is not regarded as a mere illustration, but can also be structured through links deined in its spatial and temporal dimensions. Sometimes called video-based hypermedia. (Chambel & Guimares, 2005)
HyperWorld
Intermixing a real world and a virtual world seamlessly. (Terashima, 2005)
Hyponymy/Hypernymy
A particular interschema property. Concept A is said to be a hyponym of a concept B (which, in turn, is a hypernym of A), if A has a more speciic meaning than B. (De Meo et al., 2005b)
Hypothesis
One of a particular set or class of candidate functions before you begin to learn the correct function. (Awad & Khan, 2005)
Hypothesis Test(ing)
1: A formal statistical procedure by which an interesting hypothesis (the alternative hypothesis) is accepted or rejected on the basis of data. (Mukherjee, 2005) 2: The process of using statistical analysis to determine if the observed differences between two or more samples are due
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to random chance (as stated in the null hypothesis) or to true differences in the samples (as stated in the alternate hypothesis). (Tan & Zhao, 2005a)
Hypothetical Reasoning
The process of creating hypothetical scenarios based on hypotheses and hypothetical assertions, and of exploring the hypothesis space for results of given queries. (Dang & Embury, 2005)
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
In a particular situation, applying relevant knowledge of principles and constraints, and visualizing, in the abstract, the plausible outcomes that might result from various changes one can imagine to be imposed on the system. (Donnelly, 2005)
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i-m at e I CM
I
i-mate
A PDA device manufactured by Carrier Devices with an integrated GSM cellular phone and digital camera. The device also incorporates a built-in microphone and speaker, a secure digital expansion card slot, and Bluetooth wireless connectivity. (Garrett, 2006a)
IBSS: See Independent Basic Service Set. IBT: See Identiication-Based Trust. IC: See Integrated Circuit; Intellectual Capital;
Interaction Channel. . ICA: See Independent Component Analysis.
i-mode
1: A packet-switching wireless technology, used by NTT DoCoMo (Japan). A range of commercial and inancial services are offered, including browsing the Web from a mobile phone. (Petrova, 2006) 2: A wireless Internet service for mobile phones using HTTP, popular in Japan and increasingly elsewhere (i.e., the United States, Germany, Belgium, France, Spain, Italy, Greece, Taiwan, etc.). It was inspired by WAP, which was developed in the U.S., and it was launched in 1999 in Japan. It became a runaway success because of its well-designed services and business model. (Lalopoulos et al., 2005a) 3: Brand name for voice plus a wide range of data services delivered by NTT DoCoMo in Japan. (Gilbert, 2005b) 4: The full-color, always-on, packet-switched Internet service for cellular phone users offered by NTT DoCoMo. With i-mode, cellular phone users are able to access to tens of thousands of Internet sites, as well as specialized services such as e-mail, online shopping and banking, ticket reservations, and restaurant advice. (Hu, Yang, & Yeh, 2006) 5: The packet-based service for mobile phones offered by Japans leader in wireless technology, NTT DoCoMo. The i-mode protocol uses compact HTML (cHTML) as its markup language instead of WAPs wireless markup language (WML) to provide mobile phone voice service, Internet, and e-mail. (Lei, 2006)
ICAT:
Internet Categorization of Attacks Toolkit. (Cardoso & Freire, 2005)
Iceberg Query IAB: See Internet Architecture Board. IB: See Integration Broker. ICM: See Intellectual Capital Management. IBL: See Inquiry-Based Learning.
A query on top of a cube that asks for aggregates above a certain threshold. (Abdulghani, 2005b)
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ICMS: See Intellectual Capital Management System. ICT-Enabled Knowledge Management: See Icon
1: In computer science, the icon is a graphic symbol (usually a simple picture) that denotes a program, command, data ile, or concept in a graphical user interface. (Sala, 2005b) 2: A principal feature of GUIs, an icon is a small picture representing an object, ile, program, user, and so forth. Clicking on the icon will open whatever is being represented. (Henley & Noyes, 2006) Information and Communication Technology-Enabled Knowledge Management.
ICR: See Intelligent Call Routing. ICT: See Information and Communication Technology.
ID: See Instructional Design. ICT Alliance: See Information and Communication Technology Alliance. ICT Architecture: See Information and Communication
Technology Architecture.
Idea-Generation Tool
A technology designed to stimulate thinking and association. Enables users to detect hidden patterns from mounds of data and discover relationships among entities. (Chua, 2006)
Ideal Model
A virtual setting where all parties interact with an incorruptible trusted party who carries out the joint computation for them. (Lindell, 2005)
ICT Infrast ruct ure: See Infor mation and Communication Technology Infrastructure. ICT Integration: See Information and Communication
Technology Integration.
Ideal Type
An abstraction from the particulars and the idiosyncrasies of the world which produce statements of general validity, and we know some part of the world because of its character as ideal typical knowledge. (Shariq & Vendel, 2006)
Ideal Vision
A statement, in measurable terms, that describes where we are headed and how to tell when we have arrived in terms of societal value added. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005)
ICT Planning in Schools: See Information and Communication Technology Planning in Schools. ICT Sector: See Information and Communication
Technology Sector.
IDEF0 Notation
Boxes within a diagram depict the sub-activities of the activity named by the diagram. Arrows between boxes depict availability of work products to activities. Arrows entering the left side of a box are inputs to the activity. Arrows exiting the right side of a box are outputs from the activity. Arrows entering the top of a box are controls that regulate the activity, and those entering the bottom are mechanisms that support the activity. (Leung, 2005)
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I DEF1 X I EEE 8 0 2 .1 1 b
IDEF1X
One of the IDEF tools developed by Integrated ComputerAided Manufacturing (ICAM), it is a formal framework for consistent modeling of the data necessary for the integration of various functional areas in computerintegrated manufacturing. (Ma, 2005a)
Identiication
1: A one-to-many matching process for establishing the identity of the user if the submitted biometric sample matches one of the registered templates. (Li, 2006) 2: A user is not compelled to claim an identity irst; instead, the biometric is scanned and then matched against all the templates in the database (also referred to as recognition). (Lowry, Stephens, et al., 2005) 3: A condition where the interests of the individual merge with the interests of the organization, resulting in the creation of an identity based on those interests. (Kankanhalli et al., 2006) 4: The process in which an individual comes to see an object (e.g., an individual, group, organization) as being deinitive of oneself and forms a psychological connection with that object. Although scholars have offered a variety of conceptual deinitions for identiication, we view it as a communicative process, rooted in discourse and constituting a communicative expression of ones identity. (Connaughton, 2005)
billed. (Friedman, 2005) 2: Pretending to be someone or some category of person that one is not. (Rowe, 2006d) 3: The act of using someone elses personal information such as name, PIN, or even biometric data without her/his knowledge for malicious purposes. (Li, 2006) 4: The stealing and use of a persons identity through the acquisition of personal information without that persons knowledge or permission. (Szewczak, 2005)
Idiographic
An approach focusing on the subjective experiences of the individual, and presenting results in expressions and terms used by the individual. The resulting RepGrid is considered unique in that there are no common elements or constructs employed in the elicitation process across the sample. (Tan & Hunter, 2005)
Idiomatic Expression
A phrase associated with a particular, non-literal meaning. (St.Amant, 2005d)
IDS: See Internet Discussion Site; Intrusion-Detection System. IEE: See Innovation Engineering Environment. IEEE 802.11
1: A family of speciications developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN technology. 802.11 speciies an over-theair interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients. The IEEE accepted the speciication in 1997. (Bose et al., 2005) 2: A family of IEEE standards for wireless local area networks. (Hu, 2005)
Identity
1: A thing to represent or identify oneself to the other party or audience. (Park, 2006) 2: The degree of identiication of the individual members with the community or network, and thus also an indicator for the identiication of a community or network as such; strong or weak identity show the identiication of the members as a group and their sense of community. (Meller-Prothmann, 2006a)
IEEE 802.11b/a/g
Generally refers to wireless LAN standards. The IEEE 802.11b is the wireless LAN standard with a maximum bandwidth of 11Mbps operating at 2.4GHz. The IEEE 802.11a is the high-speed wireless LAN with a maximum bandwidth of 54Mbps operating at 5GHz. The IEEE 802.11g is backward compatible with the IEEE 802.11b, with a maximum bandwidth of 54Mbps operating at 2.4GHz. (Sarkar, 2005)
Identity Theft
1: The act of a person who successfully pretends to be another person for the purpose of committing fraud. An identity thief discovers some bit of your personal information and appropriates it for him/herself without your knowledge to acquire a privilege (e.g., driving license), some property, or some service for which the victim is
IEEE 802.11b
An established protocol or standard for wireless networking. (Wilsdon & Slay, 2005)
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Ill-Structured Problem
A learning challenge of a complex nature with no one right answer. (Molinari, 2005)
Illumination Model
A mathematical formula for calculating the amount of diffuse light, ambient light, and specular relection that contributes to the color value that will represent a particular surface point on the screen. (Cottingham, 2005)
ILE: See Interactive Learning Environment. ILP: See Inductive Logic Programming. IM: See Instant Message; Instant Messaging. Image:
As deined in image theory, a meaningful visual form, perceptible in a minimum instant of vision. (Crossland, 2005)
IEEE LOM
IEEE 1484.12.1 Standard for Learning Object Metadata. The standard speciies the syntax and semantics of learning object metadata, deined as the attributes required to fully/adequately describe a learning object. Learning objects are deined here as any entity, digital or non-digital, which can be used, reused, or referenced during technologysupported learning. (Sicilia & Snchez-Alonso, 2006)
Image Analysis
An important layer of image engineering concerned with the extraction of information (by meaningful measurements with descriptive parameters) from an image (especially from interesting objects), with the goal of inding what objects (based on identiication, recognition, and classiication) are present in the image. (Zhang, 2005c)
IETF: See Internet Engineering Task Force. IFADIS: See Integrated Framework for the Analysis of
Dependable Interactive Systems.
IFIR Structure
The cascade of the expanded shaping or model ilter G(zM) and the interpolator I(z). (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005c)
Image Classiication
Classifying a new image, according to the image content, to one of the predeined classes of images (supervised classiication). (Swierzowicz, 2005)
IGMP: See Internet Group Management Protocol. Image Clustering IIR Filter: See Ininite Impulse Response Filter. Ill-Formed XML Document
A document lacking any ixed and rigid structure. (Nayak, 2005b) Classifying a new image into an image cluster according to the image content (e.g., color, texture, shape, or their combination) without a priori knowledge (unsupervised classiication). (Swierzowicz, 2005)
Image Copyright
The rightful ownership of an image. (Chen, Chen, Ma, et al., 2005)
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A process of inding unusual patterns, and making associations between different images from large image databases. One could mine for associations between images, cluster images, classify images, as well as detect unusual patterns. (Oh et al., 2005)
primarily includes the acquisition, representation, compression, enhancement, restoration, and reconstruction of images. All of these treatments are concerned with the manipulation of an image to produce another (improved) image. (Y.J. Zhang, 2005b)
Image Resolution
The degree of discernible details of an image. It strongly depends on the number of samples and gray levels used in the digitization stage and then used for the representation of this image. (Y.J. Zhang, 2005a)
Image Feature
1: A structure in the image with interesting characteristics. Examples of features are single points, curves, edges, lines, surfaces. (Aifanti et al., 2005) 2: One of a number of discrete properties of images that can be local or global. Examples of local features include edges, contours, textures, and regions. Examples of global features include color histograms and Fourier components. (Caelli, 2005)
Image Retrieval
Retrieving an image according to some primitive (e.g., color, texture, shape of image elements) or compound speciications (e.g., objects, given type, abstract attributes). (Swierzowicz, 2005)
Image Indexing
1: Assigning concise and signiicant descriptors to an image. Objects shapes and positions are used in several indexing approaches where image is represented as a graph or tree (R-tree, B-tree, etc.). (Chbeir & Yetongnon, 2005) 2: Fast and eficient mechanism based on dimension reduction and similarity measures. (Swierzowicz, 2005)
Image Score
An image obtained from a page of music sheet, it can include a main score or a part. (Nesi & Spinu, 2005)
Image Understanding
The process of interpreting images in terms of what is being sensed. (Caelli, 2005)
Image Mining
Extracting image patterns not explicitly stored in images from a large collection of images. (Swierzowicz, 2005)
Imagesetter
An output device used primarily to generate ilms for the production of printing plates. (Snyder, 2005)
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Immersion
1: A quality of a system, usually a computer-generated world consisting of a set of technological factors that enable users to experience the virtual world vividly and exclusively. (Sas, 2006) 2: Relects the degree to which a community members behavior is dominated by the state of low caused by human-machine interaction. (Signoret, 2006)
Imperceptibility
After a message is hidden in a carrier, it is dificult for a viewer or listener to distinguish between the carrier that contains the hidden message and those that do not. (Lou et al., 2006)
Imperceptible
Not easily detectable with the human visual system. (Chen, Chen, Ma, et al., 2005)
Immersion School
A language or culturally based school that allows students to study all or most subjects in a language other than their own. These are typically schools within a school district or programs within a particular school. (Glick, 2005b)
Imperfect Knowledge
The imperfection of knowledge has to do with its incompleteness (absence of a value), with its imprecision (lack of precision in a value), and with its uncertainty (doubt on the truthfulness of a fact). (Analide et al., 2006)
Implementation
1: The code placed inside of methods. For some languages, this code is pre-compiled or interpreted. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 2: The implementation of information system includes different phases: user needs and requirements analysis (speciication), system design, and initial system implementation and testing. The system requirements analysis includes worklow analysis; the initial system implementation includes technical installation of information system, integration of the information system to other information systems, and users training. (Hyrinen & Saranto, 2005)
Immersive System
A system that provides the graphical illusion of being in a three-dimensional space by displaying visual output in stereo and in a three-dimensional perspective according to head position, and by allowing navigation through the space. (Modrk & Marcn, 2006)
Implementation of an Innovation
The process of mutually itting innovation and organization to one another until the it is so good that the (former) innovation is routine. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005a)
Impacted Domain
The area affected by a change to the pivot domain. (AbouZeid, 2005a)
Implementation Quality
The outcome of an IT installation in an organization, where operational success can be indicated by increased internal organizational performance and eficiency, better customer service, and higher quality working life within the organization, although other traditional indicators are increased proits, greater market share, and improved return on investment performance. (Winston & Dologite, 2005)
Impaired Learner
A learners hampered by physical or psychological deiciencies. (Utsi & Lowyck, 2005)
Imperative Mode
Command-oriented languages such as Fortran and Cobol that use the commands, DO, GO TO, and so forth. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005c)
Implementation Risk
A risk derived from poor business practices such as lack of training, lack of uniform standards, quality, and procedures that causes dissatisfaction among trading partners. (Ratnasingam, 2005)
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Implicit Edit
An unstated edit derived logically from explicit edits that were written by a subject matter specialist. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
Implicit Function
When used in 3D shape modeling, implicit functions f (x, y, z)=0 deine a 3D surface of the shape. For example, an origin-centered sphere with radius 5 is deined with 52x2-y2-z2=0. (Sourin, 2006)
Imputation
The method of illing in missing data that sometimes preserves statistical distributions and satisfies edit restraints. (Winkler, 2005)
In-Group Trust
Communities of people that have similar beliefs, values, and personality traits induced by cultural forces and are more willing to identify members inside their group as trustworthy. Individuals within these communities obtain role models and opinion leaders within their group that inluence individuals beliefs and behavior to include buying decision processes. (Carstens, 2005)
In-Network Processing
A technique employed in sensor database systems whereby the data recorded is processed by the sensor nodes themselves. This is in contrast to the standard approach, which demands that data is routed to a so-called sink computer located outside the sensor network for processing. In-network processing is critical for sensor nodes because they are highly resource constrained, in particular in terms of battery power, and this approach can extend their useful life quite considerably. (Roussos & Zoumboulakis, 2005)
Import Restriction
One of a number of restrictions on the type, quantity, or origin of goods that can be imported into a country. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005b)
Impression Building
Portraying outcomes of endeavors as highly positive achievements to promote an image of competence and success. (Sipior, 2005)
In-Service
Brief and/or short-duration training for practicing teachers that tends to be informative (about new mandates, for example). Delivery tends to be traditional, and attendees must determine for themselves how the data relates to their situation(s) or discipline(s). Follow-up is rare, as is any effort to collect evidence of change practices. (Bober, 2005)
Impulse Response
The time domain characteristic of a ilter; represents the output of the unit sample input sequence. (JovanovicDolecek, 2005a)
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Inapplicable Response
Respondents omit an answer due to doubts of applicability. (Brown & Kros, 2005)
Inclusion Incentive
1: An intrinsic or extrinsic motivational factor that impacts faculty decisions to participate in distance education. (Dooley et al., 2005) 2: An attractive inducement offered to providers of services to be more eficient. (De, 2005) 3: Any factor that inluences action or behavior by its presence or absence. (Marcinkiewicz & McLean, 2005a) A classroom design where all students should take part and attend regular classes. Generally, an ESE and regular education teacher work together with the same group of students, including students with disabilities and general education students. Both of the teachers share the responsibility for all of the students. (T. Cavanaugh, 2005)
Incentive Regulation
Simply stated, it refers to a variety of regulatory approaches (starting with price caps) that attempt to provide or enhance incentives for utilities to operate more eficiently. Incentive regulation is a response to the limits of the traditional rate of return regulation, which set rates so as to cover operating expenses and ensure a reasonable return on invested capital. This was administratively cumbersome, detrimental to eficiency, and subject to the risk of overcapitalizations. (Arbore, 2005)
Inclusion Dependency
1: A pattern between two databases, stating that the values in a ield (or set of ields) in one database form a subset of the values in some ield (or set of ields) in another database. (Koeller, 2005) 2: The existence of attributes in a table whose values must be a subset of the values of the corresponding attributes in another (or the same). Expressed as R[X]S[Z]. R and S are relation names (possibly the same); R[X] and S[Z] are named the inclusion dependencys left and right sides respectively. X, Z are compatible attributes. (Rivero, 2005) 3: Let R and S be two record types (not necessarily distinct) and X and Y be sequences of attributes of R and S, respectively, such that the numbers of attributes in X and Y are identical. We say that the inclusion dependency (IND), R[X] S[Y], holds at time t if at time t, for each R record r, an S record s exists such that r[X] = s[Y]. (Tan & Zhao, 2005b)
Incentive Structure
The material or symbolic reward or punishment mechanism that organizations apply in order to encourage or discourage a certain organizational behavior, for example, the sharing of knowledge, skills, or insights with other members of the organization. (Ekbia & Hara, 2006)
Inclusive Design
The design of mainstream products and/or services that are accessible to and usable by as many people as reasonably possible on a global basis, in a wide variety of situations, and to the greatest extent possible without the need for special adaptation or specialized design. (Keates et al., 2006)
Inclusiveness
Both a value and a design processthat is, inclusive environments are purposefully designed to address accessibility challenges and to make resources and services available to the broadest (and most diverse) possible audience. An approach based on inclusiveness is also known as universal instructional design and user-centered design. (Campbell, 2005)
Incidental Impact
Impact that is un-planned; by-product of a systems development process that had not, or could not, have been envisaged at the projects outset. (Doherty & King, 2005)
Include
Some code stored separately from the main body of a program, so that this code can be used in many programs
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organizational environments make it so dificult to specify every contingency in the contract. (Khalfan et al., 2005)
Incomplete Data
The data set for data mining contains some data entries with missing values. For instance, when surveys and questionnaires are partially completed by respondents, the entire response data becomes incomplete data. (H. Wang & S. Wang, 2005)
Incremental Innovation
The generation of new ideas (new knowledge) that leads to the incremental development of new products or services that build on existing practices. (Newell, 2006)
Inconsistency
Database state that does not relect a real-world state. (Rivero, 2005)
Incremental Mining
In most real-life applications, the data are incrementally accumulated in the database, and not completely altered overnight. This makes it possible to use the previously mined rules for updates, rather than reforming new ones. (Nigro & Gonzlez Csaro, 2005a)
Inconsistency Tolerance
The strategy that lets a system answer and process data despite the fact that databases are inconsistent. (RodrguezTastets, 2005a)
Incubator Program
A form of collaboration usually between the industry, corporations, and the business community and educational sector, aiming at identifying industry and market needs, catering for these needs, and creating employment opportunities for the society, especially young graduates. (Kamel, 2005a)
Inconsistent Database
A database violating some integrity constraint. (Flesca et al., 2005a)
Incorporation by Reference
To make one document a part of another by identifying the document to be incorporated, with information that allows the recipient to access and obtain the incorporated message in its entirety, and by expressing the intention that it be part of the incorporating message. Such an incorporated message shall have the same effect as if it had been fully stated in the message. (Mitrakas, 2005)
Independence
1: The ability and willingness of a group to work with minimal input from an instructor. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005a) 2: The independence of a group from a central authority, such as an instructor or manager, ensures that the group can truly collaborate among themselves and produce results that are unique and new. (Ingram, 2005) 3: Views V1 and V2 are conditionally independent given the class if for all x = (x1, x2), P(x1, x2| y) = P(x1| y)P(x2|y). (Scheffer, 2005)
Incoterm
One of a standard set of international logistic acronyms. (D. Brandon Jr., 2005b)
Incremental Cost
The cost of providing a speciic service over a common network structure. (Hackbarth et al., 2005)
Independent
Two random variables are independent when knowing something about the value of one of them does not yield any information about the value of the other. (Bashir et al., 2005)
Incremental Development
An approach to software development in which fully working versions of a system are successively delivered over time, each new increment (version) adding to and upgrading the functionality of the previous version. May be used in conjunction with timeboxing, whereby a wishlist of requirements is prioritized and ordered into a staged plan of increments to be rolled out over time. (M. Lang, 2005)
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I nde pe nde nt Busine ss-t o-Busine ss M a rke t pla c e (or E-M a rke t pla c e ) I ndisc e r nibilit y Re lat ion
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Index Structure
An adapted data structure to accelerate retrieval. The a priori extracted features are organized in such a way that the comparisons can be focused to a certain area around the query. (Bretschneider & Kao, 2005)
Index Tree
Partitions the space in a single dimension or multiple dimensions for eficient access to the subset of the data that is of interest. (Thomasian, 2005b)
Indexing Parser
Because of the heterogeneous nature of Web documents, we argue that indexing must also be performed at the stage of parsing Web documents. Hence, each source agent has a built-in indexing parser capable of building a document representation (index) based on the internal structure and the content of a given Web document. Typically the hierarchy of tags is taken into account while building the document index. Another important part of the process is taking into account source-speciic lists of stop words, thesauri, and ontologies. Each resulting index consists of a weighted set of terms that occurred in the analyzed document. This format is a standard vector space model format that is commonly utilized in document iltering and retrieval. (Wecel et al., 2005)
Independent Variable
A value representing a presumed cause of a particular outcome. (McHaney, 2005)
Index
1: A data structure built on a database to speed up searches. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005) 2: In the area of information retrieval, an index is the representation or summarization of a data item used for matching with queries to obtain the similarity between the data and the query, or matching with the indexes of other data items. For example, keywords are frequently used indexes of textual documents, and a color histogram is a common index of images. Indexes can be manually assigned or automatically extracted. The text description of an image is usually manually given, but its color histogram can be computed by programs. (Li et al., 2005) 3: In data storage and retrieval, the creation and use of a list that inventories and cross-references data. In database operations, a method to ind data more eficiently by indexing on primary key ields of the database tables. (Lin et al., 2005) 4: Mechanism for sorting the multimedia data according to the features of interest to users to speed up retrieval of objects. (Hentea, 2005c) 5: Used to create an external memory data structure in order to speed up search and retrieval of information. (Bozanis, 2006)
Indicator
1: A term used to refer to something that would point to quality or a lack thereof. (Wilkin, 2005) 2: Generally quantitative expressions that relate variables to deined criteria. They can be statistics, numbers, values, reasons, or other ways of representing information. (Xodo & Nigro, 2005)
Indirect Impact
Information technology that is not clearly related to measurable impact. For example, a new system helps executives make better decisions through providing access to better or more accurate information. (Dykman, 2005)
Indiscernibility Relation
Objects x,y are indiscernible iff information about x is equal to (similar with) information about y. In the former case the indiscernibility relation is an equivalence
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relation; in the latter it is a similarity relation. Any object x deines an indiscernibility class (neighborhood) of objects indiscernible with this object. Also soft cases of indiscernibility relation are considered. Discernibility relation is a binary relation on objects deined as follows: Objects x,y are discernible iff information about x is discernible from information about y. In the simplest case, objects x,y are discernible iff it is not true that they are indiscernible. (Pawlak et al., 2005)
Individual Learning
An instruction method in which students work individually at their own level and rate toward an academic goal. (Moreira & da Silva, 2005)
Individual Privacy
Freedom from excessive intrusion by those seeking personal information about the individual. Allows for the individual to choose the extent and circumstances under which personal information will be shared with others. (Mullen, 2005)
Individual
A single candidate solution in genetic and evolutionary computation, typically represented using strings (often of ixed length) and permutations in genetic algorithms, or using problem-solver representations (programs, generative grammars, or circuits) in genetic programming. (Hsu, 2005a)
Individual Variable
One of several characteristics of individuals, such as attitudes and preferences. (Beise et al., 2005)
Individual Knowledge
Knowledge possessed by persons rather than social entities. It is frequently tacit in nature, rendering it absolutely personal. When tacit knowledge is made explicit, it moves toward the other end of its dimensionsocial knowledge. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Individualized Instruction
Providing dynamic content and presentation based on individual preferences, attitudes, and knowledge. (Shareef & Kinshuk, 2005)
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Individuation
The process by which the individual develops into a fully differentiated, balanced, and uniied personality. A concept introduced by Carl Jung. (Chambel & Guimares, 2005)
Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) Indoor Global Positioning System (Indoor GPS)
A variation of the Global Positioning System (GPS) for use in indoor environments, where the normal GPS signal does not typically work, because the signal strength is too low to penetrate a building. Indoor GPS navigation signals are generated by a number of pseudolites (pseudo-satellites) and are sent to pseudolite-compatible receivers that use the information to determine their own geographical positions. (Giaglis, 2005) 1: A field of research at the intersection of logic programming and inductive machine learning, drawing ideas and methods from both disciplines. The objective of ILP methods is the inductive construction of irst-order Horn clauses from a set of examples and background knowledge in relational form. (Perlich & Provost, 2005) 2: A set of techniques for learning a irst-order logic theory to describe a set of relational data. (Holder & Cook, 2005)
Inductive Reasoning Indoor GPS: See Indoor Global Positioning System. Induced Subtree
Let T(N,B) be a tree, where N represents the set of its nodes and B the set of its edges. We say that a tree S(Ns,Bs) is an induced subtree of T provided that: (1) NsN, and (2) b=(nx,ny)Bs if and only if nx is a parent of ny in T. Thus, induced subtrees are a specialization of embedded subtrees. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005b) The task of extracting intelligible information from a collection of examples pertaining to a physical system. (Muselli, 2005)
Industrial Economy
A traditional economic perspective that presumes restricted expansion opportunities based on scarcity of physical resources, available labor, capital, and so forth. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006)
Induction
1: The process of deriving a concept from particular facts or instances. Inductive knowledge is empirical knowledge, of facts and information. (Nobre, 2006a) 2: Process of learning, from cases or instances, resulting in a general hypothesis of hidden concept in data. (Leni et al., 2005) 3: A technique that infers generalizations from the information in the data. (Beynon, 2005b)
Industrial Ethernet
Special type of Ethernet for ield-area networks based on the relevant international standards (e.g., IEEE 802.3). It is adjusted to the speciic environmental conditions in industrial production systems, for example, regarding electromagnetic compatibility, shaking, moisture, and chemical resistance. (Blecker, 2006a)
Industrialized Nation
A country in which capitalism has long served as the model upon which business practices are based and the economy is founded mainly upon manufacturing and services. (St. Amant, 2005b)
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Industry Certiication
Inference
1: A logical conclusion derived by making implicit knowledge explicit. (Kamthan & Pai, 2006) 2: Capability to deduce new knowledge from existing knowledge. (DiengKuntz, 2006) 3: Derivation using rules and assumptions. (Grant & Minker, 2006)
Certiication involves passing a recognized standardized test (or set of tests) within particular subject areas. It intends to establish a standard of competency in deined areas. ICT industry certiications are designed to provide targeted skills that have immediate applicability in the workplace. (McGill & Dixon, 2005)
Inference Channel
A particular case of a covert channel that exists when high-classiied data can be deduced from low-classiied data. (Gabillon, 2005)
Industry-Based Knowledge
A general type of knowledge, widely available to individuals in their role-related organizational activities, across both irms and industry. It is not speciic to either organizations or any individual organizational tasks as such; it is, however, highly industry speciic. Examples of this type of knowledge are knowledge of the industry structure, of its current state of development, and of the key individuals, networks, and alliances in an industry. (Butler & Murphy, 2006)
Inlection Point
Industry-Wide Platform
Uses a mixture of information and communications technologies set up over the Internet to set up a multipurpose platform that enables irms within a sector, along a supply chain, or as part of a consortium to exchange business information and transact. (Poon, 2005)
1: A digital ilter with an ininite impulse response. IIR ilters always have poles and are stable if all poles are inside the unit circle. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005a) 2: Digital ilter with ininite impulse response. This ilter must be checked for the stability and does not have linear phase. This ilter has lower complexity than its FIR counterpart. (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
Inluence
Making a difference in a virtual community. (Signoret, 2006)
Inexact Learning
The learning by which inexact rules are induced. (Dai, 2005a)
Info Pyramid
Multimedia data representation based on storing different versions of media objects with different modalities and idelities. (Cavallaro, 2005)
Inexact Rules
Rules with uncertainty. (Dai, 2005a)
Infocracy
A form of organization in which information provides the underpinning of structure and the primary basis of individual power. In a more typical bureaucracy, hierarchical organizational structure dominates and is a primary driver of individual power. Information lows are
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then designed to support the structure and reinforce the power relationships. In an infocracy, information lows from point of origin to point of use, without regard to structure or pre-determined power relationships. As such, the organizational structure evolves to support required information lows. (Gordon & Mulligan, 2005)
at the discretion of the mentor and protg, and persists as long as the parties involved experience suficient positive outcomes. (Long et al., 2005)
Informatic
Term used in Latin America as an equivalent to computer based. (Barrera, 2005)
Infodesign
A broad term for the design tasks of deciding how to structure, select, and present information. (Roibs, 2006a)
Informatics Project
One of a number of projects that involve in any way possible the use, design, delivery, implementation, and management of information technology irrespective of the element involved, including software, hardware, and so forth. (Kamel, 2005a)
Infolink
The human resources department Web site on the intranet. (Al-Gharbi & Khalfan, 2005)
Information Infomediary
A combination of the words infor mation and intermediary. Infomediary refers to a vehicle (e.g., a Web site) that can collect and provide information. A virtual community provides the functions of an infomediary in several ways. It is an information source of product and service to consumers, and an information source of consumers needs to the business. (Wang, Wei, et al., 2006) 1: A process with data as input and knowledge as output. An individual is the subject who transforms the data into knowledge. Relations between two technical devices are data exchange processes. Relations between two or more individuals are communication processes. The reverse information process is called documentation process (e.g., writing an article). (Hofer, 2006) 2: Data with context and utility. (Hoxmeier, 2005) 3: A comparative unit of cognition that deines a change between the previous and present state of the natural, artiicial, or semiotic systems. (Targowski, 2005) 4: A message, or data, which makes a difference. Information has meaning, and becomes knowledge when a person internalizes it. (Huotari & Iivonen, 2005) 5: Commonly known as a collection of facts or data. In Computer Science, it refers to processed, stored, or transmitted data. In Knowledge Management, it refers to codiied knowledge. (Theng, 2005) 6: Contextualized data that can be analyzed and applied to decision-making circumstances. (Taylor, 2005) 7: Data that is associated with some system that enables meaning to be derived by some entity. (Benyon, 2006) 8: Data with attributes of relevance and purpose. (Joia, 2005) 9: In intelligence usage, unprocessed data of every description which may be used in the production of intelligence. (Melkonyan, 2005) 10: Interpreted symbols and symbol structures that reduce both uncertainty and equivocality over a deined period of time. (Hirji, 2005) 11: Knowledge acquired through experience or study. (Drake, 2006) 12: Knowledge derived from reading, observation, or instruction, at times consisting of unorganized or unrelated facts or data. Data endowed with relevance and purpose, for example, a irms balance sheet and income statement. (Mockler & Dologite, 2005) 13: A term referring to details about an event or situation
Informal Communication
Communication that is neither institutionally planned nor functionally deined, but opportunistic and spontaneous. (Beuschel et al., 2005)
Informal Leader
One who demonstrates substantial leadership behavior even though not oficially appointed or designated to hold such authority. Informal leaders often emerge tacitly from within a group. (Cargill, 2006a)
Informal Learning
1: Learning anytime, everywhere in a non-organized way, where most of the time learning is unidentiied and without recognition. (Lambropoulos, 2006b) 2: Learning that takes place often in work settings without any formal structure; often considered to be a main way that people learn at work. (Berg, 2005h)
Informal Mentoring
The non-assigned pairing of an experienced person who respects, guides, protects, sponsors, promotes, and teaches younger, less experienced personnel; it develops naturally
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I nfor m at ion About Obje c t I nfor m at ion a nd Com m unic at ion Te chnology Archit e c t ure
in the past or simply a scientiic fact. Information can be regarded as a piece of knowledge of an objective kind. It results from placing data within some meaningful context, often in the form of a message. It is purely descriptive and explicit, does not enable decisions or actions, nor does it trigger new questions. (Haghirian, 2006)
Information Age
A label given to the post-Cold War sociological and economic conditions of the world, which are driven by technology and information. (Reynolds, 2005)
Information Agent
Program capable of retrieving information from a remote Web site by means of Internet protocols, storing it in a data repository and using it for executing speciic tasks. (Castro & Braga, 2006)
addition to Internet-based technologies such as computers, telephones, and networks, ICTs in a broad sense include digital television, cable and satellite technologies, and music formats (e.g., MP3), DVDs, and CDs. ICTs may be used to facilitate remote human interaction for good and evil purposes. ICTs are used to increase human communication; broaden education, literacy, and knowledge; and enhance social, cultural, political, and economic capacity. It is hoped that this will help address problems attributed to the so-called digital divide. (Malina, 2005) 4: A sector including a great variety of technologies such as desktop and laptop computers, software, peripherals, and connections to the Internet that are intended to fulill information processing and communications functions. (Chochliouros & Spiliopoulou-Chochliourou, 2006) 5: The amalgam of computing, telecommunications, and data networking technologies used to handle information and communication. It is the convergence of information technology, telecommunications, and data networking technologies into a single technology. It encompasses an array of hardware and software such as computers, digital cameras, CD-ROMs, radio, television, video and digital cameras, digital media, the Internet, e-mail, word processing, databases, the Internet, e-business, and ecommerce. (Magagula, 2005) 6: Refers to the utilization of technology to process and access information, and to assist and facilitate communication. (Bodomo, 2005b) 7: Includes ICT equipment (computer hardware, enduser communications equipment, ofice equipment and datacom, and network equipment) plus software products, IT service, and carrier services. (Damaskopoulos & Gatautis, 2006) 8: A range of goods, applications, and services used for producing, distributing, processing, and transforming information, including telecommunications, television and radio broadcasting, computer hardware and software, computer services, the Internet, electronic mail, and electronic commerce. (Rhodes, 2005)
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infrastructure (applications, databases, technological ICT elements) and their relations. In this chapter we concentrate on the application and database parts. (Achterbergh, 2005b)
diffusion of courseware, and to communication between teachers and students, including communication between teachers and between students by electronic means. (El Louadi, 2005a)
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2005) 2: Refers to how members of the community receive information from various sources such as faceto-face, newspaper, telephone, mail/letters, notice boards, community meetings, church congregation, church newsletter, radio, and television. (Gnaniah, Songan et al., 2005)
Information Closure
Boundary deined by information, and the sources necessary for autonomous (sub)systems functioning. (Szczerbicki, 2005)
Information Architecture
1: How the Web sites Web pages are organized, labeled, and navigated to support user browsing. (Falk & Sockel, 2005) 2: Mostly, the technological architecture that acts as an enabling mechanism to the information system. (Dykman, 2006)
Information Content
Availability of information to compare across alternatives the completeness of information provided about a irm, product and service, and so on. (Shih & Fang, 2006)
Information Design
A similar soft technology applied to information more broadly for the purpose of successful access to information. (Duchastel, 2005)
Information Asymmetry
1: A situation where one party to a transaction has more information than another party. In many cases it is the seller who has more and better information about the quality and underlying costs of a product than the buyer. (Fraser, 2005) 2: Condition in which at least some relevant information is known to some, but not all parties involved. Information asymmetry causes markets to become ineficient, since all market participants do not have access to the information they need for their decision-making processes. (Wong, 2005)
Information Dissemination
Content of any book, paper, map, machine-readable material, audiovisual, or other documentary material, regardless of physical form or characteristics; making them available to the public is a form of information dissemination. Means of dissemination may be through information resource databases, information portals, the Internet, or other available media. (Rahman, 2006)
Information Broker
A key software component that supports intelligent portals. The information broker has the ability to coordinate between search engine, worklow engine, and portal management. Without an information broker, an individual users proile would not be managed and consequently would not be serviced by context-sensitive portals. The information broker may work behind the Web server to provide the personalized services for Web users. It may also work directly with WWW for searching Web services online. (Li, 2005a)
Information Divide
The term broadly used to indicate the difference between groups, societies, or countries that have ready accessibility to information and those groups, societies, or countries that do not have the same or similar levels of access to this or similar information. (Arthur-Gray & Campbell, 2005)
Information Economics
A scoring method that assesses the value of the information that results from the use of an information system. (Dykman, 2005)
Information Channel
1: A term used to describe the various combinations of sources and formats of information. (McGill & Dixon,
Information Economy
1: An economic system characterized by knowledgebased work and processing, and exchange of information
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and data as its primary activities. (Hantula & DeRosa, 2005) 2: An economy dominated by information-related activities. (Ajiferuke & Olatokun, 2005) 3: A concept created to illustrate a fundamental change in the business environment. The nature of the economy has changed as measured by the informational (intangible) elements of our products, services, and production processes, and the proportion of the workforce whose primary activities are informational. Information has become the most important resource upon which the eficiency and competitiveness of all organizations depend. This is true in not only services or high-tech industries, but also across the board in primary and manufacturing industriesand in both private and public sectors. (Kimble & Li, 2006)
Information Format
The arrangement and appearance of information. Format includes both the media used and the style of presentation. (McGill & Dixon, 2005)
Information Gain
Given a set E of classiied examples and a partition P = {E1, ..., En} of E, the information gain is deined as
Information Engineering
Proper design of information low, its management, its use, and its maintenance. (Szczerbicki, 2005)
entropy(E ) entropy(Ei ) *
i =1
| Ei | |E|
Information Exchange
Putting ideas and concepts in the correct formats and getting them circulated to other persons can be termed as information exchange. However, experiences and prior knowledge about the content are essential for making it become knowledge. (Rahman, 2006)
entropy ( X ) = p j log 2 ( p j )
j =1 m
Information Extraction
1: A process of extracting data from the text, commonly used to ill the data into ields of a database based on text documents. (Mladeni, 2005) 2: An information extraction task is to extract or pull out user-deined and pertinent information from input documents. (Chang & Hsu, 2005) 3: The process of pulling out or extracting relevant or predeined types of information from a set of documents. The extracted information can range from a list of entity names to a database of event descriptions. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005a) 4: The process of using a computer to automatically extract speciic facts and rules from texts. (Kulyukin & Nicholson, 2005)
(assuming there are m classes in X and pj denotes the probability of the jth class in X). Intuitively, the information gain measures the decrease of the weighted average impurity of the partitions E1, ..., En, compared with the impurity of the complete set of examples E. (An, 2005)
Information Gap
A gap that exists between the amount and types of information received and needed by members of the community. (Gnaniah, Songan, et al., 2005)
Information Granularity
The data structure that can be classiied. (Gabillon, 2005)
Information Heterogeneity
The differences in syntax, structure, and semantics used in different information systems. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005)
Information Filtering
Filtering information from a dynamic information space based on a users long-term information needs. (Parmar & Angelides, 2005)
Information Hiding
The umbrella term referring to techniques of hiding various forms of messages into cover work. (K. Chen, 2005)
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Information Integration
The process of consolidating and managing customer information from all available sources. Also called customer data integration. (Moore et al., 2006)
Information Integrity
Comprising data management, data quality, and data cleansing disciplines, information integrity refers to the state of data within an organization or IT system that adheres to the proper deinition of data standardization per established business rules and is accurate, correct, and complete. (Malik, 2006)
Information Literacy
1: An ability that has been acquired by training to locate, understand, evaluate, and use needed data eficiently and effectively. (Poda & Brescia, 2005) 2: An integrated set of skills and the knowledge of information tools and resources that allow a person to recognize an information need and locate, evaluate, and use information effectively. (Gregory, 2005) 3: Consists of computer literacy and information retrieval abilities and communication skills. Computer literacy means basic skills in computer use, for example, being able to read and write with computers. (Hyrinen & Saranto, 2005) 4: Students who are information literate access information eficiently and effectively, evaluate information critically and competently, and use information accurately and creatively. (Jesness, 2005)
function effectively, sometimes leading to a situation in which nothing gets done and the user gives the impression of being a rabbit caught in the glare of car headlights. (Pritchard, 2005a) 2: Learners face the information overload problem when acquiring increasing amounts of information from a hypermedia system. It causes learners frustration with the technology and anxiety that inhibits the creative aspects of the learning experience. (Magoulas, 2006) 3: The availability of excess information beyond that which is desired or needed by a user, requiring nonproductive processing. (Kasi & Jain, 2006) 4: Undesirable or irrelevant information that disturbs the user and distracts him or her from the main objective. This kind of problem usually occurs in contexts that offer excessive amounts of information, badly handled due to low-usability systems. (Gil & Garca, 2006)
Information Paralysis
A condition where too much data causes dificulty in determining relevancy and extracting meaningful information and knowledge. (Nemati & Barko, 2005)
Information Portal
Can also be viewed as part of a category in their own right as portals whose prime aim is to provide a speciic type of information. (Tatnall, 2006)
Information Privacy
The interest an individual has in controlling, or at least signiicantly inluencing, the handling of data about themselves. (Sharma, 2006b)
Information Management
The management of all aspects of information in an organization, generally seen to encompass technical, human, and organizational information. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2006)
Information Model
A rich central model of the business or of a domain within the business. A traditional data model or object model may serve as the basis for an information model, but ideally data models should be extended to a full ontology. (Schwartz & Schreiber, 2005)
Information Process
The process of information products creation, collection, processing, accumulating, storage, search, dissemination, and use. (Molodtsov, 2005)
Information Needs
The information that contributes to solving a goal. This information should be properly integrated and focused on the goal. (Albers, 2006)
Information Processing
Study of how humans interact within their environment while interpreting information to identify a decision. Humans are a unique form of a machine and must process information in order to formulate a decision. (Carstens, 2005)
Information Overload
1: A situation where an individual has access to so much information that it becomes impossible for him or her to
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Information Reservoir
A container of data, information, concepts, knowledge, and wisdom. (Targowski, 2005)
Information Product
1: A speciic audience-targeted content combined with the accompanying service. Different information products may be based on the same service. As an example, products Regional News and Press Conference Announcements may base on one service such as Newsline. Additional services (i.e., searches, e-mail lists) may serve to support each information product that owns its own marketing strategy and development standards. Consideration of user needs, requests, and possibilities are the key to establishing quality information products. (Arkhypska et al., 2005) 2: The output of an information manufacturing system; it implies stages of development, such as information suppliers, manufacturers, consumers, and managers. (Chengalur-Smith et al., 2005)
Information Resource
1: A collection of valuable information generated by human activities. In a broader sense, it also includes related equipment, personnel, and capital. (Lai, Fu, & Zhang, 2005) 2: One of the set of resources required to produce information, including hardware, software, technical support, users, facilities, data systems, and data. (Law, 2005)
Information Pull
The process of user access to information stored in servers linked via the Internet or an intranet. (Quah et al., 2006b)
Information Push
The process of a directory server relocating information iles to active server machines within a faded information ield based on the frequency of users accesses. (Quah, Leow, & Soh, 2006)
Information Quality
1: A global judgment of the degree to which these stakeholders are provided with information of excellent quality with regard to their deined needs, excluding user manuals and help screens (features of system quality). (Wilkin, 2005) 2: The accuracy, completeness, timeliness, and utility of performance-related information that is used as the basis of management decision making. (Wright & Taylor, 2005) 3: The degree to which information consistently meets the requirements and expectations of the knowledge workers in performing their jobs. (ChengalurSmith et al., 2005) 4: The success of the information being meaningful and useful to the receiver. (Shayo & Guthrie, 2005)
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typically textual documents. Although its deinition includes multimedia retrieval (since information items can be multimedia), the conventional IR refers to the work on textual documents, including retrieval, classiication, clustering, iltering, visualization, summarization, and so forth. The research on IR started nearly half a century ago; it grew fast in the past 20 years with the efforts of librarians, information experts, researchers on artiicial intelligence, and other areas. A system for the retrieval of textual data is an IR system, such as all the commercial Web search engines. (Li et al., 2005) 4: The process of discovering and indexing the relevant documents from a collection of documents, based on a query presented by the user. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005a) 5: A discipline that deals with inding documents that meet a set of speciic requirements. (Cunningham & Hu, 2005) 6: A technology that can retrieve useful information effectively for some themes from the Internet by artiicial or automatic method. (Chen, Tsai, et al., 2005) 7: Denotes the attempt to match a set of related documents to a given query using semantic considerations (e.g., library catalog systems often employ information retrieval techniques). (Peter & Greenidge, 2005a) 8: Concerned with the representation of knowledge and subsequent search for relevant information within these knowledge sources. Information retrieval provides the technology behind search engines. (Mandl, 2006)
including those measures necessary to detect, document, and counter such threats. (Mitrakas, 2006)
Information Service
1: Providing users up-to-date information (e.g., information of weather, news, sports, mapping, etc.). (Lee & Pai, 2005) 2: The activity of providing information products and related services according to users needs. In a broader sense, it refers to providing users with information through any form of product or service. (Lai et al., 2005)
Information Sector
A component of the information economy. The primary information sector includes those who develop hardware, software, and information systems. The secondary information sector includes those engaged in information processing activities in the course of doing work related to some other primary activity such as insurance claims processing. (Trauth, 2005a)
Information Shopping
The gathering of auction information, including the time and place of the auction and other related information. (Guan, 2006a)
Information Society
1: A context in which people interact with technology as an important part of life and social organization to exchange information. (Demediuk, 2005) 2: A societal transformation in which information is the key resource. (Trauth, 2005a) 3: A society in which economic and cultural life is integrated by complex communication networks, and critically dependent on information and communications technologies. (Rahman, 2005b) 4: A society in which information is used heavily in the everyday life of most citizens. (Ajiferuke & Olatokun, 2005) 5:
Information Security
1: Domain of knowledge dealing with issues of preserving conidentiality, integrity, and availability of information. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005) 2: The protection of information systems against unauthorized access to or modiication of information, whether in storage, processing, or transit, and against the denial of service to authorized users or the provision of service to unauthorized users,
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A society that is very much affected by the innovations and advancements in information and communication technology management and applications, and is gaining more ground within the development and diffusion of the global digital economy. (Kamel, 2005b) 6: Communal interaction based on the global informational systems of the Internet and the World Wide Web. Social relationships are informational lows, and people are informational entities or links. (Skovira, 2005)
Information Source
1: An organization or person from which information is obtained. (McGill & Dixon, 2005) 2: The source from where information is obtained by members of the community, such as relatives, friends, government oficers, teachers, community leaders, outside visitors, and the grapevine. (Gnaniah et al., 2005a)
Information Space
1: A collection of information artifacts and, optionally, agents and devices that enable information to be stored, retrieved, and possibly transformed. (Benyon, 2006) 2: The aggregate of all determined objects and subjects, and information ties between them, which function and interact to provide for information needs of people and professional corporate communities, subject to local self-governance, region, society, and state. (Molodtsov, 2005)
Information Stratiication
The role distribution between the information interaction objects according to the amounts and types of information products, the creation of which is based on specialization in a speciic activity sphere and on its scale. (Molodtsov, 2005)
Information Superhighway
1: Encompasses those components that capture the visions of a nationwide, invisible, dynamic Web learner and the source of information. Includes, but is not limited to: private and public high-speed interactive, narrow, and broadband networks; satellite, terrestrial, and wireless technologies; databases; the written word; a ilm; a piece of music; a sound recording; a picture; or computer software. (G. Lang, 2005) 2: A mixture of the full duplex (two-way), wired and wireless capabilities of telephones and networked computers with television, and radios capacity to transmit hundreds of programs. (Msiska, 2005)
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because it combines technology, people, processes, and organizational mechanisms for the purpose of improving organizational performance. (Singh & Dix, 2006) 13: The means to transform data into information; used in planning and managing resources. (Sadoun, 2006) 14: Interrelated components working together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an organization. (Hunter, 2005) 15: Normally taken to include all elements of information, encompassing both the technical and human aspects. (Dykman, 2006) 16: Refers to a set of people, procedures, and resources used to collect, process/transform, and disseminate information in an organization. (Singh, 2005)
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I nfor m at ion Te chnology Alignm e nt I nfor m at ion Te ch nology End-U se r Re lat ionship
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displaying, and storing information. This includes hardware, software media, and networks. IT is a term that encompasses all forms of technology used to create, store, exchange, and use information in its various forms (business data, voice conversations, still images, motion pictures, multimedia presentations, and other forms, including those not yet conceived). It is a convenient term for including both telephony and computer technology in the same word. It is the technology that is driving what has often been called the information revolution. (Rahman, 2005f) 11: Uses existing commercial software applications to solve organizational problems. Sometimes referred to as information systems. It is also the umbrella term for all the disciplines involved with the computer. (Scime, 2005a) 12: According to the World Bank, it consists of hardware, software, and media for collection, storage, processing, transmission, and presentation of information. (Finquelievich, 2005) 13: Computer systems and applications that include the organizations hardware, software, networking, and telecommunications. (McManus & Carr, 2005) 14: Computer-based methods for processing data into a useable form for users. (Hunter & Carr, 2005) 15: Encompasses all forms of technology used in processing and disseminating information. (Ajiferuke & Olatokun, 2005) 16: Hardware and software that constitute informational systems, as well as techniques for handling informational content and lows. (Skovira, 2005) 17: Hardware, software, network, and services related to the use and operation of equipment with the aim of processing and communication of analog and digital data, information, and knowledge. These include computers and computer applications such as the Internet, intranets, extranets, Electronic Data Interchange, electronic commerce, mobile and ixed lines, and so forth. (El Louadi, 2005b) 18: Encompasses all forms of technology used in the processing and disseminating information. (Olatokun & Ajiferuke, 2006) 19: Refers to the physical components that are needed to create information products; normally refers to the hardware, such as computers, monitors, printers, and other computer components. (Singh, 2005) 20: Information technology is the crucial component of a modern virtual organization. Without advances in technology, many of the realities of todays virtual companies would be merely science iction. These components include the Internet, LANs (local area networks), and WANs (wide area networks) for business, e-mail and online chat and bulletin boards, and real-time videoconferencing. These technologies allow smaller workgroups as part of a larger company to operate independently of each other across a room or the globe. (J. Lee, 2005)
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The best relation that can be achieved in a strategic alignment model among information technology, business structure, and business strategy. (Theodorou, 2005)
IT, to evaluating the success or failure of the IT in an organization. (Winston & Dologite, 2005)
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Information Theory
In this method, probability and ergodic theory are employed to study the statistical characteristics of data and communication systems and coding theory, which uses mainly algebraic and geometric tools to contrive eficient codes for various situations. Introduced by Claude Shannon in 1948, it was a revolutionary new probabilistic way of thinking about communication and the irst truly mathematical theory of entropy. (Polgar, 2005b)
Information Type
The description of necessary content in an application. (Uden, 2005)
Information Visualization
1: A ield of study aims to utilize a humans perceptual and cognitive abilities to enable and enhance our understanding of patterns and trends in complex and abstract information. Computer-generated two- and three-dimensional interactive graphical representations are among the most frequently used forms. (Chen, Toprani, et al., 2006) 2:
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Computer-supported interactive visual representations of abstract data which help improve understanding. (Metaxiotis, 2006) 3: The use of computer-supported methods to interactively explore and derive new insights through the visualization of large sets of information. (Eppler & Burkhard, 2006) 4: The visualization of datamining models, focusing on the results of data mining and the data-mining process itself. Techniques include rulebased scatter plots, connectivity diagrams, multi-attribute generalization, and decision tree and association rule visualization. (Viktor & Paquet, 2005) 5: Visualization of phenomena by means of appropriate representations. It is a ield different from scientiic visualization since information visualization emphasizes delivering visualizations that improve comprehension, whereas scientiic visualization emphasizes delivering realistic visualizations. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005)
Informational Privacy
The control over ones personal information in the form of text, pictures, recordings, and such. (Cook, 2005)
Information Wave
A phase of civilization in which industries based on information processing and handling are dominant factors in the economy. (Targowski, 2005)
Informationalization
The process of social advances in which human society transforms from industrial society to information society. (Lai et al., 2005)
Information-Based Integration
Process in which, given informational inputs and outputs of autonomous (sub)systems, an analyst develops the overall system being designed that meets the desired functions and is interconnected through the low of information. (Szczerbicki, 2005)
Informationbase
Set of reports and graphs, structured by means of chapters, updated automatically and/or manually. (Dragan, 2005)
Information-Eficient Market
Information and its dissemination are central elements in the traditional view of an eficient market. Internet inance forums have the potential to enhance the information eficiency of a market by creating an environment where information is continuously discussed and evaluated. (Campbell, 2006)
Informationbase Chapter
Part of informationbase, group of reports or graphs. (Dragan, 2005)
Informationbase Entry
Part of an informationbase chapter, single report or graph. (Dragan, 2005)
Informed Consent
1: The process by which people make decisions based on adequate information, voluntariness, and capacity to understand and appreciate the consequences of whatever is being consented to. Also called valid consent. (Goodman, 2005) 2: An individuals freely given consent to participate in research based on information provided
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by the researcher(s) about the research, possible risks associated with the research, and the voluntary nature of participation. Informed consent must be obtained without coercion or undue inluence. (Roberts et al., 2005)
department chairs. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005) 5: The underlying resources that provide the necessary capability for achieving outcomes. (Samuel & Samson, 2006)
Infostructure
The complementary set of infrastructures, including an underlying electrical and telephonic grid, national core computing, and capacity access to online subscriptions and digital libraries. (Trujillo, 2005)
Infotainment
Word formed from information and entertainment. In the automotive domain, it identiies a set of features provided by a VTS, such as audio module, Web browser, and so forth. (Costagliolam Di Martino, & Ferrucci, 2006)
Infrequent Itemset
Itemset with support smaller than a certain threshold, called minsupport. (Wong & Fu, 2005)
Infrared (IR)
A wireless technology that enables short-range communication between senders and receivers through beaming. The signal goes straight and will not go through walls. (Yang, 2005)
Infrequent Pattern
An itemset that is not a frequent pattern. (Zou & Chu, 2005)
Inheritance Infrastructure
1: A class of wireless networking architectures in which mobile stations communicate with each other via access points, which are usually linked to a wired backbone. Such a network has a ixed infrastructure and has centralized control. (Sarkar, 2005) 2: An emerging class of companies have opted to approach the Application Service Provider (ASP) market by providing infrastructure management and outsourcing services to ASPs, freeing up their resources to focus more directly on application management issues (telco, data center, networking). (Guah & Currie, 2005) 3: An internal supportive framework. Among other things, infrastructure can refer to the computer networking technology found in an organization. (Baker & Schihl, 2005) 4: The often unseen network of services provided within the institution that supports the daily operations. In this case, the distance teaching and learning infrastructure includes people working behind the scenes that support students, albeit in an invisible fashion. For example, the registrars ofice, the ofice of student inances, the inancial aid ofice, information technology system specialists, as well as distance learning administrators, deans, and 1: A class inherits its state and behavior from its superclass. Inheritance provides a powerful and natural mechanism for organizing and structuring software programs. (Wong & Chan, 2006) 2: A feature of object-oriented languages that allows a new class to be derived from another class (a more general class); derived classes (more speciic classes) inherit the form and functionality of their base class. (D. Brandon, 2005a) 3: A special relation between two classes of objects; class A inherits from class B when it is considered that A possesses all the characteristics of B (and possibly some more) simply because it is a subclass of class B. Models that support inheritance explicitly allow economical expression of facts, because declaring A as a subclass of B implies inheritance in such models. (Badia, 2005d) 4: A subclass inherits all the attributes of a superclass and all the relationships that it (the superclass) participates in. (Bagui, 2005) 5: A way of organizing classes so that properties can be deined once and applied to a whole collection of classes, with a general class deining those properties and specialized classes inheriting them. (Lucas, 2005) 6: The ability of a superclass to pass its characteristics (methods and instance
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variables) onto its subclasses, allowing subclasses to reuse these characteristics. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005)
InkML
An Extensible Markup Language (XML) data format for representing digital-ink data. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006)
Inheritance Hierarchy
Ontologies/taxonomies are structured as hierarchies of concepts (inheritance hierarchies) by means of IsA links. A semantic interpretation of this relationship among concepts, when noted as (IsA B A), means that concept B is a specialization of the more general concept A. In other terms, A subsumes B. This assertion can be expressed in logical form as: x (B(x)A(x)) (1)(1) says that, for example, if any elephant_ (B, a concept) IsA mammal_ (A, a more general concept), and if clyde_ (an instance or individual) is an elephant_, then clyde_ is also a mammal_. (Zarri, 2005a)
Inlink
A link to a Web site from a different Web site. (Thelwall, 2006)
Innovation
1: A new technology, idea, or process; (verb) the process of identifying, adopting, and implementing a new technology, idea, or process. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005a) 2: A process in which organizations create and deine problems, actively developing new knowledge to solve them, and generating new products, processes, or services. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006) 3: An idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. (Askar & Halici, 2005) 4: Any idea, product, practice, behavior, or object that is apparent as new. (Askarany, 2005) 5: Something new. It can be a product or a process and must provide beneit to the organization and to the advancement of society. An invention only becomes an innovation when it has become commercially successful. (Mitchell, 2005a) 6: The application, in any organization, of ideas new to it, whether they are embodied in products, processes, or services. (Tatnall, 2005b) 7: The creation of something new. This involves a radical step of making something different from before or creating something that has not existed before. (Fong, 2006a) 8: The generation of new ideas (new knowledge) that leads to the development of new products or organizational practices. (Newell, 2006) 9: The successful exploitation of a new idea. This may be in the industrial domain (products, processes, campaigns) or the scientiic domain (theories, insights, methodologies). (Paukert et al., 2006) 10: The term innovation involves the transformation of an idea into a marketable product or service, a new or improved manufacturing or distribution process, or a new method of social service. The term also encompasses social, institutional, and organizational innovation, including in the services sector. The concept of innovation is also used in connection with the analysis of processes of technological change. Traditionally, technological change was viewed as consisting of three stages: invention, innovation, and diffusion. Innovations can take place at any time in all areas of the economy. (Finquelievich, 2005)
Inhibitor
A factor that can stop an activity. (Lubbe, 2005)
Initial Model
The unique set of unit consequents of a set of Horn clauses. (Buehrer, 2005)
Initial Trust
Trust in another person or organization before the trusting party gets to know them. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006)
Initiative
The characteristic of originating new ideas or methods. (Olatokun, 2006)
Ink
A feature of tablet PCs that allows users to enter information using a pen. (Roldan, 2005)
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Innovation Capital
This innovation-oriented approach focuses on explicit knowledge that will eventually facilitate organizational learning. The learned organization will then have better capabilities to innovate and compete. (Hsu & Mykytyn, 2006)
Innovation Network
A structured network of N organizations sharing common goals related to research and/or development of new products/technologies (e.g., The Human Genome Project). This network type is characterized by a decentralized structure, low-medium competition, and uncommon scope of operations among members. (Priestley, 2006)
Innovation Diffusion
A theory of innovation in which the main elements are: characteristics of the innovation itself, the nature of the communication channels, the passage of time, and the social system through which the innovation diffuses. (Tatnall & Burgess, 2005)
Innovation Translation
A theory of innovation in which, instead of using an innovation in the form it is proposed, potential adopters translate into a form that suits their needs. (Tatnall & Burgess, 2005)
Innovation-Decision Process
The process through which an individual passes from having knowledge of an innovation, to the formation of an attitude toward the innovation, to a decision to adopt or reject it, to the implementation and use of the new idea, and then to the conirmation of this process (knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and conirmation). (Askar & Kocak-Usluel, 2005)
Innovation Factor
One of the characteristics of a speciic innovation that encourages an organization to adopt an innovation, including the perceived beneits of the innovation and the compatibility of the innovation to the organization. (Cragg & Mills, 2005)
Innovative Cognition
A cognitive style that processes information, intuitively, integratively, and prefers to construct new paradigms. (Kaluzniacky, 2006)
Innovative Culture
An organizational climate that fosters new ideas and relection on learning from experiences. (Wright & Taylor, 2005)
Innovation Hub
Designed to encourage the formation and growth of knowledge-based enterprises or high value-added tertiary irms. Innovation hubs generally aim at promoting and catalyzing innovation and entrepreneurship within an innovative milieu. (Moodley, 2005)
Innovative Product
A product having uncertain demand, a high proit margin, and a short lifecycle due to ensuing competition that forces companies to introduce newer innovations. (Abraham & Leon, 2006)
Innovativeness
The degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than others. (Lertwongsatien & Wongpinunwatana, 2005)
Input Acceleration
A technique for expanding user input, allowing a large volume of input to be provided with few user actions. (Trewin & Keates, 2006)
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Input Debugging
Inquiry Training
A structured teaching model that allows individuals to learn the way scientists learn. Such a model follows speciic phases of instruction that include solving a real problem by making hypotheses, gathering and organizing data, and testing different hypotheses to come up with a possible solution to dealing with a problem. (Gillani, 2005b)
A process performed on a router to determine from which adjacent router the packets matching a particular attack signature are coming from. (Syed, Nur, et al., 2005)
Input/Output
The performance measures used in DEA evaluation. Inputs usually refer to the resources used, and outputs refer to the outcomes achieved by an organization or DMU. (Chen, Motiwalla, et al., 2005)
Inquiring Organization
An organization founded on the principles of one or more inquiring systems that seeks to increase its learning potential. Inquiring organizations are learning-oriented organizations that strive to include both creation and management of knowledge in their cache of core competencies. The philosophical foundations of inquiring organizations come from Churchmans (1971) discourse of knowledge creation and inquiring systems from the viewpoints of selected Western philosophers. These perspectives are particularly well suited to knowledge management and serve to differentiate the inquiring organization from other learning organizations. (Hall & Croasdell, 2006)
Inquiring Theory
The theory espoused by Churchman that systems should be designed to create new knowledge while incorporating ethics and aesthetics, culminating in knowledge that creates the greatest good for the greatest number. (Hall & Croasdell, 2006)
Inspirational Behavior
Inluences others by using emotional appeals, and vivid and persuasive images, to elevate their performance. (Sipior, 2005)
Installed Base
Number of current users of a certain communication product and compatible products. (Voeth & Liehr, 2005)
Inquiry
The process of being actively engaged in the pursuit of knowledge. (Hall & Croasdell, 2006)
Instance
1: A set of attributes, their values, and a class label. Also called example, record, or case. (Maloof, 2005) 2: A vector of attribute values in a multi-dimensional space deined by the attributes, also called a record, tuple, or data point. (Liu & Yu, 2005) 3: Of a model: a set of data
Inquiry Style
An individual approach to learning based on dominant information acquisition, change, the relationship to others, and problem-solving behavior. (Handzic & Lin, 2005)
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items structured according to the model. Data instantiate the model (or data schema in this context). (Diskin & Kadish, 2005) 4: An example (or record) of the dataset; it is often a row of the data table. Instances of a dataset are usually seen as a sample of the whole population (the universe). An instance is described by its attribute values, which can be continuous or discrete. (Muhlenbach & Rakotomalala, 2005)
The applications are increasingly used to provide quick user help and feedback, build relationships, and easily share comments. (Kardaras & Karakostas, 2006) See Chat.
Instant Messenger
1: A program that hooks up to a service for conversation in real time. Involved parties see each line of text right after it is typed (line-by-line), thus making it more like a telephone conversation than exchanging letters. Popular instant messaging services on the public Internet include AOL Instant Messenger, Yahoo! Messenger, .NET Messenger Service, and ICQ. (Kao & Rerrer, 2006) 2: An information technology that enables people to send real-time text messages. (Wang, J. et al., 2006b)
Instance Selection
A process of choosing a subset of data to achieve the original purpose of a data-mining application as if the whole data is used. (Liu & Yu, 2005)
Instantiation
Creation of an object, or class instance, from a class. (Lucas, 2005)
Institution-Based Trust
1: Trust based on the guarantees of a third party. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006) 2: Trust formed when organizational members believe that their organization as a whole has their best interests at heart and acts accordingly. (Smith, 2006b)
Institutional Connectivity
Refers to an organization or institutions ability to link with others networks and the rate at which this connection is made. (Poda & Brescia, 2005)
Institutional Dimension
Considering the need for integrated evaluation of business ideas/solutions enabled by IT, it is emergent that there are organizational dimensions (or institutions). They include the context where evaluation is integrated (e.g., the systems development lifecycle, the IS management practices and processes, the peoples roles, the organizational culture) and furthermore, the understanding of stakeholders behavior within this context. (Serafeimidis, 2005)
Institutional Policy
A plan or course of action developed by an institution to guide actions. (Schifter, 2005)
Institutional Strengthening
Awareness and effective use of human and technological available resources in all their scope to accomplish institutional goals. (Falivene & Kaufman, 2006)
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I nst ruc t iona l Conc e pt ion I nst ruc t iona l Deve lopm e n t
Instructional Conception
Conception about the functionalities of (elements of) a learning environment. Such conceptions can relate to the effectiveness or eficiency of speciic features in a learning environment (e.g., tools) or to the environment as a whole (e.g., KABISA as a learning environment). (Clarebout et al., 2005b)
constraints, motivation, psychology, and related issues. (Sales, 2005) 10: The soft technology of organizing learning materials and events so that instruction will be most successful. (Duchastel, 2005) 11: The systematic design of course materials. A common model called ADDIE includes Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. (Baker & Schihl, 2005) 12: The systematic method of how to plan, develop, evaluate, and manage the instructional process effectively. (Askar et al., 2005) 13: The systematic process of translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instruction and learning. (Askar & Halici, 2005)
Instructional Development
1: The development of learner, instructor, and management materials (both print and nonprint) that incorporates speciications for an effective, eficient, and relevant learner environment. Instr uctional development includes formative and summative evaluation of the instructional product. (Kinuthia, 2005) 2: The process of implementing the design plans under instructional technology (instructional technology = instructional design + instructional development). Instructional development provides a process and framework for systematically planning, developing, and adapting instruction based on identiiable learner needs and content requirements. This process is essential in distance education, where the instructor and students may share limited common
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background and typically have minimal face-to-face contact. Although instructional development models and processes abound, the majority follow the same basic stages of design, development, evaluation, and revision. (Rahman, 2005a)
Instructional Scaffolding
Refers to a developmental process of constructing sequential instruction components to achieve an original outcome. (McCracken, 2005)
Instructional Technology
The systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems. It is the systematic application of theory and other organized knowledge to the task of instructional design and development. (Rahman, 2005a)
Instructional/Pedagogical Design/Approach
In the context of Web-based instruction, this usually relates to pedagogical decision making, which concerns two different aspects of the system design: planning the educational content (what concepts should be the focus of the course) and planning the delivery of instruction (how to present these concepts). (Magoulas, 2006)
Instructional Media
Modes of communication in which teaching takes place, such as instruction by face-to-face interaction, lessons by radio, deployment of curricula or interactive learning via the Internet, and so forth. (Fisher, 2005)
Instructivist Perspective
A perspective on learning that places emphasis on the teacher in the role of an instructor that is in control of what is to be learned and how it is to be learned. The learner is the passive recipient of knowledge. Often referred to as teacher-centered learning environment. (Torrisi-Steele, 2005)
Instructional Objective
A description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them competent. An objective describes an intended result of instruction rather than the process of instruction itself. (I. Chen, 2005)
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Instrumentality
The notion that action, including knowledge management, is carried out for a purpose, and that the purpose underlying the action can be maligning as well as beneicial. (Land, Nolas, et al., 2006)
Insurance
Protection against future loss. In exchange for a dollar value (premium), insurance is a promise of reimbursement in the case of loss. Contractual arrangement of insurance may be voluntarily or by government mandate (such as minimum requirements for automobile insurance for licensed drivers). (Kitchens, 2005)
Intangible Cost
One of a number of costs that are dificult to be measured in a direct way, since they refer to vague concepts. (Esteves & Pastor, 2005)
INTASC Principle
One of a set of core standards for what all beginning teachers should know, be like, and be able to do in order to practice responsibly, regardless of the subject matter or grade level being taught. (Shaw & Slick, 2005)
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the system in every other component of the system. For example, if a Human Resources system is integrated, and an employee changes his or her address through any human interface that allows it, then the new address will be shown automatically every place else in the system. (Fulton, 2005) 3: Refers to how work is performed. Knowledge entities cannot be merged but should be looked upon as a distributed system of cognitive elements whose integrative potential lies in the collective ability to perform. (Munkvold, 2006)
Integration Adapter
Data and application adapters (also known as data interfaces or data drivers) are native software objects that allow integration tools to retrieve data eficiently from complex, sometimes proprietary stores of information. (Karakostas, 2005)
Integration Hub
A hub is a messaging server that exchanges important information between different applications so that the applications can interact in a meaningful way. (Karakostas, 2005)
Integration of Processes
The coordination and integration of processes seamlessly within and without the organization. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005a)
Integration
1: The process of achieving unity of effort among various subsystems in the accomplishment of the organizational task (process focus); the quality of the state of collaboration that exists among departments which is required to achieve unity of effort by the demands of the environment (outcome focus). (Peterson, 2005) 2: A system is integrated when it is suficiently interconnected that a change to any element of the system by any component of the system is relected appropriatelythat is, according to the business rules of
Integrity
1: Allows the system to verify whether modiications have occurred; it does not make sure that information was not altered. (Pierre, 2006b) 2: In databases, integrity is largely synonymous to semantic consistencythat is, the correctness of stored data with regard to their intended meaning. Integrity, as expressed by integrity constraints, should not be confused with a namesake issue often associated with data security. (Decker, 2005)
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3: The condition that exists when data is unchanged from its source and has not been modiied, altered, or destroyed at any operation according to an expectation of data quality. (Mitrakas, 2006) 4: Prevention of unauthorized modiication of information. (Tong & Wong, 2005a) 5: The belief the other party is honest and adheres to accepted modes of behavior. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006) 6: As deined by the American Institute of Certiied Public Accountants, it includes the character traits of honesty, candor, and protection of conidentiality. (Wang, Chen, et al., 2006)
Integrity Satisfaction
A given database state satisies integrity if each integrity constraint in the database schema, posed as a query, returns the required yes/no answer. An ostensibly equivalent, but in fact slightly weaker deinition says that integrity is satisied if it is not violated (see Integrity Violation). The difference between both deinitions manifests itself in incomplete databases. (Decker, 2005)
Integrity Violation
In a given database state, integrity is violated if any one of the integrity constraints, posed as a query, returns the opposite of the required yes/no answer. (Decker, 2005)
Integrity Checking
Systematic tests ensuring that integrity remains satisied (see Integrity Satisfaction). If integrity is violated (see Integrity Violation), then the update causing inconsistency must be rejected or some other action must be taken to enforce a consistent state, that is, one that satisies integrity (see Integrity Enforcement). (Decker, 2005)
Intellectual Alignment
Describes a state where the content of IT and HR business plans are consistent and externally valid. (Dery & Samson, 2005)
Integrity Control
Deals with the prevention of semantic errors made by the users due to their carelessness or lack of knowledge. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Integrity Enforcement
Actions taken to ensure that integrity remains satisied across database updates (see Integrity Satisfaction). Conservative integrity enforcement rejects updates that would violate integrity (see Integrity Violation). Progressive integrity enforcement attempts to satisfy the update while maintaining integrity by further data modiications, possibly consulting the user. (Decker, 2005)
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is created through collaborative activity by a community. It can be dificult to ensure clear notions of ownership since knowledge is jointly held. The organization of communities must deine codes of behavior to deal with ownership issues. (Fleming, 2005c) 9: The human intelligence asset that belongs to a company. It consists of people, the skills, values, learning, and knowledge that they bring to the organization. (Ray, 2006) 10: The set of intangible assets that enable a company to function. (Casado, 2005)
Intellectual Creation
Any work of creation, such as authorship, visual arts, performing arts, or music. (Kieler & West, 2005)
(Fleming, 2005b) 6: A comparatively recent description of the much older concept that intellectual effort can be treated as a form of property and controlled so as to circumscribe or limit the ways in which that intellectual effort is used by others. The concept of intellectual property encompasses copyright, patent, trademarks, moral rights, and other similar forms of legal protection. A contested implication of the use of the term is that intellectual work should attract the same level of legal protection that is given to physical property. (Marshall, 2005) 7: A general term for intangible property rights that are a result of intellectual effort. (Pemberton & Stalker, 2006) 8: Any product of the human intellect that is unique, novel, and unobvious (and has some value in the marketplace)that is, an idea, invention, expression or literary creation, unique name, business method, industrial process, chemical formula, computer program process, or presentation. (Du Mont, 2005) 9: Includes business designs, business process techniques, or patterns. Technology held proprietary through patents, copyrights, or trade secrets can deter new entrants and achieve a competitive advantage by exploiting economies of scale and scope or through differentiation. Five steps are suggested to establish intellectual property capital: conduct an intellectual property audit, incubate new ideas, reduce the ideas to practical form, protect the idea, and exploit the idea. (Hsu & Mykytyn, 2006) 10: A concept allowing individuals or organizations to own their creativity and innovation in the same way that they can own physical property. The owners of IP can control its use and be rewarded for it; in principle, this encourages further innovation and creativity. (Warren, 2006)
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Scientiic work that has fundamentally changed the subsequence development in its field. Identifying intellectual turning points is one of the potentially beneicial areas of applications of trend detection techniques. (Chen, Toprani, et al., 2006)
foundation that consists of information technology-based facilities, systems, and services that support holistic intelligent behaviors throughout an organization. (Tang & Sivaramakrishnan, 2005)
Intelligence Need
One of the topics that an organization must monitor in order to stay competitive. (Parker & Nitse, 2006)
Intelligence
1: Ability of a given system to act appropriately (i.e., to increase the probability of the achievement of given aims) in an uncertain and changing environment. (Szczerbicki, 2005) 2: Information, news, and advice. Brain power or cognitive skills. IBM uses the term business intelligence systems to describe its mixed integrated knowledge systems. (Mockler & Dologite, 2005)
Intelligent Agent
1: A proactive computer system capable of lexible autonomous action in order to meet its design objectives as set out by the designer. (Ally, 2005b) 2: A piece of software, used extensively on the Web that performs tasks such as retrieving and delivering information, and automating repetitive tasks. It internally uses some form of knowledge representation based on logics. (Sicilia & Garca-Barriocanal, 2006) 3: A proactive computer system that is capable of lexible autonomous action in order to meet its design objectives set out by the designer. (Ally, 2005a) 4: A program that gathers information or performs some other service without your immediate presence and on some regular schedule. (Raisinghani et al., 2005) 5: A program that makes use of Artiicial Intelligence (AI) approaches to provide timely contextual help or instruction to a learner. (Askar et al., 2005) 6: A software entity that performs a set of operations on behalf of a user or another program. Such entities are embedded in computer-based information systems to make them smarter. This is usually achieved with the employment of artiicial intelligence techniques. (Karacapilidis, 2005) 7: An agent that is capable of lexible behavior: responding to events timely, exhibiting goal-directed behavior and social behavior, and conducting machine learning to improve its own performance over time. (Soh & Jiang, 2006) 8: An agent who acts in an intelligent way (autonomy, learning, reasoning, etc.). (Karoui, 2005) 9: An autonomous software program that performs certain tasks delegated to it by its master. The program is able to learn and adapt to its environment in order to perform the tasks better. Taskspeciic intelligent agents are given different names based on their functionalities, such as interface agent, information agent, e-commerce agent, and personal assistant agent. (Tang & Sivaramakrishnan, 2005)
Intelligence Cycle
1: A complete process of intelligence data, divided into data collection, data processing and exploitation, data analysis, and production and dissemination. (Badia, 2006) 2: Cycle of four stages (collections of intelligence activities). The stages are direction (also referred to as planning, in which the strategic information requirements are determined), collection (determining sources and retrieving data), analysis (assessing the strategic relevance of data), and dissemination (of the intelligence to strategic decision makers). (Vriens, 2005b)
Intelligence Density
The useful decision support information that a decision maker gets from using a system for a certain amount of time, or alternately the amount of time taken to get the essence of the underlying data from the output. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005b)
Intelligence Infrastructure
1: Comprises all technological, human resources, and organizational means needed to manage, support, and perform the intelligence activities. It consists of three sub-infrastructures: the technological infrastructure, the human resources infrastructure, and the organizational infrastructure. (Vriens, 2005a) 2: The organizational
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Intelligent Algorithm
A human-centered algorithm with the capacity for thought and reason, especially to a high degree. (Barolli & Koyama, 2005a)
are inside, and present and retrieve the related and interested portions for the users. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005a)
Intelligent Interface
A point of communication between a human and a computer that displays qualities that mimic traits observed in human communication such as the use of natural languages. (Alkhalifa, 2005b)
Intelligent Key
Contains data that has a meaning beyond the unique identiication of a database record. For example, a vehicle identiication number (VIN) contains information about the manufacturer, model, and other attributes of the vehicle. (Millet, 2005)
Intelligent Metabusiness
A metabusiness with a high degree of reach, range, and structuring. (Joia, 2005)
Intelligent Organization
An organization is a living organism where all components and subsystems work coherently together to enable the organization to maximize its potential in its goal-driven endeavors. It is characterized by learning and adapting to the changing environment. (Tang & Sivaramakrishnan, 2005)
Intelligent Portal
Portal designed for decision-making purposes. An intelligent portal is not an agent program, but a contentbased information package that knows what it is used for and how it can achieve its goal. In practice, intelligent portals are supported by a software component, namely, an Information Broker running on application servers over the Internet. The intelligence comes from the mechanisms that support the portals to deliver information at the right time to the right place. (Li, 2005a)
Intelligent Enterprise
1: An organization that is able to understand changing environments, and adapt with agility and resourcefulness in order to outperform competitors. (Jones & Gupta, 2005) 2: An organization capable of acting effectively in the present and dealing effectively with the challenges of the future by being proactive, adaptable, knowledgeable, and well resourced. (Framinan, 2005)
Intelligent Program
A program that is intelligent in some sense, using learning, adaptive, or evolutionary algorithms. (Guan, 2006d)
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the intention linked with the question. (Ras & Dardzinska, 2005)
Intelligent Scale
A scale equipped with a special camera and identiication software. Based on an objects structure, size, color, and thermal image, the scale automatically recognizes the item, weighs it, and prints out a price tag. (Kotzab, 2005)
content, pedagogical, and diagnostic expertise during the learning process. (Ally, 2005d) 3: A computer-based instructional system using artiicial intelligence modeling and reasoning techniques for providing a personalized learning experience. ITSs typically rely on three types of knowledge: expert model, student model, and instructor model. (Esmahi, 2005)
Intention to Use
An attitude measure of an end users goal to use a speciic information system. (Shayo & Guthrie, 2005)
Intentional Versioning
Automatic construction of versions based on coniguration rules. (Martnez-Gonzlez, 2005)
Inter-Arrival Distribution
The probability density function that describes likely and unlikely inter-arrival times for packets. (Guster et al., 2005)
Intelligent System
A conceptual system that learns during its existence and acts on the environment where it lives, maybe modifying it. (Analide et al., 2006)
Intelligent Tool
A tool that can adjust its responses based on learner needs and queries. (Bonk et al., 2005)
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Inter-Project Learning
1: A learning activity in which project-speciic knowledge, templates, or designs are transferred from a source project to other projects. (Oshri, 2006) 2: In project-based industries, people are organized around projects rather than on a functional basis. Learning rarely happens in a project, as people will disband upon its completion, and all the successes or failures are easily forgotten or not learned by those who are not involved. This concept involves trying to leverage knowledge and experience from other projects which may beneit the current one. (Fong, 2006a)
Interaction Design
1: A similar soft technology focusing on the processes of interacting with information, particularly in high-impact or strongly emotive contexts. (Duchastel, 2005) 2: The coordination of information exchange between the user and the system. (Ferre, Juristo, & Moreno, 2006) 3: The process of designing interactive products to support people in their everyday and work lives. (Singh & Dix, 2006)
Inter-Sectorial Cooperation
Cooperation that is represented by a more or less stable partnership between the private and the public sector. (Knust & Hagenhoff, 2005)
Interaction Management
An entire system that monitors customer communications at every possible contact point, regardless of sourcethat is, Web, telephone, fax, e-mail, kiosks, or in person. (Borders & Johnston, 2005)
Inter-University Cooperation
Cooperation between different universities or university institutes. Such universities must be state-run and not private-run, otherwise such cooperation would be considered an inter-sectorial one. (Knust & Hagenhoff, 2005)
Interaction
1: Bidirectional information exchange between users and equipment (Bevan, 2006) 2: Contact and communication between faculty and students, and between the students themselves, is one of the important determinants of completion and retention. (Lindsay, Howell, et al., 2005) 3: How a user communicates, or interacts, with a computer. Interaction focuses on the low of interaction, the dialogue between person and computer, how input relates to output, stimulus-response compatibility, and feedback mechanisms. (Singh, 2005) 4: Interaction among members of a group is necessary to produce collaboration. It can be measured by examining the give-and-take nature of the discussion threads. (Ingram, 2005) 5: Mediated communication between two or more individuals. (Woods & Baker, 2005) 6: The mutual response and acknowledgment of members of the group to ideas and suggestions from other members of the group. It involves challenging, defending, and accepting those ideas. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005a) 7: Usually refers to reciprocal communication between two (or more) parties where there are feedback, comments, suggestions, and so forth. It can also be one way, for example, in learnercontent interaction, where the interaction is relective in nature. (Kung-Ming & Khoon-Seng 2005)
Interaction Method
The ways an e-shopper can manipulate items within the virtual mall. The interaction methods may vary, depending on the type of item representation (video, 3D model, photograph), the item semantics, and the preferences or expertise of the user. (Lepouras & Vassilakis, 2006)
Interaction Process
The process customers go through in order to ind or conigure the product variations that meet their requirements via the online channel. (Blecker & Abdelkai, 2006)
Interaction Standard
One of a set of standards that are primarily used in business transactions. These standards address communication content and interfaces in e-business. (Hawk & Zheng, 2006)
Interaction System
Comprehensive entity for optimal customer-supplier interaction in e-business consisting of two separate yet interconnected information systems: an advisory component and a product conigurator. (Blecker, 2006b)
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Interaction among learners through debate, collaboration, discussion, and peer review, as well as informal and incidental learning among classmates. (Swan, 2005)
Interactive Learning
1: An environment where the student is actively involved in a reciprocal exchange of information with the teacher and other students. (Baxendale, 2005) 2: The process of exchanging and sharing knowledge resources conducive to innovation between an innovator, its suppliers, and/or its clients. It may start with a resource-based argument, speciied by introducing competing and complementary theoretical arguments, such as the complexity and structuring of innovative activities and cross-sectoral technological dynamics. (Rahman, 2005c) 3: The process of exchanging and sharing knowledge resources conducive to innovation between an innovator, its suppliers, and/or its clients. It may start with a resource-based argument, which is speciied by introducing competing and complementary theoretical arguments such as the complexity and structuring of innovative activities, and cross-sectoral technological dynamics. (Rahman, 2005a)
Interaction-Oriented Intervention
The appropriate presence of the teacher in an active learning and student-centered environment. (Bodomo, 2005a)
Interactional Approach
An approach that acknowledges that both characteristics of the person and the environment inluence behaviors and outcomes. (Jawahar, 2005)
Interactive
1: A computer-delivered format allowing the user to control, combine, and manipulate different types of media, such as text, sound, video, computer graphics, and animation. (Ryan, 2005) 2: A computer system that allows the person using it to affect the way in which it works or the outcome, such that the user is not playing a passive role. (Sieber & Andrew, 2005)
Interactive Classroom
A classroom that facilitates virtual and face-to-face conversations among teachers and learners. (Roldan, 2005)
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Interactive Video
Presentation of class via video with student ability to respond to the instructor. (Witta, 2005)
Interactive Service
A telecommunication service that provides users with the ability to control and inluence the subjects of communication. (Hulicki, 2005)
Interactivity
1: A characteristic of a medium in which the user can inluence the form and content of the mediated presentation or experience. (Gao, 2005b) 2: A reciprocal exchange between the technology and the learner, a process which is referred to as feedback. (Askar et al., 2005) 3: The set of functions and operations available to the learner that involve, engage, and motivate the learner to interact in a computer-based environment. (Kung-Ming & Khoon-Seng 2005) 4: Concerned with the engagement between the medium itself, whereby people manipulate the medium to provide information or perform functions commanded by the user. (Weber & Lim, 2005) 5: A process whereby students are systematically encouraged to be active participants in their own learning. It is achieved by teaching approaches that engage students in the construction of knowledge. (Sala, 2005a) 6: Media or channels that permit two-way communication whether the format is one to one (telephone), one to many (interactive television), or many to many (the Internet). (Roberts & Schwaab, 2006) 7: Occurs when a student works within a multimedia exercise in which the student and the program interchange information in order to complete the exercise. (Kaur et al., 2005) 8: One of the main features of modern digital ICTs which refers to the interchange of responses and actions between humans and machines, or among human beings. (Bodomo, 2005b) 9: The ability of a multimedia system to respond to user input. The interactivity element
Interactive Session
A period of communication for the exchange of ideas by an assembly of people for a common purpose. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006)
Interactive System
1: A system that supports communication in both directions, from user to computer and back again. A crucial property of any interactive system is its support for human activity. (Singh, 2005) 2: A system that supports communication in both directions, from user to computer and back. A crucial property of any interactive system is its support for human activity. (Singh, 2005b)
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of multimedia is considered of central importance from the point of view that it facilitates the active knowledge construction by enabling learners to make decisions about pathways they will follow through content. (Torrisi-Steele, 2005) 10: The level of interaction among communication partners. (Chan, Tan, et al., 2005) 11: The relationship between the learner and the educational environment. (Russell, 2005b) 12: Usually taken to mean the chance for interactive communication among subjects. Technically, interactivity implies the presence of a return channel in the communication system, going from the user to the source of information. The channel is a vehicle for the data bytes that represent the choices or reactions of the user (input). (Pagani, 2005a)
Interdependence
1: Interdependence among members of a small group is a necessary element of collaboration. It means that group members could not produce the results they did without one another. (Ingram, 2005) 2: Mutual dependence between parties in an organizational setting. A situational factor proposed to contribute to the occurrence of LPB. (Moore & Burke, 2005) 3: The level of dependence that one group member has on other group members in order to complete the learning tasks. (Graham & Misanchuk, 2005) 4: The mutual sharing of information between members of a group to promote understanding in all members with the purpose of achieving the group goal. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005a)
Interactivity Dimension
The number of users that a single transducer, display system, or application software can support (by means of complete hardware or software simulations) during one particular interactive session. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006)
Interactor
One of a number of elementary interactive components such as push buttons, text ields, list boxes, and so forth. (Bastide et al., 2006)
Interestingness
1: An elusive concept that is very dificult to characterize and operationalize. A pattern is interesting if it arouses attention in the minds of the examiner. Interestingness has many facets like unexpectedness, actionability, prior knowledge, and knowledge goals, in addition to many unidentiied domain-dependent features. Features of interestingness may be user dependent, domain dependent, or/and there might be a temporal aspect associated with it. (Natarajan & Shekar, 2006) 2: The set of methods used to order and prune the set of rules produced by association rule algorithms. This facilitates their use and interpretation by the user. Metrics for interestingness include measures such as conidence, added value, mutual information. and conviction measures. (Imberman & Tansel, 2006)
Intercluster Similarity
1: A measurement of the similarity between the clusters identiied in a particular clustering process. These clusters must be as dissimilar as possible. (Santos et al., 2005) 2: The overall similarity among documents from two different clusters. (Fung et al., 2005)
Intercultural
1: In contrast to multi-cultural (which simply describes the heterogeneous cultural identities of a group), crosscultural (which implies some kind of opposition), or transcultural (which has been used to suggest a cultural transition), intercultural is used to describe the creative interactive interface that is constructed and shared by communicating individuals from different cultural backgrounds. (Macfadyen, 2006a) 2: A situation where individuals from different cultures interact with or exchange information with one another; interchangeable with the term cross-cultural. (St.Amant, 2005c)
Interface
1: A contract in the form of a collection of methods and constant declarations. When a class implements an
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interface, it promises to implement all of the methods declared in that interface. (Wong & Chan, 2006) 2: A set of commands or menus through which a user communicates with a software program. (Proserpio & Magni, 2005) 3: Portion of a computer application that is used by the user to communicate with the application. It is particularly important for a dashboard, because it may impinge on the ability of users to properly interpret the variations in the indicators shown to them. (Adam & Pomerol, 2005) 4: The set of components of a computer program that allow the user to interact with the information. (Ally, 2005c) 5: The design on the computer screen with which the user interacts. (Szabados & Sonwalkar, 2005) 6: The point at which two systems connect, and the method by which communication is accomplished. The computer keyboard, mouse, printer, and video display exemplify interfaces between the machines internal operations and the human user. (Horiuchi, 2005a) 7: The speciication for a method (what a method does); how that function is called from another program. Interfaces are provided in source form as opposed to implementations which are secure. This allows one to use a method without regard for how that method is coded. It also allows multiple implementations of the same interface. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 8: The way a user interacts with a product, what he or she does, and how it responds. (Magnani & Bardone, 2006) 9: In general, extraneous energy from natural or man-made sources that impedes the reception of desired signals. (Ragazzi, 2005)
Interlibrary Loan
The process by which a library requests material from, or supplies material to, another library. (Raisinghani & Hohertz, 2005)
Interlinking
Linking between two or more Web sites. (Thelwall, 2006)
Intermedia Synchronization
Maintaining the requirements of the temporal relationships between two or more media. Lip synchronization between video and audio is an example of interstream synchronization where the display of video must synchronize with audio. (Yang et al., 2005b)
Intermedia Transcoding
The process of converting the media input into another media format. (Cavallaro, 2005)
Intermediary
1: In the tourism and travel sectors, intermediaries are those organizations that package or on-sell a product. These include travel agents, tour packagers, inbound tour operators, and destination marketing organizations. The Internet has led to the emergence of electronic intermediaries that offer their services entirely online. (Carson, 2005) 2: A party that acts as an agent in transactions or markets. (Foley & Samson, 2006) 3: A person or organization performing a (booking) role between consumers and business. (Braun, 2005b)
Interface Agent
A semi-autonomous agent that assists a user with, or partially automates, his or her tasks. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006)
Interface Design
Design of the interactions between humans and computers. (Chan & Fang, 2005)
Internal Audit
The irst step to determining what is taught online via distance education, what is taught online onsite, and what is not taught online or uses limited technology. (Robinson, 2005)
Interface Evaluation
Interface evaluation of a software system is a procedure intended to identify and propose solutions for usability problems caused by the speciic software design. (Karoulis et al., 2006)
Internal Champion
Highly respected individual within an organization who possesses expertise in a speciic area, speciically information systems. (Hunter, 2005)
Internal Context
The physical scope of a consumer context comprised of sensible body conditions that may inluence the consumers physiological needs. Certain context-aware applications
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can use bodily attached sensors to keep track of the internal context information of mobile consumers. (Sun & Poole, 2005)
Internal Control
1: A system of people, technology, processes, and procedures designed to provide reasonable assurance that an organization achieves its business process goals. (Chengalur-Smith et al., 2005) 2: A set of procedures applied by a business organization that ensures information is safeguarded, that it is accurate and reliable, and that it is processed eficiently and in accordance with managements prescribed policies. (Lenard & Alam, 2005)
to manage a speciic business transaction, as opposed to buying it on the market. In knowledge management literature, internalization is one of four knowledge transmission mechanisms. It refers to the explicit-to-tacit process of knowledge transfer. This process takes place when individuals use explicit knowledge to extend their own tacit knowledge base. (Brock & Zhou, 2006) 3: It is the process of making a Web site interoperable in a speciic market or locale. In general, interoperability means that the functionality of the site is not dependent on a speciic language or culture and is readily adaptable to others. (Becker, 2005b)
International Divide
The digital divide that exists between countries. (Cecchini, 2005)
Internal Divide
The digital divide that exists between socioeconomic groups within a country. (Cecchini, 2005)
Internal Knowledge
An organization-speciic knowledge that gives idiosyncratic cohesiveness to the integration of external knowledge into a irm. Firm and context dependent, it is an indispensable complement to external knowledge in order to build up knowledge-based competitive advantages when it is appreciated by clients. It is more valuable inside the irm where it originates than in the open market. It is very dificult to be transmitted to a different context. (Andreu & Sieber, 2006)
International Instructor
In many regions of Asia and Africa, professional development programs rely on expertise from elsewhere in the world, and there is heavy use of experienced invited speakers. Increasingly, these invited speakers provide electronic resources and also teach online. They may even do all of their teaching in an online mode. These invited teachers, many of whom teach in English, are described as international instructors. (Ching et al., 2005)
Internal Metric
A metric used to measure attributes of the product that can be measured directly by examining the product on its own, irrespective of its behavior. (Xenos, 2006)
Internalization
1: A knowledge transfer mode that involves new tacit knowledge being derived from existing explicit knowledge. (Wickramasinghe, 2005) 2: In international business and organization science literature, internalization means that an organization makes use of its organizational hierarchy
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International Outsourcing
1: A production model in online media used to send work to employees located in a nation (generally, a developing nation). (St.Amant & Still, 2005) 2: A production process in which work is sent to overseas employees for completion. (St.Amant, 2006b)
International Statistical Classiication of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10)
A medical classiication system in which conditions have been grouped for general epidemiological purposes and the evaluation of health care. (Zender, 2006)
Internationalize
Generalizing a design so that it can handle multiple languages content. (T.S. Chan, 2005)
Internet
1: The vast collection of interconnected networks that all use TCP/IP protocols. (Kabene, Takhar, et al., 2005) 2: A worldwide system of computer servers from which users at any computer can extract information or knowledge. Intranets and extranets are Internet-like networks whose scope is to restrict access to internal personnel or external partners within an enterprise, with the goal of fostering
information and knowledge sharing. (Ribire & Romn, 2006) 3: A decentralized, global network. The World Wide Web is only a part of this network. Other components of the Internet include e-mail, news servers, Gopher, and TELNET. (Cosemans, 2005a) 4: A global network connecting millions of computers linking exchange of data, news, and opinions. The Internet is not synonymous with World Wide Web. (Sieber & Andrew, 2005) 5: A global public network that utilizes TCP/IP protocols to transfer data from one computer to another. The Internet is often referred to as a network of networks, as it is made up of thousands of smaller privately owned networks. (Fraser, 2005) 6: A global system of interconnected networks that allows for data transmission between myriad computers. The Internet can usually be accessed using Internet service providers. (Escalante, 2005) 7: A large system of interconnected computer networks composed of backbone networks, mid-level networks, and local networks. This includes networks owned and managed by public, private, and nonproit sector organizations. (Hinnant & Sawyer, 2005) 8: A vast network of computers that connects millions of people worldwide. (Olatokun & Ajiferuke, 2006) 9: A worldwide interconnection of individual networks operated by government, industry, academia, and private parties. (Phala, 2005) 10: A worldwide information network connecting millions of computers. Also called the Net. (Burke et al., 2005) 11: A worldwide network of computer networks that use the TCP/IP network protocols to facilitate data transmission. It provides access to a vast amount of information resources including multimedia (movies, sound, and images), software, text documents, news articles, electronic journals, travel information, and so forth. It also provides an environment for buying and selling products and services over a network. (Aurum, 2005) 12: A worldwide system of networks that has transformed communications and methods of commerce by allowing various computer networks to interconnect. Sometimes referred to as a network of networks, the Internet materialized in the United States in the 1970s, but did not become overtly visible until the early 1990s. (Nightingale, 2005) 13: Global communications network consisting of thousands of interconnected networks. (Ortega Egea & Menndez, 2006) 14: A global network connecting millions of computers. The word is derived from interconnected network. (Sala, 2005a) 15: The electronic system that links various computer networks around the world. It includes educational venues, databases, electronic mail, news agencies, and chat rooms. (Switala, 2005)
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Internet Abuse
Internet Caf
1: A public place that offers access to computers, e-mail, and the Internet for a fee. In Uganda, as in many other parts of the world, cafs also offer other ICT-related services, such as printing and photocopying, as well as refreshments. (Mwesige, 2005) 2: A cafeteria offering public-access online computers for Web suring and e-mail transmission or service bureau, or offering other services such as online gaming and love matching. It sometimes also serves as an Internet service provider (ISP). (Hu et al., 2006a) 3: Business units that resell Internet access to people. (Frempong & Braimah, 2005)
Any wrongful or improper use of the Internet in the workplace. (Mahatanankoon, 2005)
Internet Addiction
1: A term used to describe excessive Internet use; it has also been referred to as Internet addiction disorder, Internet addiction syndrome, and pathological Internet use. As with other addictions, Internet addiction features the core components of other addictive behaviors (salience, mood modiication, tolerance, withdrawal, conlict, and relapse) and can be deined as a repetitive habit pattern that increases the risk of disease and/or associated personal and social problems. It is often experienced subjectively as loss of control, and these habit patterns are typically characterized by immediate gratiication (short-term rewards), often coupled with delayed, deleterious effects (long-term costs). Attempts to change an addictive behavior (via treatment or by self-initiation) are typically marked by high relapse rates (see also technological addictions). (Grifiths, 2005) 2: Use of the Internet and network resources that undermines the fulillment of some of an individuals basic human needs. (Oravec, 2005)
Internet Cash
Users are digitally signed but are not stored in the database. It is a kind of debit card. (Kurihara, 2006)
Internet Data
Data collected through the Internet by an organization. (Kumar, 2005)
Internet Disconnection
The event of irms becoming disenchanted with Internet applications and removing all Internet-based applications from their organization. (Grifin, 2005)
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Internet Host
A domain name that has an Internet Protocol (IP) address record associated with it. This would be any computer system connected to the Internet (via full- or part-time, direct or dial-up connections). (Maggioni & Uberti, 2005)
Internet Economy
1: A large collection of global networks, applications, electronic markets, producers, consumers, and intermediaries. (Scupola, 2005) 2: Economy with revenues from the Internet or Internet-related products or services. (Tian & Stewart, 2006) 3: That part of the economy that deals with information goods such as software, online content, knowledge-based goods, the new media, and supporting technology industries using the Internet. (Sharma, 2006a)
Internet EDI
The use of the Internet to exchange business documents using standardized document formats. (Harris & Chen, 2006)
Internet Marketing
Conducting marketing activities on the Internet. (Singh, 2006a)
Internet Native
Somebody who has never experienced life before the Internet. The term is sometimes used to distinguish the original Internet users, students, and researchers as examples, from those who want to exploit the Net for commercial or other reasons and who might be called Internet imperialists. (Dunkels, 2005)
Internet Option
A possibility to use the Internet for a business purpose. (Boonstra & de Brock, 2006)
Internet Pharmacy
A pharmacy that has no storefront presence and where the Internet is a key technology for serving customers. (Rosson, 2006)
Internet Privacy
Concerns expressed by Internet users regarding the security and conidentiality of information transmitted
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electronically. Government agencies and business/industry professional groups share responsibility to address Internet privacy concerns. (Baim, 2005)
Internet Security
The phenomenon by which a company assures that its data and entire Internet infrastructure are protected from damage caused by miscreants through activities such as hacking. (Aigbedo, 2005)
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customers to content and applications providers, usually for a monthly fee. (Rlke et al., 2005) 8: A company that provides Internet access to individuals, groups, or corporate organizations through normal telephones, satellites, or iber optics. (Frempong & Braimah, 2005)
to help organizations communicate proper Internet usage behaviors, lessen employees perceived expectation of privacy, and reduce costly litigation that may occur from the use of Internet monitoring and iltering software. (Mahatanankoon, 2005)
Internet-Based EDI
An alternative to traditional Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) that uses proprietary systems in HTML format. (Ratnasingam, 2006)
Internet-Based Learning
Learning delivered primarily by TCP/IP network technologies such as e-mail, newsgroups, proprietary applications, and so forth. Although the term is often used synonymously with Web-based training, Internet-based training is not necessarily delivered over the World Wide Web, and may not use the HTTP and HTML technologies that make Web-based training possible. (Torres-Coronas, 2005)
Internet Streaming
Video format that intermittently downloads sections of a media ile to a client. (Vitolo et al., 2005)
Internet-Based Survey
A contemporary survey technique through which researchers may obtain respondents opinions via online survey processes. Respondents may either be asked to go to a Web site to complete a survey (Web-based) or the survey questionnaire may be e-mailed to the respondents (email-based) for them to complete and return electronically. (Baim, 2005)
Internet Technology
1: Family of technologies suitable for exchanging structured data through package-oriented transmissions on heterogeneous platforms, in particular, protocols, programming languages, hardware, and software. (Blecker, 2006a) 2: The group of technologies that allow users to access information and communication over the World Wide Web (Web browsers, ftp, e-mail, associated hardware, Internet service providers, and so forth). (Darbyshire & Burgess, 2005)
Internet-Mediated Community
Group of people sharing interests and making use for some time of the same class of Internet technologies to exchange information to each other regarding the shared interests. (Porto Bellini & Vargas, 2006)
Interoperability
1: Ability to work together, sharing information, capabilities, or other speciic goals, while being different at some technological level. (Ishaya, 2005) 2: The ability of heterogeneous software and hardware to communicate and share information. (Nicolle et al., 2005) 3: The ability of two or more heterogeneous systems to work together in a seamless manner. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005) 4: The property of software applications that will enable
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diverse applications to interact and share data seamlessly. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005)
for much human intervention. Examples of IOIT include Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) systems. (Abraham & Leon, 2006)
Interorganizational Learning
The sharing of information and process knowledge across organizational boundaries. The information and knowledge pertain to tasks or processes that are carried out by the various organizations. By making use of the information and process knowledge, these organizations can change the way they carry out these tasks and processes to improve performance. (Abraham & Leon, 2006)
Interoperability Framework
Not simply a purely technical issue concerned with linking up various systems, but the wider set of policies, measures, standards, practices, and guidelines describing the way in which various organizations have agreed, or should agree, to do business with each other. (Chochliouros & Spiliopoulou-Chochliourou, 2006)
Interorganizational Relationship
Cooperative interorganizational relationships include strategic alliances, partnerships, coalitions, joint ventures, franchises, and network organizations. (Rowe et al., 2006)
Interoperability Interface
An interface between XML documents and other software programs. The interoperability stems from the fact that the XML documents can be read and operated upon by any software application designed to use this interface. (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005)
Interoperability Problem
Getting a collection of autonomous legacy systems to cooperate in a single federated system. (Balsters, 2005)
Interorganizational Trust
The conidence of one organization in the certainty of another organizations ability to perform an expected outcome, such as delivering promised goods, services, information, or payment. (Turner, 2006)
Interpersonal Communication
This occurs in one-on-one situations or within a small group dynamic. (Weber & Lim, 2005)
Interorganizational Communication
Communication that includes entities that are legally external from the organization where legal recourse may occur due to the content of the message. (McManus & Carr, 2005)
Interpolation
1: A family of mathematical functions to compute unknown states between two known states. For instance, it is possible to interpolate between two 3D models of a body to obtain an intermediate one. (Volino et al., 2005) 2: The process of increasing the sampling rate. Interpolation consists of upsampling and iltering. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005b)
Interpolation Filter
The ilter used in interpolation to remove the unwanted images in the spectra of the upsampled signal. (JovanovicDolecek, 2005b)
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Interpolator
The ilter I(z) which is used to eliminate the unwanted spectrum introduced by expansion of the model ilter in an IFIR Structure. For the low-pass prototype ilter design, this ilter is a low-pass ilter with lower complexity than the prototype ilter. (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
for the message to register or the advertisement(s) to be read. (Lalopoulos et al., 2005b)
Interstream Synchronization
Ensures that all receivers play the same segment of a medium at the same time. Interstream synchronization may be needed in collaborative environments. For example, in a collaborative session, the same media information may be reacted upon by several participants. (Yang et al., 2005b)
Interpretation
The process involved in converting the source speech in one natural language into the target speech in another language. (OHagan, 2005)
Intertitle
One of the set of title cards used in silent ilms to describe settings, plot developments, or dialogue. (Berg, 2005e)
Interpreter
The traditional deinition in computer science is a program that translates and executes source language statements one line at a time. Also, a program that accesses the model to understand the requested navigation, one user action at a time. (Paiano, 2005)
Intertransactional Association
Correlations among items not only within the same transactions but also across different transactions. (Feng & Dillon, 2005)
Interpretive Evaluation
Formal-rational approaches (technical and economic) emphasize the technology features at the expense of the organizational and social aspects. Also, a move towards the interactionist role of the technology with the organizational structures, culture, and stakeholders. IS evaluation focuses on the analysis and understanding of the social and subjective nature of the phenomenon. (Serafeimidis, 2005)
Interval Set
If a set cannot be precisely deined, one can describe it in terms of a lower bound and an upper bound. The set will contain its lower bound and will be contained in its upper bound. (Lingras et al., 2005)
Interpretive Research
Exploring the deeper structure of a phenomenon within its cultural context by examining the subjective meanings that people create. (Trauth, 2005b)
Interval Uncertainty
A model of sensor uncertainty where each stored data value is represented by a closed interval, called uncertain interval. (Cheng & Prabhakar, 2005)
Interpretivism
A research approach that attempts to reach an understanding of social action in order to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects. (McPherson, 2005)
Interschema Property
Terminological and structural relationships involving concepts belonging to different sources. (De Meo, Terracina, et al., 2005)
Intervention Strategy
Refers to speciic approaches to developing the organization through its people. While obvious intervention strategies may include techniques such as team development, selfdirected learning, training approaches to personal growth and empowerment, T-groups, force ield analysis, and organizational learning, a more methodological approach is identiied by Blake and Mouton. In their Strategies of Consultation, they identify ive types of intervention
Interstitial
A page that is inserted in the normal low of the editorial content structure on a Web site for the purpose of advertising or promoting. It is usually designed to move automatically to the page the user requested after allowing enough time
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acceptant, catalytic, confrontation, prescriptive, principles models and theoriesthat may be applied at ive levels individual, team, inter-group, organization, society. The important point about this schema is that it forces the consultant to think carefully about the purpose of the intervention. (Grieves, 2006b)
Intonation
How the pitch pattern (the property of sound that varies with variation in the frequency of vibration) or fundamental frequency (F0) changes during speech. It refers to the rise and fall of the voice pitch. (Syed, Chakrobartty, et al., 2005)
INTOPS-1
Requirements of the non-European market on machine design. This project was founded by the German Ministry of Education and Research (1996-1998). (Rse, 2006a)
INTOPS-2
Requirements of the user in Mainland China for humanmachine systems in the area of production automation. This project was founded by several companies from Germany and Switzerland (2000-2001). (Rse, 2006a)
authorization. An intranets Web sites look and act just like any other Web sites, but the irewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access. (Singh, 2005a) 4: A network within the organization using Internet technologies. (Baugher et al., 2005) 5: A private network inside a company or organization that is based on Web standards (i.e., TCP/IP) and offers various applications for members of a speciied group. (Vaast, 2005) 6: A restrictedaccess or internal network that works like the Internet. It enables employees, or those with access, to browse or share resources. Intranets are private computing networks, internal to an organization, used for sharing organizational information. (Boersma & Kingma, 2006) 7: Allowing access to a hospitals computer system to internal users via a username and password. (Cannoy & Iyer, 2006) 8: An intranet can be thought of as the Internet restricted to the conines of an organization in order for both the employer and employees to be able to share information within that organization. An intranet is based on a local area network. (Sarkar, 2005) 9: A computer network contained entirely within an organization. (Ruppel & Ruppel, 2005)
Intracluster Similarity
1: A measurement of the similarity between the objects inside a cluster. Objects in a cluster must be as similar as possible. (Santos et al., 2005) 2: The overall similarity among documents within a cluster. (Fung et al., 2005)
Intraorganizational Communication
Communication internal to the legal boundaries of an organization, though it may cross departmental or divisional boundaries. There is no legal recourse for the content of a message. (McManus & Carr, 2005)
Intramedia Transcoding
A transcoding process that does not change the media nature of the input signal. (Cavallaro, 2005)
Intran
A transaction that is executed within a mobile host as an internal transaction (for brevity, Intran) using its own internal operations and data. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005b)
Intraorganizational Knowledge
Knowledge that is highly irm and industry speciic, but is not speciic to organizational activities or tasks. In effect, this component of social actors knowledge is irmspeciic meta-knowledge. Examples are knowledge about colleagues, knowledge about elements of the organizational culture, communication channels, informal networks, knowledge of the irms strategy and goals, and so on. (Butler & Murphy, 2006)
Intranet
1: A computer network that provides services within an organization. (Clayton, 2006a) 2: A network-based Internet belonging to an organization or groups where information is accessed with authorization. (Inoue & Bell, 2005) 3: A network based on TCP/IP belonging to an organization, usually a corporation, accessible only by the organizations members, employees, or others with
Intratransactional Association
Correlations among items within the same transactions. (Feng & Dillon, 2005)
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Intrinsic Dificulty
A numerical measure of how hard searching a given database is, independent of the index used. It grows with the Intrinsic Dimension. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
Intrinsic Dimension
The minimum representational dimension in which the database could be represented without distorting its distances. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
Intrinsic Motivation
1: Motivation that comes from within a person. (Whitield, 2005) 2: Motivation that derives from the activity itself. An example of intrinsic motivation for using microcomputers is using it because you enjoy it. (de Souza Dias, 2005) 3: Motivation that stems from an internal desire for more satisfaction and challenge in ones career, rather than desires for enhanced salary and career mobility. (Adkins & Nitsch, 2005) 4: Motivation through factors internal to the person being motivated. (Wishart, 2005) 5: The motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake, because the activity is considered enjoyable, worthwhile, or important. (Hendriks & Sousa, 2006) 6: Motivation that has no external manifestation in terms of rewards, but is psychologically effective in stimulating or driving people to seek self-satisfaction or self-consistency, for example, job satisfaction, commitment, and so forth. (Ekbia & Hara, 2006)
various areas within a computer or a network in order to identify possible security breaches, which include both intrusions (attacks from outside the organization) and misuse (attacks from within the organization). (Cardoso & Freire, 2005) 3: Software for detecting when suspicious behavior occurs on a computer or network. (Rowe, 2006b) 4: Attempts to discover attacks while they are in progress, or at least discover them before much damage has been done. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005) 5: Detecting network attacks, usually by recognizing attack signatures extracted from earlier attack packets. (Syed, Nur, et al., 2005) 6: Identifying a set of malicious actions that compromise the integrity, conidentiality, and availability of information resources. (Lazarevic, 2005) 7: A set of techniques used to protect a computer system or network from a speciic threat, which is unauthorized access. (Thuraisingham, 2005) 8: Software for detecting when suspicious behavior occurs on a computer or network. (Rowe, 2006a)
Intrusion
Malicious, externally induced, operational fault in the computer system. (Lazarevic, 2005)
Intrusion Prevention
Protecting networks against attacks by taking some preemptive action such as access control, preventing the transmission of invalid IP addresses, and so forth. (Syed, Nur, et al., 2005)
Intrusion Tracking
The process of tracking an attack to its point of origin. (Syed, Nur, et al., 2005)
Invention
The discovery or creation of new ideas. (Tatnall, 2005b)
Inverse Transformation
Considering schema transformation , the transformation is the inverse of if its application undoes the result of the application of . The instance mapping of can be
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used to undo the effect of applying the instance mapping of on a set of data. (Hainaut, 2005)
Ionosphere
A band of particles 80-120 miles above the earths surface. (Freeman & Auld, 2005)
Investment
An item of value purchased for income or capital appreciation. (Lawson-Body, 2005)
IOS: See Interorganizational System. IP: See Image Processing; Intellectual Property; Internet Protocol. IP Address
1: A unique number consisting of four parts separated by dots, such as 145.223.105.5. Every machine on the Internet has a unique IP address. (Nasraoui, 2005) 2: A number assigned to a device for the purposes of identiication by TCP/IP and associated protocols. It could be thought of as akin to a street address or telephone number that allows devices to communicate. (Leath, 2005)
Investment Portfolio
A set of investments (sale and purchase of shares) in a determined period of time. The portfolio keeps a history of operations in the stock market. The construction of an optimal portfolio requires a priori estimates of asset returns and risk. (Castro & Braga, 2006)
Invisible College
A group of researchers within the same branch of science who have personal relationships with one another. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006)
IP Based
Network technologies based on Internet protocols. (Murphy, 2005c)
Invisible Web
Denotes those signiicant portions of the Internet where data is stored which are inaccessible to the major search engines. The invisible Web represents an often ignored/ neglected source of potential online information. (Peter & Greenidge, 2005a)
IP Multicast
1: A set of IP packets transported via point-to-multipoint connections over a network to designated groups of multicast recipients. IP multicasts conserve bandwidth and network resources. (Littman, 2005) 2: Network-level multicast technology that uses the special Class-D IPaddress range. It requires multicast routing protocols in the network routers. (Hossz, 2005b)
Involuntary Attention
The idea that something can take a persons attention by being novel, contrasting, startling, and so forth. (Owen, 2006b)
IP Traceback
The process of tracking the attack packets back to their source along the route they traveled. (Syed, Nur, et al., 2005)
Inwards Projection
Estimating the expected number of customers that would sign on to a marketing promotion, based on customer characteristics and proiles. (Mani et al., 2005)
IOI: See International Online Interaction. IOIS: See Inter-Organizational Information System. IOI T: Se e In te ro r ga n i za t i o n a l In fo r m a t i o n
Technology.
IP-Style Semantics
Similar to the traditional (unicast) IP communication, a source can send data at any time; for this it does not have to join the group of hosts. (Hosszu, 2005a)
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IPO: See Initial Public Offering. IS Support IPRS: See Intellectual Property Rights. IPSec: See Internet Protocol Security. IPT: See Information Processing Theory. IPTV
The result of large-scale adoption of broadband, as well as advances in networking technology and digital media, which together have made it possible for service providers to economically deliver high-quality live and on-demand movies and TV content over IP networks. (Papagiannidis et al., 2005) An information system (IS) function supporting people taking purposeful action. This is often done by indicating that the purposeful action can itself be expressed via activity models, through a fundamental re-thinking of what is entailed in providing informational support to purposeful action. The idea is that in order to create IS support that serves, it is irst necessary to conceptualize the organizational system that is served, since this order of thinking should inform what relevant services would indeed be needed in the IS support. (Vat, 2006)
IR: See Information Retrieval; Infrared. IRC: See Internet Relay Chat. IRE: See Information Requirement Elicitation. Iris Recognition
A technique for identity veriication or identiication based on the users encoded iris pattern. (Li, 2006)
An approach used to ensure that beneits expected in IS/IT investments by organizations are realized or delivered. (Lin & Pervan, 2005)
IS/IT Evaluation
The weighing up process to rationally assess the value of any acquisition of software or hardware that is expected to improve business value of an organizations information systems. (Lin & Pervan, 2005)
Iris Scanning
Enables the identiication of an individual based on the analysis of the colored tissue surrounding the pupil. (Scott et al., 2006)
IS/IT Outsourcing
The process of transferring IS/IT assets, staff, and management responsibility for delivery of services from internal IS/IT functions to external contractors. (Lin & Pervan, 2005)
IS-A Hierarchy
A directed acyclic graph where each node is a class and each edge represents a subclassOf relationship from a class to one of its superclasses. In class algebra, the classes are labeled by normalized class algebra expressions. (Buehrer, 2005)
Irrevocability
The inability of an individual to be able to somehow cancel some credential. Biometric systems run a high risk of compromising irrevocability, if biometric data belonging to an individual is ever acquired and used to spoof a system. (Fleming, 2005a)
IS-Architecture Alignment
The process of selecting an IS-architecture vision that is strategically and operationally it for the enterprise,
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simple and well structured, well managed, and clearly and explicitly described. (Opdahl, 2005)
IS-Architecture Model
An enterprise model that focuses on the enterprises ISarchitecture and that can be used to represent a current architecture or to illustrate a candidate or selected architecture vision. An IS-architecture sketch is a highlevel model, whereas an architecture blueprint is more detailed. (Opdahl, 2005)
with leading companies. BS7799 Part 1 incorporates a broad range of security practices and procedures that can be adopted by any organization of any size and in any industry sector. This is now international standard. (Tassabehji, 2005b)
ISO 15504
An international standard that proposes the standard project SPICE, which establishes maturity levels for each individual process: Level 0Incomplete; Level 1Performed; Level 2Managed; Level 3Established; Level 4Predictable; Level 5Optimizing. (Monteiro de Carvalho et al., 2005)
IS-Architecture Principle
A high-level rule that can be used to make decisions about developing and/or evolving individual ICT systems. (Opdahl, 2005)
ISO 9001
An international standard that speciies the requirements of a quality management system. It is applicable to any organization regardless of product, service, organizational size, or whether it is a public or private company. (Leung, 2005)
IS-Architecture Vision
A coherent set of IS-architecture principles that together guide all the aspects of IS-architecture evolution that are considered important. (Opdahl, 2005)
ISD: See Instructional System Design. ISDN: See Integrated Services Digital Network. ISEEK
An acronym for the Internet System for Education and Employment Knowledge system, a comprehensive online tool of information and resources on careers, jobs, education programs, and providers; developed by a collaboration of Minnesota agencies and institutions. (Langer, 2005)
ISO 9001:2001
Provides standards used to assess an organizations ability to meet its customers requirements and achieve customer satisfaction. Software irms use it as an alternative to CMM. (Hawk & Kaiser, 2005)
ISO 9000-3
A guide to help ISO 9001 interpretation for the software ieldthat is, the development, supply, acquisition, and maintenance of software. (Monteiro de Carvalho et al., 2005)
ISO 9241
A standard describing ergonomic requirements for ofice work with visual display terminals. It deines how to specify and measure the usability of products, and deines the factors that have an effect on usability. (Singh, 2005b)
ISO 9241-11 1
1: A standard that describes ergonomic requirements for ofice work with visual display terminals. This standard deines how to specify and measure the usability of products and deines the factors that have an effect on usability. (Singh, 2006) 2: The part of ISO 9241 that introduces the concept of usability but does not make speciic recommendations in terms of product attributes. Instead, it deines usability as the extent to which a product can be used by speciied users to achieve speciied goals with
ISO/IEC 17799
The British Standards Institute published a code of practice for managing information security following consultation
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effectiveness, eficiency, and satisfaction in a speciied context of use. (Singh & Dix, 2006)
Isoluminance Contour
Planar polygon that has a single constant color at all points it encloses. (Cottingham, 2005)
ISO 17799
International standard describing managing information security processes. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005)
ISO 13407
International standard providing guidance on humancentered design activities throughout the lifecycle of interactive computer-based systems. It is a tool for those managing design processes, and provides guidance on sources of information and standards relevant to the humancentered approach. It describes human-centered design as a multidisciplinary activity, which incorporates human factors and ergonomics knowledge and techniques with the objective of enhancing effectiveness and eficiency, improving human working conditions, and counteracting possible adverse effects of use on human health, safety, and performance. (Singh, 2006)
Internet service providers provide access to the Internet via different communications channels such as traditional telephone lines or high-speed iber optic channels. (Phala, 2005)
Isolation Level
One of the different degrees of isolation that use up to three different types of isolation anomalies, which are accepted when concurrent transactions are executed. (Frank, 2005b)
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I T H a rdw a re I U P
Item Equivalence
Refers to whether identical instruments are used to measure the constructs across cultures. (Karahanna et al., 2005)
Hardware.
Item Presentation
The set of WCDSS product display and promotion formats such as virtual catalogs, 3D picture display, and samples and trials. (F. Wang, 2006)
IT Industry: See Information Technology Industry. IT Industry Development: See Information Technology
Industry Development.
Itemset
1: A conjunction of items (attribute-value pairs) (e.g., age = teen hair = brown). (Butler & Webb, 2005) 2: A set of binary attributes, each corresponding to an attribute value or an interval of attribute values. (Pasquier, 2005) 3: A set of database items. (Daly & Taniar, 2005a) 4: A set of one or more items that are purchased together in a single transaction. (Jha & Sural, 2005) 5: An unordered set of unique items, which may be products or features. For computational eficiency, the items are often represented by integers. A frequent itemset is one with a support count that exceeds the support threshold, and a candidate itemset is a potential frequent itemset. A k-itemset is an itemset with exactly k items. (Woon et al., 2005) 6: A set of items that occur together. (Masseglia et al., 2005)
Itemset Support
The ratio between the number of transactions in D comprising all the items in I and the total number of transactions in D (support(I) = |{TiD| (ijI) ijTi }| / |D|). (Dumitriu, 2005)
IT Portfolio: See Information Technology Portfolio. IT Software: See Information Technology Software.
Iterative Development IT Standard: See Information Technology Standard. IT Strategy: See Information Technology Strategy. ITA: See Independent Testing Authority. ITCA: See Information Technology Competitive
Advantage. An approach to software development where the overall lifecycle is composed of several iterations in sequence. (Ferre et al., 2006)
ITMP: See Information Technology Master Plan. ITS: See Intelligent Tutoring System. ITT: See Information Technology Transfer.
Item
A sales product, or a feature or attribute. (Kryszkiewicz, 2005)
ITU: See International Telecommunications Union. ITV: See Instructional Television; Interactive
Item Bias
Refers to measurement artifacts. (Karahanna et al., 2005)
Television.
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IVO: See International Virtual Ofice. IVR: See Interactive Voice Response. IVUS Data Reconciliation
Mining in the IVUS individual dataset to compensate or decrease artifacts to get improved data usage for further cardiac calculation and medical knowledge discovery. (Liu et al., 2005)
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J
JADE: See Java Agent Development Framework. JalChitra
A village water resources mapping and water auditing software developed by Dr. Vikram Vyas. (Literal meaning of Jal is water and Chitra is picture.) (Shaligram, 2005)
Java
1: A high-level programming language similar to C++ developed by SUN Microsystems. (Guan, 2005c) 2: A platform-independent programming language, produced by Sun Microsystems. Java is built as a method to provide services over the WWW. With Java, a Web site provides a Java application (called an applet), which is downloaded by the client and executed on the client machine. Java is speciically built so that an application can be run on any kind of system, so a separate MAC, Windows, Sun, and so forth version is not needed. Java also has some security features built in, to make it more dificult for destructive applets to be written. (Dez-Higuera & Daz-Pernas, 2005) 3: An object-oriented language that is widely used for Internet or Web-based applications. It was designed speciically for distributed environments. (Dasgupta & Chandrashekaran, 2005) 4: Programming language designed to be portable, used to create programs that will run on mobile phones and PDAs, as well as Macintosh, Windows, and Unix desktop computers. (Houser & Thornton, 2005)
Java/RMI
A Java application programming interface known as remote method invocation. (Yen, 2005)
JavaScript
A scripting language developed to enable Web authors to add dynamic content to sites. Although it shares many of the features and structures of the Java language, it was developed independently. It is supported by recent browsers from Netscape and Microsoft. (Valenti, 2005)
JAWS: See Job Access for Windows. Java Agent Development Framework (JADE)
A middleware tool used in implementation of agentbased systems (http://jade.tilab.com). (Cardoso & Freire, 2005)
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JIT: See Just-In-Time Training. JITAIT: See Just-In-Time Artiicially Intelligent Tutor.
is more likely that the community will sustain its validity. (Louis, 2006)
Joint Intellectual Property JMF: See Java Media Framework. Job Access for Windows (JAWS)
A Windows screen reader from Henter-Joyce. JAWS works with PCs to provide access to software applications and the Internet. With its internal software speech synthesizer and the computers sound card, information from the screen is read aloud for visually impaired and blind people. (Yu, 2005a) The result of a company taking the view that it is owned by its customers and they have ownership in product development. This notion goes beyond normal customer relationships and co-creates new businesses based on customer education and co-development. It is probably the most intense form of cooperation between a company and its customers. (Paquette, 2006b)
Joint Outcome
Part of the direct output and by-products of the education process including student learning, an employable workforce, AIT market exposure, and contributions to industrial and academic research. (LeRouge & Webb, 2005)
Joint Probability
The probability of two events occurring in conjunction. (Bashir et al., 2005)
Join Dependency
Any decomposition of tables must be able to be rejoined to recover the original table. Tables in 5NF are join dependent. (Schultz, 2005)
Join Index
Built by translating restrictions on the column value of a dimension table to restrictions on a large fact table. The index is implemented using one of two representations, row id or bitmap, depending on the cardinality of the indexed column. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005)
Journey Making
Group mapping activities are often a central part of a groups JOint Understanding, Relection, and NEgotiation of strategY. The methodology aims to support groups in their development of a feasible strategy that they are individually and collectively committed to implementing. (Shaw, 2006)
Joypad
A palm-sized device designed for use with both hands to interact with the game. Its layout is typiied by directional keys on the left, and buttons on the right and top sections of the pad. Modern pads incorporate additional analog sticks on the left or on both the left and right sides. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
Joint Enterprise
Allows the community to extend the boundaries and interpretations beyond those that were created. By sharing a common goal, members of the community negotiate their situations in their reactions to them. With joint enterprise it
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Joyst ick J V M
Joystick
Just-In-Time Learning
Strategic knowledge acquisition enmeshed in business activities to support employees in learning new skills when performing day-to-day tasks, while fostering the alignment between learning outcomes, and technological and strategic business issues. (Rentroia-Bonito & Jorge, 2005)
A 360-degree stick mounted on a sturdy platform of buttons used for interacting with the game; used predominantly in stand-alone arcade machines and early home consoles. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
JPEG
1: A standard file type for computerized images, determined by the Joint Photographic Experts Group. (M. Lang, 2005) 2: Joint Photographic Experts Group speciication for reproduction of digital images, widely used on the Internet. (McCarthy, 2005a)
Just-in-Time Material
Material to supplement a traditional presentation available for the learner to access when it may be needed. (Pelton & Pelton, 2005)
Just-In-Time Training (JIT) J2EE: See Java 2 Enterprise Edition. Junction Tree
A representation that captures the joint probability distribution of a set of variables in a very eficient data structure. A junction tree contains cliques, each of which is a set of variables from the domain. The junction tree is conigured to maintain the probabilistic dependencies of the domain variables and provides a data structure over queries of the type What is the most probable value of variable D given that the values of variables A, B, etc., are known? (Vargas, 2005) The philosophy of providing training at the exact point when one needs the knowledge/skills to perform a task or job function. (Hanson, 2005)
Junk Computing
The use of organizational information technology that does not align with organizational goals. (Mahatanankoon, 2005)
Just-in-Time
An approach to learning where knowledge and skills are acquired when, how, and where needed by the learner, and using various technologies to deliver the learning event. (Stavredes, 2005a)
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K
K Closest Pairs Query
This spatial query involves two spatial datasets and a cardinality threshold K (K1). It discovers the K distinct pairs of objects from the two input datasets that have the K smallest distances between them. (Corral & Vassilakopoulos, 2005) conidence constraints are not used. (Butler & Webb, 2005)
K-Nearest Neighbor
A technique that classiies each Web page in a set based on a combination of the classes of the k records most similar to it. (Chen, Tsai, et al., 2005)
K-Anonymity
A privacy metric that ensures an individuals information cannot be distinguished from at least k-1 other people when a data source is disclosed. (Saygin, 2005)
K-Line
An Asian version of a stock price bar chart where a lower close than open on a day period is shaded dark and a higher close day period is shaded light. (Hou et al., 2005b)
K-12
Kindergarten through Grade 12. (Dell, 2005)
K-16
Kindergarten through undergraduate degree. (Dell, 2005)
KA: See Knowledge Area; Knowledge Asset. KAI: See Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory. Karhunen-Loeve Transform (KLT)
Utilizes principal component analysis or singular value decomposition to minimize the distance error introduced for that level of dimensionality reduction. (Thomasian, 2005b)
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Kbps: See Kilobits Per Second. Kerberos KBSE: See Knowledge-Based Support Environment. KC: See Knowledge Component. KCU: See Knowledge Currency Unit. Kernel KD: See Knowledge Distance. KDD: See Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Kernel Function KDE: See Kernel-Density Estimation. KDviz: See Knowledge Domain Visualization. KID Debate: See Knowledge Information Data
Debate. 1: A function that computes the inner product between mapped instances in a feature space. It is a symmetric, positive deinite function. (Lodhi, 2005) 2: A function that intrinsically deines the projection of two feature vectors (function arguments) onto a high-dimensional space and a dot product therein. (Aradhye & Dorai, 2005) 3: A function K, such that for all x, zX , K(x, z) = <(x),(z)> where is a mapping from X to a (inner-product) feature space F. (Awad & Khan, 2005) 4: A nonlinear function of two vectors, used with a support vector machine to generate nonlinear separating surfaces. (Musicant, 2005) A function of data points. A simple instantiation is the centroid. (Murthy & Diday, 2005) A type of authentication developed at MIT where a Kerberos server issues a session ticket when a valid user requests services. The users logon password is not sent through the network. (Knight & Labruyere, 2005)
Kilobyte (Kb)
A unit of computer data equal to 1,024 (210) bytes, or more commonly, 1,000 bytes. (Hantula, 2005)
Kernel Matrix
A matrix that contains almost all the information required by kernel methods. It is obtained by computing the inner product between instances. (Lodhi, 2005)
Kernel Method
One of a set of pattern analysis techniques that work by embedding the data into a high-dimensional vector space and by detecting linear relations in that space. A kernel function takes care of the embedding. (Domeniconi & Gunopulos, 2005)
Kernelized Architecture
An architecture in which data are physically stored in databases according to sensitivity level. (Haraty, 2005a)
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Key
1: A unique sequence of values that deines the location of a node in a tree data structure. (Woon et al., 2005) 2: A data item or ield used to locate records in a table. A primary key uniquely identiies each record. If more than one ield is needed to guarantee unique identiication, the primary key is called a concatenated key or composite key. When more than one combination of data items or ields could serve as a primary key, the keys not actively used are called candidate keys. (Schultz, 2005)
Keypad
A handheld device that allows a participant to communicate data to an audience response system. (Banks, 2005)
Keyword
An attribute of an electronic document used to describe the document. (Corral et al., 2006)
Keyword Search
1: A search for documents containing one or more words that are speciied by a user. (Galitsky, 2005c) 2: A traditional search mechanism for locating electronic documents based on a speciic (keyword) attribute list. Keyword searching is based on a recall paradigm of cognitive retrieval. Keyword searching is currently the most widely used retrieval mechanism, however, it is not without its limitations. (Corral et al., 2006)
Key Frame
1: Representative image of each shot. (Swierzowicz, 2005) 2: One of the representative shots extracted from a video that illustrate its main content. (N.C. Rowe, 2005a)
KIBS: See Knowledge-Intensive Business Services. KIF: See Knowledge Interchange Format.
Killer App
1: A software application that is so popular that it drives the widespread adoption of a new technology. For example, desktop spreadsheet software was so effective that it made personal computers a must-have technology for virtually all businesses. (Hughes & Lang, 2005) 2: Technical jargon for the eternal search for the next big idea. (Singh, 2006b)
Killile
In newsgroups, a list of e-mail names you do not want to read messages from. (Rowe, 2006b)
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K irk pat rick s Leve l 4 Eva luat ion (Busine ss Re sult s) K now le dge
KM Instrument
A bundle of measures encompassing the organization, human resources, and ICT with the goal of improving KMrelated performance indicators. Examples of ICT-related KM instruments are competency management systems, knowledge maps, or ICT support for communities and knowledge networks. (Hdrich & Maier, 2006)
KL-ONE
A knowledge representation system in the late 1970s that inspired the development of a number of frame-based representation systems. These systems embraced the ideas of frames as structured descriptions, as well as the idea of differentiating between terminological and assertional aspects of knowledge representation and the central role of subsumption and classiication inferences. (Kapetanios, 2005)
Knowcos
E-fulillment organizations concentrating on knowledgebased capabilities such as Web development, business consulting, supplier management, and customer management are termed Knowcos. They concentrate on offering innovative services to become competitive through effectiveness of such services, and the ability to outsource supply chains and customer-facing tasks for online retailers. The degree of Knowco-ness and the range of capabilities it applies varies for different providers. (Alexander & Burn, 2006)
Kleisly Morphism
A basic construct of categorical algebra. In the context of MMt, a Kleisly morphism from model S to model T is a mapping of the source models items to derived or basic items of the target model. In other words, a Kleisly morphism assumes (1) a set of queries Q to the target model and (2) a mapping (function) m: SderQT into an augmentation of the target model with derived items corresponding to the queries from Q. (Diskin, 2005)
Knowledge
1: A reasoning unit of cognition that creates awareness based on facts scientiically proven, rules, laws, coherent inferences, and well-deined methods. (Targowski, 2005) 2: An individual and social construction that allows us to relate to the world and each other (Baralou & Stepherd, 2005) 3: An organizational resource, either explicit or tacit, and often context speciic, and the basis on which organizations create superior business performance. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006) 4: An understanding gained through experience or learning: the sum or a subset of what has been perceived and discovered by an individual. Knowledge exists in the minds of individuals, and is generated and shaped through interaction with others. (Ali & Warne, 2005) 5: Familiarity gained by actual experience, practical skill, or expertise. The act or state of understanding. Valuable information arising from relection, synthesis, and other cognitive activities of the human mind. It is often, but not always, hard to structure, dificult to capture on
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machines, sometimes tacit, and hard to transfer. Knowledge includes data and information (organized data which are relevant and purposeful), and knowing how to apply and use that information and data. The term ledge means to put to work or apply. The word knowledge, therefore, means knowing how to put to work what we know, and so in popular usage can in certain situations encompass information and data. (Mockler & Dologite, 2005) 6: Human life, as well as the philosophical exercise, are not a suffered climbing towards the unattainable mountain of truth. Human beings frequently face the question of truth as a victory over totality, the knowledge of everything, absolute knowledgeas if this total knowledge would be anterior and external to humans. The knowledge of being is one of the most radical constituent drives of humans, and it happens within the compromise of action, and never in the summing up, whether total or partial, of discreet units. At the origin of all knowledge, there is the drive to organize reality in order to optimize it. It is this drive that promotes the creation of all knowledge and that also uniies it. All knowledge departs from cultural worlds, all knowledge is made possible through the action of human beings, and all knowledge is directed towards the widest horizon possible. The engine behind the global movement of knowledge is the ontological demand felt, in particular by the areas that use natural language. (Nobre, 2006b) 7: The ability to enable action in the organization (e.g., good decisions, appropriate behaviors, useful work). As such it complements information, which provides the context for and meaning of action (e.g., criteria for decisions, motivations for actions, speciications for work), as well as data, which supply details associated with action (e.g., facts, observations, measurements). (Nissen & Levitt, 2006) 8: Includes but is not limited to those descriptions, hypotheses, concepts, theories, principles, and procedures which to a reasonable degree of certainty are either true or useful. In the growing discipline in Knowledge Management, knowledge is divided into explicit (information), implicit, and tacit knowledge. (Theng, 2005) 9: Information combined with experience, context, interpretation, and relection. (Hirji, 2005) 10: The application of a combination of instincts, ideas, rules, procedures, and information to guide the actions and decisions of a problem solver within a particular context. (Xodo, 2005) 11: Knowledge can be perceived as a discrete, objective, largely cognitive entity, susceptible of being classiied as tacit and explicit, or it can be considered as a process or practice of knowing, being socially constructed and embedded in practice. (Sarmento, 2005) 12: An intellectual property that, although paid for in part by the
employer, is a dificult asset to control, as it is fragmented in documents, policies, procedures, and other data storage mediums. Another challenge for management is to retain this knowledge in a form that is easily retrievable. This is not an easy task, since the enterprise must irst identify the location of all needed knowledge, and second determine the easiest way to retrieve it. (Galup et al., 2005)
Knowledge Access
A process that allows authorized information users to read, update, duplicate, and transfer data in a convenient and prompt way. Based on Internet searching algorithms, database technology, and modern communication technology, people are able to access knowledge networks at anytime, anywhere, and from any terminal on the Internet. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Knowledge Acquisition
1: Comprises all activities that increase the global stock of knowledge potentially useful to the organization. An organization may acquire new knowledge through creation or other means (e.g., acquisition of another organization, communication with consultants, etc.). (Prat, 2006) 2: The individual or collective process aimed at obtaining knowledge from another actor, by one or more of the subprocesses of transaction, communication, cooperation, imitation, or appropriation. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Agent
An individual or organization storing, retrieving, transferring, and applying/exploiting knowledge resources. (Loebbecke & Angehrn, 2006)
Knowledge Animation
An interactive application that consists of interactive mechanisms that foster the reconstruction of knowledge or the generation of new insights. (Eppler & Burkhard, 2006)
Knowledge Appropriation
Individually or collectively obtaining rights to utilize acquired knowledge in a certain way. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Architecture
The blueprints of subjective and objective knowledge, its lows, and cartography of knowledge within the organization. (Wickramasinghe & Sharma, 2005)
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Also called Project Management Knowledge Area. For PMI there are nine knowledge areas: integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communications, risk, and procurement. (D. Brandon, 2005b)
Knowledge Artifact
Anything that helps illustrate or answer how, why, when, what, where, and so forth. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
(Nabuco et al., 2006) 3: An entity comprising facts, rules, and integrity constraints used for collecting and querying diverse types of information. (Grant & Minker, 2006) 4: An online repository of information that represents the collective wisdom regarding a product or service. (Borders & Johnston, 2005) 5: The primary repository for all course materials. Relevant information from the knowledge base will later be extracted out in providing personalized course materials for individual students. (Leung & Li, 2005)
Knowledge Building
1: A framework for collective knowledge advancement and development of knowledge artifacts. (Muukkonen et al., 2005) 2: In a knowledge-building environment, knowledge is brought into the environment and something is done collectively to it that enhances its value. The goal is to maximize the value added to knowledge: either the public knowledge represented in the community database or the private knowledge and skills of its individual learners. Knowledge building has three characteristics: (1) knowledge building is not just a process, but it is aimed at creating a product; (2) its product is some kind of conceptual artifact, for instance, an explanation, design, historical account, or interpretation of a literacy work; and (3) a conceptual artifact is not something in the individual minds of the students and not something materialistic or visible, but is nevertheless real, existing in the holistic works of student collaborative learning communities. (Kwok Lai-yin & Tan Yew-Gee, 2005) 3: Production and improvement of knowledge objects that can be discussed, tested, compared, hypothetically modiied, and so forth, and not simply the completion of school tasks. (Nason & Woodruff, 2005a)
Knowledge Asymmetry
Designates the gap in the level of understanding regarding a particular topic among two or more people, for example among decision makers and experts regarding decisionrelevant insights. Knowledge asymmetry cannot be resolved in the same manner as information asymmetry, as the mere transfer of information is insuficient for a mutual level of understanding. Hence, collaborative sensemaking processes need to take place in order to overcome knowledge asymmetry. (Eppler, 2006)
Knowledge Calibration
Correspondence between knowledge accuracy and conidence with which knowledge is held. (Goldsmith & Pillai, 2006)
Knowledge Base
1: A collection of rules deined as expressions written in predicate calculus. These rules have a form of associations between conjuncts of values of attributes. (Ras & Dardzinska, 2005) 2: A knowledge repository, organized according to formal descriptive rules, permitting performance of operations over the represented knowledge.
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Knowledge Capital
The sum or worth of the knowledge held within an organization. Often held to be of primary importance, but dificult to quantify. (Udechukwu et al., 2006)
a test), and know-who (e.g., the experiences with others) through face-to-face (co-located) or media-based (virtual) interactions. (Eppler, 2006)
Knowledge Category
A category used to characterize the topics or areas of knowledge dealt with by documents. (Woods et al., 2006)
Knowledge Composition
Involves assembling knowledge atoms (such as triples in RDF and OWL) to build more complex knowledge maps. (Aleman-Meza et al., 2005)
Knowledge Center
A support structure that assigns a distinct set of knowledgerelated tasks, usually within the coordination domain, to a separate department. (Hendriks, 2006)
Knowledge Concept
A concept that is part of an ontology used for deining and describing the knowledge related with a community, such as the kinds of knowledge or the sources of knowledge. (Rodrguez-Elias et al., 2006)
Knowledge Construction
1: Process by which knowledge new to the individual or group is created based on a generative process. (Collis & Moonen, 2005a) 2: Refers to the act or process of contributing to the development of a body of ideas, attitudes, and/or beliefs. (McCracken, 2005)
Knowledge Codiication
1: The documentation of knowledgethat is, the conversion of tacit knowledge into an explicit form. ICT is often a strong facilitator to support this strategy of knowledge management. For example, knowledge objects are stored in databases that allow lexible and fast access and retrieval. It is a product-centric view of knowledge management. (Fink & Disterer, 2006) 2: The process of packaging knowledge into formats that enable the organization to transmit it to other parts and thus facilitate knowledge transfer. Codiication of knowledge is therefore a means of representing it and enables all members of the organization to access relevant knowledge. (Haghirian, 2006)
Knowledge Contributor
A person who provides knowledge that may be shared with other organizational members (used interchangeably with knowledge producer). (Kankanhalli et al., 2006)
Knowledge Communication
The (deliberate) activity of interactively conveying and coconstructing insights, assessments, experiences, or skills through verbal and non-verbal means. It designates the successful transfer of know-how (e.g., how to accomplish a task), know-why (e.g., the cause-effect relationships of a complex phenomenon), know-what (e.g., the results of
Knowledge Control
A process that provides data safeguards against invasion, corruption, and knowledge theft. It also provides statistics to network administrators for monitoring the operating status of the network. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
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Knowledge Creation
Knowledge Diffusion
The adaptation of knowledge in a broad range of scientiic and engineering research and development. (Chen & Lobo, 2006)
1: The continuous and dynamic interaction between tacitexplicit and speciic-general knowledge that happens at different individual, group, organizational, and social levels, and within and among entities. (Medeni, 2006a) 2: The creation of new knowledge or the combination of existing knowledge to achieve an outcome, which can be in terms of innovation or problem solving. (Fong, 2006a) 3: The evaluation and interpretation of patterns, trends, or anomalies that have been discovered in a collection of texts (or data in general), as well as the formulation of its implications and consequences, including suggestions concerning reactive business decisions. (Kroeze, 2005) 4: The irst step in the KM process (the other steps include represent/store, access/use/reuse, disseminate/transfer); impacts the other consequent steps. (Wickramasinghe, 2006) 5: This can be divided into both explicit knowledge, which can be formulated in terms of words and numbers and distributed as data, reports, and scientiic formulas, and tacit knowledge, which is related to ideas, emotions, intuition, and experience. (Khan et al., 2006)
Knowledge Dimension
Any knowledge object comprises numerous characteristics. Pairs of these characteristics represent opposite ends of dimensions, and an item of knowledge may display combinations of the two characteristics on any dimension. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Knowledge Directory
An enterprise-wide taxonomy for organizing content from Web sites, document databases, and ile systems, as well as portlets, communities, and user proiles. (Wojtkowski, 2006)
Knowledge Discovery
1: A computer-supported process that uses computational algorithms and tools as visualization methods to help a user to discover knowledge from stored data. (Antonio do Prado et al., 2005) 2: In data sets, the process of identifying valid, novel, potentially useful, and ultimately understandable patterns/models in data. (Lazar, 2005) 3: Similar to data mining, this relates to the inding or the process of inding previously unknown patterns or relationships in a set of data. This might be extended to the identiication of important or relevant input attributes to be used for classiication. (Fuller & Wilson, 2006) 4: The development of new tacit or explicit knowledge from data and information, or from the synthesis of prior knowledge. (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2006) 5: The discovery of patterns, trends, or anomalies that already exist in a collection of texts (or data in general), but have not yet been identiied or described. (Kroeze, 2005) 6: The process by which new pieces of information can be revealed from a set of data. For example, given a set of data for variables {A,B,C,D}, a knowledge discovery process could discover unknown probabilistic dependencies among variables in the domain, using measures such as Kullbacks mutual information, which, for the discrete case, is given by the formula:
I ( A : B) =
i
Knowledge Deinition
Describes part of the structure or behavior of the sociotechnical system; for example, a worklow, an information tool used, or a norm regulating the behavior of community members. (Signoret, 2006)
Knowledge Dialogue
Designates conversations that have as their prime objective the manipulation of knowledge, that is to say to create new knowledge (Crealogues), share knowledge (Sharealogues), evaluate knowledge (Assessalogues), or apply and utilize knowledge (Doalogues). Participants in knowledge dialogues pay special attention to the role of language in creating new insights, conveying what one knows to others, or critically examining arguments. In the case of Doalogues that convert knowledge into action, as in the other three types of knowledge-focused talk, conversations are not just held, but actively managed. (Eppler, 2006)
p ( ai , b j )
(Vargas, 2005)
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Knowledge Document
Documented knowledge with an established, extended shelf life that resides in an explicit form and may originate internally or externally. (Kulkarni & Freeze, 2006)
Knowledge Domain
1: An area of knowledge a community agrees to learn about and advance, representing common ground and a sense of common identity that legitimizes the community by afirming its purpose and value to members. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006) 2: The knowledge related to deining, recognizing, and solving a speciic problem. (Achterbergh, 2005b)
Knowledge Economy
1: A realm of economic activity encompassing factors forming the core of a high value-added economy where knowledge is a key to economic success, and where skills and learning are valued and productively employed. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006) 2: An economy where the continuous innovations in information and communication technology have forged stronger links between individuals, organizations, and nations, contributing to global knowledge dissemination. (Kamel, 2005b) 3: An economy where the resource of most value is knowledge. (Mason et al., 2006) 4: Economic growth is driven by the accumulation of knowledge, which is the basic form of
Knowledge Dissemination
The act of making information as a component of knowledge available to others. As a purposeful act, knowledge dissemination can be manipulated to withhold, amplify, or distort information in order to deceive the recipient. (Land et al., 2006b)
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capital. A knowledge-driven economy is one in which the generation and exploitation of knowledge plays the predominant part in the creation of wealth. (Aurum, 2005) 5: The knowledge economy is a state of economic being and a process of economic becoming that leverages, both intensively and extensively, knowledge assets and competences, as well as economic learning to catalyze and accelerate sustainable and robust economic growth. (Moodley, 2005) 6: The knowledge-based economy is all about adding ideas to products and turning new ideas into new products. Relationships with trading partners, customers and suppliers, distribution networks, intellectual property, patents, image, and so forth are all elements of a knowledge economy. These elements represent intellectual capital. (Sharma et al., 2005)
or propagation of knowledge across space, time, people, and organizations. (Nissen, 2005) 3: The ways in which knowledge can move between a Community of Practice (CoP) and the larger organization, or between members of the CoP. A free low of knowledge may be facilitated by human or technological means or may result as a natural exchange between individuals, for example, a conversation. (Wenn, 2006a)
Knowledge Forum
A single, communal multimedia database designed to facilitate computer-supported collaborative learning. (Nason & Woodruff, 2005a)
Knowledge Gap
The different knowledge possession through mass media by social groups with varied social-economic-status. (Tarnanas & Kikis, 2005)
Knowledge Engineering
The process of eliciting an experts knowledge in order to construct a knowledge-based system or organizational memory. (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2006)
Knowledge Hierarchy
The hierarchical relationship between knowledge, information, and data, with each level building upon the one below. (Nissen, 2005)
Knowledge Identiication
The individual or collective process aimed at locating knowledge at a source, by one or more of the subprocesses of need identiication, gap analysis, searching, viewing, or inding. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Extraction
Explicitation of the internal knowledge of a system or set of data in a way that is easily interpretable by the user. (Rabual Dopico et al., 2005)
Knowledge Imitation
Individually or collectively reproducing knowledge from another actor by copying its objects or actions, with or without its assent. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Facilitator
A knowledge worker who ensures that knowledge is captured, indexed, and was made available for reuse. (Oshri, 2006)
Knowledge Indexing
Consists of organizing knowledge in individual or collective memory in order to ease its subsequent retrieval. (Prat, 2006)
Knowledge Finding
Coming across knowledge or sources of knowledge by an individual or a collective, regardless of the engendering process. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Flow
1: Deines how the knowledge lows through the activities performed by a community according to the kinds of knowledge and knowledge sources involved in the activities, the mechanisms used by the people involved in the activity to obtain or share that knowledge, and so forth. (Rodrguez-Elias et al., 2006) 2: The movement
Knowledge Infrastructure
A technical infrastructure supporting the development of organizational knowledge, whose design philosophy
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is often organization speciic. An example is to consider the infrastructure as a three-tiered system comprising the front-end knowledge management services, the middle knowledge management architecture, and the back-end organizational memory. (Vat, 2006)
Knowledge Integration
1: Solving problems raised by specialization. Specialization leads to a dispersion of specialized bodies of knowledge that are held by different specialists. Knowledge integration refers to how this drawing on different bodies of specialized knowledge is organized. (Munkvold, 2006) 2: In most organizations, the knowledge required for innovation and production lies dispersed over individual organization members, groups, and departments. The performance of organizations depends on the integration of that specialized knowledge. Knowledge integration is the process in which different pieces of knowledge, which are valuable for a particular organizational process and held by different organization members, are applied to that organizational process. (Berends et al., 2006) 3: Methodology of combining, modifying, reining, and merging usually several models (knowledge bases) into one robust, more predictable, and usually redundant model, or that of combining decisions of single (base) models. (Bruha, 2005) 4: The effectiveness of an organization to integrate the specialized knowledge of its members along three dimensions: eficiency, scope, and lexibility. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006) 5: The identiication, acquisition, and utilization of knowledge that is external to an individual or collective actor. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006) 6: The process whereby several individuals share and combine their information to collectively create new knowledge. (Newell, 2006)
by different programmers, at different times, in different languages, and so forth). KIF is not intended as a primary language for interaction with human users (though it can be used for this purpose). The purpose of KIF is roughly analogous to that of PostScript, which is commonly used by text and graphics formatting systems in communicating information about documents to printers. (Kapetanios, 2005)
Knowledge Leakage
The low of company proprietary knowledge across irm boundaries. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006)
Knowledge Lifecycle
The activities encompassing the treatment of knowledge as it moves through the stages of creation and capture, storage, retrieval and transfer, and application and reuse. (Kulkarni & Freeze, 2006)
Knowledge Logistics
The distribution and storage of knowledge. (Wijnhoven, 2006)
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for learning, problem solving, and decision making. KM often encompasses identifying intellectual assets within organizations. The management of knowledge is regarded as a main source of competitive advantage for organizations. KM brings together three organizational resourcespeople, processes, and technologiesand enables the organization to use and share information more effectively. (Aurum, 2005) 7: The gamut of organizational processes, responsibilities, and systems directed toward the assimilation, dissemination, harvest, and reuse of knowledge. (Kochikar & Suresh, 2005) 8: Practices and technologies that facilitate the eficient creation and exchange of knowledge on an organizational level. (Mitchell, 2005b) 9: A concept in which an enterprise gathers, organizes, shares, and analyzes its knowledge in terms of resources, documents, and people skills. It involves capturing, warehousing, transforming, and disseminating data/information within an organization to leverage knowledge for competitiveness enhancement. (Rahman, 2005b) 10: A combination of management awareness, attitudes, processes, and practices for creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing, and using knowledge to enhance learning and performance in organizations. (Bellarby & Orange, 2006) 11: A concept where an organization deliberately and comprehensively gathers, organizes, and analyzes its knowledge, then shares it internally and sometimes externally. (Pang, 2005a) 12: A program for managing a irms intellectual capital by systematically capturing, storing, sharing, and disseminating the irms explicit and tacit knowledge. (Herschel, 2005) 13: A set of sociotechnological enablers and processes that move or modify knowledge resources and foster learning. (Handzic & Lin, 2005) 14: A systematic attempt to use knowledge within an organization to improve overall performance. (Walker, 2006) 15: An entitys systematic and deliberate efforts to expand, cultivate, and apply available knowledge in ways that add value to the entity, in the sense of positive results in accomplishing its objectives or fulilling its purpose. (Holsapple & Joshi, 2006)
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arrangement or social or structural means of facilitating KM. (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2006)
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The measure of how well the components of a knowledge management system are implemented or perform their intended functions. (Jennex, 2006a)
learning services (such as application sharing or visualized chat sessions). (Eppler, 2006)
Knowledge Mediation
The process of matching the knowledge of agents when they communicate or cooperate in tasks. (Sterling, 2006)
Knowledge Mining
A practical synonym of knowledge discovery, not an extension of it. At present, the use of the term is strongly associated as a synonym of knowledge discovery and data mining. Knowledge mining consists of the following four integrated components designed to seamlessly guide the extraction process and contribute to providing corporations with a concise understanding of their business rules: system-wide knowledge recovery, program-level analysis, business rule extraction, and automatic documentation. (Raisinghani, 2005)
Knowledge Manager
Support structure that assigns a distinct set of knowledgerelated tasks, usually within the coordination domain, to an individual person. (Hendriks, 2006)
Knowledge Modeling
Consists of representing the knowledge in some selected language or notation. (Ma, 2006)
Knowledge Manipulation
The abuse of knowledge management; when information is hidden, distorted, withheld for a particular purpose. (Land, Nolas, et al., 2006)
The process of inding out to a satisfying degree what knowledge an individual or collective actor needs at a certain moment for a particular purpose. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Negotiation
Decision-making process to determine what knowledge is essential to collaborative knowledge work and learning. Virtual learning spaces and concept maps may facilitate this process. (Brown, 2006)
Knowledge Map
1: An Intranet hypertext-clickable map to visually display the architecture of a knowledge domain. Knowledge maps are also known as topic maps and skill maps. (Jennex, 2005) 2: Cartographic depiction of knowledge sources, structures, assets, and development or applications steps. A knowledge map does not directly represent knowledge, but reference it for easier identiication and assessment. (Eppler & Burkhard, 2006)
Knowledge Network
1: These networks are viewed like a relection of the growing dependence of the companies in front of external sources of knowledge. Therefore, they are not only sensitive to the social contacts, but they are also important for the mobility of the knowledge and, in consequence, at the space distance among the components of the network. (Ranguelov & Rodrguez, 2006) 2: A self-managing community of people who share mutual trust and respect, and come together to share their knowledge. (Elshaw, 2006a) 3: Knowledge is information with guidance for action based upon insight and experience. A network is the connection of two or more entities so that they can share resources. A knowledge network is an interconnected resource entity to improve the results of perception and learning, and reasoning. (Rahman,
Knowledge Media
Information technology-based infrastructures that enable knowledge codiication and transfer. They are platforms for the exchange of insights, experiences, and methods among scientiic communities and communities of practice. Knowledge media offer various electronic knowledge services, such as expert directories (who knows what), knowledge maps (how are areas of knowledge related), notiication services (what is new), or communication and
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2005b) 4: Organizational members who share a strong interest in a particular topic and interact frequently to share and create new knowledge, for example, new solutions to business problems, a new technology, or a new business. Often initiated and supported by management to build both individual and organizational capabilities. (Hustad & Munkvold, 2006) 5: Relationships of a large number of loosely coupled participants with a diffuse common domain of knowledge and without clearly deined boundaries. (Meller-Prothmann, 2006a) 6: The conventional name for an information and communication system, the framework of which includes information interaction and mutually beneicial collaboration of corporate professional groups for the purpose of information and knowledge exchange. (Molodtsov, 2005) 7: Common name for communities of practice, basically referring to an informal network of professionals belonging to the different domains of interest for the communities of practice. (Ray, 2006) 8: Formally set-up mechanisms, structures, and behavioral patterns that connect knowledge agents who were not previously connected because of functional, hierarchical, or legal boundaries between organizations. (Loebbecke & Angehrn, 2006) 9: Inter-irms formal or informal agreements whose main goal is to share knowledge and exploit new ideas. Knowledge networks provide the member irms with access to complementary knowledge resources and extend their core capabilities. In a knowledge network, each node represents a unique repository of knowledge, whereas the links represent economic and strategic ties that enable knowledge lows among nodes. (Scarso et al., 2006)
Knowledge of Performance
A pathway to learning for a student. Having knowledge of their performance by way of grades, comments, or other feedback is part of the learning process. (Bagwell, 2005)
Knowledge Oficer
A military oficer with varying levels of responsibilities depending on the ser vice and operation. Navy experimentation has involved knowledge oficers reporting to a chief knowledge oficer with overall strategic responsibilities for information and communications. (Maule, 2006)
Knowledge Ontology
Common deinitions established for captured knowledge, similar to key words, used to capture and express a common context for search, retrieval, and use of knowledge. (Jennex, 2005)
Knowledge Node
The reiication of an organizational unit, either formal (e.g., divisions, market sectors) or informal (e.g., interest groups, communities of practice, communities of knowing), that exhibits some degree of semantic autonomy. (Cuel et al., 2006)
Knowledge Organization
Characterized by weak hierarchies, dense lateral connections, low departmental walls, and openness to the environment. A number of studies suggest that use of hierarchical contacts (frequently, equated with formal structure) are not as effective for knowledge sharing as lateral or informal contacts. (Nelson & Hsu, 2006)
Knowledge Object
The set of these are the inputs and outputs of KOM. There are at least four types of knowledge (conscious knowledge, automatic knowledge, shared body of knowledge, and collective knowledge), on the basis of the dimensions codiication (explicit vs. tacit) and sharedness (individual vs. group) of knowledge. Additionally, information is a representation of knowledge or a representation of objects from the real world. (Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Owner
An entity (individual or collective) that has the capability of managing its own knowledge from a syntactical, semantic, and technological point of view. (Cuel et al., 2006)
Knowledge Personalization
The application of speciic knowledge to the context of the clients circumstances. An understanding of the clients
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needs is essential, and strong relationships between the knowledge provider and the knowledge receiver need to be developed so that knowledge is accepted and utilized. It is a process-centric view of knowledge management. (Fink & Disterer, 2006)
Knowledge Repository
A collection of meaningful data and information, including implicit and explicit data, which serves a particular community of practice. (Qayyum, 2005)
Knowledge Process
1: A service process supporting the low of knowledge within and between knowledge-intensive business processes. Knowledge processes comprise a number of functions on knowledge, for example, capture, organization, storage, packaging, search, retrieval, transportation, (re)use, revision, and feedback, and they can be supported by KMS. (Maier & Hdrich, 2006) 2: In the literature, one often inds four knowledge processes: (1) generating knowledge, (2) sharing knowledge, (3) storing knowledge, and (4) applying knowledge. (Achterbergh, 2005b) 3: The organizational process for managing knowledge; speciically, it is one of the formal processes for knowledge capture and reuse, determining how the knowledge will be stored, and metrics for measuring the effectiveness of knowledge use. (Jennex, 2006a) 4: The process of leveraging the collective individual learning of an organization to produce a higher-level organizationwide intellectual asset. This is supposed to be a continuous process of creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge accompanied by a possible modiication of behavior to relect new knowledge and insight, and to produce a higher-level intellectual content. (Vat, 2006a)
Knowledge Retrieval
Accessing knowledge previously stored in individual or collective memory. Knowledge retrieval makes use of the index deined when that knowledge was stored. (Prat, 2006)
Knowledge Protection
Ensures that knowledge will be transferred only to authorized individuals, groups, or organizations. (Prat, 2006)
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Knowledge Seeker
A person who searches for and acquires knowledge from other organizational members (used interchangeably with knowledge consumer). (Kankanhalli et al., 2006)
Knowledge Sharing
1: A cross-functional and collaborative informationdistribution and learning activity. Advantages of knowledge sharing include its commonsense comprehensibility, along with a certain degree of interactivity implicit in any sharing. Drawbacks include the possibility that even sharing is insuficiently interactive, and that it implies that the existence of knowledge precedes the sharing process, thereby separating knowledge management from innovation and research. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006) 2: A process of leveraging the collective individual learning of an organization, such as a group of people, to produce a higher-level organization-wide intellectual asset. It is supposed to be a continuous process of creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge accompanied by a possible modiication of behavior to relect new knowledge and insight, and produce a higher-level intellectual content. (Vat, 2006a) 3: A process of mutual exchange of knowledge between two or more parties. (Bolisani et al., 2006) 4: Formal, deliberate and systematic activities of transferring or disseminating knowledge from one person, group, or organization to another. (Wright & Taylor, 2005) 5: Involves giving people some of the knowledge you have. It may be about how to do a particular job, where to ind information, knowledge of a customers products, and of industry developments. (Mitchell, 2005a) 6: People share their experiences, knowledge, and insights through explicit or implicit means. (Fong, 2006b) 7: Refers to an exchange of knowledge between two individuals: one who communicates knowledge and one who assimilates it. In knowledge sharing, the focus is on human capital and the interaction of individuals. Strictly speaking, knowledge can never be shared. Because it exists in a context, the receiver interprets it in light of his or her own background. (Jacobson, 2006) 8: The exchange of knowledge among individuals within and among teams, organizational units, and organizations. This exchange may be focused or unfocused, but it usually does not have a clear objective. (King, 2006b) 9: The intentional (and often unintentional) low of knowledge between individuals, groups, and organizations. The goal is to provide valuable internal knowledge in exchange for external knowledge, which is often combined via organizational learning to create new and meaningful knowledge. Sharing implies the low
is two way through process, structural, or social means. (Paquette, 2006a) 10: The intentional sharing of awareness and experiences among learners with the goal of not only enriching their own individual learning, but also of creating or maintaining a common repository of reusable knowledge objects. (Collis & Moonen, 2005b) 11: The process through which explicit or tacit knowledge is communicated and appropriated to other individuals. (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2006) 12: The processes of transforming and transferring knowledge through an organization are designated by knowledge sharing. (Disterer, 2005) 13: The sharing of knowledge possessed by experienced professionals with those less experienced. This is not an easy task since much knowledge is of a tacit nature, which needs to be made explicit and communicated. Reward systems are often used to encourage knowledge sharing, and knowledge possessed is regarded as a competitive advantage not to be given up readily. (Fink & Disterer, 2006) 14: Voluntary activities (process) of transferring or disseminating knowledge from one person to another person or group in an organization. (Kankanhalli et al., 2006)
Knowledge Source
A source of information which can be useful to obtain knowledge for practical application such as know-how, know-what, know-where, and so forthfor example, lessons learned or members of the community. (RodrguezElias et al., 2006)
Knowledge Space
The space deined by the neural network weights. (Alippi & Vanini, 2005)
Knowledge Spiral
Developed by Nonaka, refers to the process of transforming the form of knowledge, and thus increasing the extant knowledge base as well as the amount and utilization of the knowledge within the organization. The key transformations effected by the knowledge spiral include socialization (tacit-tacit knowledge transfer), combination (explicit-explicit knowledge transfer), internalization
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(explicit-tacit knowledge transfer), and externalization (tacit-explicit knowledge transfer). (Wickramasinghe, 2006)
Knowledge Topic
Deinition of a particular area of knowledge useful for a person or the members of a community. (Rodrguez-Elias et al., 2006)
Knowledge Stance
A recurring situation in knowledge work deined by a certain occasion, a context, and a mode resulting in knowledge-oriented actions. It describes a situation in which an employee can, should, or must switch from a business-oriented function to a knowledge-oriented action. (Hdrich & Maier, 2006)
Knowledge Trail
Provides information on who did what, when, how, and why. (Dustdar, 2005)
Knowledge Transfer
1: Knowledge is transferred from the sender(s) (person, group, team, or organization) to the recipient(s) (person, group, team, or organization). (Chen, Duan, et al., 2006) 2: Refers to an exchange of knowledge in which the focus is on structural capital (knowledge that has been built into processes, products, or services) and on the transformation of individual knowledge to group knowledge or organizational knowledge. (Jacobson, 2006) 3: The focused, objective-seeking communication of knowledge between individuals, groups, or organizations such that the recipient of knowledge: (1) has a cognitive understanding, (2) has the ability to apply the knowledge, or (3) applies the knowledge. (King, 2006a) 4: The process concerning the transfer of knowledge from a source to a recipient or user. It is the most studied process in the KM literature. (Bolisani et al., 2006) 5: The sharing of knowledge within or between individuals, groups, and organizations. (Prat, 2006)
Knowledge Structure
A parameterized concept that could help explain why a speciic knowledge discovery technique performs best for a particular knowledge discovery task. The concept is analogous to the form and meaning (i.e., underlying structure) of the knowledge to be discovered in a database, and deined by a set of parameters P. (Wilson et al., 2006a)
Knowledge Substitution
The degree to which one kind of knowledge (e.g., specialist design knowledge) can be substituted for another (e.g., generalist technology development knowledge) without affecting organizational performance. (Nissen & Levitt, 2006)
Knowledge Transformation
The process in which the learner behaves as a passive information receiver at the beginning of a course, but gradually plays an active role in learning and constructing knowledge midway through the course. (Bodomo, 2005a)
Knowledge Synthesis
The broad process of creating, locating, organizing, transferring, and using the information and expertise within
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Knowledge Utilization
1: The application of knowledge to business processes. Knowledge has no value per se, but draws its value from concrete application to business processes. (Prat, 2006) 2: The individual or collective process aimed at using knowledge by one or more of the subprocesses of direction, routinization, diffusion, application, or exploitation. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
Knowledge Viewing
Individually or collectively monitoring the existing external knowledge base to detect relevant changes. (Kraaijenbrink & Wijnhoven, 2006)
require advanced ICT support. (Maier & Hdrich, 2006) 3: Refers to work conducted by knowledge workersthat is, work that comprises to a large extent the tasks of retrieving, evaluating, integrating, and creating knowledge. (Derballa & Pousttchi, 2006b) 4: The ability to create an understanding of nature, organizations, and processes, and to apply this understanding as a means of generating wealth in the organization. (Heavin & Neville, 2006) 5: Work accomplished through the manipulation of data and symbols. (Hantula & DeRosa, 2005)
Knowledge Worker
1: Anyone whose work involves tasks that require the processing of information. These tasks include collecting, analyzing, synthesizing, structuring, storing, retrieving, and using information. (Lindsey, 2006) 2: People who look to different repositories or wealth of knowledge to ind new solutions to challenges faced in a dynamic and changing work environment. (Ray, 2006)
Knowledge Vision
A root deinition of what knowledge will give the organization a competitive edge in the knowledge-based economy. (Vat, 2006a)
Knowledge Visualization
1: A visual (or other sense-based) representation of knowledge; a portrayal via graphical or other sensory means of knowledge, say, of a particular domain, making that knowledge explicit, accessible, viewable, scrutable, and shareable. (Alpert, 2006) 2: Designates all graphic means that can be used to develop or convey insights, experiences, methods, or skills. (Eppler & Burkhard, 2006)
Knowledge-Based Economy
1: A form of modern economy referring to a speciic structural transformation, where the fast creation of new knowledge and the improvement of access to various knowledge bases increasingly constitute the main resource for greater eficiency, novelty, and competitiveness. (Chochliouros & Spiliopoulou-Chochliourou, 2006) 2: Economy that thrives because people have the necessary knowledge and skills. (Gnaniah et al., 2005b)
Knowledge Warrior
A facilitator of information with responsibilities for shaping knowledge in response to information requirements to speed decision times. (Maule, 2006)
Knowledge-Based Enterprise
An enterprise that derives the most value from intellectual rather than physical assets. A knowledge-based enterprise is a irm that is fully embracing knowledge management and committed to fostering continuous learning. (Wickramasinghe & Sharma, 2005)
Knowledge Web
The use of electronic linkages among different teaching and learning communities to facilitate information acquisition and knowledge building. (Neville & Powell, 2005)
Knowledge-Based Future
Essentially this relects the new economy whereby knowledge sharing and knowledge management are critical to an organizations success and the achievement of a sustainable competitive advantage. Knowledge sharing is also important for the community as a whole. (Pease et al., 2005)
Knowledge Work
1: Conceptual and analytical practices that require domainspeciic knowledge and can be conducted from a variety of locations and, thus, are not tied to processes or technologies of speciic workplace locations. (P.M. Leonardi, 2005) 2: Creative work solving unstructured problems that can be characterized by a high degree of variety and exceptions, strong communication needs, weakly structured processes, teamwork in the form of project teams, networks and communities, and a high level of skill and expertise that
Knowledge-Based Organization
An organization that competes on the basis of its differential knowledge. (Nissen, 2005)
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Knowledge-Based Personalization
Personalization that is based on: (1) explicit representation of knowledge about the user and the domain of operation, and (2) automatic inference from that knowledge. (Babaian, 2005)
interactions between individuals, and is formed when the individuals get to know one another well. (Smith, 2006b)
Knowledge-Flow Theory
An emerging basis of theory describing the dynamics of how knowledge moves between various people, organizations, locations, and points in time. (Nissen & Levitt, 2006)
Knowledge-Based Perspective
A special form of resource-based perspective stressing the signiicance of knowledge as a scarce resource and organizational differentiator. (Loebbecke & Angehrn, 2006)
Knowledge-Based Society
The United Nations Economic and Social Council decision 1999/281 deines the function of information technology in the context of a world economy based in knowledge. This decision determines the importance of information technology in conjunction with knowledge to create a society in which these parameters will contribute to disseminate knowledge, create participation among countries and therefore among individuals, and generate economic growth. All the latter will take place within a societal framework that helps to preserve and increase the social and economic well-being of the inhabitants of the world. (Ochoa-Morales, 2005)
Knowledge-Based System
1: A hybrid extended technique between collaborativeiltering and content-based systems. It builds knowledge about users by linking their information with knowledge about products. (Gil & Garci a, 2006) 2: An information system that captures and delivers problem-pertinent knowledge to users. (Forgionne, 2005)
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Kullback-Leibler Divergence
The Kullback-Leibler divergence of a parametric model p, with respect to an unknown density f is deined by:
K L (f , p
)= i f (xi )log
f (x i ) ( ) p x i
where the sufix indicates the values of the parameters, which minimizes the distance with respect to f. (Giudici, 2005)
KOM Goals
Integration, adaptation, goals attainment, and pattern maintenance. (Wijnhoven, 2006)
KOM Means
Information technological and human means, which support knowledge logistic processes (acquisition, storage, maintenance, search and retrieval, and dissemination). (Wijnhoven, 2006)
Kompong Speu
A province of Cambodia; its capital is Kompong Speu. (Hutchinson, 2005)
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L
L=P+Q
AL is based on the radical concept that signiicant learning (L) only results when based on routine knowledge in use (P) and questioning insight (Q) brought together through a process of personal and communal relection that integrates research on what is best practice or obscure with practical action to resolve a problem. (Smith, 2006a)
LAN: See Local Area Network. LAAS: See Local Area Augmentation System. Land Information System (LIS) Label
A short, ixed-length, physically contiguous, locally signiicant identiier used to identify a stream. (Gutirrez & Ting, 2005) A GIS specially designed for use with land information. Land rights, ownership, boundaries, utility, land cover, and zoning data are common layers and attributes in an LIS. (Velibeyoglu, 2005)
Label Swapping
A forwarding paradigm allowing streamlined forwarding of data by using labels to identify streams of data to be forwarded. (Gutirrez & Ting, 2005)
Landed Cost
The cost of an order including the price of goods, shipping charges, insurance, duties/customs, value added tax (VAT), and any import or export fees. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005b)
Labeled Data
A sequence of training instances with corresponding class labels, where the class label is the value to be predicted by the hypothesis. (Scheffer, 2005)
Landmark Knowledge
A type of spatial knowledge dealing with information about visual features of landmarks. (Sadeghian et al., 2006)
Language Divide
The inability to understand, communicate, receive, or transfer information in a recognized language of the persons state or community. (Arthur-Gray & Campbell, 2005)
LabVIEW
The graphical development environment for creating lexible and scalable test, measurement, and control applications. With LabVIEW, users can interface with realworld signals, analyze data for meaningful information, and share results and applications. (Chu & Lam, 2006)
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been used, for example, to specify the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) architecture (ISO 7498). (Campos & Harrison, 2006)
connectiongenerally made of a pair of copper wires between the subscribers location and the nearest telephone exchange. The last mile, which is also called line or subscriber line, coincides with the most restrictive deinition of local loop. (Arbore, 2005)
Last-Mile Capabilities
A new category of e-fulillment capabilities which involves all aspects of delivering to customers workplaces or homes. Quality, cost-effectiveness, and lexibility of such deliveries is critical to the success of online retailers but includes a host of problems that must be overcome. Issues such as payments, security, extended delivery times, returns, customer presence, and handling of differenttemperature and perishable deliveries have catalyzed the development of new capabilities such as locked boxes, wireless payment devices, and innovative courier networks. (Alexander & Burn, 2006)
Laptop
A portable personal computer small enough to use on your lap with a QWERTY keyboard and display screen. It usually has an A4-sized footprint in a clamshell coniguration and may incorporate a variety of peripheral devices (e.g., trackball, CD-ROM, wireless network card, etc.). (Garrett, 2006b)
Laptop University
A university in which all students and faculty are required to have a laptop computer, and in which much of the instruction is carried out using computer technologies. (Reynolds, 2005)
Layer
A set of practices that characterizes activities of a community. These practices are not homogenous, although they share common features. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006)
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La ye r 4 Sw it ch Le a n M e dia
Layer 4 Switch
A switch that can retrieve from the network packets information about the port number they are using, and thus the application that generated them. (Danalis, 2005)
Main research areas are traits of the leading individual, context factors of the situation where leadership takes place, and different inluence tactics employed by the leading person. (von Wartburg & Teichert) 2: The ability to organize and motivate others, overcome problems, and initiate and accept responsibility. (Petska & Berge, 2005) 3: The dynamic phenomenon in group life where an individual or individuals consciously or unconsciously inluence and direct the activities and interactions of that group. Leadership may be formally constructed and embodied within an organizational role, or emerge informally from the interactions of the group by tacit processes. (Cargill, 2006a)
Leadership Behavior
The various actions that leaders contribute to group and team life that may be generally categorized as task related or relationship oriented. Task behaviors aim to structure, direct, and progress the work of the group. Relationship behaviors aim to address the way the group members feel about and interact with each other, with the leader, and with the task they are tackling. The holding and communicating of a vision for the group is also generally acknowledged as a leadership behavior that is both task related and relationship oriented. (Cargill, 2006a)
LBS: See Location-Based Service. LCMS: See Learning Content Management System.
Leadership Style LCSS: See Longest Common Subsequence Similarity. LDAP: See Lightweight Directory Access Protocol. LDC: See Lesser Developed Country. LDT:
Location determination technology. (Fraunholz et al., 2005) The manner in which leaders carry out their responsibilities and the way they interact with others deines their style of leadership. (Petska & Berge, 2005)
Leading
Guiding the work efforts of other people in directions appropriate to action plans. Leading involves building commitment and encouraging work efforts that support goal attainment. (Cragg & Suraweera, 2005)
Leaf
A node not further splitthe terminal groupingin a classiication or decision tree. (Beynon, 2005b)
Lean Media
Media with reduced capacity to carry information, with face-to-face communication being the standard by which others are judged. Asynchronous text communication for example is considered to be lean media, while full motion video/audio is considered to be rich. (Newberry, 2005)
Leadership
1: Denotes irst a constellation of a person who is called a leader and other individuals who are called followers.
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Leaner-Learner Interaction
Interaction between a learner and other learners in a one-toone, one-to-many, or many-to-many setting. (Kung-Ming & Khoon-Seng 2005)
Learner Model
A model representing static beliefs about the learner and, in some cases, able to simulate the learners reasoning. (Esmahi, 2005)
Leapfrogging
The notion that access to ICTs will enable people to skip over stages of technological and economic development. (Pryor, 2005)
Learner Segment
Onen of the different populations of students that utilize post-secondary education and training opportunities for their own unique needs. (Langer, 2005)
Learn to Learn
In this context, learning to manage (select, extract, classify) the great amount of information existing in actual society, in order to identify real and signiicant knowledge. (Pedreira et al., 2005)
Learner-Centered Learnability
1: The degree to which a system can transfer knowledge in a natural way. Natural in this context is the way the user is used to acquire the knowledge. (Athanasis & Andreas, 2005) 2: How easy it is to learn to use a system. (Yong, 2005) 3: The degree to which a system can transfer knowledge in a natural way. Natural in this context is the way the user is used to acquire the knowledge. (Karoulis & Pombortsis, 2005a) 1: Based on adult learning theories and new paradigms of learning that focus on the learners taking responsibility for their learning and assuming control over how they learn, where they learn, and when they learn. (Stavredes, 2005a) 2: Education that focuses on students and their learning, rather than on teachers and their methods. There has been a signiicant paradigm shift toward learner-centered education in the last decade. (Lindsay, Williams, et al., 2005)
Learner
Given a training set of (representative) examples (accompanied usually by their desired classes/concepts), a learner induces concept description (model, knowledge base) for a given task that then is usually utilized in the corresponding decision-supporting system. (Bruha, 2005)
Learner-Centered Education
Refers to a philosophy to education and administration that focuses upon the student as its priority; all policy making, instructional, and support activities are developed and delivered with an emphasis on student preferences, learning styles, and resources. (McCracken, 2005)
Learner Control
A learning environment where the learner has control of the pace and direction of the learning situation. (Pelton & Pelton, 2005)
Learner Differences
The differences that exist in the manner in which an individual acquires information. (Alkhalifa, 2006)
Learner-Content Interaction
1: Learners talk to themselves about the information or ideas contained in the material. (Kung-Ming & Khoon-
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Seng 2005) 2: Interactions that occur between the learner and the content of the course or activity that they are pursuing (i.e., textbooks, Web pages, database activities, etc.). (Day, 2005)
Learning Algorithm
The method used to change the weights so that the error is minimized. Training data is repeatedly presented to the MFNN through the input layer, the output of the MFNN is calculated and compared to the desired output. Error information is used to determine which weights need to be modiied, and by how much. There are several parameters involved in the learning algorithm including learning rate, momentum factor, initial weights, and so forth. (Smith, 2005)
Learner-Instructor Interaction
1: Interaction between the learner(s) with the instructor. (Kung-Ming & Khoon-Seng 2005) 2: Interaction between the various members of the learning community and their relation to the course or activity in which each is involved (i.e., cohorts, learning teams, collaborative learning community). (Day, 2005)
Learner-Medium Interaction
Interaction between learners, teachers, and support personnel in relation to the method of communications that is being utilized for the course or activity (i.e., Internet, intranet, server system, video, or satellite communications). (Day, 2005)
Learner-Resource Interaction
The interaction that involves lear ners actively communicating with textbooks, hard-copy handouts, lecture notes, and with ICT-based current and remote resources such as online lecture notes and outlines, CD-ROMs, glossaries, calendars of activities, progress reports, quizzes, and links to experts and more resources. (Bodomo, 2005b)
Learning Allostatis
The constant changes an individual makes to maintain homeostatis. The actions are in response to learning and life events that impact knowledge and performance. (Molinari et al., 2005c)
Learner-Teacher Interaction
Interaction between the learners and their instructor or facilitator in which the process of learning occurs within the course or activity (lectures online, facilitated newsgroups, etc.). (Day, 2005)
Learning
1: A process of understanding, assimilating, and absorbing knowledge. (Pyke, 2006) 2: Cognitive processing and integration of new educational content, if possible induced through exercises or games. (Utsi & Lowyck, 2005) 3: Educational process for self-education or instruction using the study or the experience. (Andrade, Ares, Garcia, Rodriguez, Seoane, et al., 2006)
Learning at a Distance
Refers to all learning activities that are carried out where and when the learners are separated from the learning organization and the teachers for much of the learning process. (Naidu, 2005b)
Learning by Doing
1: A kind of learning by going through a process of creativity by the students. (Sala, 2005b) 2: An approach in learning where it is possible to gain the ability to navigate a challenge or problem, or even ones life, by implementing the learners own powerful natural process of exploration and discovery. (Sala, 2005b)
Learning Activity
1: One of the activities engaged in by the learner for the purpose of acquiring certain skills, concepts, or knowledge, whether guided by an instructor or not. (Sala, 2005a) 2: In a course content, learning-oriented tasks involving
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Learning Center
A location where students can come for individualized instruction. (Crichton, 2005)
(Kayama & Okamoto, 2005) 5: Focuses on creating, reusing, locating, sharing, or improving learning content. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005)
Learning Contract
An agreement negotiated between a learner and a teacher stating that certain activities will be undertaken to achieve particular learning goals and that speciic evidence will be produced to demonstrate that the goals have been reached. This agreement is a mechanism for reassuring both parties involved about whether a piece of work will meet the requirements of a certain course or module. It is based on the idea that learners are active partners in all of the learning and teaching process. (Correia & Sarmento, 2005)
Learning Culture
A particular way of considering the learning process, how it occurs, in what conditions, and so forth. It relies on an explicit or an implicit theory that provides more or less accurate representations of the learning process. (Blandin, 2005)
Learning Design
1: The description of a program of activities, roles, and learning objectives. (Sicilia & Snchez-Alonso, 2006) 2: Explicit design that more focused than simply problem-based learning, collaborative learning, and social constructivism. The learning design is the schema utilized to design the teaching and learning interactions. (Keppell et al., 2005)
Learning Effectiveness
1: The degree to which learning outcomes have been achieved or learning is effective. (Blicker, 2005) 2: The quality principle that assures that learning outcomes online are at least equivalent to learning outcomes in other delivery modes. (Moore et al., 2005)
Learning Environment
1: A term used to describe the interactions that occur among individuals and groups, and the setting within which they operate. (Clayton, 2006b) 2: Overall university setting in which many educational and administrative processes interact. (Fernando, 2005)
Learning Flow
Process by which knowledge is transferred and diffused between the different levels of the organization. It describes
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the new knowledge production process (feedforward) and the use of the knowledge that has already been generated (feedback). (Real et al., 2006)
Learning Group
A group of people, often with a luid hierarchy and shifting roles, whose emphasis is learning before eficiency. The focus is on the process (the product being secondary), with the idea that the best learning outcomes will occur when participants take on challenges and unfamiliar tasks in order to gain competency in new areas. (Graham & Misanchuk, 2005)
Learning Infrastructure
1: The set of physical and digital buildings, applications, services, and people that provide and support the environments for learning. (Boettcher, 2005a) 2: The set of physical and digital buildings, applications, services, and people that provide and support the environments for learning. (Boettcher, 2005b)
to manage their training needs, from planning through registration and completion. (Waddington et al., 2005) 6: An e-learning infrastructure with real-time databases that deal with user (learner, coach, faculty, and so on) information, including the users learning competencies, learning objects for each type of learning style and form, and learning activity and performance log tracking. An extended LMS may also support authoring, performance assessment, classroom management, competency management, knowledge management, certiication and compliance training, personalization, mentoring and coaching, and communication. (Kayama & Okamoto, 2005) 7: Includes all the functions for student and course management, learning assessment, and tracking and reporting on student progress and activity. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005) 8: Software designed to help administer the teaching/training environment. The LMS registers users, tracks courses, records data from learners, and provides reports to the instructor. The focus is on managing courses, not on content creation. (Du Mont, 2005) 9: A collection of server-side Web tools that help an instructor to create a course Web site. (Bagwell, 2005) 10: A broad term used to describe a wide range of systems that organize and provide access to e-learning environments for students, tutors, and administrators. (Clayton, 2006b) 11: Enterprise software used to manage learning activities through the ability to catalog, register, deliver, and track learners and learning. (Snchez-Segura et al., 2005) 12: Software that automates the administration of training events by registering users, tracking courses, recording the learners data, and providing reports to management. (Brown, 2006) 13: Designed for the delivery and management of e-learning courses. Generally includes a learner interface and some administrative functions such as course setup, learner registration, course assignment, and reporting of learners progress. (Ng, 2006) 14: Software environment within which students access learning objects provided by an instructor. An LMS-based course is a framework and structure that contains learning objects and directions to students from the instructor regarding how and when they should be accessed. With LMSs, instructors focus their energy and expertise on the creation or utilization of learning objects and the day-to-day management of their courses. (Reisman, 2006) 15: Refers to an environment whose primary focus is the management of the learning process (i.e., registration and tracking of students, content creation and delivery capability, skill assessment and development planning, organizational resource management). (Esmahi, 2005)
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Learning Metaphor
An image representing the way the brain is supposed to process information to produce knowledge. This image is built according to the implicit theory in use or to the explicit theory espoused. (Blandin, 2005)
Learning Network
1: An informal association of members of different organizations for the purpose of knowledge exchange. Learning networks are characterized by voluntary membership, intrinsic motivation to participate, and a focus on collaborative rather than competitive thinking. (Angehrn & Gibbert, 2005) 2: People within a learning network use computer mediated communication to work and learn together, at the time, place, and pace that best suits them and is appropriate to achieving pre-determined learning outcomes and targets. (Wheeler & LewisFitzgerald, 2005) 3: An inter-organizational network where structures have been established with the primary purpose of increasing the participants knowledge. These networks involve representatives of different organizations, mainly private irms. They are formally established with clear and deined boundaries for participation, and have a explicit structure for operation with regular processes. The outcomes of the network can be fully assessed and evaluated; these results feed back to the network, giving it the opportunity to improvise. A typical structure for a learning network includes the network moderator, network facilitators, and network members. (Tsekouras & Roussos, 2006) 4: A computer network used for both educational and training purposes. Consists of groups of people working together, online, to educate both themselves and others. The hardware and software that forms the network system is the only limitation to these groups. (Neville & Powell, 2005)
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contained chunks of training content that can be assembled with other learning objects to create courses and curricula, much the same way a childs Lego blocks are assembled to create all types of structures. Learning objects are designed to be used in multiple training contexts, aim to increase the lexibility of training, and make updating courses much easier to manage. (Galitsky, 2005b) 4: A digital entity described by a metadata record that facilitates its reuse in online learning. (Sicilia & Snchez-Alonso, 2006) 5: An artifact or group of artifacts with learning objectives that can be used to increase our knowledge. (Verhaart & Kinshuk 2006) 6: Any entity, digital or nondigital, that can be used, reused, or referenced during technology-supported learning. (Askar & Halici, 2005) 7: An object mainly used to refer to a digital resource that can be reused to support learning. However, the broadest deinition includes any instructional components that can be reused in different learning contexts. (Esmahi, 2005) 8: Any entity (digital or non-digital) that may be used for learning/education/training. A learning object is usually the smallest unit of instruction managed by an LMS. However, a learning object may grow increasingly complex, have any internal structure, and may get more size or granularity. In order to reuse, learning objects are described by metadata. (Kayama & Okamoto, 2005) 9: Chunks of learning content that can be combined to comprise teaching modules or courses. (ODea, 2005) 10: Available information (usually on the Web) that is reusable and applicable to many different learning contexts. (Lindsay, Williams, et al., 2005) 11: Deined as any entitydigital or non-digitalthat may be used, reused, or referenced for learning, education, or training. Examples of learning objects include multimedia content, instructional content, learning objectives, instructional software and software tools, people, organizations, and events referenced during technology-supported learning. (Ishaya, 2005) 12: A digital resource that can be reused in more than one learning experience. (Chapman, 2005b)
of educational contents for speciic needs. (Sicilia & Snchez-Alonso, 2006) 3: Metadata that contain semantic information about learning objects. The main aim of LOM speciication is to enable the reuse, search, and retrieval of learning objects. The standard, developed by the IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee (LTSC) in 1997, speciies a conceptual data schema that deines the structure of metadata instances for a learning object. (Ishaya, 2005) 4: The IEEE standard conceptual schema that speciies the set of attributes required to describe a learning object. (Esmahi, 2005)
Learning on Demand
A phrase associated with the concept of Just-in-Time Learning. It is speciically associated with the learners role in determining what he or she wants or needs to learn at any given time. (Iannarelli, 2005)
Learning Organization
1: An enterprise that facilitates the learning of all its members and continuously transforms itself. (Brace & Berge, 2006) 2: An organization that continually strives to create a culture and environment that promotes learning, exploration, and innovation, and that continuously
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transforms itself to achieve superior competitive performance. (Jones & Gupta, 2005) 3: An organization that helps transfer learning from individuals to a group, provide for organizational renewal, keep an open attitude to the outside world, and support a commitment to knowledge. It is also considered as the organization that focuses on developing and using its information and knowledge capabilities in order to create higher-value information and knowledge, to modify behaviors to relect new knowledge and insights, and to improve bottom-line results. (Vat, 2006) 4: An organization which actively engages itself in promoting the development of knowledge assets by extracting, storing, and nurturing the knowledge that exists in individuals and systems. (Huq et al., 2006) 5: Type or form of organization that continuously expands its capacity to create the wished-for results, using learning as an intentional and strategic tool for organizational and individual improvement, and facilitates the learning of all its members via the elimination of any kind of barrier. (Real et al., 2006) 6: Those that have in place systems, mechanisms, and processes that are used to continually enhance their capabilities, and those who work with it or for it to achieve sustainable objectives for themselves and the communities in which they participate. (Sharma, Wickramasinghe, et al., 2005)
Learning Platform
A software system used to deliver and support online teaching and learning. Learning platforms manage access to the platform and to learning materials, and usually include various communication tools. (Link & Wagner, 2006)
Learning Portal
Integrates information, administrative, communication, research, teaching, and learning support systems with global networks of resources and services. Learning portals are typically designed to increase lexibility and accessibility to institutional resources, and to encourage interaction and engagement with diverse communities of users. (Campbell, 2005)
Learning Preference
Individual favoring of one teaching method over another, which can be consistently observed through individual choices or actions. (Rentroia-Bonito et al., 2006)
Learning Orientation
1: Personal way individuals understand and manage their own intentional learning. (Molinari et al., 2005) 2: Set of organizational values, such as the commitment to learning, the shared vision, and open-mindedness that inluence the propensity of the company to create and use knowledge. (Real et al., 2006)
Learning Outcome
1: A measure of the performance of a student after receiving treatment. (Witta, 2005) 2: Often used at some institutions as a synonym for competencies, but generally deined more broadly and sometimes confused with completion of assignments. An acceptable learning outcome might be, for instance, a passing grade on an essay. Unless the assignment is carefully designed, however, neither the essay nor its grade may reveal much about the true extent of the students knowledge, skills, and abilities in the subject area. (D.B. Johnstone, 2005) 3: The achieved objectives; evidence that learning has occurred, performance has changed, and results have been attained. Also, a measurable change in knowledge, attitude, behavior, skill level, or a condition, status, or situation. (Blicker, 2005)
Learning Stock
Knowledge store in a speciic agent (i.e., individual, group, and organization) both in its technical dimensions or knowhow and its cognitive dimension. (Real et al., 2006)
Learning Stress
Physiological and psychological changes occurring during learning events. (Molinari et al., 2005b)
Learning Style
1: A consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning on the basis of either learned or inherited traits. Also known as cognitive preference. (Chambel & Guimares, 2005) 2: A persons preferred way to learn and process information, interact with others,
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and complete practical tasks. (Ally, 2005c) 3: Consists of the ways and modes people acquire knowledge, so it helps greatly in knowledge acquisition and retention. There are four important learning styles identiied: feeling (concrete experience), thinking (abstract conceptualization), watching (relective observation), and doing (active experimentation). (Y.J. Zhang, 2005b) 4: Generally accepted to be a students existing learning strengths or preferred manner of learning. (Kaur et al., 2005) 5: Generally refers to learning dispositions that students adopt in educational environments; sometimes called learning approach or learning orientation. (Berg, 2005d)
Learning Theory
1: One of a range of theoretical models used to facilitate understanding of the process of learning. (Sieber & Andrew, 2005) 2: A set of hypotheses or beliefs that explain the process of learning or acquiring knowledge and skill. (Boettcher, 2005a)
Learning Tool
A tool included in a Web-based learning environment for managing the course, and geared to facilitating student learning in the environment. (Lammintakanen & Rissanen, 2005a)
Learning Task
One of a set of steps with a deined learning goal addressing speciic training needs identiied within business processes driving the deinition of proper instructional design and e-learning system requirements. (Rentroia-Bonito & Jorge, 2005)
Learning Trajectory
An individual or collective learning pattern in a irm geared to the development of the adequate mix of internal and external knowledge from which to extract competitive potential. Knowledge-management initiatives can be understood, ultimately, as tactical arrangements to support the proper collection of learning trajectories needed at a given juncture for the development of a irms required knowledge base. (Andreu & Sieber, 2006)
Learning Volition
There are two types of learning volition: internal and external. The former has to do with the learners spontaneity
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and interest, the latter one arises from external factors such as competition with the others, rewards, and penalties. (Barolli & Koyama, 2005b)
tasks. Systems that have become outdated, as business needs change and the hardware/software available in the marketplace have improved. (Bradley, 2005)
Learning-Curve Effect
Originally, the experience- or learning-curve effect describes that each doubling of the accumulated amount of production reduces the production unit costs by approximately 20-30%. This effect not only refers to production, but can appear in all business areas to a certain degree. (Knust & Hagenhoff, 2005)
Legitimacy in CoPs
The element that deines the force and authority in relations within the group, but that legitimacy need not be formal. (Ranguelov & Rodrguez, 2006)
Legacy Data
1: Contents of databases that precede the installation and implementation of new systems. Optimally, legacy data are migrated into new data systems; following this process, the older application and data structure may be archived or deleted. Frequently, in an effort to reduce the cost of implementation, legacy data remains outside a new data store and accessed as foreign data records from the new application. (Horiuchi, 2005a) 2: Data that you already have and use. Most often, this takes the form of records in an existing database on a system in current use. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005)
Legacy System
1: Typically, a database management system in which an organization has invested considerable time and money, and which resides on a mainframe or minicomputer. (Pang, 2005b) 2: A software system that continues to be used because of the cost of replacing or redesigning it, despite its poor competitiveness and compatibility with modern equivalents. (Aversano et al., 2005) 3: An information system from an earlier period of technology and development. (Mackey, 2005) 4: A mission-critical aging system that supported business functions for many years, however it is no longer considered state-of-the-art technology and has limitations in design and use. Within organizations, the vast majority were replaced pre-Y2K with ERP systems. (Sammon & Adam, 2005) 5: Older computing technology used by an organization over time. Legacy systems perform business-critical functions and can be integrated with newer systems. (Yoon et al., 2005) 6: Transaction processing system designed to perform speciic
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a fact net by which the truth of a sentence is veriied. (Hall & Croasdell, 2006)
entities in the future as a result of past transactions or events. (Tahinakis et al., 2006)
Library
1: A group of functions and/or classes stored separately from the main body of the main program; an include ile consisting of functions and/or classes. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 2: A library generally includes many different collections, each organized differentlythough there is a strong family resemblance in how collections are presented. (Trujillo, 2005)
Lessons Learned
Task- or situation-speciic knowledge gained while completing tasks or projects, also referred to as best-known methods, best practices, and internal benchmarking. (Kulkarni & Freeze, 2006)
Characterization of the breadth of availability and level of access to open materials. (Fleming, 2005b)
Life Event
1: A way to classify information and services in government Web sites that refer to those moments in peoples lives when there exists more need for information and service. For example, moving, dealing with crime, having a baby, and so on. (Kaufman, 2005) 2: An incident for a service consumer that necessitates the use of a number of services. (Vassilakis & Lepouras, 2006)
Levelwise Discovery
A class of data-mining algorithms that discovers patterns of a certain size by irst discovering patterns of size 1, then using information from that step to discover patterns of size 2, and so on. A well-known example of a levelwise algorithm is the Apriori Algorithm used to mine association rules. (Koeller, 2005)
Life Span
The time over which a database object is deined. (Ale & Rossi, 2005)
Leverage
1: Investing with borrowed money as a way to amplify potential gains (at the risk of greater losses). (Lubbe, 2005) 2: Knowing which actions may yield long-lasting outcomes. Knowing where and when to intervene or inluence a system to gain long-lasting desired change using minimal effort and energy. (Maani, 2005)
Life Table
Describing the survival rate as a function of time, referred to as the survivor function. (Chen, Oppenheim, et al., 2005)
Lifecycle
Common process identiied in PMMM Level 2 which could be broken into ive phases: embryonic, executive management acceptance, line management acceptance, growth, and maturity. (Monteiro de Carvalho et al., 2005)
Lexical Indices
Lexical items, for example, proper names and events, used to index texts. (Kulyukin & Nicholson, 2005)
Lexicographer
A compiler or writer of a dictionary for practical use or for any other purposes. (Ahmad & Al-Sayed, 2006)
Lifelong Learning
1: A process of acquiring knowledge or skills throughout ones lifetime via education, training, work, and general experiences. It is a concept of continuous personal development through personal learning with an emphasis on independent study determined by contextual personal
Liability
Can be deined as probable future sacriices of economic beneits arising from present obligations of a particular business to transfer assets or provide services to other
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needs. (Rahman, 2005b) 2: All learning activity undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, = skills, and competencies within a personal, civic, social, and/or employment-related perspective. Lifelong learning is about the acquisition and update of all kinds of abilities, interests, knowledge, and qualiications from the preschool years to post-retirement. It also values all forms of learning, including formal learning, non-formal learning, and informal learning. (Correia & Sarmento, 2005) 3: Learning for employees, sometimes in the working environment. Helps to keep the employees upgraded and productive. (Karoulis & Pombortsis, 2005b) 4: Learning that extends beyond formal instruction and beyond the classroom. Distance education is facilitating the education of countless individuals in later stages of their lives. (Lindsay, Williams, et al., 2005) 5: An expression used to indicate that acquiring new knowledge is a continuous process that does not end after one leaves school or university. The learning continues uninterrupted throughout ones professional life and even after retirement, spreading to embrace all stages of life and all social groups to the possibilities offered by e-learning. (Gordon & Lin, 2005)
{A confidence sup port{A B} rt{A B} B} conidence }= lift { A B= = sup port{B} sup port(A)sup port{B}
Light Gun
A device used for shooting games, which allows the user to target objects on screen; used predominantly in standalone arcade machines and some home consoles. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
LifeShirt
A wearable ambulatory monitoring device produced by VivoMetrics, Inc., that measures 30 cardiopulmonary variables. It is FDA approved for sleep studies. (Molinari et al., 2005b)
Lifetime
Data that measure lifetime or the length of time until the occurrence of an event. (Chen, Oppenheim, et al., 2005)
Lifetime Value
A measure of the proit-generating potential, or value, of a customer; a composite of expected tenure (how long the customer stays with the business provider) and expected revenue (how much a customer spends with the business provider). (Mani et al., 2005)
Lift
A measure used to determine the value of an association rule that tells us how much the presence of the antecedent inluences the appearance of the consequent. (Ale & Rossi, 2005)
Lift of a Rule
Relates the conidence of a rule with the support of the head of the same rule:
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Limited-Resource Model
Linguistic Term
One of a set of linguistic terms, which are subjective categories for the linguistic variable, each described by a membership function. (Beynon, 2005b)
The idea that the human information processing system has a limited pool of resources available for the concurrent performance of any number of tasks. The observation of degraded performance in one or more processing tasks is taken to suggest that the capacity of the system is being approached. (Owen, 2006c)
Linguistic Variable
A variable made up of a number of words (linguistic terms) with associated degrees of membership. (Beynon, 2005b)
Link
1: Navigation path between two nodes in a hypermedia environment. (Lemahieu, 2005) 2: A way to relate the elements and constructs. The link shows how the research participants interpret each element relative to each construct. Further, the link reveals the research participants interpretations of the similarities and differences between the elements and constructs. (Tan & Hunter, 2005)
Linear Network
The speciic physicalthat is, realarrangement of the elements of the network. (Melkonyan, 2005)
Linear Presentation
A traditional form of instruction where material is presented to a learner in a predetermined sequence. (Pelton & Pelton, 2005)
Link Analysis
1: A data-mining technique that uses concepts and techniques from graph theory to make associations. (Thuraisingham, 2005) 2: The links between pages on the Web are a large knowledge source that is exploited by link-analysis algorithms for many ends. Many algorithms similar to PageRank determine a quality or authority score based on the number of incoming links of a page. Furthermore, link analysis is applied to identify thematically similar pages, Web communities, and other social structures. (Mandl, 2006) 3: This data-mining task establishes internal relationship to reveal hidden afinity among items in a given data set. Link analysis exposes samples and trends by predicting correlation of items that are otherwise not obvious. (Nayak, 2005a)
Linear Regression
1: A classic statistical problem is to try to determine the relationship between two random variables X and Y. For example, we might consider height and weight of a sample of adults. Linear regression attempts to explain this relationship with a straight line it to the data. (Hamdi, 2005a) 2: Used to make predictions about a single value. Simple linear regression involves discovering the equation for a line that most nearly its the given data. That linear equation is then used to predict values for the data. For instance, if a cost modeler wants to know the prospective cost for a new contract based on the data collected from previous contracts, then he or she may apply linear regression. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005b)
Link Annotation
Adding some visual hints to hype. (Wu & Chen, 2005)
Link Consistency
The ability of a hypertext network links to always point to an existing and semantically coherent target. (Sindoni, 2005a)
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Link Mining
A method of data mining that combines techniques from link analysis, hypertext and Web mining, relational learning and inductive logic programming, and graph mining. Link mining places primary emphasis on links, and is used in both predictive and descriptive modeling. (Banerjee et al., 2005)
messages are sent to the program, which then distributes to all registered users. (Ridings, 2006a) 4: Mailing list that forwards e-mail messages to everyone who has subscribed to the list. Members seldom know each other due to the large size of these lists. (Teigland & Wasko, 2005)
LITE: See LOTOS Integrated Tool Environment. LITEE: See Laboratory for Innovative Technology and
Engineering Education.
Link Sorting
Reordering the pointers to various WAP pages. (Quah & Seet, 2006)
Link-Rot
The name given to a link that leads to a Web page or site that has either moved or no longer exists. (Burke et al., 2005)
LinkedIn(.com)
Online social networking application. (Mew, 2006)
Linux
A Unix-based Open Source operating system designed for Intel-based microcomputers. The kernel was created in 1991 by Linus Torvalds, and it was added on to the GNU Project to form what is properly called the GNU/Linux operating system. (Carillo & Okoli, 2006)
Linux Kernel
Basic programming code for the Linux operating system. (Sahraoui, 2006)
Lip-Sync
An application to synchronize the lip movement with the audio elements. (Lee, Lin, et al., 2005)
Literacy Skill
One of the set of skills needed to read, write, and make sense of text in various forms. (Trammell, 2005)
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Literature Review
Local Access: See Local Network. Local Access Transport Area (LATA)
A geographic area deined by the Federal Communication Commission. (Nugent, 2005)
Reviewing the research indings reported by a certain ield of research; the process usually involves the examination of articles published in the research journals of a particular ield. (St.Amant, 2005c)
Live Update
An integrated/embedded program of the antivirus software. It is intended to provide frequent (weekly or self-scheduled) virus deinition and program module updates. It can automatically run in the background and connect (talk to) the server of an antivirus software vendor to identify whether an update is available. If so, it will automatically download and install the update. (Luo & Warkentin, 2005)
Living-Learning
A residential arrangement (community or program) that brings students with a common major or interest together with a mentor (advanced student, staff person, or faculty), who oversees the curricular aspect of the program. (Paoletti, 2005)
LLID: See Logical Link Identiier. LLU: See Local Loop Unbundling. LM: See Location Manager. LMS: See Learning Management System. LO: See Learning Object. Load Balancing
1: The method of distributing system load evenly across server machines by placing identical copies of frequently accessed information among available server machines. (Bose et al., 2005) 2: Techniques to distribute the tasks over the single processors in parallel systems in a way that idle time is minimized. (Geisler & Kao, 2005)
Load Shedding
1: Process of dropping data elements from a data stream randomly or semantically. Load shedding is applied for reducing the amount of data that needs to be processed. (Sayal, 2005) 2: The discarding of input data by the DSMS when the input stream rate exceeds system capacity. It can either be semantic (based on certain semantic rules) or random. (Chatziantoniou & Doukidis, 2005)
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Local E-Government
Refers to information, services, or transactions that local governments provide online to citizens using the Internet and Web sites. It is also the realization of the e-governance vision at the local level, at the point where the vast majority of services are delivered. (Yigitcanlar & Baum, 2006a)
Local Mobility
Refers to mobility within a certain space, as between rooms or loors. (Mkinen, 2006)
Local Network
Refers to all local telecommunication assets, including switching and Last Mile transport facilities. The expression local has a spatial meaning and typically refers to an urban area. (Arbore, 2005)
Local Feature
The geometric information of the signature is extracted in terms of features after dividing the signature image or signal into grids and sections. (Chakravarty et al., 2005b)
Local Popularity
Depends on the number of requests to a segment. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Local Loop
1: See Local Network. See also, for a more restrictive deinition, Last Mile. (Arbore, 2005) 2: The access network connection between the customers premises and the local Public Switched Telephony Network (PSTN) exchange, usually a loop comprising two copper wires. In fact, it is the physical twisted metallic pair circuit connecting the network termination point at the subscribers premises to the main distribution frame or equivalent facility in the ixed public telephone network. (Chochliouros et al., 2005c)
Local Test
Veriies that an update operation violates an integrity constraint by accessing data at the local site. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Local-As-View (LAV)
The relation between the global schema and the sources is established by deining every source as a view over the global schema. LAV systems typically arise in the context where the global schema is given beforehand, and the local schemas are to be derived in terms of the global schema. (Balsters, 2005)
Locale
The combination of language and dialect. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005b)
Localization
1: The process of adapting an internationalized Web site to meet language, culture, religion, and other requirements
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of a speciic market or locale. (Becker, 2005b) 2: Process to create a product that looks as though it was created in the target country or market. (He, 2006) 3: The process of adapting software to a particular language, culture, and desired local look and feel. This may include local sensitivities, geographic examples, and adhering to local legal and business requirements. (Hawk & Kaiser, 2005) 4: The process of revising materials designed for one particular culture to meet the communication expectations of a different cultural group. (St.Amant, 2005a) 5: The process to adapt content to speciic users in speciic locations. (Sofokleous, Angelides, & Schizas, 2005) 6: Through GPS technology, service providers can accurately identify the location of the user so that m-commerce providers will be better able to receive and send information relative to a speciic location. (Clarke & Flaherty, 2005)
Location Registration
Mobile users update their location information with a wireless system. (Wang, 2006)
Location Update
A signaling procedure in cellular networks to locate the subscriber in the geographical area of coverage and update the location information to speciic databases. (Louvros et al., 2006)
Location-Aware Service
A mobile service that provides information based on a users location through the support of a global positioning system. Such services include mobile maps, weather, restaurants, and movie directories. (Chan & Fang, 2005)
Localize
1: Design linguistically and culturally appropriate to the locality where a product or service is being used and sold. (T.S. Chan, 2005) 2: Make a Web site linguistically, culturally, and in all other ways accessible to customers outside ones home territory. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005b)
Location Identiication
The ability of mobile hosts to determine the geographical location of wireless access devices. (Giaglis, 2005)
Location Management
A technique that updates the location of mobile users during the course of their movement and determines the locations of mobile users for call delivery. (Wang, 2006)
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Location-Dependent Query
A query whose results depend on the current location of the query issuer. For example, the query Which is the nearest gas station? will return different gas stations depending on the current location of a driver. (Leong, 2005a)
obtain the preference of each individual user, which could be learned from query logs. (Wen, 2005a)
Locational Community
A community that is based on the shared physical location of its members. Villages, towns, and cities are examples of locational communities. (Roberts et al., 2006c)
Logging
1: Creating a record of all employee Internet usage. (Urbaczewski, 2005) 2: Recording vital information about an incident. Recorded information should be suficient to identify the time, origin, target, and if applicable characteristics of the attack. (Kayacik et al., 2005)
Locus of Attention
Among all sensory input, the locus of attention is the input to which one allocates mental resources. Input that falls outside the locus of attention may go absolutely unnoticed. An example of locus of attention is a speciic section of a computer screen. (Thomas & Roda, 2006a)
Locus of Control
1: Individuals perceptions of whether they themselves inluence events and outcomes in their lives (internal control), or that events and outcomes are inluenced by factors such as luck, fate, chance, or powerful others (external control). Locus of control is considered a trait characteristic that is unlikely to change signiicantly in an individuals lifetime. (Kase & Ritter, 2005) 2: Where an individuals beliefs about controlling entities are sited. People range from being highly internally controlled, that is, they are sure that they inluence what happens to them, to highly externally controlledthat is, those who are sure that anything that happens to them is the result of fate or work by others. (Wishart, 2005)
Logic of Determination
Explains organizational change in terms of the variation of a set of predictor variables. (Saunders, 2006)
Logic of Opposition
Explains organizational change by identifying forces both promoting change and impeding change. (Saunders, 2006)
Logic Programming
A declarative, relational style of programming based on irst-order logic. The original logic programming language was Prolog. The concept is based on Horn clauses. (Chang & Hsu, 2005)
Log File
A record of all online activities occurring on a Web site as captured by the software monitoring the server. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005b)
Logic Query
A disjunctive data log query over a database deines a mapping from the database to a inite (possibly empty) set of inite (possibly empty) relations for the goal. A query is a pair <G,P> where G is an atom, called goal, and P is a program. The application of a query Q to a database D is denoted by Q(D). (Greco & Zumpano, 2005b)
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Logic Synthesis
The process of reconstructing an unknown Boolean function from (a portion of) its truth table. (Muselli, 2005)
inconsistency is usually restricted to express the violation of integrity constraints. This restriction makes sense when the data are atomic formulas. (Alonso-Jimnez et al., 2005)
Logical Model
1: Generalized formal structure in the rules of information science. For relational database, the logical model generally conforms to relational theory. (Pardede et al., 2005) 2: In a design methodology, tools to transform conceptual schemata into a schemata near to implementation. A wellknown principal model is the relational model. (Cuadra et al., 2005)
Logical Consistency
Verifying whether the given logical condition is met. It usually is employed to check qualitative data. (Conversano & Siciliano, 2005)
Logical Schema
The description of the data structures of a database according to the model of a speciic technology, for example, an RDBMS. The logical schema of a database is the implementation of its conceptual schema. Application programs know the database through its logical schema. (Hainaut et al., 2005)
Logistic/Logit Regression
1: Special form of regression in which the dependent variable is a non-metric, dichotomous (binary) variable. Although some differences exist, the general manner of interpretation is quite similar to linear regression. (Wilson et al., 2006a) 2: A technique for making predictions when the dependent variable is a dichotomy, and the independent variables are continuous and/or discrete. (Yeo, 2005)
Logical Design
A formal or semi-formal description produced by the translation of the conceptual model into terms of the database structures. (Doorn, 2005)
Logistics
The art of moving goods within the supply chain. (Raisinghani & Singh, 2005)
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development, acquisition, storage, movement, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of material; movement, evacuation, and hospitalization of personnel; acquisition of construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities; and acquisition of furnishing of services. (Pang, 2005b)
Long-Term Orientation
1: Refers to a societys attitude towards time: do they tend to plan for a long- or a short-term time horizon? (Frank et al., 2005) 2: This stands for the fostering of virtues oriented toward future rewards, in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, short-term orientation, stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present, in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of face, and fulilling social obligations. (Limayem, 2005)
Lossy Encoding
Removal of data that represents redundant information, or differences presumed imperceptible to humans, in order to reduce stored or transmitted quantities of digital data. (Kieler & West, 2005)
Lost in Hyperspace
A feeling experienced by learners when losing any sense of location and direction in the hyperspace. It is also called disorientation and is caused by badly designed systems that do not provide users with navigation tools, signposting, or any information about their structure. (Magoulas, 2006)
LOTOS: See Language of Temporal Ordering Speciications. LOTUS Integrated Tool Environment (LITE)
An integrated tool environment for working with LOTOS speciications. It provides speciication, veriication/ validation, and implementation support. The tools in LITE have been developed by participants in the LOTOSPHERE project (funded by the Commission of the European Community ESPRIT II program). (Campos & Harrison, 2006)
Loop Identiier
A symbol that denotes the nature of each important loop in a system dynamics model. It can be reinforcing (positive loop) or balancing (negative loop). (Casado, 2005)
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LPP: See Legitimate Peripheral Participation. LRD: See Local and Regional Development. LSB: See Least Signiicant Bit. LSP: See Languages for Special Purposes. LT: See Learning Technology. LTS: See Learning Technology Standard/Speciication. Lurker
1: A member of an online community, discussion board, or Web site that interacts only passively. (Ajiferuke & Markus, 2005) 2: A participant in a chat room or a subscriber to a discussion group, listserv, or mailing list who passively observes. These individuals typically do not actively partake in the discussions that befall in these forums. (Whitty, 2005) 3: A participant who reads posts and monitors the communities activities without directly or explicitly participating. Often and increasingly viewed as a negative due to the lack of contribution; however, the individual may utilize learning gained from monitoring the activities. (Patrick et al., 2006)
A type of television providing a quality of image usually compared to VHS; this practically corresponds to the collection of television fragments videotaped directly from the TV screen. The bit rate offered is 1.5 Mbit/s (1.15 Mbit/s for the video only), which corresponds to the bit rate offered by the original standard MPEG-1. (Chochliouros et al., 2005b)
Digital ilter that passes only low frequencies deined by the pass-band cutoff frequency and attenuates all high frequencies from the cutoff stop-band frequency to p. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005c)
Low-Quality Data
Data with lots of noise, missing values, redundant features, mistakes, and so forth. (Dai, 2005a)
Low-Risk Perception
Refers to the subjective assessment of the probability of a risk. (Kyobe, 2006)
Lurking
The act of reading interactions between electronic network of practice participants, but seldom if ever publicly contributing anything. (Teigland & Wasko, 2005)
Lower Approximation
In rough sets theory, one of the two sets used to deine a rough or approximate set. The lower approximation contains objects that are deinitely in the approximation set. (Voges, 2005)
Maximum deinable set contained in the rough set. (Grzymala-Busse & Ziarko, 2005)
Of a set XU is the union of all indiscernibility classes contained in X (that intersect X)that is, it is the greatest exact set contained in X (the smallest exact set containing X). Instead of exact containment, containment to a degree is used. (Pawlak et al., 2005)
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M
M/M/1 Model
Exponential/exponential with one server. The queuing model that assumes an exponential distribution for interarrival times, an exponential distribution for service times, and a single server. (Guster et al., 2005)
Machine Learning
1: A computer-embedded capability of data analysis with the purpose of acquiring selected characteristics (attributes, patterns, behavior) of an object or system. (Nabuco et al., 2006) 2: A discipline in computer science, generally considered a subpart of artiicial intelligence, which develops paradigms and techniques for making computers learn autonomously. There are several types of learning: inductive, abductive, and by analogy. Data mining integrates many techniques from inductive learning, devoted to learn general models from data. (HernandezOrallo, 2005b) 3: A discipline that comprises the study of how machines learn from experience. (Lodhi, 2005) 4: A ield of computer science concerned with the question of how to construct computer programs that automatically improve with experience. The key algorithms that form the core of machine learning include neural networks, genetic algorithms, support vector machines, Bayesian networks, and Markov models. (Pantic, 2005b) 5: A research area of artiicial intelligence that is interested in developing solutions from data or in an interactive environment alone. (Kayacik et al., 2005) 6: A study of how computers can be used automatically to acquire new knowledge from past cases or experience, or from the computers own experiences. (Liu, 2005) 7: A sub-ield of artiicial intelligence. The idea is that a computing system could perhaps learn to solve problems in much the same way that humans do, that is to say, by example. A program is needed that learns the concepts of a domain under varying degrees of supervision from a human teacher. In one approach, the teacher presents the program with a set of examples of a concept, and the programs task is to identify what collection of attributes and values deines the concept. (Hamdi, 2005b) 8: An area of artiicial intelligence involving developing techniques to allow computers to learn. More speciically, machine learning is a method for creating computer programs by the analysis of data sets rather than the intuition of engineers. (Denoyer & Gallinari, 2005) 9: An area of artiicial intelligence, the
M-CRM
Interactions between a company and its customers for marketing, sales, and support services through the mobile Web and wireless channel. (Chan & Fang, 2005)
M-Government: See Mobile Government. M-Learning: See Mobile Learning. M-Security: See Mobile Security. MA: See Multiple-Access. MAC: See Medium Access Control; Mandatory Access Control. Machine Interactivity
Interactivity resulting from human-to-machine or machine-to-machine communications. Typically, the later form is of less interest to most human-computer studies. (El-Gayar et al., 2005)
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goal of which is to build computer systems that can adapt and learn from their experience. (Tzanis et al., 2005) 10: Artiicial intelligence methods that use a dataset to allow the computer to learn models that it the data. (Cunningham & Hu, 2005) 11: Sub-area of artiicial intelligence that includes techniques able to learn new concepts from a set of samples. (de Carvalho et al., 2005)
Magic Lantern
An e-mail containing an attachment that, if opened, would insert a Trojan horse that is activated upon launch of the popular encryption program, Pretty Good Privacy. Then it sends all the keystrokes the unwitting user types. (Friedman, 2005)
Magnitude Response
1: Absolute value of the complex frequency response. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005c) 2: The absolute value of the Fourier transform of the unit sample response. For a real impulse response digital ilter, the magnitude response is a real even function of the frequency. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005a)
Machine Vision
A ield of computer science concerned with the question of how to construct computer programs that automatically analyze images and produce descriptions of what is imaged. (Pantic, 2005b)
Mail Server
A software process that receives mail from other mail systems and manages the message store. (Horiuchi, 2005b)
Macro-Ecology of Information
The study of information (cognition) as a whole, and concerned with aggregates across nations and markets. (Targowski, 2005)
Mail Survey
A traditional survey technique in which a multi-part survey questionnaire is mailed to a randomized sample of individuals (within a larger population) who are asked to complete the questionnaire and return it to the survey researcher for tabulation and analysis. (Baim, 2005)
Macromedia Flash
Vector-based animation software program produced by Macromedia Corporation. (Szabados & Sonwalkar, 2005)
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Main Memory
Memory that is used for storing data and program code, and that can be directly accessed by the processor (random access memory). (Meixner, 2005)
Man-in-the-Middle
Intruders set up a base station transceiver with a modiied phone and put themselves in between the target user and a genuine network. The intruders have the ability to eavesdrop, modify, delete, re-order, replay, and send spoof signaling. (Lei et al., 2005a)
Maintainability
The ease with which a software system or component can be modiied to correct faults, improve performance or other attributes, or adapt to a changed environment. (Schneidewind, 2005)
Major Project
A multi-million-dollar IT development and implementation project often deined as strategic due to its high priority and organizational impact. (Fernndez, 2005)
Mal-Process
A sequence of actions that a system can perform, interacting with a legal user of the system, resulting in harm for the organization or stakeholder. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005a)
Management Fraud
A situation in which management misrepresents the inancial condition of their irm. They may do so for personal inancial gain or to disguise the inancial results of their company. (Lenard & Alam, 2005)
Malicious Adversary
An adversary who may arbitrarily deviate from the protocol speciication (and so is unlimited in its attack strategy). (Lindell, 2005)
Management Information
A term that covers a wide variety of sources and types of information that may prove valuable to the decision making, management, and control of an organization. This term would include quantitative and qualitative information types, internal and externally sourced information, as well as classifying the information in terms of its quality (e.g., accuracy, detail, relevance, timeliness). (Ritchie & Brindley, 2005)
Malicious Software
1: Generic term for a variety of well-known and less well-known means of disrupting or damaging computer systems and users. (Drake, 2006) 2: Harmful software, such as applications that set the users browser homepage to a Web site (e.g., points to an adult content) without the users intentions, applications that install viruses without the users knowledge, or applications that report information about the user without permission to do so (spyware). Some applications can also be known as malware. (Owen, 2006d)
MAML: See Microarray Markup Language. MAN: See Metropolitan Area Network.
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management of information systems and data, including management of the design, development, implementation, and maintenance of information systems. Sometimes referred to as information system. (Scime, 2005a) 4: System utilized by management-level employees to seek information pertaining to the operations of their business. The information gives management insight into potential market or inancial trends, as well as the productivity and eficiency of their employees and equipment. (Carstens, 2005)
Managerial Inluence
Administrative efforts undertaken by an entity that affect its conduct of knowledge management. (Holsapple & Joshi, 2006)
Managing by Numbers
A school of thought that sought to demonstrate that irms could be managed solely based on watching key (mostly inancial) indicators. This is now largely discredited. (Adam & Pomerol, 2005)
Management of DE Delivery
The arrangement, organization, and execution of all distance education activities, including its policies and processes. (Naidu, 2005b)
Management Support
1: Managers can provide degrees of support for IT. For example, some managers take the lead role as they are keen to see the organization adopt a new system, for example, the Internet. Other managers may take a less active role, for example, by giving approval for inancial expenditure but not getting involved in the project. (Cragg & Suraweera, 2005) 2: Managers can provide support for an innovation project. However, this support can be offered in various ways. For example, some managers take the lead role in a project (e.g., as a project champion or project manager), as they are keen to see the organization adopt the innovation. Other managers may adopt a less direct role, for example, by giving approval for inancial expenditure but not getting involved in the project. (Cragg & Mills, 2005)
Mandatory Security
A form of security in which access to data items is restricted to cleared database users. (Haraty, 2005a)
Manufacturing Mode
In manufacturing mode, technocrats standardize procedures and outputs. (Rada, 2005)
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Marginal Utility
The relative satisfaction gained from consuming additional units of a commodity. For many commodities, marginal utility diminishes (for example, a cream bun). (Taylor, 2005)
Marginality
A situation resulting from the deinition of a boundary over what is to be included in the mainstream of activities of a community of practice. Marginality can be deined in terms of non-participation in a community. (Crdoba, 2006a)
Map Generalization
The process used to convert spatial data from one scaledependent representation into another by calculating the geometry of a more abstract object through the union of the geometries of lower level objects. (Pourabbas, 2005a)
Marginalization
The idea that availability of ICTs will serve further to marginalize poor people. (Pryor, 2005)
Mapping
1: The process of locating genes on a chromosome. (Tzanis et al., 2005) 2: The relationship between controls and their effects in the world. (Yong, 2005)
Mark-to-Market Accounting
Whenever companies have outstanding or other derivative contracts (either assets or liabilities) on their balance sheets at the end of a particular quarter, they must adjust them to fair market value, booking unrealized gains or losses to the income statement of the period. (Wang, Chen, et al., 2006)
Mapping Method
A formal process of transforming a schema level (such as conceptual schema) to another schema level (such as logical schema) in a database system. (Taniar et al., 2005)
Market Basket
An itemset; this term is sometimes used in the retail data-mining context, where the itemsets are collections of products that are purchased in a single transaction. (Butler & Webb, 2005)
Marginal Cost
Cost of repeating an activity, beyond the ixed costs initially incurred. (Fisher, 2005)
Market Channel
A publicly accessible means such as a newspaper, magazine, trade show, radio, billboard, television, or the Internet, used to advertise, market, and distribute products. (Braun, 2005c)
Marginal Independence
Two sets X and Y of variables are marginally independent, if knowledge on Y is irrelevant to guessing the value of X. (Xiang, 2005)
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Market Segment
The components of the total market. Consumers in the same segment are with similar attributes in certain aspects. Virtual community is like a market segment in that its members are brought together by certain characteristics such as areas of interest, demographics, and so on. (Wang, Wei, et al., 2006)
A inancial theory that states that stock market prices relect all available, relevant information. (Hou, Sheng, et al., 2005)
Market Segmentation
A central concept in marketing theory and practice; involves identifying homogeneous sub-groups of buyers within a heterogeneous market. It is most commonly conducted using cluster analysis of the measured demographic or psychographic characteristics of consumers. Forming groups that are homogenous with respect to these measured characteristics segments the market. (Voges, 2005)
Market of Resources
An institutionalized organizational framework and service assuring the agile/virtual enterprise (A/VE) dynamic integration, reconiguration, and business alignment. The operational aspect of the market of resources consists of an Internet-based intermediation service, mediating offer, and demand of resources to dynamically integrate in an A/VE, assuring low transaction costs and partners knowledge preservation. Brokers act within the market of resources as the intermediation agents for agility and virtuality. Its implementation is as an independent organization/company, independent from the offer and the demand sides of A/VE integrationthat is, independent from the market participants, in order to assure impartiality, fairness, and trust, being able to monitor the activities of all the participants (including brokers) and to enforce the accomplishment of contracts between parties. (Cunha & Putnik, 2005)
Market Stratiication
When the market potential for various course materials considered and thought is given to how to re-purpose the educational material. (Robinson, 2005)
Market Thinness
Also known as market imperfections, it occurs where the structure of the market (i.e., low trade volumes, few buyers and sellers, scarcity of market information, barriers to entry) inhibits or prevents prices from attaining the relationships that characterize perfect markets. (Rhodes, 2005)
Marketing
The set of tasks and business activities with which to ind and stimulate buyers to consume the irms output through the relationship between producers and consumers, and the central notion of an exchange between participants. (Rhodes, 2005)
Market Research
An activity that is carried out to determine the potential customers who are willing and able to purchase a irms products or services. (Singh, 2006a)
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Marketing Channel
The access to the market for product producers and service providers. Virtual community is a form of marketing channel in that it provides business with access to reach and communicate with potential consumers. (Wang, Wei, et al., 2006)
determines probabilities for the next event, or state, given the result of the previous event. (Guster et al., 2005)
Marketing Intelligence
Refers to the act of gathering information about a speciic audience. Marketing intelligence is an attempt to quantify potential participants for a speciic program. The information gathered informs program administrators as to how they might organize the prospective program, as well as who they will be trying to sell the program to directly. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005)
Markup
Syntactically delimited characters added to the data of a document to represent its structure. (Kamthan & Pai, 2006)
Marketing Optimization
Delivering the best treatments to the right individuals. (Lo, 2005)
Marketing Research
An activity carried out among existing customers to determine their level of satisfaction with the irms products or services. Marketing research is also carried out to determine the effectiveness of a irms marketing activities. (Singh, 2006a)
Marketplace
1: A type of a market that corresponds to a central location that enables buyers and sellers to rendezvous. A marketplace is typically implemented as a blackboard where sellers post information about items being offered. Buyers make offers to sellers, and sellers respond with counteroffers. (Dasgupta et al., 2006) 2: Are usually globally organized specifying services or product templates that can be offered by different vendors. The marketplace is a matchmaking mechanism that brings potential process providers together with potential users of these processes. (Tahinakis et al., 2006)
1: Business strategy often applied in e-business that aims at satisfying the customers individual needs with near-massproduction eficiency. In essence, mass customization describes the ability of a irm that provides customized goods in high volume for mass markets by deriving a high number of variants from a single or a few core products. (Blecker, 2006b) 2: Producing basically standardized goods, but incorporating some degree of differentiation and customization. (Sarkis & Sundarraj, 2005) 3: The customization of products and services for individual customers, but at a mass-production price. (Anke & Sundaram, 2006)
Mass Dataveillance
Suspicion-less surveillance of large groups of people. (Cook, 2005)
Mass Rebellion
Cyber-identity thieves may use decentralized, mass rebellion sites. These peer-to-peer environments (e.g., Kazaa Media Desktop) allow individuals to share iles over the Internet. Cyber-identity thieves may use such peerto-peer networks to install virus software, which records data such as Web site visitation and any information that is entered to a non-secure site. (Close et al., 2006)
Marketspace
Electronic transaction methods, or electronic markets, in which businesses and consumers interact. (Dholakia, Zwick, et al., 2005)
Mass Value
A positive function of the level of exact belief in the associated proposition (focal element). (Beynon, 2005a)
Markov Chain
1: A inite state machine with probabilities for each transition, that is, a probability that the next state is sj given that the current state is si. (Li, 2005) 2: A model that
Mass-Spring System
A set of particles linked by springs. Each particle is characterized by a 3D position and a mass, and is linked
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to its neighbors by springs (with their own physical properties). This method can simulate the different existing mechanical interactions of a deformable object. (Volino et al., 2005)
Massiication
Widespread adoption of technology, bringing with it uniformity. (Laws et al., 2005)
Mastery Learning
A learning philosophy that holds that any learner can learn anything, and that the only difference is the amount of time that it takes any particular learner to learn. Mastery learning was initially deined by John Carroll in 1963 and further reined by Benjamin Bloom in 1976, emphasizing a well-structured set of learning activities guided by learning objectives. (Twigg, 2005)
Matching
The process of inding a it between an organizational problem and an innovation to resolve the problem. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005a)
Materialized View
1: A materialized view physically stores data. Data is extracted from the database source (view domain) at view deinition time. Data are thus duplicated in the view, and query evaluation is more eficient. Nevertheless, every database update operation must be reported on materialized views to guarantee data consistency. (Cannataro et al., 2005) 2: A particular form of query whose answer is stored in the database to speed up the evaluation of further queries. (Tininini, 2005a) 3: A view that is computed at deinition time and stored on disk as a regular relation. Materialized views offer the advantage that they can be used to precompute part of a query and then reused as many times as
Material Acquisition
A process of material information collection by recommendations of users, vendors, colleges, and so forth. Information explored in databases can be also used. The collected information is, in general, used in purchasing materials. (Wu & Lee, 2005)
Material Category
A set of library materials with similar subjects. (Wu & Lee, 2005)
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needed. The main challenge about materialized views is to keep them updated when the relations on which they were deined change; incremental techniques are used to make this eficient. (Badia, 2005a) 4: A view whose answer is stored in the date warehouse. (Theodoratos & Simitsis, 2005) 5: A view whose values have been pre-computed from certain base data and stored. (Lu, 2005)
Matrix
An arrangement of rows and columns to display quantities. A matrix contains quantities arranged in p rows and q columns (i.e., each row has q quantities, and each column has p quantities). (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005)
Math Anxiety
The psychological fear or anxiety associated with engaging in mathematical activity. Characteristics of math anxiety are an above-average number of negative attitudes (e.g., nervousness, solitude, uneasiness, and low conidence) and/or intense emotional reactions to math based on past experiences. Math anxiety and test anxiety are generally signiicant correlates and somewhat resemble computer anxiety as a situational manifestation of a general anxiety construct. (Kase & Ritter, 2005)
Maturity Level
A level of the CMM reached by the attainment of a clearly deined set of capabilities, expressed as Key Process Areas. (Berztiss, 2006a)
Maximum Likelihood
Method of point estimation using as an estimate of an unobservable population parameter the member of the parameter space that maximizes the likelihood function. (Bashir et al., 2005)
Mathematical Program
An optimization problem characterized by an objective function to be maximized or minimized, and a set of constraints. (Musicant, 2005)
MBone
The virtual Internet backbone for IP multicast. (Fortino, 2005)
Mathematical Representation
Concrete, pictorial, and symbolic models used to represent mathematical ideas. (Nason & Woodruff, 2005b)
MBS: See Mobile Base Station. MC: See Mobile Commerce. MCAR: See Data Missing Completely At Random. MCMC
Markov chain Monte Carlo computational algorithms for estimating multi-dimensional integrals. (Rippon & Mengersen, 2005)
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Measat-1
First East Asia Satellite. New generation satellite for direct users service by television users in homes as well as institutions. (Lateh & Raman, 2005)
Measure MDDB: See Multi-Dimensional Database. MDF: See Main Distribution Frame. MDL Principle: See Minimum Description Length
Principle. 1: A measure attribute of an entity is an attribute of interest whose value depends on the dimensions of the entity. Measure values are aggregated and analyzed in OLAP. Examples are revenue and cost. (Riedewald et al., 2005) 2: A numeric value obtained by applying an aggregate function (like count, sum, min, max, or average) to groups of data in a fact table. (Tininini, 2005c) 3: A numeric value stored in a fact table or cube. Typical examples include sales value, sales volume, price, stock, and headcount. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005) 4: A process by which numbers or symbols are assigned to attributes of entities in the real world in such a way as to describe them according to clearly deined rules. (Xenos, 2006) 5: Substantially a quantitative tool. It may rely on a direct comparison of performance before and subsequent to the initiation and establishment of a KM strategy. The organization may choose to measure its performance in market competitiveness and acceptance, or it may look at the contribution of the KM strategy to inancial beneits and viability. It can also measure contributions to and the growth in the volume of explicit knowledge content stored and used by staff. Some knowledge managers may regard the increase in the resources attached to the project as a measure of the acceptance and, hence, the understanding of the value of KM to their organization. (Zyngier, 2006) 6: The process of determining values representing performance, or the results of the process. For example, the measurement process is now started, or the measurement was 35 days. (Holstein & Crnkovic, 2005) 7: When measuring some attribute of a set of elements, we can go through the process of assigning numbers or other symbols to the elements in such a way that relationships of the numbers or symbols relect relationships of the attribute being measured. (Polgar, 2005b) 8: Dynamic, numeric values associated with dimensions found through drilling down into lower levels of detail within decision support systems. (DeLorenzo, 2005)
MDS: See Mobile Data Service. Mean Perceived Quality of Service (MPQoS)
The averaged PQoS that corresponds to a multimedia service. (Koumaras et al., 2005)
Meaning Attribution
An intellectual activity involving ones body of linked connotations of personal or collective interest, discrimination, and valuation which we bring to the exercise of judgment and which tacitly determine what we shall notice, how we shall discriminate situations of concern from the general confusion of ongoing events, and how we shall regard them. (Vat, 2006a)
Meaning Making
The constant goal of humans is to understand the world we ind ourselves in. Meaning is arrived at continuously through social interactions with other individuals. (Kettley, 2006b)
Meaningful Outcome
Operationally measured in most research as transfer or problem solving. More generically, meaningful outcomes refer to outcomes that are typically dificult yet essential for students to master. (M. Mitchell, 2005c)
Means
Ways and resources to achieve ends. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005)
Means-End Theory
A theoretical framework based on the idea that consumers seek out or prefer speciic products and product attributes because they serve as a means to achieve desired end states. (Porter, 2006)
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Measurement Theory
A branch of applied mathematics that is useful in measurement and data analysis. The fundamental idea of measurement theory is that measurements are not the same as the attribute being measured. (Polgar, 2005b)
Media Player
A device or software application designed to play a variety of digital communications media such as compressed audio iles (e.g., MPEG MP3 iles), digital video iles, and other digital media formats. (Garrett, 2006b)
Mechanical Approach
Means a (too) business-process-oriented approach such as building knowledge databases in rigid business process cycles. (Yamazaki, 2006)
Media Rich
Adjective describing the use of non-text media, such as images, sound, or video. (Fagan, 2005)
MedCarib
A database of the health literature of the Caribbean. (Lewis, 2005)
Media
1: In a public relations context, these are channels for delivery of organizational messages to target publics. (Galloway, 2006) 2: Information is exchanged. The physical path of the exchange comprises media. (Marcinkiewicz & McLean, 2005b) 3: The various means by which messages are conveyed; for example, face-to-face, audio, written, e-mail, video. (Moustafa, 2006)
Mediated Communication
Human interaction supported by any form of technology, such as telephone, mass media, or Internet networking. (Han & Hill, 2006)
Media Literacy
Understanding how to use todays technology, that is, how to operate equipment, use various software, navigate the Internet, discriminate sources, and so forth. (Reilly, 2005)
Mediated Interaction
Involves the sender of a message being separated in time and space from the recipient. (Baralou & Stepherd, 2005)
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Mediating Structure
What coordinates the interaction between a user and a tool providing additional computational resources that simplify the task. (Magnani & Bardone, 2006)
Mediation
1: A global service to link local data sources and local application programs, thus providing the integrated information on the global level, while letting the component systems of the federation remain intact. (Balsters, 2005) 2: An alternative dispute resolution method. The litigating parties may voluntarily submit a dispute to a neutral, independent mediator. This latter does not issue a decision, but supports the parties in inding a mutually agreed upon solution. (Cevenini, 2005) 3: The semantics-preserving transformation of a message in one message format into a message of a different message format that represents the same information. (Bussler, 2005a)
Mediator
1: A software component providing a uniform integrated interface to process and execute queries over data stored in multiple, heterogeneous data sources. (De Antonellis et al., 2005) 2: Systems that ilter information from one or more data sources that are usually accessed using wrappers. The main goal of these systems is to allow users to make complex queries over heterogeneous sources, as if it was a single one, using an integration schema. Mediators offer user interfaces for querying the system, based on the integration schema. They transform user queries into a set of sub-queries that other software components (the wrappers), which encapsulate data sources capabilities, will solve. (Aldana Montes et al., 2005)
MEDLINE
A CD-ROM database of medical literature in journals produced by the National Library of Medicine, United States. (Lewis, 2005)
Medoid
The most centrally located object in a cluster. (Fung et al., 2005)
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Mega-University
A large distance education program, often known as an open university, with total enrollment exceeding 100,000. (Laws et al., 2005)
Mental Model
1: The collection of concepts and relationships about the image of the real-world things we carry in our heads. For example, one does not have a house, city, or gadget in his or her head, but a mental model about these items. (QudratUllah, 2006) 2: A mental recreation of the states of the world reproduced cognitively in order to offer itself as a basis for reasoning. (Alkhalifa, 2005b) 3: A model stored and processed in a persons mind. (Maceield, 2006) 4: The content and structure of an individuals knowledge. (Shapiro, 2006)
Member
1: Anyone with formal membership to a community, according to community-consented criteria. (Porto Bellini & Vargas, 2006) 2: Every criterion in a dimension is materialized through a member. (Schneider, 2005)
Mental Scheme
The set of concepts, and dependencies among them, that individuals carry out for facing the problem of interpreting phenomena, without any reference to scientiic knowledge or disciplinary paradigms. (Cartelli, 2005a)
Mentee
1: A person beneiting from the experience and knowledge of another person. (Switzer, 2005) 2: Participant of a mentoring program; student or equivalent; being advised. (Hkkil & Beekhuyzen, 2006)
Membership
Feelings of belonging in a virtual community. (Signoret, 2006)
Mentor
1: A person providing knowledge, guidance, and support to a less experienced person. (Switzer, 2005) 2: Participant of a mentoring program; the advisor. (Hkkil & Beekhuyzen, 2006) 3: Someone who guides another to excel. (Gangeness, 2005)
Membership Lifecycle
Stages in a virtual community membership lifecycle visitor, novice, lurker, participant, elder, and dropout. (Shan et al., 2006a)
Membranophones
Category of musical instruments; skin drums. Examples: daraboukka, tambourine. (Wieczorkowska, 2005)
Mentoring at a Distance
Using computer technologies to participate in the act of mentoring. Also referred to as telementoring or virtual mentoring. (Switzer, 2005)
Memorability
How easy it is to remember how to use a system, once learned. (Yong, 2005)
Mentoring/Tutoring
1: The task of providing formal or informal advice, support, and knowledge to another person by someone of substantial experience who nurtures the career of a protg. (Ribire & Romn, 2006) 2: A mentor and student relationship where the mentor serves as a role model and trusted individual for the student to model and learn from during the learning process. (Ally, 2005d) 3: A method of teaching that has been used for hundreds of years; this design is incorporated into learning networks to develop more effective learning practices and provide additional support to the learner. (Neville & Powell, 2005) 4: Oneon-one training, in this case for the purpose of developing effective online instructors. (Baker & Schihl, 2005) 5: The
Memory Footprint
The memory usage during the execution of an application. It depends on what kind of processor you intend to use and what components of the system you include. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005)
Memory Ownership
The proprietorship of memory faculties or the possession of a set of memories. (Atkinson & Burstein 2006)
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act of providing knowledge, guidance, and support by a more experienced person to a less experienced person. (Switzer, 2005)
Message
1: Any content (audio/written/visual) an organization wishes to deliver to a public in order either to inform or to motivate them to a desired response. (Galloway, 2006) 2: Software objects interact and communicate with each other using messages. (Wong & Chan, 2006) 3: What the source produces (e.g., the spoken word, a written memo, a physical motion). It is assumed that meaning is encoded in the message and that the receiver is able to decode that meaning. (Jacobson, 2006)
Mentoring Program
A process where a mentee is given a personal guide, a mentor, who has professional or otherwise advanced experience and can advise the mentee on the speciics about the particular ield of study and work in the industry. (Hkkil & Beekhuyzen, 2006)
Menu
A list of commands or options that appear on the computer screen and from which the user makes a selection. Most software applications now have a menu-driven component in contrast to a command-driven systemthat is, where explicit commands must be entered as opposed to selecting items from a menu. (Henley & Noyes, 2006)
Message Standard
Deines the attributes as well as possible values that a business has to use in order to support interoperable electronic message exchange. (Bussler, 2005a)
Message Store
The physical location where messages are held until a mail client retrieves them. The type of ile or iles varies by software package. Some are monolithic database structures; some may be encrypted. Others are plain text iles. (Horiuchi, 2005b)
Mercers Condition
A kernel function is said to obey Mercers condition for kernel validity iff the kernel matrix comprising pairwise kernel evaluations over any given subset of the feature space is guaranteed to be positive semideinite. (Aradhye & Dorai, 2005)
Message-Based Service
Providing users real-time message services (e.g., short message service (SMS), e-mail, and multimedia service). (Lee & Pai, 2005)
Mereology
An ontology that examines part-whole relationships and the composition of various levels of matter itself. Mereologies employ part-of relationships in examining essence, process, occurrence, and the like. (Buchholz, 2006)
Messaging
1: In the context of an enterprise integration environment, messaging represents a communications system whereby important packets of information or messages are sent to and from queues by a software-based system known as a messaging server. (Karakostas, 2005) 2: The general means of unidirectional data transmission. Messages may contain requests, responses, or notiications. (Fiege, 2005)
Merge/Purge
The process of identifying duplicate records during the integration of data sources. Related data sources often contain overlapping information extents, which have to be reconciled to improve the quality of an integrated database. (Koeller, 2005)
Messaging System
A system enabling and facilitating communication among team members. Communication among team members can be one-to-one, one-to-many, and synchronous (IM and chat) or asynchronous (e-mail, bulletin boards, discussion lists). (Ferris & Minielli, 2005)
Merise Approach
Another way to calculate cardinality constraints. It limits the participation of an entity in the relationship. (Cuadra et al., 2005)
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META Refresh
A special HTML tag that redirects the visitor to a new page. The result is that the inal destination of the navigation is different from the initial target. (Westin, 2005)
are knowledge about ways in which knowledge is used (e.g.,in these circumstances, it is useful to use Pythagorus theorem). (Fortier & Kassel, 2006)
Meta-Learning
1: Higher-order learning by adapting the parameters of a machine-learning algorithm or the algorithm deinition itself, in response to data. An example of this approach is the search-based wrapper of inductive learning, which wraps a search algorithm around an inducer to ind locally optimal parameter values such as the relevant feature subset for a given classiication target and data set. Validation set accuracy typically is used as itness. Genetic algorithms have been used to implement such wrappers for decision tree and Bayesian network inducers. (Hsu, 2005a) 2: Learning to predict the most appropriate algorithm for a particular task. (Muslea, 2005)
Meta-Analysis
The statistical analysis of a group of relevantly similar experimental studies, in order to summarize their results considered as a whole. (Fisher, 2005)
Meta-Combiner (Meta-Learner)
Multi-level structure improving the learning process by dynamic accumulation of knowledge about learning. Its common topology involves base learners and classiiers at the irst level, and meta-learner and meta-classiier at the second level; the meta-classiier combines the decisions of all the base classiiers. (Bruha, 2005)
Meta-Medium
A channel of channels, such as the Internet. This term conveys the sense of rich and complex media transmission across a multiplexed channel of conveyance. Numerous motivations for use could arise related to such a complex media venue. (Stafford, 2005)
Meta-Governance
A new way to govern independent policy networks. The politicians have to create the frames that make it possible for other actors to participate in the policy process. They have to specify the competence of the various actors and to create meaning via a common understanding of the goals for the performance of the network. (Jaeger, 2005)
Meta-Model
1: A model whose instances are the models of the class. Models of a given meta-model are called similar. (Diskin & Kadish, 2005) 2: A model of model. (Fettke, 2005) 3: An abstraction which deines the structure for a UML model. A model is an instance of a meta-model. Deines a language to describe an information domain. (Riesco et al., 2005)
Meta-Knowledge
1: General background knowledge that possesses a signiicant tacit component. It can be used in the performance of a range of organizational activitiessocial and technical. Examples of meta-knowledge are individual literacy, knowledge of a foreign language, and so on. This type of knowledge also is generally available within the irm and the industry as a whole; nevertheless, the widespread possession of such knowledge by individual actors is important for an organizations general stock of knowledge. (Butler & Murphy, 2006) 2: Knowledge which, instead of relating to objects or events, is about knowledge. There are several categories of meta-knowledge: some are knowledge properties (e.g., Pythagorus theorem was known to the Babylonians), others are knowledge about the state of knowledge of an individual (e.g., Mr. Brown does not know Pythagorus theorem), and lastly others
Meta-Recommender
Provides users with personalized control over the generation of a single recommendation list formed from the combination of rich recommendation data from multiple information sources and recommendation techniques. (Schafer, 2005)
Metabonomics
The evaluation of tissues and biological luids for changes in metabolite levels that result from toxicant-induced exposure. (Ge & Liu, 2005)
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M e t a busine ss M e t a m orphosis
Metabusiness
A quasi-irm created through digital links among several companies, in such a way that it is almost impossible to know exactly its boundaries. (Joia, 2005)
relationships to other data items, location, scope, and other features of the data item. (Pinheiro, 2005)
Metadata Framework
A series of guidelines describing potential components required to deine, describe, publish, and maintain metadata. (Yoon et al., 2005)
Metaclass
A class whose instances are classes. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a)
Metadata Repository
An information store containing information about each data asset. Repositories act as catalogs and include technical information about data assets, their structures, how they are used, and who is responsible for them. (Schwartz & Schreiber, 2005)
Metadata Store
Contains information about the digital assets, typically in an XML DTD format. (Subramanian, 2005)
Metacognitive Skill
One of a set of learners individual skills to assess whether the strategies they are using are effective. Learners use their metacognitive skills to assess their level of achievement, determine alternate strategies, select the most appropriate strategy, and then reassess the level of achievement. (Ally, 2005a)
Metaheuristic
A master strategy that guides and modiies other heuristics to produce solutions beyond those that are normally generated in a quest for local optimality. (Mart, 2005)
Metadata
1: Data about data created with the purpose of enabling some speciic function or functions. For example, a cost metadata element is obviously oriented to enabling commerce functions. (Sicilia & Garca-Barriocanal, 2006) 2: A data format that may contain numerous information, including information obtained indirectly from the image, as well as information related to the actual description of the image content. At the highest level, images are often accompanied and associated by metadata. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005a)
Metaheuristic Technique
Also known as modern heuristics, this refers to methods for the solution of complex optimization problems that seek good (i.e., near optimal) solutions at a reasonable computational cost. Generally this type of method is based on the imitation of some natural process in the context of optimization. The best-known modern heuristics are genetic algorithms, simulated annealing, and tabu search. (Richards & de la Iglesia, 2005)
Metamorphosis
In application to economies of companies, it is a process of change from an existing but obsolete way of doing business to a new form but non-predestined state. (Richards et al., 2005)
Metadata Description
Abstract data description used to describe concrete data items. Usually contains descriptions of data structures,
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Metasearch Engine
1: Conducts a search using several other search engines simultaneously and then presents the results in some sort of integrated format. This lets users see at a glance which particular search engine returned the best results for a query without having to search each one individually. (Hu, Yang, Yeh, et al., 2005) 2: A search engine that sends search keywords to different search engines and blends together the search results from these search engines as one resultant list. (Kasi & Jain, 2006)
Metaskill
Skill involved in academic literacy, as well as metacognitive skill related to planning, monitoring, and regulating comprehension-related activities. (Muukkonen et al., 2005)
the case for various statistical ways of data handling, or qualitative, which may be exempliied by grounded theory. A method (and thus a method schema) consists of the following three parts: (1) a problem statement or domain modeling the phenomenon under study; (2) a procedure for collecting and analyzing data to understand the phenomenon; and (3) a justiication, for example, by showing its ability to solve designated problems of the domain. (Pharo & Jrvelin, 2005) 5: In object-oriented programming, methods are the actions or behaviors that an object can perform. At the coding level, a method is created by including a procedure (function or sub) within the class. (Westin, 2005)
Method Bias
Refers to when subjects across cultures do not respond to measurement scales in the same manner. Bias in the scores on an instrument can arise due to characteristics of the instrument or its administration. (Karahanna et al., 2005)
Metateam
A temporar y group composed of two or more geographically and inter-organizationally dispersed teams, commercially linked by project-speciic agreements and primarily enabled by electronic means of communication. (Fernndez, 2005)
Method Breadth
Extent to which a usability-evaluation method is capable of detecting all of a systems usability deiciencies. (Danielson, 2006a)
Metavante Corporation
A inancial service bureau and wholly owned subsidiary of Marshall and Ilsley Corporation. (Panton, 2005)
Metcalfs Law
1: Developed by Robert Metcalf, states that the value of a network scales as 2n, where n is the number of persons connected. (Mew, 2006) 2: The value or power of a network increases in proportion to the square of the number of nodes on the network. (Rollier & Niederman, 2005) 3: States that the utility of a network rises in proportion to the square of the number of its users. This means that as more users get connected into a network, the marginal utility perceived by new users increases dramatically. (Kochikar & Suresh, 2005)
Method Schema
Any representation deined for one or more methods, where one or more aspects of the method have been left uninterpreted and represented only through their plain name, and where some aspects of the methods may have been left out (even lacking their naming). Method schemas take the format of a method, but it contains unspeciied components that need to be speciied if it is to reach the level of a method. In other words a method schema is an abstract representation of one or more methodsa generic model. The difference between a method and a method schema can be said to be a continuum of generality. (Pharo & Jrvelin, 2005)
Method
1: Actions performed by objects. (Lucas, 2005) 2: As information is exchanged, it is manipulated typically by presenting it directly or partially with the intention of the learner hypothesizing about the information and verifying the hypotheses. (Marcinkiewicz & McLean, 2005b) 3: A function deined inside of a class, a processing speciication for an operation. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 4: A procedure for handling a set of problems. Methods can be categorized as quantitative, which is, for example,
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Method Sensitivity
Extent to which a usability-evaluation method is capable of detecting a particular type of usability deiciency. (Danielson, 2006a)
given attribute. (Schneidewind, 2005) 4: An empirical assignment of a value in an entity aiming to describe a speciic characteristic of this entity. (Xenos, 2006)
Methodology
A consistent and suited set of modeling methods providing procedures to apply the constructs of a modeling language. (Fettke, 2005)
Metropolis Algorithm
Proposed in 1953 by Metropolis for studying statistical physics. Since then it has become a powerful tool for investigating thermodynamics, solid state physics, biological systems, and so forth. The algorithm is known as the most successful and inluential Monte Carlo method. (Hou, Guo, et al., 2005)
Metric Database
A database that provides access to a set of objects based on similarity to a query object, using the metric space model. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
MFU
Most frequently used characters in a character set with enormous members. (Chan, Ho, et al., 2005)
MH: See Mobile Host. MI: See Mutual Information. MIAME: See Minimal Information about a Microarray Experiment. MICI: See Microeconomic Competitiveness Index. Micro/Macro Payment
1: A mobile payment of approximately $10 or less (often for mobile content such as video downloads or gaming) is called a micro payment, while a macro payment refers to a larger-value payment. (Lee, Kou, et al., 2005) 2: The lowest values, typically under $2. Micro payments are expected to boost mobile commerce as well as pay-per-view/click charging schemas. (Karnouskos & Vilmos, 2006)
Metric Relation
Measures the distance between salient objects. For instance, the metric relation far between two objects A and B indicates that each pair of points Ai and Bj has a distance greater than a certain value d. (Chbeir & Yetongnon, 2005)
Metric Space
A set of elements together with a distance function deined among pairs of elements. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
Metric/Measure
1: A value that represents a certain fact that is being recorded in the transaction. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005) 2: A predetermined measure that will be used as the basis for a measurement process. For example, percentage of customer calls answered within one minute. (Holstein & Crnkovic, 2005) 3: A quantitative measure of the degree to which a system, component, or process possesses a
Micro-Business
1: A term used to describe very small businesses. Many of these operate as family businesses. They form the majority of businesses. (Burgess, 2005) 2: An organization that employs less than 10 employees. (Vrazalic et al., 2005)
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Micro-Ecology of Information
The study of information (cognition) at the individual level of decision making in professional, social, and personal undertakings. (Targowski, 2005)
Microarray Informatics
The study of the use of microarray databases to obtain information about experimental data. (Segall, 2005)
Microbrowser
1: A Web browser designed for a small device. (N.C. Rowe, 2005a) 2: Client software (Web browser) designed to operate within the constraints of a handheld mobile device: low memory, small screen, relatively low bandwidth. (Petrova, 2006) 3: A miniaturized version of a desktop browser such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer. Microbrowsers, due to the limited resources of handheld devices, are different from the traditional desktop browsers in the following features: (1) smaller windows, (2) smaller footprints, and (3) less functions and multimedia features. (Hu, Yang, et al., 2006) 4: Browsers for mobile devices. These browsers are capable of interpreting WML instructions and executing WMLScript code. (Chen, Sockel, et al., 2005)
Micro-Mobility
Refers to the way an artifact is mobilized and manipulated around a relatively circumscribed domain. (Mkinen, 2006)
Micro-Theory
One of a set of beliefs that need to be tested during the data-mining process. (Amaravadi, 2005)
Microarray
1: A chip on which numerous probes are placed for hybridization with a tissue sample to analyze its gene expression. (Fu, 2005) 2: Also called a gene chip or a DNA chip. A new biotechnology that allows biomedical researchers to monitor thousands of genes simultaneously. (Chu & Wang, 2005) 3: Tool for studying how large numbers of genes interact with each other and how a cells regulatory networks control vast batteries of genes simultaneously. Uses a robot to precisely apply tiny droplets containing functional DNA to glass slides. Researchers then attach luorescent labels to DNA from the cell they are studying. The labeled probes are allowed to bind to cDNA strands on the slides. The slides are put into a scanning microscope to measure how much of a speciic DNA fragment is present. (Galitsky, 2005a) 4: A high-throughput technology that allows the simultaneous determination of mRNA abundance for many thousands of genes in a single experiment. (Chen & Liu, 2005) 5: A chip where thousands of gene expressions may be obtained from the same biological cell material. (Liberati, 2005) 6: The technology for biological exploration which allows one to simultaneously measure the amount of mRNA in up to tens of thousands of genes in a single experiment. (Fung & Ng, 2005)
Microcomputer Enjoyment
The extent to which the activity of using a microcomputer is perceived as being enjoyable in its own right, apart from any performance consequences. It encompasses the feelings of joy, elation, or pleasure associated by an individual to a particular act. (de Souza Dias, 2005)
Microcomputer Usefulness
The degree to which an individual believes that using a particular computer system would enhance his or her job performance. (de Souza Dias, 2005)
Microdesign
The process of designing how a user will be able to interact with a small artifact. (Roibs, 2006a)
Microarray Database
Stores large amounts of complex data as generated by microarray experiments (e.g., DNA). (Segall, 2005)
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Microprocessor
A collection of microscopic devices on a single semiconductor chip that performs all the basic operations of a computers CPU (Central Processing Unit). (Strauss, 2005)
Microsoft Producer
A program available to Microsoft PowerPoint users that allows the production of audio iles. It also allows the use of PowerPoint presentations or captured screen shots to accompany audio explanations. (Microsoft Producer can be downloaded from www.microsoft.com). (Cooper, 2005)
wide range of services layered between the applications and operating systems that provide specialized services and interoperability between distributed applications. The services consist of transaction-processing monitors, remote procedure calls, message-oriented middleware, and object request brokers. (Wan et al., 2006) 8: This software manages the communication between a client program and a database. For example, a Web server connected to a database can be considered middleware as the Web server sits between the client program (a Web browser) and a database. The middleware allows the database to be changed without necessarily affecting the client and vice versa. (Bose et al., 2005)
Migratory Knowledge
Knowledge that can travel directly from teacher to learner without changing in form or substance. (Frank et al., 2005)
Microsoft .NET
A product suite that enables companies to build smart, enterprise-class Web services. Microsoft.NET is a product strategy that serves as a platform for developing Web services. (Chen, 2006)
Military Intelligence
A discipline that focuses on gathering, analyzing, and disseminating information about adversaries, present and future, and conlict conditions (like the area of operations), both for tactical and strategical purposes. (Badia, 2006)
Middleman
A dealer or agent intermediate between the producer of goods and the consumer or retailer. (Mendes-Filho & Ramos, 2005)
Middleware
1: A server-side scripting technology used to facilitate data transfer and communication between a client and a data source. (Barone, 2005) 2: An enabling layer of software that resides between the application program and the networked layer of heterogeneous platforms and protocols. It decouples applications from any dependencies on the plumbing layer that consists of heterogeneous operating systems, hardware platforms, and communication protocols. (Kunz & Gaddah, 2005) 3: Software that connects different applications to allow data sharing. (Hwang, 2005) 4: Software that connects two or more separate applications across the Web for enabling data exchange, integration, and/or support. (Littman, 2005) 5: Software that sits between two or more types of software and translates information between them. Middleware can cover a broad spectrum of software and generally sits between an application and an operating system, a network operating system, or a database-management system. (Mockler et al., 2006) 6: Technology enabling the exchange of information between information systems and encapsulating implementation details. (Verbraeck et al., 2006) 7: The
A pattern of IT adoption among a population of irms in which further adoptions are a function of previous adoptions rather than strategic considerations. (Grifin, 2005)
Minable View
The view constructed from the data repository that is passed to the data-mining algorithm. This minable view must include all the relevant features for constructing the model. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005b)
1: Deines what information at least should be stored. (Segall, 2005) 2: A standard for data from a microarray experiment. (Ge & Liu, 2005)
Minimal Occurrence
A minimal occurrence of an episode a in an event sequence , is a window w=[ts, te], such that: (1) a occurs in the window w, (2) a does not occur in any proper subwindow of w, and (3) the width of window w is less than the userspeciied maximum window width parameter. Timestamps
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ts and te records the starting and ending time of the episode, respectively, and ts te. (Harms, 2005)
business customers to improve the organization of retrieved results and to increase the precision of information retrieval. (Nayak, 2005c)
Minimal Support
A user-given number that speciies the minimal number of transactions in which an interested pattern should be contained. (Zou & Chu, 2005)
Minimalist Design
Refers to providing simple and easy-to-read screen designs. When Web designs are not minimalist, they may cause cognitive overload, or the presence of too much information for users to process. Keeping pages uncluttered and chunking information into categories are examples of ways to provide a minimalist design. (Chalmers, 2006)
Mining Sentence
Analytical method for interactively completing incomplete sentences using knowledge that is discovered in a document collection. (Bickel & Scheffer, 2005)
Mirroring
Replication method where all updates to a logical disk volume are copied by the operating system to two or more physical disk volumes. (Frank, 2005a)
Mining E-Mail
The application of analytical methods and tools to e-mail data for: (1) support of communication by iling e-mails into folders, iltering spam, answering e-mails automatically, or proposing completions to sentence fragments; or (2) discovery of hidden properties of communication networks by e-mail graph analysis. (Bickel & Scheffer, 2005)
Mission Objective
States where the organization is headed and how to measure when it has arrivedthat is, what part or parts of the ideal vision the organization commits to deliver and move ever closer toward. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005)
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Misuse Detection
MMO: See Multimedia Object. MMS: See Multimedia Message Service. MMSC
Analysis strategy that looks for events or sets of events that match a predeined pattern of a known attack. (Lazarevic, 2005)
Mix Shift
Shift in the market between major components usually requiring different technology or solutions. (Nugent, 2005)
Multimedia message service center; a special server to implement the offerings on a Multimedia Message Service (MMS) system. (Roibs, 2006b)
MMT: See Multimedia Technology. MMTE: See Multimedia Telediagnostic Environment. MNE: See Multi-National Enterprise.
Mixed-Mode Learning
Study that combines traditional face-to-face learning with learning at a distance in a structured program. The Web may be used to enhance learning during study by one or both of these modes. Mixed mode is also known as Blended Learning and Distributed Learning. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005b)
Mixture of Distributions
A combination of two or more distributions in which observations are generated from distribution i with probability pi and Spi =1. (Burr, 2005b)
MKM: See Mathematical Knowledge Management. MLE: See Managed Learning Environment. MLS: See Multi-Level Security, Mobile Location
Service.
Mobile Advertisement
Advertisement sent to mobile and wireless devices. (Salo & Thtinen, 2006)
Mobile Advertising
All advertising activities conducted via mobile and wireless devices. (Salo & Thtinen, 2006)
MLSE
Maximum-likelihood sequence estimation. (Iossiides et al., 2005)
Mobile Adviser
The highly skilled expert, voluntary or on a contractual basis, maintains the regional network of the telecenters and helps the personnel by providing advice and necessary programs. (Melkonyan, 2005)
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Mobile Agent
1: A piece of code capable of migrating to different sites for execution, making use of local resources, and acting on behalf of its launching site. The agent will carry along with its execution state and data upon migration.a crash failure and for consistent database broadcast. (Leong, 2005b) 2: A program that represents a user in a computer network and can migrate autonomously from node to node, to perform a computation on behalf of the user. (Fortino et al., 2006) 3: An agent that has the property of moving from one computer to another in a computer network, while preserving its state information. (Camarinha-Matos & Ferrada, 2006) 4: An intelligent agent who performs its tasks with some level of mobility, cooperation, proactivity, and/or reactiveness. (Karoui, 2005) 5: Software code that can migrate host-to-host autonomously to perform operations. (Quah, Leow, & Ong, 2006)
Mobile Client
A portable device that is augmented with a wireless communication interface. (Xu, 2006)
Mobile Application
1: Any application that can be used on the move. It may or may not be wireless. It must be tailored to the characteristics of the device that it runs on. Limited resources, low network bandwidth, and intermittent connectivity are all important factors that affect the design of these applications. (Bose et al., 2005) 2: A broad range of applications and services accessible through a mobile handheld device. Examples include banking, news, betting, games, travel directions. (Petrova, 2006)
Mobile Banking
A client-server system that enables banking customers to use handheld devices to access their accounts, pay bills, authorize funds transfers, or perform other activities. (Lee & Warkentin, 2006)
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products or services), conduct a transaction, or perform supply chain or demand chain functions. (Lalopoulos et al., 2005a) 12: The ability to purchase goods anywhere through a wireless Internet-enabled device (e.g., cellular phone, pager, PDA, etc.). Mobile commerce refers to any transaction with monetary value that is conducted via a mobile network. (Clarke & Flaherty, 2005) 13: The process of buying, selling, or exchanging products and services wirelessly over mobile communication networks. (Chen & Yang, 2006) 14: The use of mobile devices to improve performance, create value, and enable eficient transactions among businesses, customers, and employees. (Lawson-Body, 2005)
both networking and software applications, that permits networked devices to be moved freely within the broadcast coverage area, contacting others and conducting computations. (Bozanis, 2006) 7: An environment made up of a set of devices that interact to give the user the possibility of staying connected while moving from one location to another. (Coratella et al., 2005)
Mobile Device
1: A device that can be used to access information and learning materials from anywhere and at anytime. The device consists of an input mechanism, processing capability, storage medium, and display mechanism. (Ally, 2005c) 2: Anything that can be used on the move, ranging from laptops to mobile phones. As long as the location is not ixed, it is considered mobile. Areas that are not included in the deinition of mobile include remote ofices, home ofices, or home appliances. (Bose et al., 2005) 3: Can include a range of portable devices, including mobile phones and PDAs, but also can include wearable devices, such as HMDs and smart clothing, that incorporate sensors and location tracking devices. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006b) 4: Computing and communication device such as a cell phone, PDA, or PC equipped with a cellular modem, which is light enough to be carried by humans and has wireless connectivity that allows users to move freely. (Melliar-Smith & Moser, 2005) 5: Gadget not needed to be attached to a certain place, mostly subject to certain limitations. (Rosenbaum et al., 2006) 6: Information and communication device developed for mobile use and which can be employed in the context of mobile knowledge management. A wide variety of devices is relevant: mobile phones, smartphones, PDAs, tablet PCs, and wearable computing. (Derballa & Pousttchi, 2006b)
Mobile Computing
1: A computing infrastructure that facilitates the conduct of work anywhere/anytime via the integration of portable devices and wireless connectivity. (Roldan, 2005) 2: Computing using a portable device that allows full network connectivity via wireless connections. (Strauss, 2005) 3: Encompasses a number of technologies and devices, such as wireless LANs, notebook computers, cell and smart phones, tablet PCs, and PDAs, helping the organization of our life, communication with coworkers or friends, or the accomplishment of our jobs more eficiently. (Sofokleous et al., 2005) 4: The ability of mobile users to keep connected to the wireless network while traveling, and to access information such as news, weather forecast, e-mail, and query to a central database server. (Waluyo et al., 2005) 5: The capability to physically move computing services with us. (Krogstie, 2005b) 6: The infrastructure,
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Mobile E-Work: See Mobile Electronic Work. Mobile Electronic Commerce Transaction
An e-commerce transaction that is conducted using a mobile terminal (e.g., a PTD) and a wireless network or link. (Veijalainen & Weske, 2005)
organization to retrieve data or information (e.g., sales igures or market data). (Derballa & Pousttchi, 2006a)
Mobile Internet
A part of the Internet whose contents are speciically designed for mobile users who use Internet-enabled mobile handheld devices such as a smart cellular phone to access the mobile Internet contents. (Hu, Yang, & Yeh, 2006)
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Application provided over a mobile network that utilizes information related to the geographical position of users to provide added value to them. (Giaglis, 2005)
database, individual objects of very large size have to be handled eficiently. Furthermore, the crucial point is that mobile MM-DBMSs should have the QoS-based capabilities to eficiently and effectively process the multimedia data in wireless mobile environments. (Zhang & Chen, 2005) 2: DBMS with enhanced functionalities to eficiently organize, store, and retrieve multimedia objects. (Chang et al., 2005)
Mobile Mentoring
Mentoring which uses mobile communication technology as an integrated part of the communication between mentor and mentee. (Hkkil & Beekhuyzen, 2006)
Mobile Payment
1: Any payment where a mobile device is used in order to initiate, activate, and/or conirm this payment. (Karnouskos & Vilmos, 2006) 2: The transfer of inancial value and corresponding services or items between different participants in mobile commerce systems. (Lee, Kou, et al., 2005)
Mobile Middleware
1: A functional layer of software provided by application developers to link their e-commerce applications to an operating system and various mobile networks to allow their applications to bypass certain mobility issues. (Pierre, 2006a) 2: The software layer between the operating system and the distributed applications that interact via the mobile networks. Its primary mission is to hide the underlying mobile, networked environments complexity by insulating applications from explicit protocols. (Hu, Yang, & Yeh, 2006)
Mobile Phone
1: Originally a portable wireless telephone, but now extended to a wireless Internet device supporting Web, mail, and other features in addition to voice. (Houser & Thornton, 2005) 2: Mobile communication system that use radio communication and conventional telephone switching to allow communication to and from mobile users. (Akhtar, 2005)
Mobile Multimedia
Use of audio and/or video in addition to text and image pages. The low bandwidth and high cost of mobile cellular connections discourage the use of video. Spoken natural language input and output is a promising but dificult approach for improving the ease of use of mobile devices for commercial transactions. (Melliar-Smith & Moser, 2005)
Mobile PR: See Mobile Public Relations. Mobile Public Relations (Mobile PR)
The application of public relations strategies and tactics in cyberspace accessed through mobile devices. (Galloway, 2006)
Mobile Service
Service provided by a mobile operator that enables individual customers to access information and applications anytime-anywhere. (Lee & Warkentin, 2006)
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distinct categories are relevant: traveling, visiting, and wandering. (Derballa & Pousttchi, 2006b)
Mobility Management
A technique that maintains wireless communications of mobile users. (W. Wang, 2006)
Mobility Model
To describe user movement in wireless networks. (W. Wang, 2006)
Mobility-Related Exclusion
An aspect of social exclusion which derives from lack of physical access. (Kenyon, 2005)
Mobile Technique
An implementation technique used to support mobile transactional models, for example, techniques relating to geographic data usage, caching, concurrency handling, dissemination of information, and so forth. (Coratella et al., 2005)
Mod
A modiication to elements in a computer game designed and built by members of the gaming community, and made available to other gamers. The mod can be a new weapon, an entire environment, a new texture, or even a new story line. (Champion, 2006b)
Mobile User
1: A user who needs an access to unstructured data anytime and anywhere. (Abramowicz et al., 2006) 2: Customer who uses a wireless device. (W. Wang, 2006)
Modal Property
Natural frequency, mode shapes, and mode curvatures constitute modal properties. (Kanapady & Lazarevic, 2005)
Mobile Work
1: Work that is carried out while moving. The work of bus drivers and pilots, as well as other personnel in various vehicles, is mobile work. Mobile work can also be conducted by passengers. Mobile work is the opposite of work carried out as ixed on a given location. (Heinonen, 2005) 2: The ability to carry out work while geographically moving around. (Wiberg, 2005)
Modality
1: The medium used, the mode of representation to present the required message. (Uden, 2005) 2: The pairing of a representational system (or mode) and a physical input or output device. (Lumsden, 2005)
Modality Fission
The partition of information sets across several modality outputs for the generation of efficient multimodal presentations. (Bourguet, 2006)
Mobility
1: The ability to move or to be moved easily from one place to another. (Sofokleous et al., 2005) 2: Traditionally refers to the aspect of being geographically independent. Different types of mobility can be discerned: spatial, temporal, and contextual mobility. Regarding spatial mobility, three
Modality Fusion
Integration of several modality inputs in the multimodal architecture to reconstruct a users command. (Bourguet, 2006)
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Mode
The style or nature of the interaction between the user and the computer. (Lumsden, 2005)
Mode Characteristic
A characteristic of a mode of instruction. May include: usefulness, challenge, attractiveness, clarity. (Chan, Tan, et al., 2005)
Mode Error
Occurs when the user misinterprets the mode the system is in. For instance, actions by the user may be interpreted by the system in a way which will not be what the user is expecting, and/or the user will interpret the information provided by the system erroneously. Mode error typically leads to the user being confounded by the behavior of the system. (Campos & Harrison, 2006)
Mode 1 Research
Research conducted by those belonging to a single discipline, aiming to solve questions within this discipline. The outcomes will be used by the discipline and may not transcend a particular context of application. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006)
the dynamic behavior of a system. (Kontos & Malagardi, 2006) 5: A simpliied abstraction that shows properties of some subject matter relevant to a particular purpose, context, or perspective. (Maceield, 2006) 6: A simpliied representation of reality that concentrates on predicting how a factor or a series of related factors would evolve based on the variation of a set of parameters. Also, a simpliied representation of reality. (Adam & Pomerol, 2005) 7: An abstraction of reality that is structured as a set of rules and procedures to derive new information that can be analyzed to aid in problem solving and planning. Analytical tools in a geographic information system are used for building spatial models. Models can include a combination of logical expressions, mathematical procedures, and criteria, which are applied for the purpose of simulating a process, predicting an outcome, or characterizing a phenomenon. (Al-Hanbali & Sadoun, 2006) 8: An abstraction represented in a modeling language. (Krogstie, 2005a) 9: Represents the system from a set of concerns. A model can be informal, semi-formal, and formal. A system is typically represented by a set of models, each addressing some particular area of concern. (Stojanovic & Dahanayake, 2005)
Mode Shape
One of the eigenvectors associated with the natural frequencies of the structure. (Kanapady & Lazarevic, 2005)
Mode 2 Research
Research developed with the participation of different disciplines, with the aim of solving a problem that has a particular context and requires the use of a variety of methods and sources of knowledge. The outcomes of this research will be used in other contexts as reference. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006)
Model
1: A metadata artifact such as relational or XML schema, interface deinition, or Web site layout. (Diskin & Kadish, 2005) 2: A particular product of conceptual modeling. It is a description of a domain using a particular language. (Fettke, 2005) 3: A representation of a data set or stream that one can use for prediction or for better understanding the data from which it was derived. Also called hypothesis or concept description. Models include probabilities, linear equations, decision trees, decision rules, and the like. (Maloof, 2005) 4: A set of causal relations that specify
Model Checker
A tool that automatically checks a temporal logic formula against a state machine. In the case of symbolic model checking, the tool does not handle the states in the state machine directly. Instead, it handles terms that deine sets of states. In this way, it is possible to work with much larger state machines since it is not necessary to explicitly build it. (Campos & Harrison, 2006)
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Model Checking
1: A method for formally verifying inite-state concurrent systems. Speciications about the system are expressed as temporal logic formulas, and eficient symbolic algorithms are used to traverse the model deined by the system and check whether the speciication holds. (Tan & Zhao, 2005a) 2: A formal veriication technique that determines whether given properties of a system are satisied by a model. A model checker takes a model and a property as inputs, and outputs either a claim that the property is true or a counter-example falsifying the property. (Kefalas et al., 2005) 3: Technique for the formal veriication of temporallogics properties on inite-state, concurrent systems using eficient algorithms. (Fisteus & Kloos, 2006)
Model Validation
Iterative testing and reinement of computational models to ensure the behaviors of such models mirror faithfully those of the operational organizations in practice that they represent. (Nissen & Levitt, 2006)
Model-Based Clustering
1: A clustering method with relatively lexible assumptions regarding the volume, shape, and orientation of each cluster. (Burr, 2005b) 2: A mixture of simpler distributions is used to it the data, which deines the clusters of the data. EM with linear mixing of Gaussian density functions is the best example, but K-Means and K-Harmonic Means are the same type. Regression clustering algorithms are also model-based clustering algorithms with mixing of more complex distributions as its model. (B. Zhang, 2005)
Model Discovery
The discovery of a set of causal relations that predict the behavior of a system. (Kontos & Malagardi, 2006)
Model Identiication
Definition of the structure and computation of its parameters best suited to mathematically describe the process underlying the data. (Liberati, 2005)
Model Mapping/Morphism
Informally, a correspondence between models. Formally, it is a function (arrow) sending elements of the source model to elements of the target model. The graph of this function can be reiied as a special model, often also called model mapping in the literature. We prefer the term correspondence model for reiied mappings and use model mapping in the narrow sense of mappings-as-functions. (Diskin & Kadish, 2005)
Model Quality
Similar to rule quality, but characterizes the decision power, predictability, and reliability of the entire model (knowledge base) as a unit. (Bruha, 2005)
Model/Shaping Filter
The ilter G(z) in the IFIR structure which has M times higher both the pass-band and the stop-band frequencies than the prototype ilter. Since both the stop-band and the pass-band increase M fold, so does their differencethat is, the transition band. As a consequence of increased transition band, the order of the ilter decreases, and in turn the overall complexity decreases as well. (JovanovicDolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
Model-Driven Transformation
A goal-oriented chain of transformations made up of predicate-driven operators. It is designed to transform any schema expressed in model M into an equivalent schema in model M. (Hainaut, 2005)
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M ode ling M OM
Modeling
Modern Battleield
A holistic concept implementing network-centric operations that allows the real-time connectivity of ighting units, with the availability of combat-supportive information and knowledge on demand of friendly forces and of the enemy. (Ariely, 2006b)
Modeling Language
A language (i.e., a set of symbols, and rules for how to combine these symbols) to represent knowledge relevant in information systems development. (Krogstie, 2005a)
Modellens
The constructed model, which may consist of different kinds of representation, such as sentences, igures, or letters. (Marjomaa, 2005)
Modiication
A change in what a student is expected to learn and demonstrate. The use of a modiication for a student changes the standard, the instructional level, or the content to be learned by the student. (T. Cavanaugh, 2005)
Modem
1: Most common method of connecting to the Internet requiring connectivity to the Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) or Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). (Latchem, 2005) 2: A data communications device standing for modulator-demodulator. It receives digital signals or information over a telephone line, and translates them into analog ones and/or vice versa. It enables a computer to communicate with other computers over telephone lines. (Magagula, 2005) 3: A device used to transmit and receive digital data over a telecommunications line. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005a)
Modularity
Most ERP packages decompose their functionality in modules, grouping typical business functions such as inance, sales, and manufacturing, among others. (Framinan, 2005)
Modem (Modulator/Demodulator)
An electronic device for converting between serial data from a computer and an audio signal suitable for transmission over a telephone line or cable TV wiring connected to another modem. (Vician & Buche, 2005)
Module
A discrete educational item that covers a topic such as Statistics. It would typically consist of a set number of weeks of learning material delivered through lectures and seminars. (Coakes & Willis, 2005)
Moderated Discussion
Discussion that is supervised, partly directed, and evaluated by a program tutor. (Grasso & Leng, 2005)
Moderation of Assessment
External oversight of an assessment process to ensure that appropriate standards are maintained. (Grasso & Leng, 2005)
Moderator/Mediator
In the social sciences, moderators and mediators have been identiied as two functions of third variables. These are sub-groups of independent variables that affect given dependent variables via a mediator function. (Chou et al., 2005)
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Moment Measure
Skewness and kurtosis are moment measures calculated using the horizontal and vertical projections and coordinates of center of gravity of the signature. (Chakravarty et al., 2005a)
Monitor
A person who is monitoring the good functioning of a Public Discussion Forum. It is usually a volunteer who is specialized and interested in the speciic topic of the forum. (Gur u, 2006)
but operational copies of itself. A simple-minded, scan string-based virus scanner would not be able to reliably identify all variants of this sort of virus. One of the most sophisticated forms of polymorphism used so far is the Mutation Engine, which comes in the form of an object module. With the mutation engine, any virus can be made polymorphic by adding certain calls to its assembler source code, and linking to the mutation-engine and randomnumber generator modules. The advent of polymorphic viruses has rendered virus scanning an ever more dificult and expensive endeavor; adding more and more scan strings to simple scanners will not adequately deal with these viruses. (Luo & Warkentin, 2005)
Morphological Box
Eficient tool for creativity and the structuring of ideas irst introduced by Zwicky in 1966. The main advantage of it is being able to present in a straightforward manner all of the possible solution alternatives for a speciic problem. (Blecker, 2006b)
Monolithic Solution
A large software development project typically costing vast amounts of money and usually time to develop. Typically start out well, meeting users needs, but may have considerable trouble coping with changing needs. (Salter, 2005b)
Mosaic Effect
Occurs when learning objects are developed using HTML and the style presentation is tagged within the HTML document, rendering content with different presentation styles, thereby causing the appearance of a mosaic effect when aggregating learning objects from disparate sources. (Stavredes, 2005b)
Monothetic Process
In a classiication tree, when data at each node are split on just one variable rather than several variables. (Breault, 2005)
Motif
Combines a few secondary structure elements with a speciic geometric arrangement. (Tsunoda et al., 2005)
Moores Law
The prediction by Intel cofounder Gordon E. Moore that the number of transistors on a microprocessor would double approximately every 24 months. To date, Moores law has proven remarkably accurate. (Van Dyke et al., 2006)
Motion Capture
Technique that measures complex motions. One type of motion-capture technique places markers on the target object and tracks the motions of these markers. (Wen et al., 2005)
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M ot ion Pic t ure Ex pe r t Group Com pre ssion M PEG Com p re ssion
MPEG-7, and MPEG-21. (Prteux & Preda, 2005) 2: A working group of ISO/IEC in charge of the development of standards for coded representation of digital audio and video. Since 1988, the group has designed MPEG-1 (used for video CDs and MP3s), MPEG-2 (used in digital television set-top boxes and DVDs), MPEG-4 (used for mobile use cases and networking), MPEG-7 (for the description of digital content), and MPEG-21 (which mainly addresses rights management, digital items, and adaptation of content). (Di Giacomo et al., 2005) 3: A group developing standards for coding digital audio and video, as used for example in video CDs, DVDs, and digital television. This term is often used to refer to media that is stored in the MPEG-1 format. (Sappa et al., 2005)
in performing public services. Lack of information content is another subfactor. (Kalvet, 2005)
Mouse
In computer terms, this is a hand-operated electronic device that moves the cursor on a computer screen. A mouse is essentially an upside-down trackball, although the former needs more room during operation as it moves around a horizontal surface. (Henley & Noyes, 2006)
Moving Object
1: A data element that is characterized by its position in space that varies in the course of time (this is a kind of spatiotemporal datum). (Vassilakopoulos & Corral, 2005) 2: Any object (e.g., automobile, vessel, pedestrian) equipped with a location-detection device. (Bozanis, 2006)
Motivation to E-Learn
An individual variable denoting an internal set of processes (both cognitive and behavioral) by which human energy becomes focused on learning particular work-related content (whether by actively interacting with courseware, participating in a virtual class, self-studying, doing ehomework alone or in group) to achieve speciic learning goals. (Rentroia-Bonito & Jorge, 2005)
MPCC: See Multi-Purpose Community Center. MPCP: See Multi-Point Control Protocol. MPEG: See Motion Picture Expert Group. MPEG Compression: See Motion Picture Expert
Group Compression.
Motivational Barrier
The main factor contributing to the digital divide in Estonia. There is a perception that the possibilities offered by the Internet are not associated with personal needs. Distrust of e-services exists, as no time gain is perceived, especially
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MPEG-4
Standard speciied by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) to transmit video and images over a narrower bandwidth and can mix video with text, graphics, and 2D and 3D animation layers. (Hentea, 2005a)
MRO: See Maintenance, Repair, and Operations. MRP: See Material Requirements Planning. MRP II: See Manufacturing Resource Planning. MSC: See Mobile Switching Center. MSDS: See Material Safety Data Sheet. MSO: See Multiple Service Operator.
MPEG-4 AFX
MPEG-4 extension with the aim to deine high-level components and a framework to describe realistic animations and 2D/3D objects. (Sappa et al., 2005)
MPEG-1
Standard for the coding of moving pictures and associated audio for digital storage media at up to about 1.5 Mbit/s. MPEG-1 is the standard on which video CD and MP3 are based. (Cavallaro, 2005)
MSS: See Mobile Support Station; Management Support System. MT: See Machine Translation. MU: See Motion Unit Model. MUD: See Multi-User Domain. Multi-Access
Interacting with a computer using more than one input or output channel at a time, usually suggesting drastically different input channels being used simultaneously (e.g., voice, typing, scanning, photo, etc.). (Roibs, 2006a)
MPEG-7
A standard formulated by the ISO Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG). Unlike MPEG-2 and MPEG-4, which deal with compressing multimedia contents within speciic applications, it speciies the structure and features of the compressed multimedia content produced by the different standards, for instance to be used in search engines. (Sappa et al., 2005)
MPEG-2
Standard for the generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information. MPEG-2 is the standard on which digital television set-top boxes and DVD are based. (Cavallaro, 2005)
MPEG-21
Multimedia framework initiative that enables the transparent and augmented use of multimedia resources across a wide range of networks and devices. (Cavallaro, 2005)
MPIS: See Maximal-Proit Item Selection. MPLS: See Multi-Protocol Label Switching. MPQoS: See Mean Perceived Quality of Service. MPS:
Measure of the computational complexity of a digital ilter expressed in terms of multipliers per output sample. (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
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Multi-Channel
Different interfaces that can be available to the user for data entry in a multi-platform system (iTV, PC, mobile phone, smart phone, pocket PC, etc.). (Roibs, 2006a)
Multi-Channel Delivery
Provision of the same or similar services on different platforms, such as computer, PDA, mobile phone, and in person. (Knepper & Chen, 2006)
Multi-Channel Identity
A perceived communicational coherence for each service provided through the whole system of interfaces. (Roibs, 2006a)
Multi-Dimensional Modeling
A modeling technique used in data warehouses, multidimensional databases, and OLAP applications, based on deining the facts of interest in terms of their dimension hierarchies. (Barca et al., 2005)
Multi-Channel Marketing
Using more than one channel of distribution to reach the customer; for example, a bricks-and-mortar retailer who also has a Web site and perhaps also a paper catalog. (Roberts & Schwaab, 2006)
Multi-Channel Retailing
Also called bricks and clicks. It is the simultaneous application of more than one channel of distribution in retailing. A multi-channel retailer operates at least one electronic and one non-electronic (physical stores, catalog, etc.) channel of distribution. (Madlberger, 2006)
Multi-Database Mining
The mining of potentially useful patterns in multidatabases. (Zhang & Zhang, 2005)
Multi-Dimensional Query
A query on a collection of multi-dimensional data which produces a collection of measures classiied according to some speciied dimensions. (Tininini, 2005b)
Multi-Dimensional Context
The context where database transactions, and thus the association relationships, happen. (Feng & Dillon, 2005)
Multi-Dimensional Scaling
A way to visualize Euclidean distances. Networks are often visualized by two-dimensional scaling in a
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graphical way with (x,y) coordinates, presenting a map of geometrical Euclidean distances among actors in a network. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006)
each network layer. (Castro & Braga, 2006) 2: A layered neural network in which each layer only receives inputs from previous layers. (Yeo, 2005)
Multi-Faceted Evaluation
Evaluation that includes a mixed-model approach to quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. (Neale et al., 2005)
Multi-Level Governance
A governance system comprising various institutional levels: local, regional, national, macro-regional, and international or global levels. For example, the European Union forms a multi-level governance system with municipalities, regions, member states, and the EU-level institutions, as does any federal system of government, like those in the United States or Germany. (Anttiroiko, 2005a)
Multi-Factorial Disease
Disease caused by several factors. Often, multi-factorial diseases are due to two kinds of causality that interact one is genetic (and often polygenetic) and the other is environmental. (Jourdan et al., 2005)
Multi-Hop
The mobile nodes are cooperating to forward data on behalf of one other node to reach distant stations that would otherwise have been out of range of sending node. (Erbas, 2005)
Multi-Hop Hotspot
One of a number of hotspots through which users could roam seamlessly. (Cremonini et al., 2006)
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A irm that is engaged in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in several countries outside its home country. (Brock & Zhou, 2006)
Multi-Objective Optimization
The problem of inding a vector of decision variables that satisies constraints and optimizes a vector function whose elements represent the objective functions. There is often some conlict between the objectives to be optimized; hence the solution to such a problem tends to be a compromise solution that satisies to some extent the objectives. (Richards & de la Iglesia, 2005)
Multi-Path Fading
The propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multi-path include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric relection and refraction, and relection from terrestrial objects, such as mountains and buildings. (Kao & Rerrer, 2006)
Multi-Path Propagation
The situation where the transmitted signal reaches the receiver through multiple electromagnetic waves (paths) scattered at various surfaces or objects. (Iossiides et al., 2005)
Multi-Perspectival Space
A spatial ield viewed simultaneously from different vantage points. (Murphy, 2005b)
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Multi-Stage Filtering
Cascade of ilters and decimators (interpolators and ilters). (Mili, 2005)
oriented. (Ridings, 2006a) 3: Synchronous text-based virtual environment that can be accessed by geographically dispersed individuals simultaneously. MOOs are a type of multi-user dimension based on object-oriented programming, enabling users to create and manipulate objects. (Roberts et al., 2006b). Also called Multi-User Dimension Object Oriented.
Multi-Threaded System
System where many concurrent sequences of executing instructions (called threads) may coexist and share data. (Curti, 2005)
An Internet-based virtual environment in which multiple users communicate and interact. (Ketelhut et al., 2005)
Multicast
1: Transmitting a single message to a select group of recipients. A simple example of multicasting is sending an e-mail message to a mailing list. (Yang et al., 2005a) 2: A one-to-many client/server connection in which multiple clients receive the same stream from a server. To receive a multicast, a client listens to a speciic IP address on a multicast-enabled network, like tuning a television to a speciic channel. In contrast, a unicast is a one-to-one connection in which each client receives a separate stream from a server. Multicasting is a technique whereby information is transmitted to a well-deined and controlled group of users on your network. (Cosemans, 2005b) 3: A technology that allows delivery of data, sent once, to multiple destinations, hence reducing bandwidth requirement. Applications that could beneit from multicast are multimedia broadcasts, like video and audio broadcasts, distribution of news, software, and others. (Papagiannidis et al., 2005)
Multi-Threading
Programs written to execute in a parallel manner, rather than a serial or purely sequential one, in order to take advantage of multiple processors. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005)
Multicast Island
Multicast-capable network where all routers have multicast routing protocols and the IP multicast is available. One of the main problems of the IP multicast is connecting the multicast islands into an Internet-wide network. (Hossz, 2006)
Multicast Protocol
Delivers messages reliably and in the same order to all of the replicas within a group. (Zhao et al., 2005)
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Multicast Routing
For the service of delivering one message to multiple destinations over the computer networks. One such application is the newsgroup. (Hu, 2005)
Team members will disband upon the completion of the project. (Fong, 2006b)
Multilingual Interface
Interface written in multiple languages. These interfaces may be identical to each other or vary based on differential needs. (Gangopadhyay & Huang, 2005)
Multilinguality
Term used to address the measures now being taken to provide graphical user interfaces with features for internationalizationthat is, support of the character sets and encodings used to represent the information being manipulated, and presentation of the data meaningfully. (Valenti, 2005)
Multicultural Team
A team composed of members who have spent their formative years in different countries and thus have learned different values, demeanors, and languages. (Cagiltay et al., 2005)
Multimedia Multiculturality
The term used to address the measures now being taken to provide graphical user interfaces with ad hoc icons and texts according to the cultural heritage of the user. (Valenti, 2005) 1: More than one concurrent presentation medium (i.e., CD-ROM or a Web site). Although still images are a different medium than text, multimedia is typically used to mean the combination of text, sound, and/or motion video. (Rahman, 2005c) 2: A combination of two or more media to present information to users. (Ally, 2005c) 3: A term that originated in the audiovisual industry to describe a computer-controlled, multiple-projector slideshow with a sound track. Multimedia is now viewed in computer terms as a blending of media types: text, audio, visual, and data in one convenient computer-based delivery system. (Reisman, 2006) 4: A term used to relect diverse platforms for communicating ideas and meaning through a mix of media information that may include text, audio, video, and still pictures. (Theng, 2005) 5: Broadly deined, multimedia is the blending of sound, music, images, and other media into a synchronized whole. Such a deinition is perhaps too wide, for it may be taken to include artistic works, audiovisual presentations, cinema, theater, analog television, and other such media forms. A more precise term is digital multimedia, meaning the computer-controlled integration of text, graphics, still and moving images, animation, sounds, and any other medium where every type of information can be represented, stored, transmitted, and processed digitally. See also Interactive Digital Multimedia. (M. Lang, 2005) 6: Combined use of several media, such as text, audio, and images. The Internet provides the ability to use one,
Multidatabase
1: A distributed database system that allows integrated access to heterogeneous, distributed, and pre-existing databases. (Unal et al., 2006) 2: Integrated database managed by a local database management system without distributed ACID properties. (Frank, 2005b)
Multidisciplinary Design
A collaborative approach to design that shares research and design activities among a range of disciplines. (Knight & Jefsioutine, 2006)
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some, or all of them to deliver content. (Daz-Andrade, 2005) 7: Communications media that combine multiple formats such as text, graphics, sound, and video (e.g., a video incorporating sound and subtitles or with text attached that is concurrently displayed). (Garrett, 2006b) 8: Data combining several different media, such as text, images, sound, and video. (Denoyer & Gallinari, 2005) 9: Integration of several media, such as text, audio, video, animation, and so forth. (Sharma & Mishra, 2005)
Multimedia Asset
One of the digitized text, audio, video, images, and other multimedia materials that can be stored and used. (Leath, 2005)
Multimedia Communication
A new, advanced way of communication that allows any of the traditional information forms (including their integration) to be employed in the communication process. (Hulicki, 2005)
search them by keywords can be regarded as a multimedia database. An electronic encyclopedia such as Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, which consists of tens of thousands of multimedia documents with text descriptions, photos, video clips, and animations, is another typical example of a multimedia database. (Li et al., 2005) 2: A highperformance database management system and a database with a large storage capacity that supports and manages, in addition to alphanumerical data types, multimedia objects regarding storage, querying, and searching. (Bretschneider & Kao, 2005) 3: A particular challenge for a multimedia database is the ability to deal with multimedia data types. Retrieval of structured data from databases is typically handled by a Database Management System (DBMS), while retrieval of unstructured data from databases requires techniques developed for Information Retrieval (IR). Yet the rigid resource requirement demands more advanced techniques in dealing with multimedia objects in a mobile computing environment. (Parker & Chen, 2005) 4: A repository of different data objects such as text, graphical images, video clips, and audio. (Hentea, 2005c) 5: Database storage and retrieval capabilities developed with respect to multimedia requirements for high-quality, rapid, queried usage by applications. (Vitolo et al., 2005) 6: Non-conventional databases that store various media such as images and audio and video streams. (Farag, 2005a)
Multimedia Document
1: A natural extension of a conventional textual document in the multimedia area. It is deined as a digital document composed of one or multiple media elements of different types (text, image, video, etc.) as a logically coherent unit. A multimedia document can be a single picture or a single MPEG video ile, but more often it is a complicated document, such as a Web page, consisting of both text and images. (Li et al., 2005) 2: Represents a document containing not only textual data, but also multimedia ones such as images, videos, songs, and so forth. (Chbeir & Yetongnon, 2005)
Multimedia Database
1: A database system dedicated to the storage, management, and access of one or more media types, such as text, image, video, sound, diagram, and so forth. For example, an image database such as Corel Image Gallery that stores a large number of pictures and allows users to browse them or
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Multimedia Engineering
The employment of a systematic, disciplined, quantiiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of multimedia applications. (Uden, 2005)
order as one singular message. MMS does not support attachments as e-mail does. (Roibs, 2006b) 2: Similar to text messaging (SMS), but allows the transmission of graphics, sound iles, video clips, and text. It is based on WAP and can be used to send e-mail. (Petrova, 2006) 3: A service giving the capability to a mobile-phone user to send a message containing any combination of images, video clips, text, and audio to another user. (Ververidis & Polyzos, 2006) 4: A cellular phone service allowing the transmission of multiple media in a single message. As such, it can be seen as an evolution of SMS, with MMS supporting the transmission of text, pictures, audio, and video. (Garrett, 2006b) 5: A form of mobile communication where each message can contain picture, audio, video, and text material with certain data size limitations. A multimedia message is typically sent from one camera phone to another. (Hkkil & Beekhuyzen, 2006)
Multimedia Internetworking
Refers to network infrastructures, protocols, models, applications, and techniques that are being currently deployed over the Internet to support multimedia applications such as videoconferencing, video on demand, shared workspaces, and so forth. (Fortino, 2005)
Multimedia Repository
Specialized database that makes different types of media, such as text, sound, video, computer graphics, and animation, available to users across an enterprise to promote reuse and reduce redundancy. (Ribire & Romn, 2006)
Multimedia Service
Refers to a type of service, which includes more than one type of information (text, audio, pictures, and video) transmitted through the same mechanism and allowing the user to interact or modify the information provided. (Pagani, 2005a)
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Multimedia Stream
Progressively transmitted/received data corresponding to a multimedia presentation, as opposed to a ile containing all the data. (Arya, 2005)
Multimodal Interaction
Uses more than one mode of interaction and often uses visual, auditory, and tactile perceptual channels of interaction. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006b)
Multimodal Interface
1: An interface that communicates with users through multiple modes. (Chan & Fang, 2005) 2: Human-computer interface able to exploit different user sensorial channels, to provide/gather information. For instance, the user can vocally ask for a service and then read the results on the display. (Costagliola et al., 2006)
Multimedia Synchronization
Multimedia systems usually integrate different types of data streams, including continuous media (e.g., audio and video) and discrete media (e.g., text and still images). The information (e.g., temporal, spatial, and content relations) for displaying these data streams is often interrelated. Thus multimedia systems must guarantee such relationships between streams against partial loss, or being nonfunctional when the streams are transmitted after capture and presented to end users. (Liu & Chen, 2005)
Multimedia System
1: Any computer-delivered electronic system that presents information through different media that may include text, sound, video computer graphics, and animation. (Alkhalifa, 2005a) 2: Text, graphics, sound, video, animations presented in an integrated way (electronically). (Sieber & Andrew, 2005)
Multimodality
Multiple types of media data, or multiple aspects of a data item. Its emphasis is on the existence of more than one type (aspects) of data. For example, a clip of digital broadcast news video has multiple modalities, including audio, video frames, closed-caption (text), and so forth. (Li et al., 2005)
Multimode
Service that can be accessed and used with different interfaces in a multi-platform system (e.g., a chat that is available across handhelds and PCs). (Roibs, 2006b)
Multimodal
The use of different modalities within a single user interface. (Lumsden, 2005)
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M ult iple Conc e pt -Leve l Assoc iat ion Rule M ult irat e Filt e r
Extends association rules from single level to multiple levels. Database contents are associated together to the concepts, creating different abstraction levels. (Yeo, 2005)
seven primary forms are: linguistic, musical, logicalmathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition), and interpersonal (e.g., social skills). (Burrage & Pelton, 2005)
Multiple Sourcing
Service recipients that have outsourced the responsibility to execute the services to more than one service provider. (Beulen, 2005)
Multiple Views
Visualization technique consisting of showing several aspects or views of a program, where any view typically shows few aspects and must be comprehensible by itself. Typical views are code vs. data, several levels of abstraction, logic vs. performance, history, and several simultaneous algorithms. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005)
Multiple-Access (MA)
Procedures regulating the simultaneous use of a common transmission medium by multiple users. (Markhasin et al., 2005)
Multiple Inheritance
The capability of a class of objects to inherit attributes and behavior from more than one superclass. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005)
Multiple-Resource Theory
A model of attention that assumes many specialized preprocessors (e.g., visual system, auditory system) that can function in parallel. (Owen, 2006b)
Multiple Intelligence
1: A theory developed by Howard Gardner stating that every individual has a different set of developed intelligences or languages that one speaks, cutting through cultural, educational, and ability differences. (Chambel & Guimares, 2005) 2: A theory that suggests there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. The
Multirate Filter
A digital ilter that changes the input data rate in one or more intermediate points in the ilter itself. (Mili, 2005)
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Multirate System
Discrete-time systems with unequal sampling rates at various parts of the system. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005b)
is the responsibility of the lessee, not the municipality. (Chochliouros et al., 2005a)
Multiview Learning
1: A family of semi-supervised or unsupervised learning algorithms that can be applied when instances are represented by two sets of features, provided that these sets are conditionally independent given the class, and that either set sufices to learn the target concept. By minimizing the disagreement between two independent classiiers, multiview algorithms minimize an upper bound on the error rate that can be determined without reference to labeled data. (Scheffer, 2005) 2: Explicitly exploiting several disjoint sets of features, each of which is suficient to learn the target concept. (Muslea, 2005)
Mutation
1: In biology, a permanent, heritable change to the genetic material of an organism. Mutation in genetic algorithms (GAs) involves string-based modiications to the elements of a candidate solution. These include bit-reversal in bitstring Gas, and shufle and swap operators in permutation GAs. (Hsu, 2005a) 2: In genetic algorithms, a change in form or qualities of chromosomes. (Guan, 2005e) 3: A cubegrade is a mutation if the target, and source cells have the same set of attributes but differ on the values. (Abdulghani, 2005b)
Municipal Consulting
The system (institution) and type of management consulting, the objects of which are the subjects of municipal scope of activity. A separate form of municipal consulting is giving consultations regarding issues of local and regional development. In the Ukraine, municipal consulting as a social institution is at the formation stage. (Molodtsov, 2005)
Mutation Transformation
A schema transformation that changes the nature (entity type, relationship type, attribute) of a schema construct. For instance, an entity type is transformed into a relationship type and conversely. (Hainaut, 2005)
Mutual Disambiguation
The phenomenon in which an input signal in one modality allows recovery from recognition error or ambiguity in a second signal in a different modality is called mutual disambiguation of input modes. (Bourguet, 2006)
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1: (MI = log2(f(a,b)/(f(a)2f(b)). (Ahmad & Al-Sayed, 2006) 2: Shows the amount of information that one random variable x contains about another y. In other words, it compares the probability of observing x and y together, with the probabilities of observing x and y independently. (Ito, 2005)
Mutual Innovation
The process of two organizations striving for product innovations from the end users of the product, created from their product knowledge derived from use and their own needs. This goes beyond just asking for future requirements, but constructing knowledge that comes from closely integrated innovation practices. (Paquette, 2006b)
Mutual Knowledge
The common ground or knowledge that a team possesses and knows that it possesses. (King, 2006a)
MVML: See Media Vocabulary Markup Language. MVNO: See Mobile Virtual Network Operator. Myers-Briggs Personality System
Identiies 16 personality types largely based on the psychology of C.G. Jung and involving four dimensions: introvert/extravert, intuitive/sensing, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving. (Kaluzniacky, 2006)
MySpace(.com)
Online social networking application. (Mew, 2006)
MySQL
Open source database that organizes information through tables, and enables interactions between the user and the Web through the creation of dynamic Web pages. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006a)
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N -Dim e nsiona l Cube N a rrat ive K now le dge Re pre se nt at i on La ngua ge (N K RL)
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N
N-Dimensional Cube
A group of k-dimensional (k<=n) cuboids arranged by the dimension of the data. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
Narrative Convention
One of the standard ways and techniques of telling stories expected by readers, viewers, and computer users. (Berg, 2005e)
N-Safe Design
Replication method where all n copies are consistent and up-to-date. (Frank, 2005a)
Naive Bayes
An extremely simple classiication algorithm based on the use of the posterior probability as the deining criterion to choose among a set of hypotheses (classes). The Naive Bayes classiier simpliies calculations by assuming conditional independence among the dataset attributes, given the class. (Laura, 2005)
Named Entity
Lexical phrase that falls into one of the three semantic categories: TIMEX, NUMEX, and ENAMEX. TIMEX includes temporal expressions, for example, March 1st, noon EST. NUMEX consists of numeric expressions, for example, 7.5%. ENAMEX includes: proper names, for example, Peter the Great; locations, for example, St. Petersburg; and organizations, for example, Russian Orthodox Church. (Kulyukin & Nicholson, 2005)
Narrative Engineering
The deliberate use of stories and storytelling to bring about some organizational outcome. (Connell, 2006)
Narrative Inquiry
An approach to documenting a research participants story about an area of interest. (Hunter, 2006a)
Namespace
A simple mechanism for creating globally unique names in domain-speciic vocabularies. It is used to distinguish identical names in different markup languages, allowing domain-speciic names to be mixed together without ambiguity. Each namespace is identiied by a URI reference and easily can be used in XML documents. (Pereira & Freire, 2005)
Narrative
A social exchange, within an organizational context, in which events, either actual or imagined, unfold over time. (Connell, 2006)
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called templates, represent general classes of events like move a physical object, be present in a place, produce a service, send/receive a message, and so forth. (Zarri, 2005a)
teaching, and together, the coalition represents over three million individuals. The U.S. Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation recognize NCATE as a professional accrediting body for teacher preparation. (Rhoten, 2006b)
Narrative Reasoning
Speciic, context-dependent reasoning that is open to subjective interpretation, and potentially leads to multiple conclusions. (Artz, 2005a)
Narrowband
A transmission path that is capable of 64 kbps transmission and voice-grade service. (Kelic, 2005)
Narrowcasting
Sending data to a speciic list of recipients as opposed to, for example, network TV, which uses a broadcast model in which the signals are transmitted everywhere and anyone with an antenna can receive them. Most Web sites use a broadcast model since anyone with Internet access can view the sites. However, sites that require login before viewing content are based more on the narrowcast model. (Papagiannidis et al., 2005)
NASSCOM
National Association of Software and Service Companies. (Raisinghani & Rahman, 2005)
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Navigation
1: Means of accessing data in a hypermedia environment, by moving from node to node along the links. (Lemahieu, 2005) 2: Movement from WAP page to WAP page (suring). (Quah & Seet, 2006) 3: The aggregate of motion and wayinding. (Sadeghian et al., 2006) 4: The process by which a user explores all the levels of interactivity, moving forward, backward, and through the content and interface screens. (Liu & Tucker, 2005)
Natural Frequency
Eigenvalues of the mass and stiffness matrix system of the structure. (Kanapady & Lazarevic, 2005)
Navigation Event
An event, such as pen stroke, tele-pointer, document scrolling, annotation, highlights, and the like, invoked by the teacher during the recording stage will be captured as guided media, and thus can be presented dynamically to the end users. (Liu & Chen, 2005)
Navigational Pattern
A collection of page views or Web resources that are frequently accessed together by users during one or more sessions (usually in a particular order). (Mobasher, 2005c)
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Near-Far Effect
The situation where the received power difference between two CDMA users is so great that discrimination of the lowpower user is impossible even with low cross-correlation between the codes. (Iossiides et al., 2005)
Near-Line Storage
Siloed tape storage where siloed cartridges of tape are archived, accessed, and managed robotically. (Yao et al., 2005)
Needs
1: Essential or required elements which students require to meet an educational objective. (Hawkins & Baker, 2005) 2: Gaps in results, not gaps in means and resources. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005) 3: The requirements consumers have to survive and thrive. (Waterson, 2006)
Nearest-Neighbor Algorithm
1: A recommendation algorithm that calculates the distance between users based on the degree of correlations between scores in the users preference histories. Predictions of how much a user will like an item are computed by taking the weighted average of the opinions of a set of nearest neighbors for that item. (Schafer, 2005) 2: An algorithm that determines and ranks the distance between a target object and any other available object. (Chen & McLeod, 2006)
Needs Assessment
1: Identifying gaps in results (best at all three levels of results) and placing the needs in priority order on the basis of meeting the needs as compared to the costs of ignoring them. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005) 2: Problem identiication process that looks at the difference between what is and what should be for a particular situation. It is an analysis that studies the needs of a speciic group, such as employees or learners, and presents the results detailing those needs, for example, training needs and resources needs. Needs assessment also identiies the actions required to fulill these needs, for the purpose of program development and implementation. (Kinuthia, 2005)
Nearest-Neighbor Method
Simple approach to the classiication problem. It inds the nearest neighbors of the query in the training set and then predicts the class label of the query as the most frequent one occurring in the neighbors. (Domeniconi & Gunopulos, 2005)
Needs Identiication
The process of determining which topics an organization must monitor in order to attain or maintain a competitive advantage. (Parker & Nitse, 2006)
Nearest-Neighbor Query
A similarity query that retrieves the closest elements to some query object. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
Necessary Test
Veriies that an update operation leads a consistent database state to an inconsistent database state. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Negation
Logical negation speciies that an atom is deinitely false; default negation permits the conclusion, based on some default rule, that an atom is false. (Grant & Minker, 2006)
Need Context
The conceptual part of a consumer context composed of stimuli that can inluence the consumers needs. A subset of need context that can be utilized by need contextaware applications is emergency context, from which the applications can infer the physiological and safety needs of consumers, and provide services accordingly. (Sun & Poole, 2005)
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of database items. (Daly & Taniar, 2005a) 2: Rules of a kind AB, where A and B are frequent negative itemsets. (Daly & Taniar, 2005b)
Negotiation Strategy
Speciication of the sequence of actions the agent intends to make during the negotiation. (Polgar, 2005a)
Negative Attitude
A perception about IT that results in behavior that displays discomfort around IT, hesitation to invest in IT, and the implementation of IT out of necessity. (Winston & Dologite, 2005)
Negative Border
The collection of all sequences that are not frequent but both of whose generating sub-sequences are frequent. (Masseglia et al., 2005)
Neoliberalism
The promotion of free enterprise in competitive global markets, including the free movement of goods and services with little burden from taxes and tariffs. Government plays a regulatory role, rather than a role of service provider. Small government and low tax environments are seen as attractive to global capital investment. (Cameron, 2005)
Negative Itemset
An itemset that contains both items and their negations. (Daly & Taniar, 2005a)
Negligence
A tort theory that applies to conduct that falls below the standard established by law for the protection of others against unreasonable risk of harm. An action for negligence must establish that: one party (the irst party) owed a duty of care to a second party; the irst partys lack of care (negligence) breached that duty of care; and the irst partys breach of the duty of care proximately caused the damages suffered by the second party. (Sprague, 2005)
Nering
Changes to game mechanics that are perceived as detrimental from the players perspective. For example, changes to a spell or weapon effect so that it is effective at causing damage to an opponent. (Grifiths et al., 2006)
Net Beneit
Negotiation
An interactive process among a number of agents that results in varying degrees of cooperation, competition. and ultimately to commitment that leads to a total agreement, consensus governed by a voting policy, or a disagreement. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005a)
Net Community
A virtual meeting place accessible through the Internet. To get a picture of what a Net community is, one can imagine a mixture of the school yearbook, a showroom, a trendy caf, a telephone, mail, and walking down High Street on a Saturday afternoon. It is a virtual place for communication, providing tools for presenting yourself and observing others. Most Net communities are Web based, that is, you can access them via a Web site. As a member you login and get admittance to your personal space, where you can publish information about yourself, true or untrue, as much as you choose. All members can view each others information and communicate. (Dunkels, 2005)
Negotiation Mechanism
1: The actual implementation of negotiation strategy and negotiation protocol. (Polgar, 2005a) 2: The means of a WCDSS to enable e-shoppers to interact directly and interactively with representatives or other parties and adjust their shopping actions before they have committed to an erroneous result. (F. Wang, 2006)
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Netiquette
1: Informal policies for behavior in a virtual community, analogous to etiquette. (Rowe, 2006a) 2: Standard rules of courtesy and correct behavior on the Internet. (Link & Wagner, 2006) 3: The etiquette, or social rules, associated with communicating online. Netiquette may vary across virtual environments. (Roberts et al., 2005) 4: A combination of the words etiquette and Internet (Net, for short). Netiquette is rules of courtesy expected in virtual communications to support constructive interpersonal relationships in a virtual environment. (Wong-MingJi, 2005) 5: Method of online research developed by Robert Kozinets (Kellogg Graduate School of Business, Northwestern University, Evanston). It consists in ethnography adapted to the study of online communities. The researcher assumes the role of a regular member of the community (but, for ethical reasons, she/he should disclose her/his role). (Pace, 2005)
share ideas and pass on information to other members. (Pease & Rowe, 2005) 6: A telecommunication system that permits the sharing of resources such as computing power, software, input/output devices, and data. (Singh, 2005) 7: An independently formed entity that has a deined set of shared values, roles, responsibilities, and governance, and is characterized by lateral connections, mutuality, and reciprocity between the network members. (Vrazalic et al., 2005) 8: An interconnection of three or more communicating entities. (Melkonyan, 2005) 9: Hardware and software data-communication systems that permit communication among computers and the sharing of peripheral devices (e.g., printers). (Vician & Buche, 2005)
Network Architecture
Deines the structure and the behavior of the real subsystem that is visible for other interconnected systems, while they are involved in the processing and transfer of information sets. (Rodrigues et al., 2005)
Netnography
Using ethnographic techniques to study virtual communities. (A. Roy, 2005)
Network Bandwidth
The data capacity through a network. (K.J. MacGregor, 2005)
Network
1: A community of practice of N organizations, where N is more than 2. Network types may be deined through three primary characteristicsthe degree of centralization of authority, competition, and commonality of operations. An inter-organizational network is considered to be analogous to an inter-organizational community of practice. (Priestley, 2006) 2: Two or more devices with processors functioning in such a way that the devices can communicate and share resources. (Maris, 2005) 3: A new form of organization. Networks are loose sets of actors who work together in order to promote their interests within a common operational framework that is held together by some shared interests, reciprocity, and trust. In their most characteristic form, networks are lexible ways of organizing activities that require the competences of several independent actors. (Anttiroiko, 2005a) 4: A system of lines or channels that cross or interconnect; an extended group of people with similar interests or concerns who interact and remain in informal contact for mutual assistance or support. Networks provide methods and mechanisms enabling communication between sender and receiver. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006) 5: A system which links together equipment, organizations, or people. In the context of small and medium enterprises (SMEs): a coming together of irms, either formally or informally, to
Network Community
A community of praxis that is digitally connected through a computer network. (Matta, 2005)
Network Delay
Time needed for the transmission of a data packet from the source to the destination over the underlying transport network. (Roccetti & Ferretti, 2005)
Network Effect
1: Consumption effect in which the utility of a communication product increases with the number of other users of the same or a compatible product. (Voeth & Liehr, 2005) 2: Products or services whose value to an individual buyer increases when many other people also consume the same products or services. (Lee et al., 2006) 3: One of the additional beneits generated when networks of any kind start to achieve positive feedback. The value of the network grows exponentially with the number of members. (Geiselhart & Jamieson, 2005)
Network Infrastructure
This comprises the Internet as well as all forms of telecommunications and broadcasting infrastructure
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including television, cable TV, wireless, and satellite networks. (Sharma, 2006a)
but who do not necessarily know one another. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006) 2: People who are not directly connected to each other but still engage in similar kinds of activities are said to belong to a network of practice. NoPs link local communities whose members have similar interests and give a minimal coherence to the network. (Kimble & Hildreth, 2005)
Network Latency
The time for a message to travel over the network from the sender to the receiver. In cellular networks, this includes the time from the device over the network to the base station, over a landline to the service provider, and out to the application. It could possibly include satellite transmission time from the earth station to the satellite and down to another earth station. (K.J. MacGregor, 2005)
Network Sniffer
A hardware or software mechanism that monitors, and possibly records, data trafic on a network. (Westin, 2005)
Network Layer
Layer 3 of the OSI model. Responsible for routing data through a communication network. (Ngoh & Shankar, 2005)
Network Society
A society in which the members are connected by a computer network. (Matta, 2005)
Network Marketing
The marketing of goods and services by marketers/ distributors selling to people within their own circle of acquaintances, and then recruiting new marketers, whom they manage. Also known as referral marketing, direct marketing, conversational marketing, or multi-level marketing. (D. Wright, 2005)
Network Structure
The overall coniguration of the network, as relected in the patterns of ties among nodes. (Dekker, & Hendriks, 2006)
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Monitoring a variety of continuous network data streams at real-time, such as packet traces, packet lows, and performance measurements in order to compute statistics, detect anomalies, and adjust routing. (Chatziantoniou & Doukidis, 2005)
Network-Centric Operation
Military focus on system integration and interoperability to provide a common infrastructure for data, information, and knowledge applications, including the realization of those applications in operational settings. (Maule, 2006)
Networking
1: A business practice that allows owner-managers to join associations and groups composed of at least three irms that pool their strengths to realize projects at the regional, national, or global level that could not be achieved by a irm working alone. For example, irms that work together are able to take advantage of group access to resources, skills, and competencies. (Moreau et al., 2005) 2: Activities that enable individuals, groups, or organizations to interact with each other in social formations which enhance communication and create new opportunities. (Walker, 2006)
Network-Centric Warfare
Combat based on network-centric operations and GIGtype infrastructures to provide just-in-time information, knowledge, situational assessment, and understanding. (Maule, 2006)
Networks of Practice
Members of a community who are likely to be relatively unknown to one another. Links between the members of such networks are usually more indirect than direct, and include online newsletters, bulletin boards, and list servers. (Waterson, 2006)
Neural Model
Specifying a neural network model involves declaring the architecture and activation function types. (Smith, 2005)
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Neural Network
1: A complex, nonlinear modeling technique based on a model of the human neuron. (Kumar, 2005) 2: A connectionist model that can be trained in supervised or unsupervised mode for learning patterns in data. (Bala et al., 2005) 3: A member of a class of software that is trained by presenting it with examples of input and the corresponding desired output. Training might be conducted using synthetic data, iterating on the examples until satisfactory depth estimates are obtained. Neural networks are general-purpose programs, which have applications outside potential ields, including almost any problem that can be regarded as pattern recognition in some form. (R., 2005) 4: A method that applies learning and re-learning through a series of trials and errors to get the best performance. (Chen, Chen, Ma, et al., 2005) 5: A nonlinear model derived through analogy with the human brain. It consists of a collection of elements that linearly combine their inputs and pass the result through a nonlinear transfer function. (Oza, 2005) 6: A set of computer hardware and/or software that attempt to emulate the information processing patterns of the biological brain. A neural network consists of four main components: (1) processing units (or neurons), and each of them has a certain output level at any point in time; (2) weighted interconnections between the various processing units which determine how the output of one unit leads to input for another unit; (3) an activation rule which acts on the set of input at a processing unit to produce a new output; and (4) A learning rule that speciies how to adjust the weights for a given input/output pair. (H. Wang & Wang, 2005) 7: A system of processing elements, called neurons, connected together to form a network. The fundamental and essential characteristic of an artiicial neural network is the ability to learn; they are not programmed, but learn from examples through repeated adjustments of their weights. (Wilson et al., 2006a)
Neuron
1: The basic processing element of a neural network. (Yeo, 2005) 2: The smallest processing unit in a neural network. (Fischer, 2005)
Neuronal Network
Computing device designed in such a way that it simulates nervous systems, with a great number of calculation elements that carry out no linear analogous functions. In computing, can be used for forecasts, classiication, detection of connections, or groupings. (Xodo & Nigro, 2005)
New Economy
1: Encompasses the many changes that are reshaping the economy in which the irm/business operates. These include factors such as globalization, technological advances, structural change, and entrepreneurship. (Pease & Rowe, 2005) 2: Refers to inancial and economic infrastructure characterized by reliance on information technologies. (Hwang & Stewart, 2006) 3: Describes aspects or sectors of an economy that are producing, or using, innovative or new technologies. It therefore also captures the impact of these changes. The Internet and associated technologies typiies the essence of the new economy. (Pease et al., 2005)
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N e w sgroup N ode
the eficiency and effectiveness of public organizations, customer focus in provision of public services, and marketbased conditioning frameworks, such as privatization, competition, and contracting out. (Anttiroiko, 2005a) 2: Includes initiatives which relate to management of the public administration, like management by objectives, clear standards, and evaluation of the quality of service. It also includes initiatives that deal with the introduction of economic incentive structures, like outsourcing of public tasks and establishing quasi-markets for public services. (Jaeger, 2005) 3: A stream of thoughts aiming at applying a business management concept to public administrations. (Becker et al., 2006)
Nick
The nickname an individual chooses to be known by on Internet relay chat. The command /NICK is used to set a nickname and can be used to change the nickname at any time. (Roberts et al., 2006a)
NII: See National Information Infrastructure. NIMSAD: See Normative Information Model-based Systems Analysis and Design. NIQ
National informatization quotient. (Tarnanas & Kikis, 2005)
Newsgroup
1: An online forum that allows the public to post and read messages on a particular topic. Similar to bulletin board systems, the difference is that newsgroups are maintained by Usenet and use specialized newsreader software. (Paoletti, 2005) 2: Bulletin-board-like location on the Internet where users post and reply to messages. (Ridings, 2006a) 3: Electronic bulletin boards where individuals can post messages, and read and reply to the messages of others. Responses to an original message appear together as threads. Newsgroups may be publicly accessible or have membership requirements, and may be moderated or unmoderated. (Roberts et al., 2006c)
N L ET S : S e e N a t i o n a l L a w E n f o r c e m e n t Telecommunications System. NLP: See Natural Language Processing. NMD: See Networked Mobile Digital Device. Nodal Connection
One of the connections between nodes in an artiicial neural network. They are communication channels that carry numeric data. They simulate the axons and dendrites used to carry electrical impulses between neurons in a biological neural network. (Kitchens, 2005)
Nexus
The general concept of some connection or link to the taxing jurisdiction. In the United States, jurisdiction for levying taxes has a Constitutional basis. (Raisinghani & Petty, 2005)
Node
1: A junction point in a decision tree which describes a condition in an if-then rule. (Beynon, 2005b) 2: A mathematical representation of a biological neuron. Multiple layers of nodes are used in artiicial neural networks to form models of biological neural networks. (Kitchens, 2005) 3: Mobile terminal. (Erbas, 2005) 4: One of the points where devices (computers, servers, or other digital devices) are connected to the Internet; more
NFC: See Need for Cognition. NGI: See Next-Generation Internet. NGO: See Non-Governmental Organization. NGfL: See National Grid for Learning.
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often called a host. (Clayton, 2006a) 5: Unit of data (and navigation) in a hypermedia environment. (Lemahieu, 2005)
Nomadic Computing
The use of computers while on the move. (Krogstie, 2005b)
Node Type
Type-level deinition of properties (layout template, link types, aspect descriptors) for a group of similar nodes. (Lemahieu, 2005)
Nomadic Lifestyle
A mobile lifestyle where a person has adopted a high degree of mobility in his or her life. The person moves a lot and frequently between various places of housing, work, errands, hobbies, recreation, and socializing. (Heinonen, 2005)
Nominal Data
Data classiied into mutually exclusive (non-overlapping), exhaustive categories in which no meaningful order or ranking can be imposed on the data. An example is the blood type of a person: A, B, AB, O. (Yang & Webb, 2005)
Nominalism
An ontological position that things are what they are because we have named them that way, and classes are formed of objects with similar names. (Artz, 2005c)
Nominalization
The rendering in discourse of a goings-on, happening, or process as a noun. (Zappavigna, 2006)
Noise Clustering
An additional noise cluster is induced in objective functionbased clustering to collect the noise data or outliers. All data objects are assumed to have a ixed (large) distance to the noise cluster, so that only data far away from all other clusters will be assigned to the cluster. (Klawonn & Georgevia, 2005)
Nomothetic
The nomothetic approach permits the comparison of RepGrids of individuals or groups of individuals. It necessitates the use of a common set of elements and/or constructs to permit comparisons to be made between RepGrids. (Tan & Hunter, 2005)
Noisy Data
1: Errors in the data due to the nature of data collection, measurement, or sensing procedures. (Chen & Liu, 2005) 2: Real-world data often contain errors due to the nature of data collection, measurement, or sensing procedures. They can be incomplete, inaccurate, out of date, or inconsistent. (Liu, 2005) 3: Term generally used to describe data and data sets in which there is a low signal-to-noise ratio. Any algorithm attempting to ilter out the signal has to be capable of identifying and dealing appropriately with noise. In this sense, noise is that element of the data that obscures the true signal. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Non-Compliance
In a peer-to-peer network, non-compliance is the inability for two or more peers, with the same protocol or different protocols, to effectively communicate without any problem. (Kwok et al., 2006)
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Non-Excludability
Non-Monotonic
A type of system where the addition of new information may change old information. (Grant & Minker, 2006)
One characteristic of a public good: the inability to exclude non-contributors from the consumption of the public good. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006)
Non-Precise Data
Data which are not precise numbers or not precise vectors. (Viertl, 2005)
Non-Repudiation
1: Guarantees that participants in a transaction cannot deny that they participated in the transaction. (Lowry, Stephens, et al., 2005) 2: Makes sure that the business transactions the parties engaged in are legally binding. (Pierre, 2006b) 3: Service that provides proof of the integrity, origin of data, and the identity of a person, all in an unforgeable relationship, which can be veriied by any third party at any time. Hence, it determines whether or not a particular event occurred or a particular action happened. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 4: The inability of an individual to disavow some action or his or her presence at a particular location at some speciic time. Biometric security systems have the potential to offer a high degree of non-repudiation due to the intimately personal nature of biometric data. (Fleming, 2005a)
Non-Reputability
A signature may indicate that the signer has agreed to be bound by the terms set out in the document or that he has approved the transaction that it relects. (Escalante, 2005)
Non-Instrumental Need
Goes beyond the mere achievement of behavioral goals, such as self-expression or personal growth. Product attributes related to the fulillment of non-instrumental needs are often referred to as hedonic. A more speciic use of the term hedonic stresses the products affective quality, for example, its ability to evoke positive affective reactions (mood, emotions; see Affect). (Hassenzahl, 2006)
Non-Rival
One characteristic of a public good: non-rival goods are those that are not used up or depleted in their consumption. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006)
Non-Spatial Accessibility
Non-geographic barriers or facilitators such as social class, income, ethnicity, age, sex, and so forth, that affect ones accessibility to a service. (Wang & Lou, 2005)
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Nonproit Organization
An organization, group, or association that exists to meet a social, spiritual, political, or educational need in society. The organization conducts its business so as to manage its income and expenses directly in support of its mission without returning a proit to an ownership or investment group. (Baim, 2006a)
Non-Starter
1: A student who registers for a course, but never completes a lesson or attends a class. Such students make the calculation of completion rates dificult. (Lindsay, Howell, et al., 2005) 2: A student who was admitted to a degree program, but has not enrolled in any courses yet. (Chyung, 2005)
Non-Syncategorematic Term
These linguistic terms (also known as categorematic terms) are capable of being employed by themselves as terms as opposed to syncategorematic terms. (Andrade, Ares, Garca, Rodrguez, &Silva, 2006)
Non-Traditional Course
A course that typically operates differently than on-campus courses. For example, non-traditional courses may have students meet electronically rather than face to face. They may also meet on weekends instead of weekdays. Non-traditional courses can also be non-credit courses or certiicate courses offered by a college or university that are aimed at students who are not seeking a bachelors, masters, or doctoral degree. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005)
Normality
A statistical assumption for linear regression models. It requires that the errors around the regression line be normally distributed for each value of input variable. (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005)
Normalization
1: A technique for producing a set of relations with desirable properties, given the data requirements of an enterprise. (Kontio, 2005) 2: A process to remove systematic variation in microarray experiment. Examples of such systematic variation include between array variation, dye bias, and so forth. (Ge & Liu, 2005) 3: In terms of gene expression data, it is a pre-processing to minimize systematic bias and remove the impact of non-biological inluences before data analysis is performed. (Fung & Ng, 2005) 4: The process developed by E.C. Codd whereby each attribute in each table of a relational database depends entirely on the key(s) of that table. As a result, relational databases comprise many tables, each containing data relating to one entity. (Delve, 2005)
Non-Traditional Student
A student who is mature, probably works, and has signiicant post-secondary experience. (Taylor et al., 2005)
Nonlinear Learning
A system in which learners are provided with a variety of options, they choose their own path, different learners can follow different paths, and the outcomes are emergent and cannot be foretold. (Burrage & Pelton, 2005)
Nonlinearity
Exists between a cause (decision) and effect (consequence), if the effect is not proportional to cause. (Qudrat-Ullah, 2006)
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NPM: See New Public Management. NPR: See National Performance Review. NPV: See Net Present Value.
A set of extended items whose contextual positions have been positioned with respect to the smallest reference position of the set. (Feng & Dillon, 2005)
NRF: See National Research Foundation. NRI: See Networked Readiness Index. NSP: See Network Service Provider. NTP: See Network Time Protocol. Nugget Discovery
The search for strong partial classiication rules that are simple, understandable, novel, and ultimately useful. (Richards & de la Iglesia, 2005)
Normative Trust
Refers to common values that give a frame of reference to social norms creating predictability and trustworthiness. (Huotari & Iivonen, 2005)
Null Hypothesis
The hypothesis that an object is irrelevant. In general terms, it is the hypothesis we wish to falsify on the basis of data. (Mukherjee, 2005)
Norm
1: A norm represents acceptable attitudes and behaviors by consensus among members of a community. (Kankanhalli et al., 2006) 2: Shared expectations that constrain and drive the action of group members. (Graham & Misanchuk, 2005)
Null Value
The representation of null values emerges as a strategy for the enumeration of cases, for which one intends to distinguish between real facts of life and doubts or uncertainties. (Analide et al., 2006)
Number of Intervals
Corresponds to the different values of a discrete attribute resulting from the discretization process. The number of intervals is equal to the number of cut-points plus 1. The minimum number of intervals of an attribute is equal to 1, and the maximum number of intervals is equal to the number of instances. (Muhlenbach & Rakotomalala, 2005)
Notiication Mechanism
The means of a WCDSS to provide e-shoppers immediate and continuous alerts to tailored merchandising information, sales promotions and advertising, and other purchase-related information. (Wang, 2006)
NP-Hard Problem
Optimization problem for which a solution can be veriied in polynomial time, but no polynomial solution algorithm is known, even though no one so far has been able to demonstrate that none exists. (Calvo et al., 2005)
Numerical Attribute
Attribute that takes values from a continuous domain. (Gehrke, 2005)
Nyquist Theorem
An equation to determine appropriate resolution when scanning an image digitally for graphic reproduction. The equation multiplies the desired printed halftone dot lines per inch (LPI) by 1.5 to 2 times, and then multiplies that value by the percentage of magniication of the reproduction from the original size of the artwork. (Snyder, 2005)
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O
OAI-PMH: See Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting. OAN: See Optical-Access Network. ObCS: See Object Control Structure. Object
1: A data structure that encapsulates behavior (operations) and data (state). (Alhajj & Polat, 2005) 2: An abstraction of a set of real-world things that has state, behavior, and identity. An instance of its class where the values of the attributes determine the state, and the operations the behavior. (Rittgen, 2005) 3: An entity (e.g., person) or a value (e.g., phone number). In object-oriented models, it is the instance of a class. (Galatescu, 2005) 4: A software bundle of related variables and methods. Generally, something is an object if it has a name, properties associated with it, and messages that it can understand. Object-oriented programming involves modeling the software system as a set of interacting (conceptual) objects in objectoriented design, then implementing (coding) the design using an object-oriented programming language with (programming-language) objects. (Wong & Chan, 2006) 5: Something conceivable or perceivable. This subsumes the object-oriented notion of object. (Gillman, 2006)
Object Orientation
A view of the world based on the notion that it is made up of objects classiied by a hierarchical superclass-subclass structure under the most generic superclass (or root) known as an object. For example, a car is a (subclass of) vehicle, a vehicle is a moving object, and a moving object is an object. Hence, a car is an object as the relationship is transitive and, accordingly, a subclass must at least have the attributes and functionality of its superclass(es). Thus, if we provide a generic user-presentation object with a standard interface, then any of its subclasses will conform to that standard interface. This enables the plug and play of any desired subclass according to the users encoding and decoding needs. (Polovina & Pearson, 2006)
Object Partitioning
The method to divide an object into smaller segments. (Tse, 2006)
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Object Recognition
Object-Oriented DFD
A variant of Data Flow Diagram (DFD) introduced in FOOM methodology which includes object (data) classes rather than data stores. (Shoval & Kabeli, 2005)
Object Resolution
The amount of detail of a digital image or object. This is usually speciied as the number of pixels and number of frames per second. (Tse, 2006)
Object Type
1: A speciication of a type of entity; both structure (attributes) and operations (functions) are speciied for object types. The notion of object type is a design notion being implemented as a class. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 2: In ORM, an object is either an entity (non-lexical thing) or a value (lexical constant, such as a character string), and an object type is a kind of object (e.g., Person, CountryCode). In UML, the term object is restricted to entities (instances of classes), while the term data value is used for instances of data types. (Halpin, 2005)
Object Wrapping
Adding code to convert an existing set of software procedures into an object class. The procedures can then be used as methods in an object-oriented software environment. (Westin, 2005)
Object-Relational Database
1: A database system where the relational model is extended with object-oriented concepts. Data are still stored in relational structures. (Darmont, 2005) 2: Database that is developed using the object-oriented concept and is implemented in a relational environment. This database was introduced in the 1990s and since then has been widely used for database applications. (Taniar et al., 2005)
Objective Function
A positive function of the difference between predictions and data estimates that are chosen so as to optimize the function or criterion. (Beynon, 2005a)
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Obje c t ive Func t ion-Ba se d Clust e ring Off-Ca le nda r Pr ogra m m ing
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that it may depend upon many things, like the observer education or his state of mind, for example. (Analide et al., 2006)
OCL: See Object Constraint Language. OCR: See Optical Character Recognition. OCTAVE: See Operationally Critical Threat Asset and
Vulnerability Evaluation.
ODL: See Open and Distance Learning. ODM: See Organizational Data Mining. ODMRP: See On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol
ODS: See Operational Data Store. OECD: See Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development.
Objectivism
A set of theories that views true knowledge about external realities, and the process of its creation, as neutral and independent of the knowledge creator. (Ramos & Carvalho, 2005)
OELE: See Open-Ended Learning Environment. OEM: See Organizational Elements Model; Original
Equipment Manufacturer.
Observed Knowledge
The knowledge that is acquired by the experience and/or by the interaction with the system. It must be noticed
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Off-Campus Course
A course offered at a business location, satellite center, or other site other than the main campus of an educational institution. (Simon et al., 2005)
organization speciic. An example philosophy is to consider the OMIS as a meaning attribution system in which people select certain resource items out of the mass potentially available and get them processed to make them meaningful in a particular context in order to support their purposeful actions. (Vat, 2005b)
OMR: See Optical Music Recognition. OMS: See Organizational Memory System.
Offshore Outsourcing
Service providers execute the IT services out of a low-cost country to their customer, the service recipient, which is located in a high-cost country. (Beulen, 2005) OID: See Object Identiier. OKBC: See Open Knowledge Base Connectivity Protocol. OKI: See Open Knowledge Initiative. OL: See Open Learning. OLAP: See Online Analytical Processing.
On-Campus Course
A course offered wholly or in part on the main campus of an educational institution. An on-campus course is typically offered in a traditional lecture/discussion environment, but may include procedures and methodology associated with a hybrid online course. (Simon et al., 2005)
Old Economy
1: Based on the production of physical goods and unrelated to telecommunications or the Internet, old economy companies have little investment or involvement in the technology industry. (Hwang & Stewart, 2006) 2: The economy from before, or not using the Internet and related technologies to exchange information or value. (Foley & Samson, 2006)
On-Demand Help
An expanded support system that enables students to receive assistance from a variety of support staff, such as graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) and/or peer tutors, often within a 24/7 structure. The structure often includes capabilities for students to help each other. (Twigg, 2005)
OLE: See Online Learning Environment. OLT: See Optical Line Terminal. OLTP: See Online Transaction Processing. OM: See Organizational Memory. OM A R: See Object Modeling of Relational
Application.
OMIS
An information system supporting the development of organizational memory, whose design philosophy is often
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Ongoing Trust
Trust after the trusting party knows the trusted party. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006)
1-Safe Design
Replication method where one primary copy is consistent and up to date. (Frank, 2005a)
Online
1: Accessible via computer. (Rada, 2005) 2: Related to or involving the use of the Internet or the World Wide Web. (St.Amant, 2005e)
One-Stop
A model allowing students the convenience of talking with one person at one location to ind all the services and answers needed. Staff who work at one-stop call, e-mail, or chat centers have a very broad knowledge of the services and are able to address a high percentage of student questions and service requests. (Howell & Wilcken, 2005)
One-to-One-Marketing
The direct dialogue between a producer and an individual consumer or a group of consumers with similar needs. (Seitz, 2005)
One-to-One Tutoring
Unlike a classroom setting with one instructor and many students, this is tuition (teaching-learning interaction) between one tutor and one student. (Chan, Tan, et al., 2005)
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of data, usually by means of multi-dimensional views of data. (Barca et al., 2005) 5: A data-mining technology that uses software tools to interactively and simultaneously analyze different dimensions of multi-dimensional data. (Nemati & Barko, 2005) 6: Front-end tool that allows the analysis of multi-dimensional data. It is commonly used in business intelligence systems. (de Carvalho, & Ferreira, 2006) 7: The process of analyzing a database or data warehouse, which consists of heavy queries for constructing reports or showing the information in a highly aggregated or complex way. This kind of processing supports information retrieval and data analysis in the form of complex queries and reports. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005a) 8: A particular form of information system speciically designed for processing, managing, and reporting multidimensional data. (Tininini, 2005b) 9: OLAP tools allow users to analyze different dimensions of multi-dimensional data. (Athappilly & Rea, 2005) 10: Describes a technology that uses a multi-dimensional view of aggregate data to provide quick access to strategic information for the purposes of advanced analysis. (Tan, 2005a) 11: Usually distinguished from Online Transaction Processing (OTP), which is the model associated with transactionoriented databases. (Artz, 2005d) 12: An analysis of data characterized by complex queries that aim at uncovering important patterns and trends in the data in order to answer business questions. (Badia, 2005c)
intellectual project. (Lam et al., 2006) 2: Through the use of online learning tools, participants interact and work together to solve a problem or create a product. Facilitating successful online collaborative activities is very important for establishing a strong sense of community. (S.-K. Wang, 2005)
Online Architecture
An organizations online architecture demonstrates the range of functions they perform, or intend to perform, using online or other information technologies. Functions may pertain to communication, research, promotion, product distribution, or enterprise management. (Carson, 2005)
Online Community
1: Community comprising four important elements: the people who interact socially as they strive to satisfy their own needs or perform special roles, such as leading or moderating; a shared purpose such as an interest, need, information exchange, or service that provides a reason for the community; policies in the form of tacit assumptions, rituals, protocols, rules, and laws that guide peoples interactions; and computer systems to support and mediate social interaction and facilitate a sense of togetherness. (Vat, 2006b) 2: Consists of members connected by means of ICT, typically the Internet. (Leath, 2005) 3: A collective group of entities (individual or organizations) who come together through an electronic medium for a common purpose and who are governed by norms and policies. (Bolisani et al., 2006) 4: A meeting place on the Internet for people who share common interests and
Online Class
A class offered to students using mostly computing and Internet-based resources, where a large amount of the interaction with the professor and other students takes place via computer and telecommunication technologies. (Dick, 2005)
Online Collaboration
1: The use of Internet-based communication tools to cooperate or work with someone else, especially on an
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needs. Online communities can be open to all or be by membership only, and may or may not be moderated. (Petska & Berge, 2005) 5: A system of Internet users sharing interests and interacting frequently in the same areas, such as forums and chat Web sites. (Magnani et al., 2006) 6: A voluntary group of active users that partake actively in a certain computer-mediated service. (Kindmller et al., 2005) 7: People who interact through an ICT-based communication environment, recognize a minimum common goal that holds them together, share one or more domains of knowledge and shared practices, and deine implicit or explicit policies for regulating their interactions. (Ripamonti, 2005)
course does not require any face-to-face meetings in a physical location. Web-centric courses (also called hybrid or blended courses) are similar to online courses, but require regular-scheduled face-to-face classes or meetings. (Boettcher, 2005a) 2: A Web-based instructional program that organizes the learning of a student in a particular subject. Not all learning materials need be online, and much of an online course involves dynamic interactions with other participants. (Duchastel, 2005) 3: Delivery of class via the World Wide Web. (Witta, 2005) 4: An online course may be either a fully online course or a hybrid online course. A fully online course is offered in a format where its content, orientation, and assessments are delivered via the Internet, and students interact with faculty and possibly with one another while using the Web, e-mail, discussion boards, and other similar aids. A hybrid online course meets one or more of the following requirements for students: (1) access to the Web to interact with the course content; (2) access to the Web to communicate with faculty and/or other students in the course; (3) on campus for orientation and exams, with other aspects of the course meeting the requirements for a fully online course. (Simon et al., 2005)
Online Conferencing
Online discussion that allows students and teachers to post, read, and reply to each others messages. (Lazarus, 2005b)
Online Database
1: A special Web site interfaced with a database (usually relational). Special languages have been developed to make easier for programmers the creation of updating and querying Web pages. (Cartelli, 2006b) 2: Online assessment management system. (Wieseman, 2005a)
Online Course
1: A set of instructional experiences using the digital network for interaction, learning, and dialogue. An online
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Online Game
Originally included the Internet-based computer games in which multiple users log onto host computers and play with other users on a real-time basis. However, currently many people employ the term for indicating MMORPGs (Massively Multi-player Online Role-Playing Games) such as Ultima Online, Lineage, and EverQuest. (Park & Lepawsky, 2006)
A prescribed program of studies leading to a degree conferred by an educational institution wherein the majority of courses are online courses. See Online Course. (Simon et al., 2005)
Online Instruction
A method of teaching that employs networked technologies to deliver instruction. (Gillani, 2005b)
Online Journal
An electronic notebook or diary where an individual can write personal stories, thoughts, reactions, and correspondence to be shared with others over the Internet. (Baim, 2006b)
Online Learning
1: Use of the Internet to deliver instructions to students using a variety of instructional strategies to meet individual students needs. (Ally, 2005b) 2: A program of education that is carried out wholly or primarily through the medium of the Internet. (Grasso & Leng, 2005) 3: An all-encompassing term that refers to any learning with a computer over a network, including a companys intranet, the companys local area network, and the Internet. (Rugelj, 2005) 4: An inclusive term for any form of learning supported by computer-based training. (Dixon et al., 2005) 5: Education that is delivered using a computer or computer network, often actively connected to the Internet. (Campbell & Berge, 2005) 6: Educational program where content is primarily delivered through the Internet. Communication is typically asynchronous, occurring through e-mail, listservs, discussion postings, and chat rooms. (Dorniden, 2005) 7: Learning by using an algorithm that only examines the dataset once in order. This paradigm is often used in situations when data arrives continually in a stream and when predictions must be obtainable at any time. (Oza, 2005) 8: Learning delivered by Web-based or Internet-based technologies. (Torres-Coronas, 2005) 9: Learning that is solely or partly
Online Education
Instruction conducted on a network, usually the Internet, for students separated geographically. Sometimes called Distance Education. (Rollier & Niederman, 2005)
Online Environment
The computer-mediated space in which online distance education occurs, often asynchronous and Web based. (Hawkins & Baker, 2005)
Online Experiment
An experiment that is running and controlled by a computer terminal. (Ko et al., 2005)
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mediated through online technologies. This mode of learning allows learners and teachers to interact regardless of location and time. (Bennett, 2005) 10: The activity of seeking knowledge, skills, and training through interaction with online environments. This may or may not consist of structured activities. (Teghe & Knight, 2005) 11: The learning process is occurring through the Internet. The instructor and students are not constrained by time or physical separation. (S.-K. Wang, 2005) 12: The use by students of connected (online) computers to participate in educational activities (learning). (Clayton, 2006b) See also Electronic Learning, Distance Learning, Web-Based Learning Environment.
Online Media
Any communication technology that uses the Internet or the World Wide Web as the means for sharing information with others. (St.Amant, 2006a)
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Online Plat for m Online Tra nsa c t ion Proc e ssing (OL T P)
Online Platform
Online Shopping
1: Consumers using virtual storefronts and Internet to buy goods and services. (Efendioglu, 2006) 2: Purchases carried out through the Internet channel. (Ortega Egea & Menndez, 2006)
A specially developed platform using Internet technology for the design and development of teaching and learning purposes. (Lammintakanen & Rissanen, 2005b)
Online Proiling
The process of collecting and analyzing data from Web site visits which can be used to personalize a customers subsequent experiences on the Web site. Network advertisers, for example, can use online proiles to track a users visits and activities across multiple Web sites, although such a practice is controversial and may be subject to various forms of regulation. (Zhu, 2005)
Online Storefront
A Web site, available on a public network such as the Internet, which offers goods and services for sale. An online storefront is the virtual electronic version of a physical store/place of business that a customer would visit to purchase goods and services. (Iacob et al., 2005)
Online Program
That portion of distance education offered over the Internet by an accredited educational institution. (Keinath, 2005)
Online Syndicate
Association of irms with a common interest formed to engage in e-business. Syndication has become an important e-business strategy of many companies. (Zhao, 2005)
Online Teaching
Delivers instruction using a computer network, usually the Internet, without requiring face-to-face meetings of students and faculty. Courses may be synchronous, asynchronous, or a combination. Also commonly referred to as Online Distance Education, Distance Education, Online Learning, and Distributed Learning. (Sales, 2005)
Online Service
1: The provision of an intangible value-adding activity using Internet-based technology. (Clegg & Tan, 2006) 2: A service provided online, such as a personalized newsletter, instant messenger, and so forth. (Wang, Ding, et al., 2006)
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for serving the applications of an organization. This kind of processing supports the daily operations of the software applications, it is read-and-write, and generally performed through SQL queries. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005a) 4: A type of software and set of tools that facilitate realtime processing of transactions for transaction-oriented applications used in many industries including retails, airlines, and banking. (Khan et al., 2006)
Ontology
1: An explicit, formal specification of a shared conceptualization of a domain of interest. This indicates that an ontology should be machine readable (which excludes natural language). It indicates that it captures consensual knowledge that is not private to an individual, but accepted as a group or committee of practice. The reference to a domain of interest indicates that domain ontologies do not model the whole world, but rather model just parts that are relevant to the task at hand. (Ishaya, 2005) 2: A formal and explicit deinition of concepts (classes or categories) and their attributes and relations. (Loh et al., 2005) 3: A formal speciication in a structured format, such as XML or RDF, of the concepts that exist within a given area of interest and the semantic relationships among those concepts. (Banerjee et al., 2005) 4: A branch of philosophy that attempts to determine the structure of reality. It can also refer to a classiication system that organizes particular things or phenomena. (Artz, 2005c) 5: A collection of concepts and inter-relationships. (Chung et al., 2005) 6: A conceptualization and representation of objects and phenomena, and the relationships among them in a domain. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005) 7: A consensual and formal description of shared concepts in a domain. Typically, it organizes the objects of a domain in classes and includes a hierarchy of classes (e.g., printers are hardware devices). Ontologies are used to aid human communication and shared understanding, and also communication among software applications. (Antoniou et al., 2005) 8: A logical theory accounting for the intended meaning of a formal vocabularythat is, its ontological commitment to a particular conceptualization of the world. The intended models of a logical language using such a vocabulary are constrained by its ontological commitment. An ontology indirectly relects this commitment (and the underlying conceptualization) by approximating these intended models. (Aldana Montes et al., 2005) 9: A representation of knowledge speciic to some universe(s) of discourse. It is an agreement about a shared conceptualization, which includes conceptual frameworks for modeling domain knowledge and agreements about the representation of
Online Trust
An Internet users psychological state of risk acceptance based upon the positive expectations of the intentions or behaviors of an online vendor. (Y.D. Wang, 2005)
Onset Detection
The process of inding the start times of notes in an audio signal. (Dixon, 2005)
Ontological Changeability
The ability of changing some structures of an information source without producing substantial changes in the ontological components of the integrated system. (Buccella et al., 2005)
Ontological Engineering
The activity of creating models of knowledge and possibly deploying them in actual engineering objects. (Cristani & Cuel, 2006)
Ontological Reusability
The ability of creating ontologies that can be used in different contexts or systems. (Buccella et al., 2005)
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particular domain theories. (Ghenniwa & Huhns, 2005) 10: A set of concepts, and a set of relations among those concepts. (Kulyukin & Nicholson, 2005)
Ontology Alignment
Mapping between concepts deined in a source ontology and concepts deined in a target ontology in order to ind the concepts with similar (or the same) meaning. (Juszczyszyn, 2006)
Ontology Distribution
A mode of semi-autonomous maintenance of ontology data, according to which each public authority maintains speciic portions of an ontology. (Vassilakis & Lepouras, 2006)
Ontology Merging
Creating ontology by joining two or more source ontologies. Corresponding concepts are merged and treated as a single concept. (Juszczyszyn, 2006)
Ontology Methodology
A sequence of steps to be deployed in order to achieve one possible goal amongst creating, modifying, re-creating, validating, and evaluating a domain ontology. The very nature of an ontology methodology is more complex in principle, being able to provide the very same goal achievements by means of true worklows. However, these do not actually appear in the current literature. (Cristani & Cuel, 2006)
Ontology-Management System
System for querying, storing, creating, modifying, loading, accessing, and manipulating ontologies. (Youn & McLeod, 2006)
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OOA: See Object-Oriented Analysis. OoBE: See Out-of-the-Box Experience. OOD: See Object-Oriented Design. OOP: See Object-Oriented Programming. OPAC: See Online Public Access Catalog. Open Access
Making resources freely available to all. (Taylor et al., 2005)
Open Auction
Bids are known to all bidders. (Guan, 2006a)
Open Admission
1: A policy of admitting students to higher education institutions (or any other type of teaching institutes) without setting any entry requirements. (Guri-Rosenblit, 2005b) 2: Admission to a university with no formal entry requirements: it is open to everyone without the need for proof of prior scholastic achievements. (Erlich & GalEzer, 2005)
Open Communication
The foundation of a virtual organization is its communications components that exist in absence of faceto-face exchanges. A virtual organization can only survive if its members communicate freely through the provided channels between them, be they based on the Internet or more traditional telephone technologies. The organization cannot continue to function unless it is aware of what all its members are currently completing, and often times, when communication is more closed, work that is being completed in tandem by more than one member can be hindered or brought to a halt. (J. Lee, 2005)
Open Education
1: Any scheme of education or training that seeks systematically to remove one or more barriers to learning.
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It also means learning in your own time, at your own pace, and at your own base, using higher education settings for academic assistance and as a base for facilities and equipment. Formats include Distance Learning and Online Learning. (Kinuthia, 2005) 2: This is more of a European term, where in the United States it is referred to as Continuing Education. Courses that are being offered for ones own maintenance of professional currency. (Kostopoulos, 2005)
Open Group
The source does not have to know the members of the groups for sending data, and the receivers (members of the group) do not have to know the source. (Hosszu, 2005a)
Open Hypermedia
As a more generalized concept addressing interoperability among hypermedia services, it has the following characteristics: it should be platform independent and distributed across platforms, and users should be able to ind, update, make links to, and exchange the information, unlike hypermedia titles on CD-ROM. (Suh & Kim, 2005)
Open Loop
Digital cash issued once can be used for additional transactions, even if the value does not return to the issuer. The open loop provides rolling liquidity. (Kurihara, 2006)
Open Source
1: Method and philosophy for software licensing and distribution designed to encourage use and improvement of software written by volunteers by ensuring that anyone can copy the source code and modify it freely. (Lightfoot, 2005) 2: Software that is developed by software engineers who give users the right to alter the software code in order to develop and improve the software for use and distribution. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006b) 3: Technically, refers to making the programming instructions used to
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write computer software available for scrutiny and reuse by others. In practice it also describes a political movement that is concerned with how software and computer technology is owned and controlled. Open source software is commonly either in the public domain or copyrighted and licensed by the owner in ways that enforce free access to the source of the original and all derived works. (Marshall, 2005) 4: There is no universally accepted deinition, but the one given by the Open Source Initiative summarized the concept as: free distribution, source code, derived works, integrity of the authors source code, no discrimination against persons or groups, no discrimination against ields of endeavor, distribution of license, license must not be speciic to a product, license must not restrict other software, and license must be technology neutral. (Zhao & Deek, 2005)
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Open System
Any system without strong boundaries, where information and other goods low to and from the systems environment. (Murphy, 2005c)
environment with a large amount of learner control and different tools. (Clarebout et al., 2005b)
OpenGL ES: See OpenGL for Embedded Systems. OpenGL for Embedded Systems (OpenGL ES)
A low-level, lightweight API for advanced embedded graphics using well-deined subset proiles of OpenGL. It provides a low-level applications programming interface between software applications and hardware or software graphics engines. (Di Giacomo et al., 2005)
Open University
1: This term is often used interchangeably with distance teaching university, though a handful of distance education providers are entitled as open universities. All of the open universities employ an open-admission policy. (Guri-Rosenblit, 2005b) 2: A university that is open to people without formal academic qualiications and where teaching is done using distance education means. (Shareef & Kinshuk, 2005) 3: A university without traditional classrooms; teaching and learning is conducted at a distance through means such as the Internet, TV and radio, printed materials, and tutoring centers. (Reynolds, 2005) 4: A university, typically employing distance education technologies, that provides open access and admission to all within the country or region. (Laws et al., 2005) 5: This term is used to refer to a distance teaching university that offers courses through distance learning, employing either traditional, technology-integrated, and sometimes entirely online methods. It is also used to refer to a university with open admissions. The term is not unequivocal. These universities usually allow for lexibility in curriculum and pace of studies. Open University can also be part of the name of an institution, often combined with the name of the country in which it operates, such as the OUI (Open University of Israel), OUUK (Open University of the United Kingdom), OUHK (Open University of Hong Kong), and AOU (Arab Open University). (Erlich & GalEzer, 2005)
Openness
1: A measure of the freedom to search, collect, and exchange governmental information related to public services or to the bureaucratic structure. (Almazn & Gil-Garca, 2006) 2: The giving employees willingness to transfer their knowledge in a collaborative interaction. This stresses the attitude of giving employees involved in the knowledge transfer of not hiding their knowledge so that potential learning is facilitated. (Chen, Duan, et al., 2006)
Operant Conditioning
1: Skinner contributed much to the study of operant conditioning, which is a change in the probability of a response due to an event that followed the initial response. The theory of Skinner is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in behavior. When a particular S-R pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Changes in behavior are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. Principles and Mechanisms of Skinners Operant Conditioning include: Positive Reinforcement or Reward, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction or Nonreinforcement. (I. Chen, 2005) 2: Learning through immediate positive feedback (reinforcement) regarding the correctness of an answer; the student learns to respond in a particular way to a particular question or issue (stimulus). Fading can be used by gradually reducing stimulus cues in subsequent frames when material is repeated. (Owen & Aworuwa, 2005)
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Operation
1: A function or transformation that may be applied to or by objects in a class. The class Account, for example, might have the operations Open, Close, PayIn (Amount), and Withdraw (Amount). (Rittgen, 2005) 2: A processrelated notion in UML; operations cause state changes in objects. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a)
short term; operational goals are derived from the tactical goals. (Brabston, 2005)
Operational Objective
A short-term objective, such as maximization of working time, reduction of duplication, stimulation of creativity, and so forth. (Tremblay, 2006a)
Operational Cost
A linear combination of the query evaluation and view maintenance cost. (Theodoratos & Simitsis, 2005)
Operational Planning
Planning that builds on the strategic and tactical objectives, and assures that our path and work are on target. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005)
Operational Data
1: Contains the most recent data about the organization and organized for fast retrieval as well as avoiding update anomalies. (Owrang O., 2006) 2: Data used to support the daily processing a company does. (Peter & Greenidge, 2005b)
Operational Semantics
The meaning is given in terms of rules that specify how the state of a computerreal or formalchanges while executing a program. (Dasso & Funes, 2005)
Operational Deinition
In order to investigate any aspects of behavior that can be interpreted in many ways, it is necessary to provide speciic deinitions that are concise and measurable for the investigation. (Chyung, 2005)
Operations Integration
Creating logical connections of individual operations, or steps of a business process, with preceding or succeeding operations, respectively. (Kurbel, 2005)
Operations Management
Distinguishes objects, which are the inputs and outputs of operations, related support tasks, and the setting of goals and creation of means. (Wijnhoven, 2006)
Operational Dynamics
Change in an organizations operation, while the organizations structure remains unchanged (static), along the time when time as a parameter is indispensable for the organizations operations, or some aspect of the organizations operations, description, and analysis. In the case of an agile/virtual enterprise, the operational dynamics refers to inter-enterprise operational dynamics. (Cunha & Putnik, 2005)
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as public hotspot operators or wireless Internet service providers (WISPs). (Efstathiou & Polyzos, 2006)
Opportunism
In terms of virtual teams, the characteristic of existing to capitalize on a speciic opportunity or meet a speciic, temporary need. In terms of Transaction Cost Economics (TCE), the characteristic of an entity that indicates the entity will act in its own best interest even at the expense of other entities in the market. (Morris et al., 2005)
Opportunity Cost
The cost of the next best alternative use of time or resources when one choice is made rather than another. The cost of doing something always includes the additional cost of what could have been done if a different choice was made. (Hartoonian & Johnson, 2005)
Opt-In/Opt-Out
1: Options for individuals to be included or excluded from a database record. (Dholakia, Zwick, et al., 2005) 2: A strategy that a business may use to set up a default choice (opt-in) in a form that forces a customer, for example, to accept e-mails or give permission to use personal information, unless the customer deliberately declines this option (opt-out). (T. Stern, 2005) 3: Consciously to accept some situation or condition in a contract. For example, to opt-in to an e-mail subscription means that you want to receive periodic messages, even from third parties (antonym: opt-out). (Friedman, 2005)
Optical Window
A range of wavelengths in which attenuation has the lower value. The criterion to choose the optical source. (Louvros, Iossiides, et al., 2005)
Optical Attenuation
The attenuation of transmitted light through optical waveguides mostly due to material absorption. (Louvros et al., 2005a)
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ROWA protocol, an interaction with the server is required only at client cache-miss or for committing its cache copy under the O2PL. As in CBL, all clients must inform the server when they erase a page from their buffer so that the server can update its page list. (Parker & Chen, 2005)
Order Aggregation
A group purchase designed to achieve a volume discount by aggregating orders placed by individual buyers. (I. Lee, 2005)
Optimization
The quantitative study of optima and the methods for inding them. (Mart, 2005)
Optimization Criterion
Criterion that gives the quality of a solution of an optimization problem. (Jourdan et al., 2005)
Optimization Problem
A computational problem for which an objective function associates a merit igure with each problem solution, and it is asked to identify a feasible solution that minimizes or maximizes the objective function. (Calvo et al., 2005)
Ordinal Data
1: Data classiied into categories that can be ranked. However, the differences between the ranks cannot be calculated by arithmetic. An example is: assignment evaluation: fail, pass, good, excellent. (Yang & Webb, 2005) 2: Data that is in order but has no relationship between the values or to an external value. (Morantz, 2005)
Optimization Process
The process used to focus the search (or guide the search) for interesting patterns, as well as to minimize the search efforts on data. (Owrang O., 2006)
Option
1: By deinition, gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to take ownership of an underlying asset at a future point in time. (Lawson-Body, 2005) 2: The right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an asset by a prespeciied price on or before a speciied date. (Li, 2005b) 3: A inancial option owes the holder the right, but not the obligation, to trade in securities at prices ixed earlier. Options confer to a irm the rights, but not the obligations, to choose a strategic alternative. (Narayanan, 2005)
Organization
1: The degree of formal organization of social relationships and of a community or network as a whole; low organization means informal self-organization. (Meller-Prothmann, 2006a) 2: The deliberate integration of persons in order to achieve a goal or outcome. (Murphy, 2005c) 3: The coniguration of relationships among a systems components that deine a system as a unity with distinctive identity, and determine the dynamics of interaction and transformations that it may undergo as such a unity. (Abou-Zeid, 2005b)
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Orga nizat ion for Ec onom ic Coope rat ion a nd Deve lopm e nt (OECD) Orga nizat iona l Cult ure
Organizational Context
1: Context is concerned with the multi-level identiication of the various systems (e.g., social, political, economic, technical) and structures (e.g., organizational processes, policies, individuals roles), as well as informal networks and personal relationships within which the organization is located. (Serafeimidis, 2005) 2: The conditions within the organization that a team works in that inluence the successfulness of the teams activities and the involvement of the team members. Reward systems, level of management support, resources provided, and organizational culture all are important organizational factors that potentially affect a teams ability to succeed. (Wong & Staples, 2005)
Organization Learning
Involves encoding inferences from history into routines that guide behavior. It is routine based, history dependent, and target oriented. Organization learning may be facilitated by knowledge management, which presumably can decrease/ eliminate structural and cultural barriers to organization learning. (Nelson & Hsu, 2006)
Organization Structure
Patterns of work relationships (or task interdependencies). Production structure refers to work relationships among production tasks. Control structure refers to the hierarchical work relationships involved in coordinating production work. Informal organization structure concerns organically developing work relationships, whereas formal organization structure concerns predeined work relationships. (Hendriks, 2006)
Organizational Culture
1: The embodiment of shared understanding and common purpose, which serves to develop and sustain working practices within organizations and provide a binding factor for all employees within the same organization, regardless of location, distance, time, or local environment. (Huq et al., 2006) 2: A pattern of behavior, such as cross-individual behavioral consistency. For example, when people say that culture is the way we do things around here, they mean that there is a consistent way people perform tasks, solve problems, and resolve conlicts. Organizational culture is also deined as the informal values, norms, and beliefs that control how individuals and groups in an organization interact with each other and with people outside the organization. (Hanson, 2005) 3: A set of widely shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices that describe how to think, feel, and act within an organizational setting. (Jacobson, 2006) 4: Embraces two levels: deep-seated ideas and beliefs, and espoused values that form part of the cultural knowledge embedded within organizations. It is relected in the organizational climate. (Huotari & Iivonen, 2005) 5: A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid. Therefore, it is taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and
Organizational Agility
An organizations ability to respond quickly and appropriately to changes in the organizations environment to solve problems and capitalize on opportunities. (Morris et al., 2005)
Organizational Assimilation
The processes by which individuals become integrated into the culture of an organization. (Long et al., 2005)
Organizational Attention
The socially structured pattern of attention by decision makers in an organization guiding how they select from and respond to available stimuli. (Yaniv & Schwartz, 2006)
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feel in relation to those problems. (Zakaria & Yusof, 2005) 6: Refers to the way people give meaning to their actions in an organizational setting. Because of cognitive and normative diversity within an organization, the attribution of meaning is complicated and leads to organizational cultural integration as well as fragmentation, and unity as well as diversity. (Boersma & Kingma, 2006) 7: The set of shared values and norms within an organization that shape its behaviors, attitudes, and actions. (Jones & Gupta, 2005)
to innovate, improved coordination of efforts, and reduced redundancy of information/knowledge. (Hsu & Mykytyn, 2006)
Organizational Development
A professional approach to organizational action guided by careful diagnosis based on social scientiic enquiry. The period between the 1960s and late 1970s was highly experimental and established the principles of organizational development for much of the twentieth century. By the end of the twentieth century, new approaches to organizational development had emerged as a result of critiques of functionalist methods and behaviorism in particular, and also because of Morgans book, Images of Organization, which gave rise to multiple diagnoses. Increasingly, organizational learning became a focus for organizational development activities. (Grieves, 2006b)
Organizational Encounter
A time for newcomers to learn behaviors, values, and beliefs associated with their jobs and organizations. (Long et al., 2005)
Organizational Environment
Refers to the aims and objectives of the organization in the context of the way in which it structures itself and its activities. The structure of the organization is the way in which the organization is arranged for the implementation of authority. Generally, this structure is either a hierarchical structure, a lat structure, or a management matrix. A hierarchical structure is typically shaped like a pyramid with power or control centralized in a CEO (chief executive oficer) who has managers reporting back. These managers have subordinates who also exercise delegated authority over their subordinates. There may be several layers of authority and delegation depending on the size and complexity of the organization. Ultimately, power and control lies in the CEO. A management matrix has a series of control mechanisms where the workforce may report to their direct superior, and additionally to one of a series of team leaders. This requires a sequence of devolved authorities and responsibilities. A lat organizational structure has devolved power and responsibilities without a cascading series of reporting structures. (Zyngier, 2006)
Organizational Discourse
Collections of organizational texts, such as conversations, stories, dialogues, meetings, and other socially constructed exchanges, of which storytelling represents an example of a unit of analysis. (Connell, 2006)
Organizational Dynamics
Changing of an organizations structure, where structure consists of an organizations (companys) elements and relations among them along the time parameter, when time as a parameter is indispensable for the organizations structure, or some aspect of the organizations structure, description, and analysis. (Cunha & Putnik, 2005)
Organizational Factor
One of the resources that an organization has available to support the adoption of an innovation, such as inancial and technological resources, as well as top management support and top management knowledge. (Cragg & Mills, 2005)
Organizational Effectiveness
Used to evaluate the value-added aspect of organizational resources. Three concepts are included: improved ability
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Orga nizat iona l I m pa c t Ana lysis Orga nizat iona l M e m or y Syst e m (OM S)
A one-off study to determine the ways in which a proposed system will affect the organization, in areas such as power, structure, culture, working practices, and so forth. (Doherty & King, 2005)
learning is descriptive stream, with academics who pursue the question: How does an organization learn? When individual and group learning becomes institutionalized, organizational learning occurs. (Xu & Wang, 2006)
Organizational Issue
One of the set of issues that need to be treated during the systems development process to ensure that the individual human, wider social, and economic impacts of the resultant computer-based information system are likely to be desirable. (Doherty & King, 2005)
Organizational Learning
1: The consistent and constant acquisition and transfer of organizational knowledge assets for increased competitive advantage. (Huq et al., 2006) 2: An organizational process in which the intentional and unintentional processing of knowledge within a variety of structural arrangements is used to create an enriched knowledge and orientation base, and a better organizational capacity for the purpose of improving organizational action. (Anttiroiko, 2005b) 3: A process of leveraging the collective individual learning of an organization to produce a higher-level organization-wide intellectual asset. It is a continuous process of creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, accompanied by a modiication of behavior to relect new knowledge and insight, and produce a higher-level asset. (Vat, 2005b) 4: Dynamic process that is generated in the heart of the organization via its individuals and the groups they make up, aimed at the generation and development of knowledge that allows an organization to improve its performance and results. (Real et al., 2006) 5: Goes beyond individual learning, because it results in the development of a knowledge basis which could translate into a signiicant change within the organization, and not only at the individual level. (Tremblay, 2006a) 6: Describes an organizations ability to gain insight and understanding from experience based on experimentation, observation, analysis, and an existing willingness to examine and learn from both successes and failures. (Zboralski & Gemnden, 2006) 7: The process of change in individual and shared thought and action, which is affected by and embedded in the institutions of the organization. Organizational
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Organizational Policy
One of the openly stated, oficially sanctioned rules for organizational resource usage and other kinds of organization-related conduct. (Oravec, 2005)
Organizing
1: Allocating and arranging human and material resources in appropriate combinations to implement plans. Organizing turns plans into action potential by deining tasks, assigning personnel, and supporting them with resources. (Cragg & Suraweera, 2005) 2: The process of identifying, specifying, and assigning work; grouping work and resources into a structure; and establishing a chain of command between individuals and groups. (De, 2006)
Organizational Politics
Wide range of descriptions of formal and informal power relationships in organizations. (Land, Amjad, et al., 2006)
Organizational Resource
Includes inancial, physical, human, and organizational assets used to produce goods and services. Also included are competencies or skills and capabilities, which are the irms ability to put its resources to use to achieve a desired end. (Rowe et al., 2006)
Orientation Session
A irst meeting between instructor and students during which students meet the instructor and become familiar with the hardware and software that they will need and the level of computing proiciency required for an online course. This meeting also provides an excellent opportunity for students to meet the instructor and each other, ask questions, and become acquainted with course logistics. (Cooper, 2005)
Organizational Responsibility
Refers to obligations to operate regularly according to accepted social norms and standards. Those organizations that comply with basic standards are able to argue that their behavior is ethical, and that their operations are normative and legitimate. (Wang, Chen, et al., 2006)
Organizational Strategy
An organizations direction, purpose, strategic leadership, and organizational and competitive performance. (Rowe et al., 2006)
OSI Layer 7
The application layer of a network connection. It describes how applications work with the network operating system.
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Outlier
1: Data item that did not come from the assumed population of data. (Kumar, 2005) 2: Observations in a sample, so far separated in value from the remainder as to suggest that they are generated by another process or are the result of an error in measurement. (Klawonn & Rehm, 2005)
OSS: See Open Source Software. OT: See Organizational Theory. OTDOA: See Observed Time Difference of Arrival. O2PL: See Optimistic Two-Phase Locking. Out Degree
The number of Web pages that a current Web page points out. (Chen, Tsai, et al., 2005)
Outlink
A link from a site to a different Web site. (Thelwall, 2006)
Outside Review
A review performed by state universities or colleges for the purpose of validating the design and structure of courseware so that it will meet industry standards expected in online learning products. (G. Lang, 2005)
Out-of-School Model
A virtual schooling model where students learn online without attending conventional classes in a building with a teacher. (Russell, 2006)
Outsourcing
1: A production practice in which certain tasks or parts of an overall operation are performed by workers who are located in different nations. (St.Amant, 2005b) 2: Acquiring services or products from an outside supplier or manufacturer in order to cut costs and/or procure outside expertise. (Pang, 2005a) 3: IT resources are managed by an external provider who delivers IT services to the end-user organization. (Feuerlicht & Vorisek, 2006) 4: The growing practice in distance education of using external organizations to perform functions necessary to postsecondary institutions or programs. (Lindsay, Williams, et al., 2005) 5: The purchasing or contracting of tasks, goods, or services to an external source by a software irm. (Sowe et al., 2005)
Outcome
High-quality online programs provide outcomes such as personal advantages for the learner, while achieving learning objectives. (MacDonald et al., 2005)
Outcomes-Based Evaluation
A type of evaluation used to determine the extent to which the program beneits its clients. (Nelson, 2005)
Outsourcing Contract
Describes a long-term mutual obligation between the service provider(s) and the service recipient. The contract value is substantial, meaning over 10 million US$ or Euros. The average duration of outsourcing contracts is over 36 months. (Beulen, 2005)
Outerjoin
Extension of the regular join operator. Given two relations R and S and a condition C involving attributes of R and S, the outerjoin will generate as its output: (a) all the tuples in the Cartesian product of R and S that respect condition C (i.e., a regular join); plus (b) all the tuples in R that do not have a match in S fulilling C, padded with null values on the attributes of S; plus (c) all the tuples in S that do not have a match in R fulilling C, padded with null values on the attributes of R. A left outerjoin will output only (a) and (b), and a right outerjoin will output only (a) and (c). (Badia, 2005a)
Outsourcing Cycle
The stages of an outsourcing project: identiication of a need, deinition of project objectives, choice of vendor, negotiation of a Service-Level Agreement, implementation, performance monitoring, incremental modiication of the agreement, and renewal or cancellation of the agreement. (Beaumont, 2005)
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important in developing a clearer view of how, when, and why vicarious learning works. (J.R. Lee, 2005)
Overlap Constraint
Overitting
1: A frequent phenomenon associated to learning, wherein models do not generalize suficiently. A model can be overitted to the training data and perform badly on fresh data. This means that the model has internalized not only the regularities (patterns), but also the irregularities of the training data (e.g., noise), which are useless for future data. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005b) 2: Finding a solution to a supervised learning problem that performs extremely well on the training set but poorly on the test set. Such a solution is typically too specialized to the speciic points in the training set, and thus misses general relationships. (Musicant, 2005) 3: Term referring to the situation where the discovered rules it too much to the training set peculiarities. Overitting usually leads to a reduction of the predictive accuracy rate on the test cases. (Parpinelli et al., 2005) 4: The effect on data analysis, data mining, and biological learning of training too closely on limited available data and building models that do not generalize well to new unseen data. (Huang, 2005) 5: The phenomenon that a learning algorithm adapts so well to a training set that the random disturbances in the training set are included in the model as being meaningful. Consequently, as these disturbances do not relect the underlying distribution, the performance on the test set, with its own but deinitively other disturbances, will suffer from techniques that tend to it well to the training set. (Klawonn & Rehm, 2005)
Constraint that states that the entity types that compose a category can (or cannot) have elements in common. (Mani & Badia, 2005)
Overlapping
A particular interschema property. An overlapping exists between two concepts A and B, if they are neither synonyms nor hyponyms of the other, but share a signiicant set of properties; more formally, there exists an overlapping between A and B, if there exist non-empty sets of properties { pA1, pA2, , pAn} of A and { pB1, pB2, , pBn} of B such that, for 1 i n, pAi is a synonym of pBi. (De Meo, Terracina, et al., 2005)
Overlay Function
Overlay Network
1: A software-enabled network that operates at the application layer of the TCP/IP (transmission-control protocol/Internet protocol). (Hughes & Lang, 2005) 2: A virtual network formed by applications on hosts in the Internet. The applications have one-to-one (unicast) IP connections between them. (Hossz, 2006)
Overitting Rule
A rule has high performance (e.g., high classiication accuracy) on observed transaction(s) but performs poorly on future transaction(s). Hence, such rules should be excluded from the decision-making systems (e.g., recommender). In many cases overitting rules are generated due to the noise in data set. (Zhou & Wang, 2005)
Overhearer
In a theoretical position developed by Herbert Clark, following among others Erving Goffman, as well as the direct participants in a dialogue situation there may be various kinds of side participants. Overhearers are technically side participants whose existence is not known to the direct participants. Vicarious learners are often overhearers, though in other cases their involvement may be known to the participants. Theories such as Clarks are
Two among the main theoretical problems that can affect the construction of well-formed inheritance hierarchies. Overriding (or defeasible inheritance, or inheritance with exceptions) consists of the possibility of admitting exceptions to the strict inheritance interpretation of an IsA hierarchy. Under the complete overriding hypothesis, the values associated with the different properties of the concepts, and the properties themselves, must be interpreted simply as defaults, that is, always possible to modify. An unlimited possibility of overriding can give rise to problems of logical incoherence; Reiters default logic has been proposed to provide a formal semantics for inheritance hierarchies with defaults. In a multiple inheritance situation, a concept can have multiple parents and can inherit properties along multiple paths. When overriding and multiple inheritance combine, we can be confronted with very tricky situations like that illustrated by the well-known Nixon diamond. (Zarri, 2005a)
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Overtraining
When the MFNN performs signiicantly better on the training data than an out-of-sample test data, it is considered to have memorized the training data, and be overtrained. This can be avoided by following the guidelines presented above. (Smith, 2005)
OWA: See Open-World Assumption. OWL: See Ontology Web Language. Ownership
1: Ownership of a business by the people who work for it (e.g., partners of a virtual enterprise). (Wong, 2005) 2: The association of the rights over intellectual property either with an institution or an individual so as to enable exploitation of that IP. (Fleming, 2005b)
Ownership by Contract
Transfer or otherwise licensing all or part of copyright from the owner to one or more other parties covered by an explicit contract. (Fleming, 2005b)
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P
P_Avg: See Average Precision. P-Problem
Where all of the input variables are always relevant to the classiication. Decision tree methods are unsuitable for P-problems. (Wilson et al., 2006a) within member and associate member countries. PITA comprises members (telecommunication entities), associate members (suppliers of telecommunication equipment and services), and partner agencies (regional and international organizations with vested interest in telecommunications and its development). (Hassall, 2005)
p-RA: See Resource Allocator. Packet p-RM: See Resource Manager. P-Split Mechanism
The process of dividing every resource of a physical node into p-equivalent slices, grouping one slice from each resource to form a portion of resource and use each portion as a virtual node. (Jong & Mahatanankoon, 2006) 1: A inite stream of bits sent in one block with header and trailer bits to perform routing and management functions. (Guster et al., 2005) 2: A group of bits that includes data (payload) plus source, destination address, and other routing information (in the header). (Statica & Deek, 2006) 3: A package of data found at the network layer, and containing source and destination address information as well as control information. (Lawson-Body et al., 2005)
Packet Switching
1: The type of network in which relatively small units of data called packets are routed through a network based on the destination address contained within each packet. Breaking communication down into packets allows the same data path to be shared among many users in the network. (Olla, 2005a) 2: A type of communication in which packets are individually routed between nodes, without a previously established communication path. (Lee & Warkentin, 2006) 3: Packet-switched networks divide transmissions into packets before they are sent. Each packet can be transmitted individually and is sent by network routers following different routes to its destination. Once all the packets forming the initial message arrive at the destination, they are recompiled. (Kaspar & Hagenhoff, 2005)
P-Value
The P-value for an object is the probability of obtaining a false positive if the threshold is set just high enough to include the object among the set selected as relevant. More generally, it is the false positive rate corresponding to an observed test statistic. (Mukherjee, 2005)
PACS: See Picture Archiving and Communication Paciic Islands Telecommunications Association (PITA)
A non-proit organization formed to improve, promote, enhance, facilitate, and provide telecommunications services
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Pa ge Sc ore Pa ra digm
Page Score
Palmtop
A portable personal computer that can be operated comfortably while held in one hand. These devices usually support a QWERTY keyboard for data input with a small display screen in an A5-sized footprint. (Garrett, 2006b)
The numeric value that measures how well a single page matches a given query. A higher score would imply a better matching. (Caramia & Felici, 2005)
Page View
1: The visual rendering of a Web page in a speciic environment at a speciic point of time. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005b) 2: An aggregate representation of a collection of Web objects contributing to the display on a users browser resulting from a single user action (such as a clickthrough). (Mobasher, 2005b)
Pan
Move an image window with respect to the portion of the larger image from which it is taken. (N.C. Rowe, 2005a)
PageRank
1: A Web graph mining algorithm that uses the probability that a page is visited by a random surfer on the Web as a key factor for ranking search results. (Wen, 2005b) 2: An algorithm that Google uses to rank Web pages that match a given search string. (Kasi & Jain, 2006) 3: The PageRank algorithm assigns a quality value to each known Web page that is integrated into the ranking of search engine results. This quality value is based on the number of links that point to a page. In an iterative algorithm, the links from high-quality pages are weighted higher than links from other pages. PageRank was originally developed for the Google search engine. (Mandl, 2006)
Paper Prototyping
The diagram expressing the user environment design is used to create paper prototypes, which are then put before users during paper prototype interviews to validate the design of the new system. The sixth step in contextual design. (Notess, 2005)
PageRank Algorithm
A Web search technique for ranking Web pages according to relevance to a particular search term or search phrase. Based on the random surfer model and Web graph, the index, PageRank, is proposed to rate the importance of each Web page to users. (Li, 2005)
Paperless Classroom
A classroom where paper documents (textbooks, homework submissions, grade reports) are replaced by electronic documents. (Roldan, 2005)
Paging
A technique to locate mobile users in wireless systems. (W. Wang, 2006)
Paraconsistent Logic
A logic system that limits, for example, the power of classical inference relations to retrieve non-trivial information of inconsistent sets of formulas. (AlonsoJimnez et al., 2005)
Palm OS 3.5
An operating system developed to operate on handheld computers. The 3.5 refers to the version number of the system used in the reported case study. (Woodruff & Nirula, 2005)
Paradigm
A set of practices that deine a particular discipline. The now-standard usage for this term traces back to Thomas Kuhn, who used it to refer to the set of assumptions, methods, and principles that characterized a particular scientiic worldview. The term has now crossed over into much broader usage, and can refer to many different
Palm Pilot
Trademark name for a type of handheld computer. (Woodruff & Nirula, 2005)
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things: a framework, a mindset, a perspective, a way of being. Interestingly, Kuhn himself became frustrated with the philosophical dificulties that surrounded this term, later adopting the concept of a disciplinary matrix. (Aarons, 2006)
Parasite
Software that operates in the background and sends details of ones computer activity to an interested party. Such programs are often installed with demos and freeware obtained from the Web. (Friedman, 2005)
Paradigm Shift
1: A basic change in the way we conceptualize some thing, process, or way of doing something. (Strauss, 2005) 2: A widely known model in philosophy of science proposed by Thomas Kuhn. Paradigm shift is regarded as the key mechanism that drives science. The core of science is the domination of a paradigm. Paradigm shift is necessary for a scientiic revolution, which is how science advances. (Chen, Toprani, et al., 2006) 3: The mechanism of scientiic revolutions proposed by Kuhn. The cause of a scientiic revolution is rooted to the change of a paradigm, or a view of the world. (Chen & Lobo, 2006)
Parsimony
An approach in genetic and evolutionary computation related to minimum description length, which rewards compact representations by imposing a penalty for individuals in direct proportion to their size (e.g., number of nodes in a GP tree). The rationale for parsimony is that it promotes generalization in supervised inductive learning and produces solutions with less code, which can be more eficient to apply. (Hsu, 2005b)
Paradoxes of Democracy
Every conception of democracy is differently weighted in relation continuums: freedom-equality; majority-minority; participation-representation (individual-collective interests) (Kozeluh, 2005)
Part Query
Query to retrieve the information of part classes with selection predicates originated at the whole class. (Taniar et al., 2005)
Partial Cube
The subset of the cuboids selected for materialization. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
Parallel Trade
Occurs when a product is purchased by an intermediary in one country (at a low price) and then exported to another (high price) country. (Rosson, 2006)
Partial Order
A partial order on a set is a binary relation that is relexive, anti-symmetric, and transitive. (Pourabbas, 2005b)
Parametric Function
When used in 3D shape modeling, three independent explicit functions of parameters u, v, and w x= f1(u,v,w); y= f2(u,v,w); z= f3(u,v,w) deine either a surface (with any two parameters used) or a solid object when all three parameters are used. (Sourin, 2006)
Partial REALLOCATE
A heuristic algorithm for computing a new data allocation, given some number of server and a system optimization parameter. This heuristic evaluates the effect of independently moving each database relation to the new server joining the distributed database system. (Chin, 2005)
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Participant Equality
Each individual facet of a virtual organization is expected to contribute an equal amount of work toward a given goal, if appropriate. While the equality may not be measured best in quantity, it can be restated as effort and the successful completion of all tasks assigned to it, be they large or small. Since every task is considered to be essential as a part of the project, the equality comes in the addition of that piece to a larger puzzle. (J. Lee, 2005)
Participant Observation
This qualitative research method, long a cornerstone of ethnography in the tradition of Bronislaw Malinowski, involves learning another culture by immersing oneself in the daily routines of ones host community. Observation is not conducted from afar, but from within, by taking part (to the extent allowed) in everyday activities, ceremonies, rituals, work tasks, and so forth. Actual forms of participant observation can vary widely and in accordance with the speciic interests adhering to a particular research project. (Forte, 2005)
the rationality and justice of their own social practices. Conducting participative action research is to cyclically plan, act, observe, and relect more carefully, more systematically, and more rigorously than is usually the case in day-to-day living. (Rhodes, 2005) 2: A form of action research where the role of researcher and researched overlaps. This may mean that the researcher takes on a participatory role within the group, community, or organization being researched, or that the researched take a role in the design, conduct, and analysis of the research. Often participatory action research does both. (David, 2005)
Participatory Democracy
A broadly inclusive term for many kinds of consultative decision making in a democracy, as direct or deliberative democracy. (Kozeluh, 2005)
Participation
1: Process in which inluence is exercised and shared among stakeholders, regardless of their formal position or hierarchical level in the organization. (Peterson, 2005) 2: The act of taking part in or sharing the development of something. Participation also implies critical thinking about that which is being shared or developed. (Crdoba, 2006b) 3: The most basic requirement of collaboration; it may be measured by the number of postings made and read, or by the number of statements contributed to a discussion. (Ingram, 2005) 4: The surface analysis of group involvement. It is the easiest to measure by time spent on the discussion or amount written, but is uninformative unless the quality of participation is measured. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005a)
Participatory Development
A development approach in which members of the community are actively involved in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of community development programs. (Songan et al., 2005)
Participatory Evaluation
Evaluation methods in which the subjects of the evaluation actively participate in planning and carrying out observations. (Carroll et al., 2005)
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solving, and evaluating a problem and its solution. (Bieber et al., 2005)
Partitioning Clustering
A clustering method characterized by the division of the initial dataset in order to ind clusters that maximize the similarity between the objects inside the clusters. (Santos et al., 2005)
Participatory Management
Management in which the input of employees as well as managers is thoughtfully taken into account in setting organizational policies and developing organizational structures. (Oravec, 2005)
Partnering Intelligence
A measurement of how well we build relationships and cultivate trust while accomplishing predetermined tasks in an alliance with someone else. A measure of the ability to succeed in partnership situations. It is measured by how well we are able to create and sustain healthy and mutually beneicial partnerships. (Baer & Duin, 2005)
Partnership Partition
1: An image that is divided into blocks for processing. (Chen, Chen, & Cheng, 2005) 2: Non-empty set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive subsets of some other set. The number of subsets is not necessarily inite. (Gillman, 2006) 3: The Partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 at the end of British rule that resulted in the formation of India and Pakistan, and displaced six million people. (A.G. Roy, 2005) 1: A relationship between two or more entities involving close cooperation where each entity has specific responsibilities. (Baer & Duin, 2005) 2: A group of stakeholders that have initiated and contribute to the effective ongoing operations of a smart community, including community groups, business, government, educators, researchers, and students. Shared learning is a fundamental commitment of the total community. (Baskin et al., 2005)
Partition-Based Clustering
The data set is partitioned into k clusters, and cluster centers are deined based on the elements of each cluster. An objective function is deined that measures the quality of clustering based on the distance of all data points to the center of the cluster to which they belong. The objective function is minimized. (Denton, 2005)
Partnership Portfolio
The development of strategic sets of partnerships which results in intentional sets of partners to leverage and maximize goal accomplishment. (Baer & Duin, 2005)
Partnership Working
A network of organizations working together to provide a total service offering to a targeted group of users. (Wright & Taylor, 2005)
Partitional Clustering
A single partition of the data is iteratively obtained so that some criterion function is optimized. (Murthy & Diday, 2005)
Partonomy (Part-Of)
A realization of mereology that speciies in a subsumption hierarchy the relationship of parts to the whole. Example: A whole wooden pencil consists of these parts: wooden shaft, paint, embossed logo, graphite core, eraser, and the like. (Buchholz, 2006)
Partitioning
The technique of dividing a set of data into fragments for physical storage purposes. It is intended to improve manageability and accessibility of a large amount of data. (Lu, 2005)
Passband
The frequency range allowed to pass through the ilter. (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
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Passband Ripple
Passive Modality
Information that is captured automatically by the multimodal interface; for example, to track a users location via a microphone, a camera, or data sensors. (Bourguet, 2006)
Password Security
Methods or ways to protect a persons password. (Medlin et al., 2006)
Patent
A limited-term monopoly granted to the inventor of a new invention that protects the ideas behind the invention absolutely. Patents, unlike copyright, are not limited to particular expressions of ideas or forms of an invention, but protect the invention in any form or guise. Patent protection requires speciic actions on the part of the inventor to obtain the protection, and in many countries there are additional requirements such as non-disclosure prior to iling for a patent. In the United States a requirement is that iling occur within one year of disclosure. The absolute monopoly granted by the modern patent is balanced by the requirement that the invention be fully documented, so that others can build on it after the monopoly term expires. (Marshall, 2005)
Passive Tag
Receive energy from the RFID reader and then transmit its ID to the reader. (Owens et al., 2005)
Path-Oriented Query
A query based on path expressions including element tags, attributes, and keywords. (Chen, 2005b)
Passivity
A manifestation of helplessness in which learners do nothing because they have no control over a situation that is not meeting their learning needs. (Pelton & Pelton, 2005)
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Pattern
1: A conjunction of literals that is true for some data vectors in T but is false for all data vectors in F, where (T, F) is a given pdBf. A co-pattern is similarly deined by exchanging the roles of T and F. (Boros et al., 2005) 2: A generic solution to a recurring general problem. (Berztiss, 2006b) 3: A proven solution to a recurring problem in a given context. (Kamthan & Pai, 2006) 4: A structure that exhibits some form of regularity, able to serve as a model representing a concept of what was observed. (Domeniconi & Gunopulos, 2005) 5: Describes a recurring problem and suggests a general solution to that problem. (Solberg et al., 2005) 6: Enforces a problem-solving discipline for design architecture. It consists of three parts: a context, a problem, and a solution. The terms context, problem, and solution are deined: Context describes the environment before the pattern is applied. It outlines the preconditions under which the problem and its solution appear. Thus the context shows where and when the pattern will work. It is usually introduced with the help of a scenario. Problem describes the goals and objectives of a situation. Solution describes the means to achieve the goals and objectives. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005b) 7: A software library for a common business scenario. A framework may be a design framework (possibly expressed in UML) or an implementation framework (possibly in C++, Java, or PHP). (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 8: Software patterns represent proven solutions to recurrent design problems. A pattern names and describes a problem that occurs once and again, and presents a good solution (a solution used by many expert designers) in an abstract way so it can be used in different occurrences of the same problem. The core of the solution is usually expressed using UML diagrams, showing class and object relationships that serve to solve the recurrent problem. The same concept applies to the hypermedia and Web domain when designers recognize that they constantly face similar problems. Web navigation and interface patterns record and convey problems related to Web applications navigational and interface structures. (Rossi & Schwabe, 2005)
classiication error (i.e., supervised pattern detection), or with not only locating occurrences of the patterns in the database, but also deciding whether such an occurrence is a pattern (i.e., unsupervised pattern detection). (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005b)
Pattern Discovery
The data-mining phase that draws upon methods and algorithms, such as statistics and association rules, to characterize usage patterns in wanted forms. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005b)
Pattern Domain
The deinition of a language of patterns, a collection of evaluation functions that provide properties of patterns in database instances, and the kinds of constraints that can be used to specify pattern interestingness. (Boulicaut, 2005)
Pattern Interestingness
A pattern is interesting not only to the degree to which it is accurate, but to the degree which it is also useful with respect to the end users knowledge and objectives. (Owrang O., 2006)
Pattern Language
A set of interrelated patterns expressed in some notation that, as a whole, provides a vocabulary for solving problems arising in some domain. (Kamthan & Pai, 2006)
Pattern Recognition
1: Concerned with the classification of individual patterns into pre-speciied classes (i.e., supervised pattern recognition), or with the identiication and characterization of pattern classes (i.e., unsupervised pattern recognition). (Zhang, 2005b) 2: The ability to take in raw data, such as images, and take action based on the category of the data. (Lovell & Chen, 2005)
Pattern Decomposition
A technique that uses known frequent or infrequent patterns to reduce the search space of a dataset. (Zou & Chu, 2005)
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A decision problem where the state of a system (described by a vector of inputs) has to be assigned to one of two possible output classes, generalizing the information contained in a set of examples. The same term is also used to denote classiication problems, where the number of output classes is greater than two. (Muselli, 2005)
Deines how much of the variation in the criterion variable(s) is caused by the model. Range: 0 to 1. (Morantz, 2005)
Pay-Per-Click
A search engine advertising strategy that allows for companies to bid for a Web site ranking based on the price they are willing to pay per click-through (when a visitor clicks on a Web ad as a result of keywords used when performing the search, e.g., on Google.com). The client chooses the keywords to appear on his Web site when a search is performed. (OBuyonge & Chen, 2006)
Pedagogical Model
A model that contains information about the pedagogical strategies which will be followed when making recommendations. (Gaudioso & Montero, 2006)
Pedagogical Practice
One of the learning activities that support the unit of content; the instructional approach such as active learning, constructivist model, student-to-student engagement; and teaching to multiple learning styles and a variety of assessments. (Blicker, 2005)
Payment System
A mechanism for enabling payment for Internet transactions. (Quah et al., 2006a)
Pedagogical Reengineering
Teachers relecting on the ways they currently teach and perhaps adopting improved techniques. Online teaching is often an impetus for pedagogical reengineering. (Salter, 2005a)
PBL: See Problem-Based Learning. PBX: See Private Branch Exchange. PC++
Persistent C++ extends C++ language by providing persistence facilities. (Polese et al., 2005)
Pedagogy
1: Refers to how teachers perceive the nature of learning and what they do to create conditions that motivate students to learn and become critical thinkers. (G. Lang, 2005) 2: The activities and theory of education, instructing, or teaching. (Laghos & Zaphiris, 2005a) 3: The art and science of helping children learn. (Whitield, 2005) 4: The art and science of teaching, involving an underlying learning philosophy and strategies for carrying out the philosophy in a given learning setting. (Collis & Moonen, 2005b)
PCA: See Principal Component Analysis. PD: See Participatory Design; Professional Distance. PDA: See Personal Digital Assistant. PDDP: See Principal Direction Divisive Partitioning.
Peer PDF: See Portable Document Format. PDU: See Professional Development Unit.
1: Another node in a network that is like every other node in the network. (Yee & Korba, 2006) 2: Persons who are equal in social or occupational standing. (Murphy, 2005a)
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Peer Coaching
Students are paired with a classmate or join a small group, with the aim of getting advice and support, and perhaps some instruction, from these fellow learners. (KukulskaHulme, 2005)
Peer Evaluation
Where peers (such as students) evaluate each others solutions to problems or other assignments. (Bieber et al., 2005)
Peer Interactivity
For the majority of online courses, the task is to encourage a lot of discussion and feedback. This is not a stand-alone correspondence course! Learners (usually) need to share ideas and work in small teams to solve complex problems with others in the online learning environment. (Rogers, 2005b)
Peer Learning
1: A learning style that supports the concept of peers learning from each other. (Zaphiris & Kurniawan, 2005) 2: The use of other students experiences and knowledge as a primary resource in learning. (Lam et al., 2006)
Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
1: Denotes the idea of a network of equals (peers) that provide resources such as CPU time, storage area, bandwidth, or information to each other so that collaborative processes are enabled avoiding a central coordinating instance. (Maier & Hdrich, 2006) 2: A communications model in which each party has the same capabilities and either party can initiate a communication session. (Yow & Mittal, 2006) 3: A network topology in which devices communicate directly with each other rather than through a server, as in a client/server architecture. Each system shares
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Pe e r-t o-Pe e r Wire le ss N e t w ork Confe de rat ion (P2 PWN C) Pe rc e ive d Risk
Perceived Attribute
One of the characteristics of innovation as perceived by individuals (relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, triability, observability). (Askar & Kocak-Usluel, 2005)
Perceived Beneit
The extent of management recognition of the relative advantage that innovation can provide to firms. (Lertwongsatien & Wongpinunwatana, 2005)
Pen Computing
A computer that uses an electronic pen (or stylus) rather than a keyboard for data input. Pen-based computers often support handwriting or voice recognition so that users can write on the screen or vocalize commands/dictate instead of typing with a keyboard. Many pen computers are handheld devices. Also known as pen-based computing. (Garrett, 2006b)
People-Process-System Fit
A degree of consistency among learner groups, business processes, and e-learning systems that: (1) relects the target constituency requirements, organizational context, and stated educational or training goals; (2) applies the principles and approaches of constructivism, usercenteredness, participatory design, quality management, and organizational development to instructional design of courseware; and (3) translates into expected performance levels. (Rentroia-Bonito & Jorge, 2005)
PeopleAggregator(.com)
Open source, online social networking application. (Mew, 2006)
Perceived Relevance
Workers who are to use the system perceive the system as adding value to the work results and being integrated in running work. (Ericsson & Avdic, 2005)
Perceived Risk
The uncertainty that consumers face when they cannot foresee the consequences of their purchase decisions. (Scarpi & DallOlmo-Riley, 2006)
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Percolation Theory
Assume a grid of nodes where each node is occupied with probability p and empty with probability (1-p). Percolation theory is a quantitative (statistical-theoretical) and conceptual model for understanding and analyzing the statistical properties (e.g., size, diameter, shape, etc.) of the clusters of occupied nodes as the value of p changes. Many concepts associated with complex systems such as clustering, fractals, diffusion, and particularly phase transitions are modeled as the percolation problem. The signiicance of the percolation model is that many different problems can be mapped to the percolation problem; for example, forest-ire spread, oil ield density estimation, diffusion in disordered media, and so forth. (Shahabi & Banaei-Kashani, 2005)
Percept
A mental artifact (in the form of a network of connected neurons) that allows some mental representation of a directly, or indirectly, experienced thing. Also, it is the self mental model of an organism generated by remembrances of experiential perceptions made by the organism previously. (Atkinson & Burstein 2006)
Perception
1: Contingent upon prior expectations, perceptions have been used by some as a reality check of expectations, where an assessment of quality is derived by the disconirmation of the two. Moreover, they have also been proposed as a measure of adequacy (perceptions)/importance. (Wilkin, 2005) 2: In human-computer interaction terms, how we perceive a product/system to have responded and reacted when we have used it. Ideally, there should be a good match between expectations and perceptions. (Noyes, 2006) 3: Students perceptions relate to how they perceive a speciic environment (c.q., KABISA); they are the results of an interaction between students instructional conceptions and a speciic learning environment. (Clarebout et al., 2005b)
Performance
The quality, with respect to both errors and time, of work. (Diaper, 2006)
Performance Assessment
The measurement of an activity, process, or product to see if it meets an established objective or benchmark. (Hanson et al., 2005)
Performance Level
The description of the levels of quality attainment within each criterion that are incrementally identiied as low, good, better, and best. (B.L. MacGregor, 2005)
Perceptual Illusion
Misperception of the human visual system so that what we apprehend by sensation does not correspond with the way things really are. (Noyes, 2006)
Performance Measurement
A management practice that involves specifying and managing a set of metrics addressing business performance, usually in the form of a scorecard. A good performance measurement system is targeted to implement a coherent set of strategies. (Saha, 2005)
Perceptual Measure
An instrument used to investigate identiied relationships in learning environments. (Clayton, 2006b)
Performance Metric
1: A key measurement of system attributes that is used to determine the success of the process. (Pang, 2005a) 2: Simple or composite metric aimed at expressing the performance of a system. (Darmont, 2005)
Perceptual Organization
A process to group sensory primitives arising from a common underlying cause. Perceptual organization can also be deined as the ability to impose structural regularity on sensory data. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005c)
Performance Support
Conditions and factors that enable excellent performance, including clear expectations for success, feedback, appropriate rewards, self-concept, capacity to perform work, and skills and knowledge appropriate to task requirements. (Schaffer et al., 2006)
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Peripheral Computing
The interface attempts to provide attentionally peripheral awareness of people and events. Ambient channels provide a steady low of auditory cues (i.e., a sound like rain) or gradually changing lighting conditions. (Oulasvirta & Salovaara, 2006)
Performance Task
University course-speciic project that demonstrates learning of course content. (Shaw & Slick, 2005)
Performance-Based Evaluation
Measure of a students performance after receiving treatment. (Witta, 2005)
Peripheral Device
One of the gardware devices, separate from the computers central processing unit (CPU), which add communication or other capabilities to the computer. (Becker, 2006)
Performance-Based Instruction
Learning activities centered more on the acquisition of skills than on the acquisition of knowledge. (Petska & Berge, 2005)
Peripheral in CoPs
Does not deine a physical measurement of remoteness from a hypothetical center, since the concepts remaining on the periphery and full integration indicate irst and foremost degrees of commitment to the community. (Ranguelov & Rodrguez, 2006)
Performance-Based Model
Student model that proiles the learners according to their performance. (Lin & Kinshuk, 2005)
Performative Agent
Intelligent agent that changes the state of the external world through autonomous, deliberate action (e.g., make binding market transactions). Performative agents seek out and act on information, according to user-prescribed criteria. (Gates & Nissen, 2005a)
Performing Learner
Lower-risk, semi-skilled to skilled learner that rationally, systematically, and capably uses psychological processes, strategies, preferences, and self-regulated learning skills to achieve learning objectives and tasks. (Raisinghani & Hohertz, 2005)
Peripherality
A form of participation in a community of practice by which individuals take less intense membership. This can be seen as a form of becoming a newcoming member of
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the community. This situation should not be seen as free of conlicts. Instead, it can be an opportunity for a community to develop their practice. (Crdoba, 2006a)
Personal Community
Individual social network of informal, interpersonal ties ranging from a half-dozen intimates to hundreds of weaker ties. (Fryer & Turner, 2006)
Personal Data
Any information concerning a natural or legal person that can identify it. (Cevenini, 2005)
Permission Intensity
Composed of two elements, the amount of information an individual provides an organization and the permission to use the information to develop personalized communications. (Moore et al., 2006)
Permission Marketing
The act of requesting customer approval before sending a marketing communication. (Moore et al., 2006)
Permutation GA
A type of Genetic Algorithm (GA) where individuals represent a total ordering of elements, such as cities to be visited in a minimum-cost graph tour (the Traveling Salesman Problem). Permutation GAs use specialized crossover and mutation operators compared to the more common bit string GAs. (Hsu, 2005a)
Persistence
1: Generally refers to whether students inish their degrees or programs. (Lindsay et al., 2005a) 2: Relating to the act of continuing toward an educational goal. Many institutions track this information to determine who completes their degree or certiicate on time or within a stated period of time. (Adkins & Nitsch, 2005)
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discussions between participants in online courses may occur. (Woods & Baker, 2005)
Personal Empowerment
Ability to speak up and advocate for oneself. (Crichton, 2005)
Personality
A complex set of relatively stable behavioral and emotional characteristics of a person. (Kaluzniacky, 2006)
Personality Type
Used to explain temperaments that affect behaviors which create actions. Allows people to understand their personality preferences, particularly with respect to energy source, information gathering, decision making, and lifestyle/work patterns. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a well-known example of an instrument used to develop an individuals personality type proile. (Campbell & Berge, 2005)
Personal/Mobile Portal
One of the portals embedded into mobile phones, wireless PDAs, appliances, and the like. (Tatnall, 2006)
Personalization
1: A set of mechanisms built into a system in order to tailor it to a particular user and his or her goal. (Babaian, 2005) 2: A set of techniques and services that aim to solve the information overload problems Web users face, by providing them with what they want or need, without having to ask (or search) for it explicitly. (Markellou et al., 2006) 3: Ability of systems to adapt and provide different responses to different users, based on knowledge about the users. (Gaudioso & Montero, 2006) 4: An approach to increase the usability of complex information systems and present the user with a comprehensible interface that is tailored to his or her needs and interests. (Anke & Sundaram, 2006) 5: Can be regarded as services of the use of technology and user/customer information to customize multimedia content aiming to match with individual needs and ultimately deliver customers or users satisfaction. (Hsu & Kulviwat, 2006) 6: Customization to individual user preferences and needs. (Quah, Leow, & Yong, 2006) 7: Developing tailored approaches with relevant material
Personal Relationship
The kind of relationship between people exempliied by shared understanding, mutual trust, and social bonding. Communication in personal relationships is initially directed toward the exchange of personal information and later toward the sharing of mutual experiences. (Pauleen, 2005)
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packaged for the particular wireless user. (Clarke & Flaherty, 2005) 8: From the service providers viewpoint, any service provided to a user should be personalized. Personalization is a process through which the system utilizes the knowledge about a user to tailor the service to suit the online user with a lavor of the individuality. An automated personalization may promote the service providers image and improve the effectiveness of the system functions. (Li, 2005a) 9: Matching categorized content with special customer characteristics such as desires and preferences in order to individualize an interaction process. (Blecker, 2006b) 10: The approach of providing an overall customized, individualized user experience by taking into account the needs, preferences, and particular characteristics of a user (or group of users). (Koutrika, 2005) 11: Web-based personalization means providing customized content to individual users using Web sites, e-mails, and push technologies. (Seitz, 2005)
Personalized Networking
A type of networking where a range of technologies are used to add value to a human network. (Walker, 2006)
Personalized Page
Personalized view of content and applications assembled by the portal. A personalized page can, for example, highlight a users deadlines across many collaboration server projects or the latest resources added to a knowledge directory topic. The page typically also shows the user key services from a wide range of applications, such as call center queues from a customer support application or expense report requests from an employee services application. Such a page may also include personal productivity services such as the users e-mail or stock quotes. Personalized pages are assembled from portlets. (Wojtkowski, 2006)
Personalization Engine
A system component that exploits information regarding user activities to derive user preferences and interests, and to tailor the content to be delivered according to these. (Lepouras & Vassilakis, 2006)
Personalization Strategy
The personalization strategy (vs. codiication strategy) focuses on developing networks for linking people so that tacit knowledge can be shared. (Ribire & Romn, 2006)
Perspective
The combination of interests, values, and viewpoints relected in a Balanced Scorecard (BSC). The sum of the different perspectives in a given BSC should relect all of the critical stakeholder views of an organization. (Keinath, 2005)
Persuasive Communication
Rely more on persistence, rather than clear and concise arguments, to attain agreement. (Sipior, 2005)
Perturbation
A behavioral entity affecting the weights of a neural network. (Alippi & Vanini, 2005)
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PG: See Process Group. PGM: See Pragmatic General Multicast. PGP: See Pretty Good Privacy. Phase Model of Access
According to this model, the digital divide is concerned with the multi-faceted concept of access. Possessing a computer and a network connection is the most common meaning in the context of digital technology. (Banerji & Basu, 2005)
Allows mobile devices to affect everyday life in a pervasive and context-speciic way. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006b)
Pervasive Computing
1: An environment where computers have the capability to obtain information from the environment in which it is embedded and utilize it dynamically. (Krogstie, 2005b) 2: Technology that has moved beyond the personal computer to everyday devices with embedded technology and connectivity. The goal of pervasive computing is to create an environment where the connectivity of devices is embedded in such a way that the connectivity is unobtrusive and always available. (Dixon et al., 2005) 3: Technology that provides easy access to information and other people anytime and anywhere through a mobile and scalable information access infrastructure. (Oulasvirta & Salovaara, 2006)
Phase Response
1: Phase of the complex frequency response. (JovanovicDolecek, 2005c) 2: The phase of the Fourier transform of the unit sample response. For a real impulse response digital ilter, the phase response is an odd function of the frequency. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005a)
Pervasive Recommendation
Unsolicited information about products or services related with the one requested. They are usually shown as advertising or secondary recommendations, acting as illers for the page or as new elements in the interface; they could be perceived as disturbing elements. The system of inner marketing establishes a policy of publicity for each product destined to given segments of consumers. This provides a method to perform cross-sell marketing. (Gil & Garca, 2006)
Phased Approach
Implementing the modules on an ERP system in sequential steps, comprising one or more modules in one or more locations or plants, until the system is completely installed. Also called roll out. (de Souza & Zwicker, 2005)
Phenomenology
A strand of philosophy that accounts for human action without mental representation. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), currently demanding rereading in the HCI community, is one of the most important thinkers in this ield. (Kettley, 2006a)
Petri Net
1: A directed, bipartite graph in which nodes are either places (represented by circles) or transitions (represented by rectangles), invented by Carl Adam Petri. A Petri net is marked by placing tokens on places. When all the places with arcs to a transition (its input places) have a token, the transition ires, removing a token from each input place and adding a token to each place pointed to by the transition (its output places). Petri nets are used to model concurrent systems, particularly network protocols. (Guan, 2005d) 2: Process-modeling technique based on directed bipartite graphs with two node types called places and transitions that are connected by arcs. (Fisteus & Kloos, 2006)
Philosophy
1: The study of basic principles including what and how we know, rules for language and reasoning, and the basis for social interaction. (Gilbert, 2005) 2: Two opposing interpretations: one more theoretical, contemplative, and interior to the human process of thinking; another one, which interprets philosophy as a doing, as a practice,
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and as an action. As philosophy is highly complex, both interpretations are possible, though the focus of the community of practice approach is on philosophy as action. (Nobre, 2006b)
Phishing
1: A form of spooing, where users are tricked into providing personal identiication information because thieves have stolen the look and feel of a legitimate site. (Sockel & Chen, 2005) 2: Inducing people (often by e-mail) to visit a Web site that steals personal information about them. (Rowe, 2006a) 3: Scams use e-mail and Web sites designed to look like those of legitimate companies, primarily banks, to trick consumers into divulging personal information, such as inancial account numbers, that can be used to perpetrate identity-theft fraud (http://www.antiphishing. org/) (Tassabehji, 2005a) 4: Short for password harvest ishing, it is the process of impersonating another trusted person or organization in order to obtain sensitive personal information, such as credit card details, passwords, or access information. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006a) 5: Using e-mail to entice unsuspecting consumers to Web sites resembling those of trusted banks and credit card issuers with a view toward collecting personal information. (Szewczak, 2006) 6: With phishing, identity thieves establish a fake Web site designed to look like a companys actual site; unsuspecting customers are drawn to the site and asked to disclose personal information. (Close et al., 2006)
PHP Project
The project started with the collection of scripts to be executed as cgi-bin scripts from a Web server and soon became a real language. PHP is now a widely used generalpurpose scripting language (very close to C for its syntax) that is especially suited for Web development. Very valued features of this software are: (1) modularity of the interpreting language, which can be built as a module for Web servers and especially for the Apache; (2) embedding features of the language, which can coexist with HTML code in Web pages; (3) creation on the ly of HTML pages (they can be produced by the server depending on conditions emerging from clients answers or choices); and (4) interaction with widely used RDBMSs, including MySQL and PostgreSQL. (Cartelli, 2005b)
Phrasing
The manner in which something is expressed in words. (Galitsky, 2005c)
Phreaking
The ability to use a phone service without being billed. (Wilsdon & Slay, 2005)
Phonetic Encoding
Use of some speciic pronunciation rules to translate word symbol as phonetic symbol. (Lee, Lin, et al., 2005)
Photogrammetry
1: Technique permitting the setup of the coordinates of points (DEM) of an object surface by processing stereo images of the objects surface. (Zelasco et al., 2005) 2: The science or art of obtaining reliable measurements or information from images. (Caelli, 2005)
Phylogenetic Tree
A representation of the branching order and branch lengths of a collection of taxa, which, in its most common display form, looks like the branches of a tree. (Burr, 2005b)
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such services. The degree of Physco-ness and the range of capabilities it applies vary for different providers. (Alexander & Burn, 2006)
Physical Schema
The technical description of a database; all the physical constructs (such as indexes) and parameters (such as page size or buffer management policy) are speciied. The physical schema of a database is the implementation of its logical schema. (Hainaut et al., 2005)
Physical Capital
Tangible resources such as tools, transportation vehicles, buildings, machines, and equipment that aid in the production of goods and services. (Ridings, 2006b)
Physicalism
The thesis that everything in the universe is physical. Applied to the mind, physicalism asserts that: (1) all entities in the universe are physical entities and their combinations (ontological physicalism); and (2) all properties of any entity in the universe are physical properties (property physicalism). (Gelepithis, 2005)
Physical Cost
One of the costs associated with production, transportation, and inventory. (Setzekorn et al., 2005)
Physical Data
Data source for data mining in SQL/MM DM and JDM. It is mapped to inputs of a data-mining task (referred to as logical data). (Zendulka, 2005c)
Physical Dimension
Describes those elements that are necessary in order to enable contact between an IT professional and its end users. (Leonard, 2005)
Physical Form
The actual physical means by which thoughts, meaning, concepts, and so forth are conveyed. This, therefore, can take the form of any physical format, such as the writing or displaying of words, the drawing or displaying of images, spoken utterances or other forms of sounds, the carrying out of actions (e.g., bodily gestures), and so forth. (Polovina & Pearson, 2006)
Physical Interface
Tangible device for interaction with the game. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
Piecemeal Design
A method of designing a system in which each component of a system is developed independently. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005)
Physical Model
A logical model instantiated in a speciic database management product in a speciic installation. (Pardede et al., 2005)
Piezo-Electric Crystal
A crystal having the property such that when it is subjected to mechanical strain (e.g., pressure) it develops electrical charge of opposite polarity on opposite faces. Conversely when electrical potential of opposite polarity is applied on
Physical/Physiological Biometric
A biometric characterized by a physical characteristic. (Vatsa et al., 2005)
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opposite faces, mechanical strain is induced in the crystal. (Lahiri & Basu, 2005)
Plagiarism
The use of the ideas from an existing source directly and without attribution. A number of different types of plagiarism are recognized, not all of which are considered inappropriate in all disciplines. Plagiarism by copying is the most common and occurs when the words from one source are used without modiication or attribution. Rephrasing an expressed idea without citation is plagiarism by paraphrasing. Other forms include self-plagiarism, patchwork plagiarism, plagiarism of structure or citation, and ghostwriting or fraud. Some forms of plagiarism, but not all, are also violations of copyright. (Marshall, 2005)
Pillar
As used in the Sloan-C quality framework for online learning, a pillar is a base on which quality online learning rests. The ive pillars are: learning effectiveness, cost effectiveness, access, student satisfaction, and faculty satisfaction. (Keinath, 2005)
Planned Impact
One of the anticipated outcomes of a systems development project that are identiied at the projects outset, and are typically critical to its ultimate success. (Doherty & King, 2005)
PITA: See Pacific Islands Telecommunications Association. PIU: See Pathological Internet Use. Pivot Domain
The problem or opportunity being addressed. (AbouZeid, 2005a)
Planning
Determining what is to be achieved, setting goals, and identifying appropriate action steps. Planning centers on determining goals and the process to achieve them. (Cragg & Suraweera, 2005)
Platform
Speciic computer hardware or a speciic combination of hardware and operating system. It is also used to refer to support software for a particular activity, as in This program provides a platform for research into routing protocols. (Arkhypska et al., 2005)
Pivot Table
An interactive table found in most spreadsheet programs that quickly combines and compares typically large amounts of data. One can rotate its rows and columns to see different arrangements of the source data, and also display the details for areas of interest. (Pang, 2005a)
PKI: See Public Key Infrastructure. Platform Infrastructure Service PLA: See Participatory Learning and Action. Place
A recognizable tract of space that in some physical or conceptual way evokes a sense of social agency (conscious or habitual intentions of people), a certain type of behavior, or a personal emotional reaction. (Champion, 2006b) Entity that owns portfolios of telecommunication towers in various countries and rents space on the towers to network infrastructure operators. (Rlke et al., 2005)
PlaceWare
A hosted Web-conferencing service, now owned by Microsoft. (Panton, 2005)
A positive function that represents the extent to which we fail to disbelieve the proposition described by a focal element. (Beynon, 2005a)
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Plausibility Function
pl(A) is the total amount of belief that might support that the actual world is in A. (Smets, 2005)
PMMM: See Project Management Maturity Model. PMP: See Project Management Professional. POC: See Political Online Community.
Playout Buffer
Buffer used at the receiver side to store received audio packets in interactive real-time applications in order to compensate for variable network delays. (Roccetti & Ferretti, 2005)
Pocket PC
A Microsoft Windows-based operating system (OS) for PDAs and handheld digital devices. Versions have included Windows CE, Pocket PC, Pocket PC Phone Edition, and Windows Mobile. The system itself is not a cut-down version of the Windows PC OS, but is a separately coded product designed to give a similar interface. (Garrett, 2006a)
Point of Contention
A communication factor that is found to be positive (contributes to ones credibility) in the research of one ield, but is found to be negative (detracts from ones credibility) in the research of another ield. (St.Amant, 2005c)
Point Learning
Derives rules by looking at each individual point value of the attributes in every instance of the training data set. (Dai, 2005a)
PLM: See Product Lifecycle Management. PLMN: See Public Land Mobile Network.
Point Uncertainty
A model of sensor uncertainty where each stored data item is assumed to be a correct representation of the entity being represented. (Cheng & Prabhakar, 2005)
Pluralistic
Of or belonging to a pluralist or to pluralism; recognizing more than one ultimate principle in existence or being contrasted to monism. (Rogers & Howell, 2005)
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Point-Based Solution
One of the isolated software solutions typically developed by individuals or small groups. While usually cheaper to develop, they have dificulties related to scaling, maintainability, and a lack of interfaces to other systems. They tend to suffer greatly when the champion moves on to another place of employment or even simply to the next interesting project. (Salter, 2005b)
Policy
1: A body of expectations that describe acceptable and unacceptable behaviors of employees in the workplace. (Mattord & Whitman, 2005) 2: A course of action developed for the achievement of a set of goals. (Ajiferuke & Olatokun, 2005) 3: A public statement of intentions and behavioral norms that is usually formalized and made explicit by a sovereign government, institution, corporation, or other organizational entity. (Olatokun & Ajiferuke, 2006) 4: Set of rules specifying the level of access to network resources to which a user or application is entitled. (DaSilva, 2005)
Point-of-Regard
Point in space where a person is looking. Usually used in eye-tracking research to reveal where visual attention is directed. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
Policy Network
Centered on the provision of public services and includes, beside the public administration, agents from the business community as well as from civil society, like non-governmental organizations, sports clubs, or interest organizations. These agents are engaged in interdependent relations with the public administration. (Jaeger, 2005)
Poisson Process
A stochastic process for generating observations in which the number of observations in a region (a region in space or time, e.g.) is distributed as a Poisson random variable. (Burr, 2005a)
Polling Policing
Mechanism by which the network determines whether offered trafic meets the speciications in the service agreement; excess trafic may be dropped or marked as noncompliant. Policing is typically implemented at the entry point to a network. (DaSilva, 2005) A technology associated with online meetings that allows a presenter to a display a multiple-choice or true/false question to the attendees for feedback purposes. (Panton, 2005)
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Poly-Time Algorithm
An algorithm whose complexity evolves polynomially with respect to the envisaged complexity parameter. (Alippi & Vanini, 2005)
often involving splashy colors and loud sound effects. (Friedman, 2005)
Pop-Up Window
A window that suddenly appears (pops up) when a user selects an option. In instant messaging, a pop-up window signals when a users buddies come online and go ofline, while the user is engaged in other computer applications. (Hwang & Stewart, 2005)
Polygraph
Electronic device used for measuring human body parameters in the hope (never proven) of detecting deception. (Rowe, 2006b)
Polyline
Represented by the ordered set of points and the ordered set of lines connecting consecutive points. The direction of a polyline is from the start point to the end point. (Ferri & Grifoni, 2006)
Popularity
Indicates the importance of a multimedia object. The most requested objects are the most popular. As a multimedia object is a set of segments, we distinguish two types of popularity: global popularity and local popularity. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Polymorphism
1: One method name can cause different actions to occur, depending on the kind of object performing the action. (Lucas, 2005) 2: The ability of object-oriented programs to have multiple implementations of the same method name in different classes in an inheritance tree. Derived classes can override the functionality deined in their base class. (D. Brandon, 2005a)
Population Stereotype
Comprises the well-ingrained knowledge that we have about the world, based on our habits and experiences of living in a particular cultural environment. (Noyes, 2006)
Population-Level Operator
Unusually parameterized operation that applies methodlevel operators (parameter) to a part or whole evolving population. (Leni et al., 2005)
Port
An interface for physically connecting to some other device such as a monitor, keyboard, and network connection. (Tassabehji, 2005a)
Polyphase Decomposition
Decomposition of a transfer function in M (L) polyphase components that provide sequential processing of the input signal at the lower sampling rate. (Mili, 2005)
Port Scanning
The practice of sending electronic queries to Internet sites in order to learn what level of security exists. Often the intent is to see if it can be compromised. (Friedman, 2005)
PON: See Passive Optical Network. POP, POP3: See Post Ofice Protocol.
Pop-Up Advertisement
1: A Web-based promotional technique that places a new window of advertising message or image over an Internet users current active window. (Gao et al., 2006) 2: A window that suddenly appears while suring the Web,
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independent of the computer systems they are on. (Snyder, 2005) 2: Method of document reproduction, generated by Adobe Acrobat Systems, notable for quality reproduction of both text and accompanying images. (McCarthy, 2005a) 3: According to Adobe Systems Incorporated, a PDF is a universal ile format that preserves the fonts, images, graphics, and layout of any source document, regardless of the application and platform used to create it. (Nightingale, 2005)
Portal
1: A computer desktop environment that provides organized aggregated access to the applications, systems, and Web sites used by a community member, based on their role within the community. (Elshaw, 2006b) 2: A gateway serving as a starting point for accessing several services offered by a CI (or e-commerce or e-government) system. (Kirlidog, 2005) 3: A multi-functional Web site that forms a gateway to a range of services that usually includes Web directories, search capabilities, and links to other Web resources. (Toland, Purcell, et al., 2005) 4: A one-stop site on the Web that provides a range of information and services for people. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2006) 5: A one-stop, cross-department/business unit and cross-jurisdictional Web site that serves as an aggregation of government services in a given functional area or based on user needs. (Schelin, 2005) 6: Any Web site considered an entry point to other Web sites, often by being or providing access to a search engine. (Nightingale, 2005) 7: A self-addressed information package with the ability to be pushed or pulled among Internet applications. It is self-contained with metadata for its information structure and presentation. Compared with the concept of datagram on the Internet, portal can be regarded as a kind of information-gram on the Internet for its properties of selfservice, personalization, and real-time delivery. Mostly portals are implemented in XML. (Li, 2005a) 8: A virtual meeting space where irms come together to exchange information, trade, or collaborate. There are three different types of portals: information portals, transactional portals, and cooperative portals. These types can be classiied according to orientation criteria into vertical portals (irms in the same industry or sub-industry, grouped by function), horizontal or functional portals (irms grouped according to their shared needs, regardless of sector), and geographical portals (irms grouped geographically by region or country). (Moreau et al., 2005) 9: A Web site or service that provides access to a wide range of services that can be either local or remote, structured or unstructured.
The user stays inside the portal interface, which provides access to remote Web sites on the users behalf. (Braun, 2005c) 10: A Web-based environment customized to provide users information needs. In contrast to the typical Web page, where a large amount of information is available to all, portals provide information speciic to the users need and role. The user is able to customize what information is revealed and what is hidden. (Howell & Wilcken, 2005) 11: A WWW gateway or entrance site for users when they get connected to the Web or that users tend to visit as an anchor site. (Buchanan, 2005) 12: Access gateway to the World Wide Web (WWW) which integrates various information sources and services, and usually allows users to customize the content, layout, and navigation to suit their personal needs. (Vrazalic & Hyland, 2005) 13: Acts as a channel between the content creator and end user. It does not typically have a content of its own. (Lammintakanen & Rissanen, 2005a) 14: An electronic doorway providing a comprehensive array of resources and services. Portals typically contain newsletters, e-mail services, search engines, online shopping, chat rooms, discussion boards, and personalized links to other sites. (Dotsika, 2006)
Portfolio
1: A repository of information about an individual usually used in the context of a education or career activity. (Wasko, 2005) 2: A well-constructed, purposeful, and individualized collection of artifacts which captures the complexities of learning and teaching, and demonstrates the creators abilities, progress, achievement, and effort of what he/she can do. (Wieseman, 2005a) 3: The report collecting documents, scores, interviews, and so forth, and demonstrating the students skills, achievements, learning, and competencies, with respect to: (1) previously deined areas of skill, (2) speciic learning outcomes from these areas, (3) appropriate learning strategies that have to be developed by the student, and (4) performance indicators. (Cartelli, 2005a)
Portfolio Template
A pre-designed Web page used to create an electronic portfolio. (Shaw & Slick, 2005)
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Portlet
Possibility Distribution
For a fuzzy set, when the membership degree associated with an element is viewed to be a measure of the possibility that a variable has the value of the element, the fuzzy set becomes a possibility distribution. (Ma, 2005b)
A reusable Web component that displays relevant information to portal users. (Wojtkowski, 2006)
Possible Consequentialism
Evaluating an ethical position in terms of its possible consequences. (Artz, 2005a)
Possible World
Corresponds to the statistical notion of an elementary event. Probabilities over possible worlds, however, have a more epistemic, subjective meaning, in that they are assumed to relect an agents knowledge. (Kern-Isberner, 2005)
Position-Determination Technology
Technology, either network based or satellite based, that enables wireless carriers to pinpoint mobile phone users. (Sun, 2005)
Positive Attitude
A perception about IT that results in behavior that identiies opportunities for innovative uses of new IT. (Winston & Dologite, 2005)
Post-Industrial Society
A general term used by many authors after Daniel Bell (1973) to describe the increasing importance of tertiary and quaternary sectors of industrialized economies. Often the term is synonymous with white collar or knowledge work. (Lepawsky & Park, 2006)
Positive Information
The kind of information about which one can afirmatively state that it is true, with no doubt. (Analide et al., 2006)
Positivism
1: A belief that natural science, based on observation, comprises the whole of human knowledge. (McPherson, 2005) 2: Asserts that reality is the sum of sense impressionin large, equating social sciences with natural sciences. Primarily uses deductive logic and quantitative research methods. (Carlsson, 2005)
Possibilistic Clustering
The possibilistic c-means (PCM) family of clustering algorithms is designed to alleviate the noise problem by relaxing the constraint on memberships used in probabilistic fuzzy clustering. (Klawonn & Rehm, 2005)
Posterior Probability
Probability distribution of an unknown characteristic after combining prior information and data. (Rippon & Mengersen, 2005)
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Postgenome Era
The time after the complete human genome sequence is decoded. (Fu, 2005)
Posture Recognition
Static body coniguration without a dynamic movement. (Ozer et al., 2005)
PostgreSQL Project
The project had its beginnings in 1986 inside the University of California at Berkeley as a research prototype and in the 16 years since then has moved to its now globally distributed development model, the PostgreSQL RDBMS (formerly known as Postgres, then as Postgres95), with central servers based in Canada. The PostgreSQL Global Development Group is a community of companies and people cooperating to drive the development of PostgreSQL. (Cartelli, 2005b)
Potential Contributor
One of the newcomers and the ones who might exhibit a wish for contribution in virtual communities. (Lambropoulos, 2006b)
Potential Visitor
Someone who may, in the future, travel to the destination for business or pleasure. (Hornby, 2005)
Power
1: The ability to inluence others. (Panteli, 2005) 2: The capability and possibility to inluence and/or direct the course of some action. (Land, Amjad, et al., 2006)
Postmodern
1: The fragmented, open, and evolving nature of the self and community disclosed in virtual communication. (Srinivasan, 2006) 2: Theoretical approaches characterized as postmodern have abandoned the belief that rational and universal social theories are desirable or exist. Postmodern theories also challenge foundational modernist assumptions such as the idea of progress or freedom. (Macfadyen, 2006b)
Power Differential
The existence of imbalanced power relationships. (Panteli, 2005)
Power Distance
1: A measure of the importance status has in governing interactions among individuals. (St.Amant, 2005d) 2: The way authority igures are perceived. In countries with a high power distance, a leader is an authoritarian igure or a benevolent dictator, and their authority will not be questioned. In a low power distance country, individuals are prepared to argue with leaders, who must be able to justify their decisions. (Toland, Frank, et al., 2005) 3: The extent to which society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is unevenly distributed. (Limayem, 2005)
Postmodernism
A position critical of realism that rejects the view of social sciences as a search for over-arching explanations of the social world. Has a preference for qualitative methods. (Carlsson, 2005)
Postmortem Review
A collective learning activity which can be organized for projects either when they end a phase or are terminated. The main motivation is to relect on what happened in the project in order to improve future practicefor the individuals that have participated in the project and for the organization as a whole. (Dingsyr, 2006)
Power Geometry
The idea that shifts in perceptions of space and time occur unevenly for different people or groups depending on their relative social position. Differences in social power (e.g., based on gender, race, or class) afford greater or lesser degrees of control over how space and time are structured and experienced for different individuals and groups. (Lepawsky & Park, 2006)
Postprint
Scientiic work modiied after peer review. (Rennard, 2006)
PostScript
A text-based page description language developed by Adobe Systems, Inc. that uses precise methods to communicate text and images to an output device. (Snyder, 2005)
Power Law
Postulates that Internet goods (income, trafic, links, etc.) will follow Zipf-type distributions. For example, this
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predicts that a second-ranked site will be half as successful as a irst-ranked site, and a 10th-ranked site will be a 10th as successful as the irst-ranked. (Murphy, 2005a)
produce communicative acts in concrete situations. (Marjomaa, 2005) 3: The study of the contribution of contextual factors to the meaning of what language users say. (Galitsky, 2005c)
Pragmatism
1: Derives from the Greek word pragma which means action. Emphasizes the concept of human beings as agents, and focuses on their practical relation to the world. The principle according to which experience forms the basis of all knowledge is shared by pragmatists and empiricists, these later including positivists and neo-positivists. Pragmatists contrast with positivists by the former focusing on creative inquiring and the latter on passive observation. At a deeper level, the contrast is even greater because of pragmatisms origin in Peirces critique of Descartes, and the overcoming of precisely those Cartesian dualisms which are presupposed by modern western philosophy, including positivism. Examples of these dualisms are subject and object, body and mind, perception and conceptualization, theory and fact, fact and value, deduction and induction, reality and copy, nature and culture, individual and society, sign and signiied, and so forth. To overcome these dualisms, pragmatism rejects some of the basic guiding ideas which inform not only positivism, but also interpretative and structuralist traditions. Among these are the notions such as the subject of knowledge as an individual, observation as presuppositionless activity, truth as a picture or representation corresponding with reality, knowledge as being built up of observation and logical inference, social science as being exclusively concerned with culture (and hence the interpretation and understanding of symbolic meaning), knowledge as involving an arbitrary or conventional twofold sign relation, and so on. Pragmatism, by contrast, stresses the anchorage of knowledge in real collective problems, and knowledge as being dependent on the mediation of signs, which means that it regards knowledge as being social by nature. It focuses on the development of knowledge which it sees as taking place in different ways and in a variety of contexts. Pragmatism in centered on abduction, not induction nor deduction, and not only on the individual creativity, but rather on the cooperative search for truth
PPC: See Pay-Per-Click Advertising. PPGIS: See Public Participation GIS. PPP: See Purchasing Power Parity. PQoS: See Perceived Quality of Service. Practical Relection
Relection about assumptions underpinning classroom practice, and the purposes and consequences of actions in the classroom. (Wieseman, 2005b)
Practice
1: Shared historical and social resources and perspectives that help sustain a community through time. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006) 2: The relational interplay between humans and artifacts that enables work performance. (Munkvold, 2006)
Practitioner-Informant
Users who collaborate with designers as domain experts providing information about work practices are called practitioner-informants. This is the initial stage in the developmental theory of participatory-design relationships between users and designers. (Carroll, 2005)
Pragmatic
1: Of practical consequence. (Aarons, 2006) 2: A subield of linguistics that studies how people comprehend and
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within a community through interpretation, discussion, and argumentationthat is, through the creative collective overcoming of action problems. (Nobre, 2006a) 2: Having a basis in practice, but little explicit or implicit theoretical underpinning. (Kisielnicki, 2006) 3: The philosophical tradition associated with the work of William James, John Dewey, and Charles Saunders Peirce, and more recently with Richard Rorty. Pragmatism shares its philosophical roots with naturalism, in that it holds the natural world as the inal arbiter of truth. However, it also insists on consequences, utility, and practicality as being vital components of truth. Despite this general approach, there are signiicant differences between the ideas of James, Dewey, and Peirce. Thus in order to distinguish his philosophical approach, C.S. Peirce labeled his doctrine that concepts are to be understood in terms of their practical implications as pragmaticism. (Aarons, 2006) 4: The thoroughly practical view of praxis in which theory is not separate from action but a component of useful action in its application to a certain situation. In human-computer interaction, this takes into account the hermeneutic nature of product or system development and appropriation. (Kettley, 2006b)
documents in a given query in the set of documents that are returned by an information retrieval system. (Meng & Chen, 2005) 3: The number of relevant images retrieved as a percentage of the total number of images retrieved. (Sural et al., 2005) 4: The ratio of the number of correctly illed slots to the total number of slots the system illed. (Song et al., 2005)
Predicate Logic
Well-established universal declarative data and knowledge representation language, with capacities of formalizing and automating deductive and other forms of logical reasoning. Its fundamental role for databases and particularly integrity constraints is undisputed and indispensable. (Decker, 2005)
Pranking/Posing
Cyber-identity theft may also include seemingly lighthearted pranksa less sinister form of identity theft. Phony e-dating proiles may be a result of an online prank, causing false expectations for interested e-daters. Posing as another on Instant Messenger is another prank where users misidentify themselvesoften to obtain information not privy to the cyber-identity thief. (Close et al., 2006)
Pre-Computation
This refers to pre-computing commonly required aggregates that are expensive to compute on the ly. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005)
A couple <,p> where is a schema transformation and p a structural predicate that identiies schema patterns. The goal of a predicate-based transformation is to apply to the patterns that meet p in the current schema. (Hainaut, 2005)
Predicate-Driven Transformation
Precision
1: In terms of repeatability, the ability of the measurement process to duplicate the same object measurement and produce the same result. The high or low precision that could be obtained is dependent upon the object of interest and in many cases could be controlled by working harder. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005c) 2: The percentage of relevant
Prediction
1: An output interface of a recommender system. Given a customer and a product, the system generates a score
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expressing the predicted liking in a scale the same as the ratings. (Sarwar et al., 2005) 2: Consists of approximating unknown functions. The nets input is the values of the function variables, and the output is the estimation of the function image. (Mart, 2005)
Preference-Identiication Agent
Comparison-shopping agent specializing in collecting personal product and service review information, for example, epinion.com. (Wan, 2006)
Prefetching
The technique of deducing future client requests for objects based on the current request, and bringing those objects into the cache in the background before an explicit request is made for them. (Katsaros et al., 2005)
Predictive Judgment
An assessment (prior to encountering an information object) based on existing knowledge, assumptions, or the information objects surrogate, independent of assessments based on characteristics of the object (evaluative judgments). (Danielson, 2006c)
Preprint
Scientiic work before peer review. (Rennard, 2006)
Predictive Modeling
1: The process through which mathematical or numerical technologies are utilized to understand or reconstruct past behavior and predict expected behavior in the future. Commonly utilized tools include statistics, data mining, and operations research, as well as numerical or analytical methodologies that rely on domain knowledge. (Ganguly et al., 2005) 2: Use of statistical or data-mining methods to relate attributes (input features) to targets (outputs) using previously existing data for training in such a manner that the target can be predicted for new data based on the input attributes alone. (Mani et al., 2005) 3: This data-mining task makes predictions based on essential characteristics about the data. The classiication task of data mining builds a model to map (or classify) a data item into one of several predeined classes. The regression task of data mining builds a model to map a data item to a real-valued prediction variable. (Nayak, 2005a)
Preprocessed Data
In preparation for data mining, data that have been through preprocessing such as data cleaning or edit/imputation. (Winkler, 2005)
Preprocessing
The tasks of preprocessing for Web usage mining include extraction, cleansing, transformation, sessionization, and so forth. (Yao & Xiao, 2005)
Prescriptive Metadata
Produced by a single expert or group of experts. (Pachet, 2006)
Prescriptive Taxonomy
In educational theory and practice, an organizational scheme for specifying the optimal and appropriate approaches, types, events, methods, media, strategies, techniques, activities, tasks, projects, scope, and sequence of instruction to achieve corresponding speciic learning objectives and desired performance outcomes. While numerous scholars and practitioners across a wide range of associated instructional design ields have created a rich variety of effective and eficient prescriptions for obtaining speciic learning outcomes in speciic situations, to date no single theory-grounded and research-veriied unifying taxonomic scheme has successfully emerged to address all existing and potential educational problems across the phenomena of human learning. (Lasnik, 2005)
Predictive Rule
One of the set of standard if-then rules with the consequent expressing some form of prediction about the output variable. (Muruzbal, 2005)
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Presence
1: A psychological phenomenon enabling the mental state of being there in either technologically mediated or imaginary spaces. (Sas, 2006) 2: The subjective sensation that one is present in a three-dimensional environment that is mediated by digital technology. (Champion, 2006b)
Pretty-Printing
Rudimentary form of program visualization whose goal is to make source code easier to read by means of spacing, indentation, and layout. Pretty-printers are programs that systematically indent the source code of a source program according to its syntactic structure and given aesthetic rules. Sophisticated pretty-printers can also highlight different parts of a program and even generate a program publication. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005)
Presence Practice
Work practice that establishes the presence of a worker in the organization as seen by coworkers and managers. (P.M. Leonardi, 2005)
Pricebot
An intelligent agent that is used by an online seller to determine a proit-maximizing price for a product that it sells. A pricebot encapsulates the pricing algorithm used by an online seller and enables a seller to maintain an edge over its competitors in a dynamically changing market scenario. (Dasgupta et al., 2006)
Presentation
1: In GIS, the set of properties of a geographic object that deine its visual aspect, that is, the way the object is to be shown to the user. Involves aspects such as color, line type, line thickness, ill pattern, and others. (Davis et al., 2005) 2: The sharing of information with others via spoken, written, or online media. (St.Amant, 2005c)
Presentation Environment
An integrated development environment that displays selected patterns to the user when retrieved from the database, and offers different pattern processing and transformation tools. (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005)
Presentation Tool
Any Web-based tool that enables students to post work for viewing by the learning community. (Morphew, 2005)
Primary Market
The market for new securities issues. In the primary market, the security is purchased directly from the issuer. Includes IPOs (initial public offerings of shares to the public). (Roofe, 2005)
Preservice Teacher
Individual preparing to be a school teacher who does not yet have a state teaching certiicate or license. (Wieseman, 2005b)
Presumed Credibility
A credibility assessment based upon general underlying assumptions about a system. (Danielson, 2006c)
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is equivalent to singular value decomposition on the covariance matrix of the data. (Denton, 2005)
Priming Agent
Refers to any structural feature of a learning environment that increases the likelihood that active learning will take place. (Mitchell, 2005c)
Principal Curve
A smooth, curvilinear summary of p-dimensional data. It is a nonlinear generalization of the irst principal component line that uses a local average of p-dimensional data. (Burr, 2005a)
Principle
Idea that can assist learners in recognizing and connecting ideas, and in seeing how new and old ideas relate. (Dexter, 2005)
Principle of Autonomy
Each organizational unit should be granted a high degree of autonomy to manage its local knowledge. Autonomy can be allowed at different levels, the most important of which is the semantic level. Semantic autonomy allows the unit to choose the most appropriate conceptualization of what is locally known (e.g., through the creation of personalized knowledge maps, contexts, ontologies, etc.). (Cuel et al., 2006)
Principle of Coordination
Each unit must be enabled to exchange knowledge with other units, not through the adoption of a single common interpretation schema (this would be a violation of the principle of coordination), but through a mechanism of mapping other units contexts onto its context from its own perspective (that is, by projecting what other units know onto its own interpretation schema). (Cuel et al., 2006)
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Prioritization
Certain packets or data lows may be given higher priority in accessing the medium or in being queued for transmission. (DaSilva, 2005)
Print Disability
Comprises all those disabilities that make it dificult, or impossible, to read printed text. The term includes visual impairment and blindness; cognitive disabilities, such as dyslexia; and certain motor-control impairments. (Schmetzke, 2005)
Privacy
1: Humans claim or desire to control access to themselves or information about them; privacy is broader than conidentiality, and it includes interest in information protection and control. (Goodman, 2005) 2: Measures or regulations created to protect the individual in relation to data collection, unauthorized use of recorded information, and improper access and errors in data collection. (Scott et al., 2006) 3: The interest that individuals have in sustaining a personal space, free from interference by other people and organizations. It is the interest an individual has in controlling, or at least signiicantly inluencing, the handling of data about themselves. (Sharma, 2006a) 4: The private requirements of individuals. It includes all of the individuals concerns regarding the collection, control, and use of personal information. (Xu & Korba, 2005) 5: Process of ensuring that information deemed personal to an individual is protected. (Thuraisingham, 2005) 6: Right of the individual to be protected against intrusion into his personal life or affairs, and the individuals right to decide what personal data of him or herself can be accessed and used publicly by others. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 7: Socially deined ability of an individual to determine whether, when, and to whom personal information is to be released. (Cremonini et al., 2006) 8: The need to secure for the individual the right to be left alone or as the state or condition of limited access to a person. A classic deinition describes privacy as the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others. (Signoret, 2006) 9: The right of an individual to determine when, how, and to what extent his or her personal information is communicated to others. (Yee & Korba, 2006) 10: The right to be left alone and the right to control and manage information about oneself. (T. Stern, 2005)
Prior Art
Higher education has a long tradition of valuing ideas, not just economic value (as in patent laws). Prior art refers to the intangible ideas (instantiated in the earlier publications) prior to the commencement of a project, such as the An@ tomedia project. It was the basis of these earlier ideas that formed the nucleus of the design philosophy and inluenced the manner in which the developers reached agreement on design decisions. (Williamson et al., 2006)
Prior Information
Existing knowledge about a phenomenon under investigation. This knowledge can be incorporated into a statistical analysis using probability distributions. For instance, in a hierarchical Bayesian model, prior information is the set of probability distributions of the parameters in the model. (Vidal-Rodeiro et al., 2005)
Prior Knowledge
1: An individuals collected store of knowledge prior to exposure to a hypertext or other body of information. (Shapiro, 2006) 2: Knowledge, no matter how limited, a pupil has at the beginning of a new topic. This knowledge will have been gathered over time in a variety of ways. Some prior knowledge may be lawed or inaccurate, which leads to the need for restructuring schemas. (Pritchard, 2005b)
Prior Learning
Refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities that students have acquired prior to enrolling in a college program. (D.B. Johnstone, 2005)
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Proactive tool that looks at both the policy and technology risks, and attempts to ascertain the effects of initiatives on individual privacy. (Sockel & Chen, 2005)
Privacy Policy
A disclaimer placed on Web sites informing users about how the organization handles ones personal information. (Cannoy & Iyer, 2006)
Private Key
That key (of a users public-private key pair) known only to the user. (Guan, 2005c)
Privacy Protection
Guarantees that shared personal information will not be shared with other parties without prior approval. (Lowry, Stephens, et al., 2005)
Private Sector
Refers to businesses engaged in commerce for the sole purpose of making a proit and increasing shareholder wealth. (Singh, 2005)
Privacy Rule
Addresses the need for health care organizations to allow patients to choose how their information is disclosed. (Cannoy & Salam, 2006)
Private Space
Off-line, private space refers to geographical areas that are not for general or public use (e.g., your home). Online, the term is commonly used to refer to virtual environments, or parts of virtual environments that have restrictions on who may access them. (Roberts et al., 2005)
Privacy Seal
1: A seal that a business may put on its Web site (i.e., VeriSign or TRUSTe) to show that it is a trustworthy organization that adheres to its privacy policies. (T. Stern, 2005) 2: A third-party icon that indicates they have inspected the Web site privacy policies and found them not to be out of line with the industry. (Sockel & Chen, 2005)
Private Workspace
Part of the CSCL system, usually represented as a designated window in the systems GUI, where a member of the learning group builds his/her own solution of the problem the group solves collaboratively, and where he/she can also take notes, consider alternative solutions, and prepare contributions to the group solution. (Devedi, 2006)
Privatization
The transfer of government, public-owned, or controlled institutions and entities to private enterprise. This was a common public policy in Latin America during the 1990s to generate hard currency and support deregulation. (Ochoa-Morales, 2005)
Privilege Delegation
The process by which a privilege given to one party can be transferred to another party either for an indeterminate or deinite period of time. (Mundy & Otenko, 2005)
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Proactive Computing
A research agenda of developing interconnected devices and agents, equipped with faster-than-human-speed computing capabilities and means to affect real-world phenomena that a user can monitor and steer without a need to actively intervene in all decision-making situations. By raising the user above the traditional human-computer interaction loop, eficiency and freedom from distraction are expected to be enhanced. (Oulasvirta & Salovaara, 2006)
probabilistic density function (called uncertain pdf) that describes the distribution of the values within the interval. (Cheng & Prabhakar, 2005)
Probability
A number between 0 and 1 attached to a logical proposition that represents the degree of truth in that proposition. (Laura, 2005)
Probabilistic Conditional
A conditional that is assigned a probability. To match the notation of conditional probabilities, a probabilistic conditional is written as (B|A)[x] with the meaning If A holds, then B holds with probability x. (Kern-Isberner, 2005)
Probabilistic Model
A classic model of document retrieval based on a probabilistic interpretation of document relevance (to a given user query). (Denoyer & Gallinari, 2005)
Probability Distribution
A function that assigns a probability to each value that a random variable can take, fulilling Kolmogorovs axioms. (de Campos et al., 2005)
Probability Value
A statistical measure that attempts to assess whether an outcome is due to chance or whether it actually relects a true difference; a value less than 5% means that a relationship very likely exists and the result probably did not occur by chance. (Benrud, 2005)
Probabilistic Query
A query which assumes data are characterized by probabilistic uncertainty, and returns query answers augmented with probability values. (Cheng & Prabhakar, 2005)
Probe Array
One of a list of labeled, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules in speciic nucleotide sequences which are used to detect the complementary base sequence by hybridization. (Fung & Ng, 2005)
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Problem Scenario
A textual description of a problem observed in a community studied, which has the form of a story that illustrates the problem and possible solution alternatives. (RodrguezElias et al., 2006)
Problem Solving
1: A situation involving an initial state, a goal (or solution) state, and a blockage between the initial and goal states that requires the construction of new knowledge to proceed from the initial to the goal state. (Nason & Woodruff, 2005b) 2: An approach which treats all problems as independent of human viewpoints and, effectively, as solvable using scientiic or pseudo-scientiic methods. (Clarke, 2006) 3: The application of new knowledge to existing problems, which results in an improvement in eficiency or lowering of the production cost. Usually, a problem exists that requires resolving. Alternatively, we can apply knowledge from another arena to an existing problem, which results in a different way of doing things. (Fong, 2006a)
Problem Structuring
The recognition that certain problems cannot be solved in the above sense, but need to be made sense of through debate. (Clarke, 2006)
involves knowing what we need to know, knowing what we know, knowing what we do not know, and devising strategies to bridge these gaps. (Vat, 2005c) 3: PBL was irst used by medical faculty to help medical students learn through real-life cases. This method emphasizes the learning process in which students actively engage in collecting information and working through a problem. Students are not working alone, as they can build their own understanding under the guidance of instructor, but the instructor does not do the building for them. (Chu, 2005) 4: A pedagogical strategy for posing signiicant, contextualized, real-world situations, and providing resources, guidance, and instruction to learners as they develop content knowledge and problem-solving skills. (Donnelly, 2005) 5: A loosely structured instructional approach that allows students to investigate complex problems, and propose and possibly implement solutions. (Glick, 2005b) 6: An active learning strategy that may be suitable for better preparing information systems students for professional practice. In the problem-based approach, complex, real-world problems or cases are used to motivate students to identify and research concepts and principles they need to know in order to progress through the problems. Students work in small learning teams, bringing together collective skill at acquiring, communicating, and integrating information in a process that resembles that of inquiry. (Lowry & Turner, 2005) 7: An approach to learning based on cognitively based learning theories in which teachers encourage students to learn by actively engaging them in instructional strategies that focus on problem solving, and the knowledge is developed as a consequence of trying to solve the problem. (Gillani, 2005b) 8: Students are confronted with a well-chosen, ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems. Students deine problems, identify what information is needed, and engage in solution generation and decision making. (Jennings et al., 2005)
Problem-Solving Environment
A computer system that provides all the computational facilities needed to solve a target class of problems. (Unal et al., 2006)
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Procedural Factor
Inaccurate classification of new data, resulting in classiication error or omission. (Brown & Kros, 2005)
Process Activity
One of a series of linked activities that transform inputs into outputs (operations management deinition). (Blicker, 2005)
Procedural Information
Easily codiiable information that depicts the steps or protocols that are required to conduct a business process or perform a service. (McIntosh & Siau, 2005)
Process Architecture
Describes the ordering, interfaces, interdependencies, and other relationships among the process elements in a standard process. Process architecture also describes the interfaces, interdependencies, and other relationships between process elements and external processes (CMMI). (Gibson, 2005)
Procedural Knowledge
1: A type of spatial knowledge dealing with the navigational actions required in order to follow a particular route to a destination. (Sadeghian et al., 2006) 2: The knowledge to perform tasks. It shares a dimension with declarative knowledge. The latter may be the result of processing (i.e., the application of procedural knowledge), or it may exist as stored data, requiring no further processing. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Process Consultation
The skills we can identify as characteristic of the ideal OD professional result from speciic training in three obvious skills: process consultation, diagnostic ability, and research methods. Process consultation is a method that enables the OD practitioner to engage organization members in diagnosis, and by collecting and analyzing information through a variety of methodological techniques, including the use of statistics, survey techniques, and force ield analysis. (Grieves, 2006b)
Procedural Link
A link between an object and a process expressing the behavior of the system. (Dori, 2006)
Procedural Model
A model seeking to analyze a certain process, business process reorganization in this context, in order to identify distinct stages and steps which require the application of certain tools and methods. (Becker et al., 2006)
Process Deinition
Consists of a network of activities and their relationships, criteria to indicate the start and termination of the process, and information about the individual activities. (De Lucia et al., 2006)
Procedural Semantics
A method for the translation of a question by a computer program into a sequence of actions that retrieve or combine parts of information necessary for answering the question. (Kontos & Malagardi, 2006)
Process Enactment
A worklow management system is said to enact the real-world process for each process instance. (Pinheiro, 2005)
Procedure
A rule that governs a formal organizational process. (Murphy, 2005c)
Process
1: A set of linked activities that collectively realize an objective or policy goal. (Berztiss, 2006a) 2: A thing that represents a pattern of object transformation. (Dori, 2006) 3: Indicates what tasks must be performed and in what order to complete a case. (Dustdar, 2005) 4: Set of interrelated activities through which an organization transforms inputs into value-added outputs. Inputs and outputs can be tangible (e.g., materials, parts) or intangible (e.g., services, information) items. (Kock, 2005)
Process Gratiication
Enjoyment of media use, as distinguished from enjoyment of speciic message content. This is much the same as channel suring or Web browsing, with no goal other than entertainment through engaging in the activity. (Stafford, 2005)
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Process Orientation
Recognition of series of functions that carry out an overriding task by providing the customer with a meaningful result. (Framinan, 2005)
A grouping of project management processes; for PMI, there are five process groups: Initiation, Planning, Executing, Controlling, Closing. (D. Brandon, 2005b)
Process Improvement
A program of activities designed to improve the performance and maturity of the organizations processes, and the results of such a program. (Gibson, 2005)
Process Redesign
1: A task in which a group selects, analyzes, and conceptually redesigns one or more business processes. (Kock, 2006) 2: Approach to organizational improvement through transformation of business processes. The term refers to business process change approaches emphasizing gradual change (e.g., total quality management) or radical change (e.g., business process reengineering). (Kock, 2005)
Process Integration
1: Deining and automating interfaces between different business processes explicitly. (Kurbel, 2005) 2: The degree of problem-critical information sharing and transmission across different departments, and the combination of two or more stages in producing or distributing a particular product. (Wang & Forgionne, 2006)
Process Intelligence
The ability of the business processes to perceive and act in the surrounding environments, to respond to the prevailing circumstances in dynamic business situation, and to learn and improve the process with prior experiences. (Wang & Forgionne, 2006)
Process Reengineering
An exercise by which organizational processes are radically re-designed and changed. Instead of automating existing processes, organizations are encouraged to question existing practices, eliminate unnecessary steps in the worklow, streamline activities, and introduce a paradigm shift in the organization. (Tarafdar, 2005)
Process Resource
An object that represents a resource used by a role in order to perform a task in isolation from other tasks. (Daneshgar, 2005)
Process Management
1: Aims at codesigning organizations and information systems. (Becker et al., 2006) 2: Allows deining speciic invocation sequences of back-end application systems in the context of Enterprise Application Integration (EAI). (Bussler, 2005b) 3: Strong functional orientation does not nowadays meet customer needs. The aim of process management is to overcome functional barriers and to deliver the results customers desire. (Hofer, 2006)
Process-Based Evaluation
A type of evaluation used to understand how a program works, as well as its strengths and weaknesses. (Nelson, 2005)
Process-Based Role
The combination of a set of expected work-related behaviors, responsibilities, and the associated set of required competencies to perform within business settings in order to achieve organizational goals. (Rentroia-Bonito & Jorge, 2005)
Process Modeling
Collection of techniques used to model systems behavior. These models help in analyzing the current state of organizations as facilitators of organizational learning. (Rodrguez-Elias et al., 2006)
Process-Level Model
A second-level model in the REA ontology that documents the semantic components of all the business process events. (Dunn & Grabski, 2005)
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Procurement
Arranging for the supply and purchase of goods or services. (Foley & Samson, 2006)
Product
A combination of tangible goods, intangible services, and information that satisies consumers needs and wants. (Waterson, 2006)
product should be located in at least one product group, and product groups are often compared to classiication systems because of their similar nature. Both offer a set of categories to arrange items. Product groups are dependent on the catalog creator. Normally, each catalog has its own taxonomy and terminology, and therefore deines its own set of groups. Contrary to this, classiication systems are standardized and do not change from catalog to catalog. (Abels & Hahn, 2006)
Product Lifecycle
The evolution of a product from conception onward. (Knight, 2006a)
Product Brokering
In commerce, a product broker is a party that mediates between a buyer and a seller. A broker who also acts as a seller or as a buyer becomes a principal party to the deal. (Guan, 2006d)
Product Conigurator
Information system that supports customers during (online) product customization and the order-taking process, especially in e-business. It has the logic capabilities to create, maintain, and apply electronic product models in order to deine all of the possible variants of a product and to display them to the customer. (Blecker, 2006b)
Product Curve
This tool takes a micro view of transitioning requirements or attributes that successive solutions must adhere to in order to win in the future marketplace. (Nugent, 2005)
Product/Service Quality
The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. (Shan et al., 2006a)
Product Group
A group containing several products. Furthermore, it can contain a set of sub-groups and can therefore be connected to a parent group. Typically, each electronic product catalog contains at least one set of product groups. Each
Production
Function of (industrial) irms consisting of creating a transformation system and combining internal and external
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resources by applying technological and conceptual procedures in order to generate goods and services for further possessing and/or as a marketable output for serving the customer. (Blecker, 2006a)
Productivity
A measure of the performance of the production process in transformation of the input of resources to the output of goods and services. (Mitchell, 2005b)
Production Concept
In theory, a well-founded guiding idea based on empirical knowledge, where it is appropriate, on the organization, planning, control, and evolution of production systems with the main objective of enhancing the competitiveness of the irm. (Blecker, 2006a)
Productivity Paradox
1: Despite large investments in IS/IT over many years, there have been conlicting reports as to whether or not the IS/IT beneits have actually occurred. (Lin & Pervan, 2005) 2: Major information technology investments with negative or zero documented returns. (Dykman, 2005) 3: The discussion about the lack of evidence about the return of investments on IT in the economy productivity indicators. (Barbin Laurindo et al., 2005)
Production Portal
The linking of all available information systems into one standardized screen. Production portals aggregate heterogeneous systems in manufacturing and provide secure, structured, and personalized information for individual users (e.g., based on job functions). (Blecker & Graf, 2006)
Professional Association
A formal or informal grouping of individuals, forproit businesses, governmental agencies, or non-proit organizations that all possess similar levels of skill and knowledge regarding one or more topics of mutual interest. Interactions among members generally serve not only to enhance individual members skills or knowledge, but also to further the cause of the association as a whole. (Baim, 2006c)
Production Rule
A tree path characterized by a sequence of predictor interactions yielding to a speciic label class/value of the response variable. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005)
Professional Community
Collaborative activities among a schools faculty members that focus on meaningful, shared issues in a school and also emphasize how each individual staff member can take responsibility for its achievement. (Dexter, 2005)
Production System
Subsystem of the enterprise for the transformation of input factors (e.g., goods and services) into output factors (e.g., tangible goods and services), in order to satisfy a customer need. The production system itself consists of two basic subsystems: the management subsystem and the operation subsystem. These subsystems are interconnected and interwoven by an information system. The operation subsystem deals with the original transformation processes and includes all facilities, machines, logistical equipment, and employees (blue-collar workers). The management subsystem is responsible for the short-run (operational) design, planning, and control of the entire operation subsystem. (Blecker, 2006a)
Professional Development
1: A planned, comprehensive, and systemic program of goals-driven, competency-based training activities that promotes productive change in individuals and school structures. The activities are interrelated and cumulative, complement the schools and districts vision/strategic mission, and relect all key constituencies. (Bober, 2005) 2: The National Staff Development Council deines this as the term that educators use to describe the continuing education of teachers, administrators, and other school employees. (Dexter, 2005)
Production Worklow
The ability for metadata to be added throughout the lifecycle of digital asset handling (captioning, or cataloging), with appropriate knowledge management capabilities to establish standardization and consistency. Production
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Proile
1: An organized data set of information on users or items. (Chen & McLeod, 2006) 2: Describes the users interests and preferences in terms of themes (sports, cinema, news, etc.). (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Proile Database
Collection of customer preference data, possibly along with the customers demographic information. (Sarwar et al., 2005)
Professional Knowledge
Knowledge or intellect applied by people employed in professional services irms in their endeavor to meet the demands of their clients. Professional knowledge develops through statesknow-what, know-how, know-why, and care-why. Value of the application of such knowledge to the professional irm and client increases in later knowledge states. (Fink & Disterer, 2006)
Proile/User Proile
A set of keywords or concepts describing a user or organizations intelligence needs through which proilebased intelligence-gathering tools ilter information. (Parker & Nitse, 2006)
Proiling
Capturing an individual users interests and needs. (Quah, Leow, & Yong, 2006)
Professional Mode
In professional mode, professionals in the operating core (e.g., doctors, professors) rely on roles and skills learned from years of schooling and indoctrination to coordinate their work. (Rada, 2005)
Proit Mining
Professional Service
A company delivering business consulting services, including computer and related activities, research and development, and other business activities such as legal, accounting, marketing, advertising, and engineering. (Bolisani et al., 2006)
1: In a general sense, proit mining refers to data mining aimed at maximizing a given objective function over decision making for a targeted population (Wang, Zhou, & Han, 2002). 2: Finding a set of rules that pass a given threshold on some interestingness measure (such as association rule mining or its variation) is not proit mining because of the lack of a speciic objective function to be maximized. Classiication is a special case of proit mining where the objective function is the accuracy, and the targeted population consists of future cases. One example of a speciic problem of proit mining is building a model for recommending target products and prices with the objective of maximizing net proit. (Zhou & Wang, 2005)
Program
1: A set of academic courses required for the award of an academic degree; for example, MBA. (Murray & Efendioglu, 2005) 2: A social endeavor to reach some predeined goals and objectives. A program draws on personal, social, and material resources to alter or preserve the context in which it takes place. (Nash et al., 2005a)
Program Analysis
Offers static compile-time techniques for predicting safe and computable approximations to the set of values or behaviors arising dynamically at run-time when executing a program on a computer. (Tan & Zhao, 2005a)
Professor Interactivity
For real learning to occur in this environment, the instructor must be as engaged as the learner. (Rogers, 2005b)
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Program Execution
To make a computer follow the instructions stated in the program. It is also known as running a program. (ParejaFlores & Iturbide, 2005)
Programmed Branching
A method whereby the student is taken to one of several possible explanations or discussions depending on the qualities of an answer that is given to a question. Gating is a simple skip of frames which repeat prior information when a students answers suggest that the material has been adequately learned. (Owen & Aworuwa, 2005)
Program Evaluation
The concern at this level is to measure whether the program aims have been met and whether the correct aims have been identiied. (Abu-Samaha, 2005)
Program Quality
The success of an online course/program/training is closely connected with the attention to detail in the design process of that course/program. This includes a needs assessment to understand the speciic needs of the learners and the assimilation of relevant content. (MacDonald et al., 2005)
Program Testing
To execute a program in order to check whether it is correct with respect to its speciication. Testing requires a previous planning to design input data that cover all or almost all of the cases. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005)
Program Theory
A set of assumptions underlying a program that explains why the planned activities should lead to the predeined goals and objectives. The program theory includes activities directly implemented by the program, as well as the activities that are generated as a response to the program by the context in which it takes place. (Nash et al., 2005a)
Program Tracing
To follow the execution of a program under control of the programmer. It is usually carried out with incorrect programs in order to debug and ix them. Typically, there are different operations that allow the programmer to control the pace of program execution and to watch the state of different structures. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005)
Programming Language
A formal language in which computer programs are written. The deinition of a particular language consists of both syntax (which refers to how the various symbols of the language may be combined) and semantics (which refers to the meaning of the language constructs). (Prata, 2005)
Program Visualization
Visualization of a piece of software so that the representation has a close relationship to the source code. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005)
Progressive Encoding
Video format that downloads the entire media ile to the client before any displaying occurs. (Vitolo et al., 2005)
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Project
1: A temporary sequence of related activities that produces a unique product or service. (Brewer, 2005) 2: A unique set of coordinated, goal-oriented activities that brings about change. A project has deinite starting and inishing points, and is undertaken by an individual or team within deined parameters of time, cost, and quality. (Ragsdell, 2006) 3: An assignment or task that needs to be tackled by a group of people. Projects usually have clearly set objectives, a ixed timescale, and limited resources. (Fong, 2006b) 4: A temporary endeavor in which human, material, and inancial resources are organized in a novel way, to undertake a unique scope of work for a given speciication, within constraints of cost and time, so as to achieve beneicial changes deined by quantitative and qualitative objectives. (Oshri, 2006)
students gain subject-speciic knowledge and also enhance their metacognitive caliber. (Kwok Lai-yin & Tan YewGee, 2005)
Project Environment
A cluster of projects within a irm, in which a set of products is developed. (Oshri, 2006)
Project Evaluation
The emphasis at this level is on the project, which represents the chosen objective(s) to achieve the aims of the program. The concern at this level is to measure whether the project meets these objectives and to what extent it matches user expectations. The emphasis here is on eficiency. Does the project meet its objectives using minimal resources? (Abu-Samaha, 2005)
Project Framework
Negotiation of a model within the project to ensure that the contributions of all individuals (and their IC) are able to be appropriately recognized. (Williamson et al., 2006)
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Project Team
1: A group of individuals who have been brought together to form a cohesive whole in order to successfully complete a project. The team is mutually accountable for meeting predeined project objectives, and the team members may be characterized by their diverse backgrounds, skills, and personalities. (Ragsdell, 2006) 2: All individuals who have made a signiicant contribution to the successful achievement of the project. (McPherson, 2005)
A deined repeatable process to aid in the successful completion of projects. (Brewer, 2005)
Project-Based Learning
1: Learning that centers on an individual or group project as the main activity. Projects are open-ended tasks that allow learners to make choices about focus and/or direction. (Bennett, 2005) 2: An active learning approach that focuses on developing a product or creation. The project may or may not be student centered, problem based, or inquiry based. Project-based learning uses open-ended assignments that provide students with a degree of choice, and extend over a considerable period of time. Teachers act as facilitators, designing activities and providing resources and advice to students. Instruction and facilitation are guided by a broad range of teaching goals. Students collect and analyze information, make discoveries, and report their results. Projects are often interdisciplinary. (Lowry & Turner, 2005)
Project Manager
1: An individual with the responsibility of ensuring the project objectives are delivered. (Bryde & Petie, 2005) 2: The individual who will complete the design and creation of the inal virtual school proposal, acquire approval of competent staff, and then administer the futuristic method of education delivery for the virtual school. (G. Lang, 2005)
Project Performance
The degree to which the project meets its overall objectives. This compares with project management performance, which is the degree to which the traditional objectives of cost, time, and quality are met. (Bryde & Petie, 2005)
Proof
A mathematical proof of a statement S in an axiomatic theory T is an argument that shows that S is a logical consequence of the axioms of T. Proofs are used to discover, certify, and communicate mathematical knowledge. (Farmer, 2006)
Project Sponsor
An individual or group with the responsibility and authority to ensure that the project beneits are realized. (Bryde & Petie, 2005)
Project Stakeholder
Any person or group that has an interest in the project. The interest could be in the project outcome, outputs, or the project management process. (Bryde & Petie, 2005)
Propaganda
Methodical propagation of a doctrine or the material spread by the advocates of a doctrine. (De, 2006)
Property
1: Attribute used to describe or distinguish an object. (Gillman, 2006) 2: Properties are used to establish links between classes. For example, books are published by
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publishers. The property publishes relates a publisher with a particular book. (Antoniou et al., 2005)
data set (one table) with derived attribute-value features, describing the structural properties of the example. (Perlich & Provost, 2005)
Property Hierarchy
As with classes, properties can be organized in generalization/specialization taxonomies. For example, the property is CEO of relating persons to companies is a more speciic property than the sub-property of works for. (Antoniou et al., 2005)
Proprietary Software
Software, including the source code that is privately owned and controlled. (St.Amant & Still, 2005)
Prosumerism
The name for an arrangement where a customer ills the dual role of both consumer and producer. Knowledge coproduction is generated from role patterns and interactivity, with both parties sharing the traditional responsibilities of a producer and consumer. (Paquette, 2006b)
Proportion Failing
Proportion computed as the ratio of the number of cases failing in the respective interval divided by the number of cases at risk in the interval. (Chen, Oppenheim, et al., 2005)
Protocol
1: A set of rules that dictate the behavior of objects for communication and interaction. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005c) 2: A convention or standard that controls or enables the connection, communication, and data transfer between two computing endpoints. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of the two. At the lowest level, a protocol deines a hardware connection. (Guan, 2006g) 3: A set of formal rules deining how to transmit data. (Clayton, 2006a) 4: Rules governing the communication and exchange of data across a network or inter-networks. (Lawson-Body et al., 2005) 5: An organization structure of the communication system, which comprises constituent protocols and the relationships among them. (Yang et al., 2005a)
Proposal
A document written in response to an RFP. In the context of e-learning, it is a document that explains how the proposing organization will design, develop, and deliver an e-learning solution to the funding organization. (Kapp, 2005)
Proposal Measure
An index to measure the concurrence frequency of the correlated pair words in documents, based upon the frequency of two implicit words that appear. It will have high value when the two implicit words in a large corpus or labels in a large database occur with each other frequently. (Ito, 2005)
Proposition
A statement, assertion, or declaration formulated in such a manner that it can be judged to be true or false. (Alpert, 2006)
Prototype
1: A preliminary type, form, or instance of a system that serves as a model for later stages or for the inal, complete version of the system. (Sethi & Sethi, 2006b) 2: A simpliied and smaller model system that still demonstrates the essence of the system. (Peterson & Kim, 2005) 3: An effective way of representing a concept is to retain only its most important properties or the most typical element of a category, which serves as a cognitive reference point with respect to a cultural community. This group of most important properties or most typical elements of a concept is called prototype. The idea of prototype makes possible that the subject has a mental construction, identifying the
Propositional Logic
A system of symbolic logic based on the symbols and, or, not, to stand for whole propositions and logical connectives. It only considers whether a proposition is true or false. (Felici & Truemper, 2005)
Propositionalization
The process of transforming a multi-relational dataset, containing structured examples, into a propositional
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typical features of several categories. Prototype is deined as the object that is a categorys best model. (Amoretti, 2005) 4: Built to test some aspects of a system before its inal design and implementation. During requirements elicitation, a prototype of the user interface is developed, that is, to give stakeholders ideas about its functionality or interaction. Prototypes are either high idelity, that is, built to be very similar to the product, or low idelity with very primitive tools, even only pencil and paper. Prototypes can be thrown away, where they are discarded, or incremental, where they are developed into an operational software system. (Hvannberg et al., 2006) 5: Representation of all or part of a product or system that, although limited in some way, can be used for evaluation (ISO 13407). (Bevan, 2006) 6: A concrete envisionment of a design. (Zaphiris & Zacharia, 2005)
Prototype Selection
The process of selecting a few representative samples from the given training set suitable for the given task. (Viswanath et al., 2005)
Prototyping
1: A tool used in system development methodology that lets users iteratively work with a small-scale mock-up of an information system, experience how it might function in production, and request changes until it meets their requirements. (Steinbach & Knight, 2005) 2: The development approach in which prototypes are produced. It is an iterative approach to the developing of the information system. The distinctions of the different phases of development of the information systemfor example, analysis, design, implementation, and evaluationare not clear. (Hyrinen & Saranto, 2005)
Proximate Context
The physical scope of a consumer context that is external to the body of the consumer, but close enough to be directly sensible to the consumer. Mobile consumers can describe and even record the information about their proximate contexts and share it with others. (Sun & Poole, 2005)
Proxy
A server that sits between the client and the real server. It intercepts all queries sent to the real server to see if it can fulill them itself. If not, it forwards the query to the real server. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Provider
1: In the context of P2PWNC, any autonomous entity that has Wi-Fi hotspots set up and can potentially join P2PWNC. (Efstathiou & Polyzos, 2006) 2: If an e-service is a business that operates the e-service and offers it to consumers, possibly earning fees for the use of the service by consumers. (Yee & Korba, 2006)
Proxy Cache
1: A machine dedicated to serving client requests for Web documents. Usually it is installed at the edge of local or wide area networks to provide fast responses to the users and reduce the trafic exiting the network. (Danalis, 2005) 2: A proxy having a cache. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
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Proxy Server
A virtual server that serves the requests of a client. It usually stores copies of accessed data objects so that it may deliver the same objects immediately to repeated requests. (Tse, 2006)
PSI: See Public Services Infrastructure. PSOL: See Problem-Solving Oriented Learning. PSS: See Primary Surveillance System. PST: See Performance Support Tool. PSTN: See Public-Switched Telephone Network. Psych-Factors CoP
A worldwide collection of IT professionals who communicate regularly regarding growth in psychological awareness and how such growth explicitly enhances various facets of IT work. (Kaluzniacky, 2006)
Proxy-Based Model
A communication in which proxy servers and other computers participate. The proxy servers are deployed around the Internet, and they create an overlay network, applying usually the P2P communication model. The other participating computers as local clients connect to any of the proxy servers using the client-server communication model. (Hossz, 2006)
Prudence
Concept that expenditure should be written off in the period in which it arises, unless its relationship to the revenue of the future period can be assessed with reasonable certainty. (Tahinakis et al., 2006)
Psychoacoustic Model
Model of human aural perception, especially with regard to the ability or inability to perceive signals that are masked by other signals. (Kieler & West, 2005)
Pruning
A top-down or bottom-up selective algorithm to reduce the dimensionality of a tree structure in terms of the number of its terminal nodes. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005)
Psychoanalysis
A term created by Freud in 1896 to name a speciic method of psychotherapy, which was inspired in the cathartic process, or treatment through speech, and was based in the exploration of the unconscious, through free association and interpretation. Catharses was already used by Aristotle, who was the son of a physician and thus was inluenced by Hypocrites thought. The idea was of a therapeutic process able to free individuals from oppressive experiences and to let the constraining element emerge. Freud developed a theory, a technique, and a school in order to formalize and perpetuate his approach. Freud also developed work on the unconsciousness of groups in the early 1920s. Though psychoanalysis started as an individual therapy, its insights, technique, and concepts have been extended to the domain of group analysis, family therapy, and organizational consulting. Its depth and breadth enable a high potential for application to the complex ield of community life within organizational settings. (Nobre, 2006b)
PSAP: See Public-Safety Answer Point. PSEO: See Post-Secondary Enrollment Option. Pseudo Random Noise (PRN)
A noise-like series of bits. Because GNSS depends upon multiple inputs, each satellite produces a predetermined, unique PRN on both the L1 and the L2 carrier signal for use by civil and military receivers. The L2 carrier signal is restricted to military use. (Freeman & Auld, 2005)
Pseudo-Intent
The set X is a pseudo-intent if X c(X), where c is a closure operator and for all pseudo-intents QX, c(Q)X. (Dumitriu, 2005)
Psychodynamics Pseudonym
The ictitious name adopted for use within a virtual environment. An individual may consistently use the same pseudonym or adopt several pseudonyms for use within and between virtual environments. (Roberts et al., 2005) The highly dynamic unconscious forces within individuals and between individuals that form and motivate outward behavioral manifestations in group life. The group-as-awhole may develop a collective psychology that mirrors the psychological processes of an individual in many respects, but not that of any one of its members. (Cargill, 2006a)
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Psychological Type
Pattern of behavior resulting from differences in mental functions preferred, used, and developed by an individual. A theory developed by Carl Jung. (Chambel & Guimares, 2005)
Service (SMS) to coordinate times and places of protests with other activists. (Galloway, 2006)
Psychotherapy
A specialized formal interaction between a mental health practitioner and a client in which a therapeutic relationship is established to help to resolve symptoms of mental disorder, psychosocial stress, relationship problems, and dificulties in coping in the social environment. Some speciic types of psychotherapy may include, but are not limited to, psychoanalysis, family therapy, group psychotherapy, supportive treatment, gestalt therapy, experiential therapy, primal therapy, psychosocial therapy, psychodrama, behavioral therapy, and cognitive therapy. (Blackmore et al., 2006)
PTD: See Personal Trusted Device. P3DM: See Participatory 3D Modeling. P3P: See Platform for Privacy Preferences.
Public Cabin
In Peru, a cabina pblica is a privately owned small business where people can access the Internet for a small fee, lower than $0.30 an hour in 2004. (Barrera, 2005)
Public Discussion Forum P2P: See Peer-to-Peer. P2P Architecture: See Peer-to-Peer Architecture. P2P Network: See Peer-to-Peer Network. Public Domain P2P System: See Peer-to-Peer System. P2P Technology: See Peer-to-Peer Technology. P2PWNC: See Peer-to-Peer Wireless Network
Confederation. 1: Owned by the public at large. (Fleming, 2005b) 2: Describes the body of works that, for whatever reason, are not covered by copyright or other legal controls over their use. Unlike open source works, there are no conditions imposed upon works in the public domain, with the exception of where the European droits moraux are applicable, the moral rights of the author must be respected. Under United States law, unless the owner explicitly states the contrary, any work created after 1923 must be assumed to not be in the public domain. Unless a work is very old, determining that it is in the public domain can be very dificult and depends on the particular details of the country in which the use is occurring. (Marshall, 2005) Internet-based application which that permits an open exchange of opinions and ideas among various Internet users on a speciic topic of interest, and that can be easily accessed by interested individuals. (Gur u, 2006)
PTUIE: See Post-Transaction User-Input Error. PU: See Perceived Usefulness. Public
Any group of people an organization wishes to reach because their interest or inluence is relevant to the organization in some way. People may belong to more than one public and shift between them quickly, depending on the issue in question. For example, an Internet user who is also an environmental activist who uses Short Message
Public Goods
1: Resources from which all individuals in the collective may beneit regardless of whether they have contributed to providing the good. (Teigland & Wasko, 2005) 2:
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Something that is shared by all members of a community whether or not they have contributed to the constitution or maintenance of the good. (King, 2006a) 3: Goods deined by two characteristics: non-rivalry and non-excludability. Typical examples of public goods include tangible goods such as public parks and lighthouses, as well as intangible or information goods such as public television and radio. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006) 4: Resources that generally are (or are perceived to be) of some public value or use, and whose consumption by one member of society does not preclude its consumption by others, for example, renewable natural resources such as air, or services such public radio or TV. (Ekbia & Hara, 2006)
A law to prepare a system to provide individual certiication and authorization services in order to process online the public application and notiication online. (Kitagaki, 2005)
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infrastructure capable of supporting the management of public keys able to support authentication, encryption, integrity, or non-repudiation services. (Trcek, 2005) 11: The publicly distributed key that, if combined with a private key (derived mathematically from the public key), can be used to effectively encrypt messages and digital signatures. (Guan, 2005c)
back-end programs) or be oriented towards invocation by information systems (e.g., a Web service). (Vassilakis & Lepouras, 2006) 2: Information and services provided by government agencies and other organizations working within the public sphere. (Gil-Garca & Luna-Reyes, 2006) 3: Social infrastructure services, delivered wholly or partly with the beneit of public funds and strategically driven through national or regional administrations. (Wright & Taylor, 2005)
Public Space
Off-line, public space refers to geographical areas that are accessible to the general public (e.g., streets). Online, the term public space is commonly used to refer to virtual environments that do not have restrictions on access. (Roberts et al., 2005)
Public Sphere
Jrgen Habermas, an inluential proponent, deines it as the sphere of common concern where there is rational debate and universal access. Coffeehouses, salons, and newspapers, which shape public opinion and dissent, are included, while state, economy, and church are excluded. (Srinivasan, 2006)
Public Relations
The planned and sustained effort to build mutually beneicial relationships between an organization and those individuals or groups whose interest or inluence makes them relevant to the organization. (Galloway, 2006)
Public Service
1: A means offered to the public for conducting business with the government. The service may be directly targeted to be used by humans (e.g., Web forms and the associated
Public Value
Any form of value created by governments though the provision of services, the passing of laws and regulations, and other actions. It also involves all the short-term and
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long-term contributions made by public administrations to society and the economy. Furthermore, it includes eficiency gains by better internal performance and, most importantly, the multiplier social and economic effects such as: (1) social development and inclusion, (2) enabling companies to lower their administrative costs and become more competitive, and (3) strengthening innovation across the economy. (Chochliouros & SpiliopoulouChochliourou, 2006)
PubMed
An online database of over 14 million citations of biomedical articles from 1950 to the present time. This database is available free over the Internet. (Lewis, 2005)
Pull-Down Menu
When the user points at a word with either a keystroke or a mouse, a full menu appears (i.e., is pulled down, usually from the top of the display screen), and the user then can select the required option. A cascading menu (i.e., a submenu) may open when you select a choice from the pull-down menu. (Henley & Noyes, 2006)
Public-Private Partnership
A more or less stable cooperation between the private and the public sector. All partners bring along speciic resources. Based on the division of labor, they aim at the same goal for a particular period of time. A public-private partnership can generally be deined by three elements: the partnership, the inter-sectorial, and the performanceenhancing element. (Knust & Hagenhoff, 2005)
Purchase Card
Credit card used in the federal government by an authorized government oficial for small purchases, usually under $2,500. (Pang, 2005b)
Publicly Available
Obtainable for free or minimum cost of materials. (Fleming, 2005b)
Pure-Play
An e-commerce company that only has online presence, but no physical store. (Wang, Ding, et al., 2006)
Pure-Play ASP
Those with non-speciic industry-required product or service, except Internet/Web-enabled software applications (e-mail/security/disaster recovery). Firms offering this service suffer from the sales of unproitable commodity applications and therefore have greater reliance on venture
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capitalist funding as they operate in a rather unstable, volatile, and dynamic market. (Guah & Currie, 2005)
Push
Mechanisms that deliver information to participants. Email is an obvious example, but notiication via instant messaging, beeper, fax, or telephone are also in this category. RSS is a recent expansion of this into Web services and blogs. (Contrast with Pull.) (Isaak, 2006)
Push/Pull
Distinguishes who initiates data transmission, the producer or the consumer of data. (Fiege, 2005)
Push Technology
1: A data distribution technology in which selected data are automatically delivered into the users computer at prescribed intervals or based on some event that occurs. (Parikh & Parolia, 2005) 2: Enables people to subscribe to and have news and information delivered directly to their e-mail, releasing them from having to search the Internet. (Nightingale, 2005)
Push-Caching
The technique of pushing data closer to consumers by making an informed guess as to what the clients may access in the near future. The concept of push-caching is closely related to prefetching, but prefetches are always initiated in response to an on-demand request. (Katsaros et al., 2005)
Put Option
The right but not the obligation to sell a stock (or inancial instrument) at a pre-determined price at some time in the future. (Lajbcygier, 2005)
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Q
QAM: See Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. QBE: See Query by Example/Sketch/Humming. QFD: See Quality Function Deployment. QoS Management: See Qualit y of Ser vice QIM Watermarking: See Quantization Index
Modulation Watermarking. Management. multimedia query result can be displayed on the client site no matter what the queried object characteristics are and no matter what available network resources have. (Zhang & Chen, 2005)
QPSK: See Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying. QoS: See Quality of Service. QQPPM: See QoS-Based Query Processing Precision QoS-Based Multimedia Query Processing and Data Retrieval
The current multimedia query processing mechanism provides the three procedures in practice. They are: (1) search, (2) browsing, and (3) query reinement. There are four considerations regarding multimedia data retrieval. First, the queried objects are successfully presented in the client site under the QoS support; second, since the result queries may contain long audio segments, large images, or long videos, eficient extracting and presenting essential information for clients to browse and select are required; third, the response time that is determined by both the network and database search should be eficiently short; and fourth, the query reinements are possible to itinerate. (Zhang & Chen, 2005) Matrix.
QSA R: See Q ua nt ita t ive S t r uct u re -Act ivit y Relationship. Quadratic Program
A mathematical program where the objective is quadratic and the constraints are linear equations or inequalities. (Musicant, 2005)
Qualitative Data
Also often referred to as categorical data, they are data that can be placed into distinct categories. Qualitative data sometimes can be arrayed in a meaningful order, but no
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arithmetic operations can be applied to them. Quantitative data can be further classiied into two groups, nominal or ordinal. (Yang & Webb, 2005)
Quality E-Store
An online store whose qualities include fast Web page download, store size, promotions, ease of use, and so on. (Shih & Fang, 2006)
Qualitative Method
Method for data collection and analysis that focuses on understanding of text and observation rather than numeric calculation. (Trauth, 2005b)
Quality Framework
A work in progress that assesses educational success in terms of continuous quality improvement. (Moore et al., 2005)
Quality
1: An encompassing term comprising utility, objectivity, integrity, and value. (Hoxmeier, 2005) 2: A degree of excellence or a level of expectation. (Ryan, 2005) 3: The ability of a set of inherent characteristics of a product, product component, or process to fulill requirements of customers. (Gibson, 2005) 4: The degree to which a system, component, or process meets speciied requirements. (Schneidewind, 2005) 5: Usually deined in relation to a set of guidelines or criteria. The same broad approach is currently being applied to information provided over the Internet. (Zaharias, 2005)
Quality Manual
A manual used by the software developing company that includes the metrics, the measurement techniques, the guidelines for the application of metrics data analysis, and the corrective actions required for improving the software developing process. (Xenos, 2006)
Quality Assurance
1: System for ensuring student experiences in online learning are valid. There are two approaches to quality assurance. One is regulatory through accrediting and governmental agencies. The other is through consumer protection, which requires educating potential students about their options and responsibilities. (S.M. Johnstone, 2005) 2: Those processes that assess the relative strength of academic programs and associated student and faculty support programs, and offer strategies for both program and institutional improvements recognizable by both internal and external constituencies. (Garten & Thompson, 2005)
Quality of Education
Refers to the effectiveness of the program in promoting student learning and achievement, in relation to its expected outcomes and standards. (Grasso & Leng, 2005)
Quality of Knowledge
The quality of knowledge presented by an intelligent system is determined by an analysis of its knowledge body, by means of deciding about what kind of certainties and doubts it represents. (Analide et al., 2006)
Quality Degradation
The drop of the PQoS to a lower level. (Koumaras et al., 2005)
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by packet loss probability, available bandwidth, and endto-end delay. (Gutirrez & Ting, 2005) 5: A method of marking certain packets for special handling to ensure high reliability or low delay. (Guster et al., 2005) 6: A networking term that speciies a guaranteed throughput level. One of the biggest advantages of ATM over competing technologies such as Frame Relay and Fast Ethernet is that it supports QoS levels. This allows ATM providers to guarantee to their customers that end-to-end latency will not exceed a speciied level. (Wong, 2006) 7: An indicator of availability and speciies the transmission rates, error rates, and other network performance metrics which can be measured, improved, and to some extent, guaranteed in advance. (Wilsdon & Slay, 2005) 8: Guarantees in advance a speciied level of throughput capacity for multimedia transmissions via ATM networks. (Littman, 2005) 9: A mixture of several parameters, such as the ratio of server/lost calls, the quality of the service (typically voice service) in terms of noise, blur, and so on. In the end, it is an objective measure of the satisfaction level of the user. (Hackbarth et al., 2005) 10: A set of service requirements that the provider must meet in order to guarantee an adequate level of service provision. (Jain & Ramesh, 2006) 11: Represents a guarantee or a commitment not only to a particular quality of network service, but also a particular rate or minimum rate of data delivery, as well as maximum transmission times among packets. (Rodrigues et al., 2005) 12: The collective term for all demands on the recording and the replaying procedures, which refer to generating and maintaining a continuous data stream. (Geisler & Kao, 2005) 13: Allocation of resources to provide a speciied level of service. (Swierzowicz, 2005) 14: Parameters to describe system performance. (W. Wang, 2006)
Quality Plan
A plan developed particularly for each software project that includes all the metrics, measurement guidelines, and goals applicable for this project only. (Xenos, 2006)
Quality Seal
A virtual seal placed on a government Web site or form which allows citizens to know that the item in question is legitimate and not a phishing site designed to gather information for use in identity theft. (Knepper & Chen, 2006)
Quality Standard
A framework, tool, or instrument used to guide the design, delivery, and evaluation of the online course/program/ training. This may be a learning model and/or tested evaluation instrument/tool that ensures attention to detail in the design process and that provides feedback to the course designers and facilitators for redesign and continual improvement of the program. (MacDonald et al., 2005)
Quantitative Data
Are numeric in nature. They can be ranked in order. They also admit to meaningful arithmetic operations. Quantitative data can be further classiied into two groups, discrete or continuous. (Yang & Webb, 2005)
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Qua nt izat ion I ndex M odulat ion Que r y by Ske t ch/Pa in t ing
Refers to embedding information by irst modulating the sequence of indices with the embedded information and then quantizing the host signal with the associated sequence of the quantizers, which are a predeined class of discontinuous, approximate-identity functions. (Si & Li, 2006)
Query
1: Retrieving instances of both concepts and relationships between concepts that satisfy certain restrictions or qualiications and hence are interesting for a user. Querying instances of ontologies involves making use of reasoning (both Abox and Tbox) mechanisms in order to obtain the corrected and completed results. (Roldn-Garca et al., 2005) 2: A request to retrieve data from a database. (Bozanis, 2006) 3: Formal expression of an information need. (Venters et al., 2005)
Query by Icon
An approach that allows users to construct queries by selecting an icon that represents a high-level concept of a category or idea. (Venters et al., 2005)
Query Answer
The result of a query Q = <G,P > on an input database D is deined in terms of the stable models of PD by taking either the union (possible inference) or the intersection (certain inference) of all models. Thus, given a program P and a database D, a ground atom G is true under possible (brave) semantics if there exists a stable model M for PD such that GM. Analogously, G is true under certain (cautious) semantics if G is true in every stable model for PD. (Greco & Zumpano, 2005b)
Query by Image
An approach that allows users to provide an example image as a representation of their query. The example can be either an image selected externally or internally from the system. (Venters et al., 2005)
Query Answering
Process by which the (possibly approximate) answer to a given query is obtained by exploiting the stored answers and deinitions of a collection of materialized views (Tininini, 2005a)
Query by Sketch/Painting
1: An approach that allows users to draw a sketch of the desired image by combining several features commonly found in computer graphic applications. The sketch represents a template of either a completed object or scene. (Venters et al., 2005) 2: A widespread query type where the user is not able to present a similar sample image. Therefore the user sketches the looked-for image with a
Query by Browsing
Approach that permits users to browse the database by three methods: unstructured, semi-structured, and structured browsing. (Venters et al., 2005)
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few drawing tools. It is not necessary to do this correctly in all aspects. (Kao & Tendresse, 2005) 3: An approach that allows users to manually specify the percentage or the distribution of color values from a color picker or wheel, such as RGB (red, green, blue) or HIS (hue, intensity, saturation). (Venters et al., 2005)
Query Model
An abstraction model for image querying in the context of CBIR. In this model, a submitted query would specify both a ilter condition and a ranking expression, while the query result will be a rank of the images that satisies the ilter condition, according to grade of match for the ranking expression. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005a)
Query Monotonicity
( ) is monotonic at a cell X if the condition Q(X) is FALSE implies that Q(X) is FALSE for any cell X`X. (Abdulghani, 2005b)
Query Equivalence
Two queries Q1 = <G1, P1> and Q2 = <G2, P2> are said to be equivalent under semantics s (Q1 s Q2) if for every database D (on a ixed schema) Anss(Q1, D) = Anss(Q2, D). Two programs P1 and P2 are equivalent under a given semantics s: P1 s P2 if for every atom g <g, P1> s <g, P2>. Finally, if Q1 p Q2 and Q1 c Q2 (the two queries or programs are equivalent under both brave and cautious semantics), we simply write Q1 Q2. (Greco & Zumpano, 2005b)
Query on Views
A query on a view is deined using a view query language. Usually such a query language is the same as the one used for data sources. For instance, to query relational views deined on a relational database, the view query language is SQL. (Cannataro et al., 2005)
Query Optimization
A problem that can be stated as follows: given a query, the set of all execution plans that compute it, and a cost function that is deined on the before set, ind a execution plan that is of minimum cost using some search strategy. (Aldana Montes et al., 2005)
Query Matching
A query Q matches a group query G if and only if Q can be computed from the result of G, or G can be computed from the result of Q. (Khan, 2005)
Query Rewriting
1: An approach to query optimization that rewrites the original SQL query into another equivalent SQL query (or a sequence of several SQL queries) that offer the possibility of yielding better performing query plans once
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Que r y Se m a nt ic s QWL
they are processed by the query optimizer. (Badia, 2005a) 2: Process by which a source query is transformed into an equivalent one referring (almost exclusively) to a collection of materialized views. In multi-dimensional databases, query rewriting is fundamental to obtain acceptable (online) response times. (Tininini, 2005c)
Query Semantics
The meaning of a query with an information system as its domain of interpretation. Application of knowledge discovery and Chase in query evaluation makes semantics operational. (Ras & Dardzinska, 2005)
Query Tool
Structured query language that supports the examination of the relevancy, usefulness, interestingness, and novelty of extracted knowledge for interactive data mining. (Wang & Wang, 2005)
Question Driven
In question-driven or hypothesis-driven approaches, the analysis is preceded by an identiication of questions of interest. (Amaravadi, 2005)
Queuing Theory
Mathematical study of waiting lines (queues and networks of queues) normally applied for designing telecommunications networks and transports. (Fisteus & Kloos, 2006)
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R
R-Tree
A spatial indexing method for fast comparison and retrieval of spatial objects. It is a spatial object hierarchy that is formed by aggregating minimum bounding boxes of the spatial objects and storing the aggregates in a tree structure. (Sayal, 2005)
Radical Innovation
The generation of new ideas (new knowledge) that leads to the development of radically new products or services that lead to transformations in practices. (Newell, 2006)
Radio Channel
An assigned band of frequencies suficient for radio communication. A channel is usually assigned for a speciied radio service to be provided by a speciied transmitter. (Ragazzi, 2005)
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reader to identify, track, or locate that item. (Mohamedally et al., 2005) 11: This technology uses the electromagnetic spectrum radio signals to transmit information from a transponder (tag) to a receiver for purposes of identifying items. This technology has been in development for a standard to replace the Universal Product Code (UPC) symbol with the Electronic Product Code (ePC) symbol through the Auto ID Center, formerly of MIT. (MorrisJones & Carter, 2005)
RAID: See Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disk. RAM: See Random Access Memory. Random Access Memory (RAM)
A collection of fast semiconductor elements that store information transiently for use by a microprocessor. (Strauss, 2005)
Random Forest
An ensemble of unpruned trees obtained by introducing two bootstrap resampling schema, one on the objects and another one on the predictors, such that an out-of-bag sample provides the estimation of the test set error, and suitable measures of predictor importance are derived for the inal interpretation. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005)
Random Forgery
Forgery in which the forged signature has a totally different semantic meaning and overall shape in comparison to the genuine signature. (Chakravarty et al., 2005b)
Random Variable
A variable characterized by random behavior in assuming its different possible values. (Mukherjee, 2005)
Random Walk
A sequence of random steps in an n-dimensional space, where each step is of ixed or randomly chosen length. In a random walk time series, time is advanced for each step and the time series element is derived using the prescription of a one-dimensional random walk of randomly chosen step length. (Denton, 2005)
Radius
An authentication method that allows remote users to access a server, or a network or computing resource. (Knight & Labruyere, 2005)
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Randomized Algorithm
A probabilistic sampling technique for exploring a space combining learning theories and Monte Carlo approaches. (Alippi & Vanini, 2005)
Randomized Sample
A group of subjects (participants) in a study selected without regard to any particular characteristics, to help ensure that measured effects of the experimental treatment on members of that group are not brought about by some shared characteristic other than the treatment. (Fisher, 2005)
high-quality systems quickly, primarily by using iterative prototyping, active user involvement, and computerized development tools. (Steinbach & Knight, 2005) 6: A software-development process that allows usable systems to be built in as little as 90 to 120 days, often with some compromises. (Lacaze et al., 2006)
Range Query
A query returning an aggregate information (i.e., sum, average) about data belonging to a given interval of the domain. (Buccafurri & Lax, 2005)
Ranking
List of the most similar images extracted from the database according to the querying sketch/image or other userdeined criteria. The ranking displays the retrieval results to the user. (Kao & Tendresse, 2005)
Raster Analysis
Implements its spatial relationships mainly on the location of the cell. Raster operations performed on multiple input raster data sets usually output cell values that are the result of calculations on a cell-by-cell foundation. The value of the output for one cell is usually independent on the value or location of other input or output cells. (Sadoun, 2006)
Ranking Function
A function that matches the information in documents with that in the user query to assign a score for each document in the collection. (Fan & Pathak, 2005)
Raster Graphics
Approach for the description of graphical content by color points arranged on a regular pixel grid. (Rosenbaum et al., 2006)
Rate of Adoption
The relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system. (Askar & Halici, 2005)
Rating
An opinion of a customer about a product used by recommendation algorithms. This is usually expressed in a Likert scale (e.g., from 1 to 5). (Sarwar et al., 2005)
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Ratio Data
RDFS: See Resource Description Framework Schema. RDL: See Rule Deinition Language. RDP: See Reconstruction and Development Program.
Data that is in order and has ixed spacing; a relationship between the points that is relative to a ixed external point. (Morantz, 2005)
Ratio of Change
A ratio of actual change (absolute difference) to the maximum potential change. (Yao & Zhao, 2005)
RDVA
Rural Development Volunteer Association. (Chand & Leeming, 2005)
Re-Buy
The business-to-business buying process may vary in complexity from a new task buying situation, to a modiied re-buy where the irm shops for a new vendor of a current product, to a straight re-buy, which is a periodic, perhaps automated repurchase situation. (Bridges et al., 2006)
Rational Justiication
Analyze how the project advances goals and objectives, and upholds values of the organization. (Sipior, 2005)
Rationalism
The concept that we may gain knowledge purely through the operation of thought and rational analysis. (Clarke, 2006)
Rationality
The ability to infer with relative certainty from existing or past behavior and statements future behavior and statements. (Murphy, 2005c)
Re-Identiication
The risk that publicly released data could allow public identiication of a survey respondents information or could be used in a way harmful to them. Federal agency data releases must comply with statistical disclosure limitation methods to guard against this risk. (Mullen, 2005)
RBAC: See Role-Based Access Control. RBF: See Radial Basis Function Neural Network.
Re-Purposeable Learning Object RBOC: See Regional Bell Operating Company. RDBMS: See Relational Database Management
System. Learning object designed as a template that can be reconstructed to serve new learning objectives. (Kaur et al., 2005)
Reaction Time (RT) Probe RDF: See Resource Description Framework. RDF Graph
An RDF model can be seen as a graph structure build-up by triples. The nodes of the graph are all resources and atomic values mentioned in the model. Nodes are linked by edges if they occur as subject and object in a triple contained in the corresponding RDF model. (Stuckenschmidt, 2005) A commonly used secondary task in which changes in reaction time performance of the secondary task are of interest. (Owen, 2006c)
Read Performance
The maximum number of read operations per time unit. Replication will normally increase read performance. (Frank, 2005a)
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communication protocols, workflows, geographical information systems, and so forth. (Riesco et al., 2005)
Real-Time System
A system that processes and updates information always within a given time. (Aifanti et al., 2005)
Real Model
The setting where a real protocol is run (without any trusted help). (Lindell, 2005)
Realism
1: A position acknowledging a reality independent of actors (including researchers) thoughts and beliefs. (Carlsson, 2005) 2: The belief that there is a reality independent of our perceptions of it. (Dobson, 2005) 3: The theory that particular things exist independently of our perception. Scientiic realism is the view that an object mind-independent reality exists, and that our scientiic theories aim to inform us of the nature of this reality. (Aarons, 2006)
Realist IS Evaluation
Evaluation (research) based on critical realism aiming at producing ever more detailed answers to the question of why an IS initiative works (better), for whom, and in what circumstances (contexts). (Carlsson, 2005)
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correctly to the number of slots in the answer key. (Song et al., 2005) 3: The percentage of relevant documents in a given query in a collection that are returned by an information retrieval system. (Meng & Chen, 2005) 4: The number of relevant images retrieved as a percentage of the total number of relevant images in the database. (Sural et al., 2005) 5: The ratio of the number of relevant documents retrieved to the total number of relevant documents in the document collection. (Fan & Pathak, 2005)
themselves and their lifestyle, and to feel recognized by their experiences with them. (Pryor, 2005)
Recognition Technology
One of several technologies such as bar code recognition, optical character recognition (OCR), intelligent character recognition (ICR), and optical mark recognition (OMR) that facilitate document registration and retrieval. (Asprey et al., 2005)
Receiver
The destination of the message or the person who decodes the message. This requires skills, for example, in listening or reading. (Jacobson, 2006)
Recommendation
1: A iltered list of alternatives (items of interest) that support a decision-making process. (Parmar & Angelides, 2005) 2: An output interface of a recommender system. Given a customer, the system recommends a list of products the customer will be interested in (e.g., top-10 products). (Sarwar et al., 2005) 3: Results of the process of providing useful resources to a user, like products, services, or information. (Loh et al., 2005)
Reciprocal Communication
Communication that involves two or more (human or nonhuman) participants. The direction of communication may be two way or more. However, this type of communication does not necessarily suggest that participants communicate in any preset order. (El-Gayar et al., 2005)
Recommendation System
1: A system that retrieves information based on users preferences. (Chen & McLeod, 2006) 2: Software that, given preferences expressed by a user, select those choices, from a range of them, that better satisfy these users preferences. (de Campos et al., 2005)
Reciprocity
Returning favors, which is a major way of building trust. (Ridings & Gefen, 2005)
Reclassiication Process
The reclassiication process has to be performed whenever a product was classiied based on a classiication system A, but is needed to be classiied based on another classiication system B. The difference between reclassifying and classifying a product is the fact that in the reclassiication process, the existing information of classiication system A is used to determine the class of classiication system B. (Abels & Hahn, 2006)
Recommender System
1: A computer program that aids people to ind information by giving recommendations on the searched subject. It is up to the user to select useful data among the recommended ones. (Nabuco et al., 2006) 2: A computer program that recommends some sort of resource based on algorithms that rely on some sort of user model, some sort of content model, and some means of matching the two. (Dron, 2005) 3: A software system that makes recommendations to a user, usually analyzing the users interest or need. (Loh et al., 2005) 4: A system that recommends certain information or suggests strategies users might follow to achieve certain goals. (Nasraoui, 2005) 5: An information-iltering technique based on machine learning and/or statistical methods. Widely used in Internet commerce nowadays. (Sarwar et al., 2005) 6: A special type of decision-support system that gives recommendations for further actions or related items. (Anke & Sundaram, 2006) 7: Any system that provides a recommendation, prediction, opinion, or user-conigured list of items that assists the user in evaluating items. (Schafer, 2005) 8: Assists and augments the transfer of recommendations between members of a community. (Parmar & Angelides, 2005) 9: System that
Recognition
1: A form of cognitive retrieval in which an individual is given a list of viable options from which to select. Recognition-based search mechanisms have been found to outperform those that are based on recall. (Corral et al., 2006) 2: Different professional groups look for and require different forms of recognition for their professional development. Where academic staff focus on publication, designers need to develop a portfolio of work, and software developers receive kudos and build a reputation based on a product that has been developed and the code therein. (Williamson et al., 2006) 3: The extent to which digital media should both enable marginalized people to recognize
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helps the user to choose products, taking into account his/her preferences. (Lorenzi & Ricci, 2005)
Reconciliation Procedure
When, in lazy protocols, two conlicting transactions have been committed before conlict detection, this procedure is needed to adequately reconcile and merge the respective updates. (Muoz-Esco et al., 2005)
backward recovery, the state of the application that has been modiied by a set of uninished operations is reversed by restoring it to a previous consistent value. With roll-forward recovery, critical components, processes, or objects are replicated on multiple computers so that if one of the replicas fails, the other replicas continue to provide service, which enables the system to advance despite faults. (Zhao et al., 2006) 2: The task of recovery is to return the database to a consistent state after a crash: the effects of committed transactions must be guaranteed to be persistent, and effects of not committed transactions must be undone. Recovery requires that all modiications are written to some stable storage as part of a commit, or else these modiications would be lost in a crash. (Meixner, 2005)
Recursive
A recursive procedure is one that has the ability to call itself. (Millet, 2005)
Recursive Partitioning
1: Learning paradigm that employs local averaging to estimate the class posterior probabilities for a classiication problem. (Domeniconi & Gunopulos, 2005) 2: The method used to divide data at each node of a classiication tree. At the top node, every variable is examined at every possible value to determine which variable split will produce the maximum and minimum amounts of the target variable in the daughter nodes. This is recursively done for each additional node. (Breault, 2005)
Record
A set of ields that contain facts about something, such as an item sold. Records are stored in iles. (Maris, 2005)
Red Tape
Pointless bureaucratic procedures that citizens have to endure while dealing with government agencies. (De, 2005)
Record Linkage
A computer-based process that combines sources of existing personal information with additional information that refers to the same person, or to his or her family, friends, schools, employer, area of residence, or geographic environment. (Mullen, 2005)
Redeinition
The process by which an innovation is redeined to it the organization during its implementation. See also Restructuration. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005a)
Redirection
Sending a visitor to a Web site address that is different from what was typed into the browser URL window or a link. (Owen, 2006d)
Reduct
Is minimal with respect to inclusion subset C of B preserving a given indiscernibility (discernibility) constraint, for example, IND(C)=IND(B). Many different kinds of reducts with respect to different discernibility
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criteria have been investigated and used in searching for relevant patterns in data. (Pawlak et al., 2005)
Referenceable Table
A table row which can be referenced by REF type values. The table is based on a structured user-deined type and comprises one extra column containing row (or object) identiiers generated automatically when a new row is inserted into the table. In Oracle, such a table is called an object table. (Zendulka, 2005b)
Referendum
A public opinion poll, where local, regional, or national authorities offer citizens the possibility to vote on a speciic issue, generally on two alternativesyes or no. The multi-phase referendum uses deliberative agenda setting, feedback processes, and multiple choices. (Keskinen & Kuosa, 2005)
Reeds Law
Developed by David P. Reed, states that the utility of large social networks increases exponentially with the size of the network. (Mew, 2006)
Referential Integrity
1: A concept developed as part of relational database management systems. A connecting construct or key allows a database designer to optimally develop a set of tables while retaining links between related data. With referential integrity, records cannot be updated in isolation in an inconsistent manner. (Horiuchi, 2005a) 2: In hypertext, a measure of the reliability of a reference to its endpoints. A reference has the property of referential integrity if it is always possible to resolve it. When references are represented as links, it is called link integrity. (Martnez-Gonzlez, 2005)
REF
A data type value which references a row in a referenceable table (or object, in Oracle). (Zendulka, 2005b)
Refactoring
A change to a system that leaves its behavior unchanged, but enhances some non-functional quality factors such as simplicity, lexibility, understanding, and performance. (Favre et al., 2005)
Reference Model
A model representing a class of domains, for example, a reference model for production planning and control
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Reineable
A generalization of part, feature, specialization, and instance. (Dori, 2006)
Relective Practice
1: Refers to the notion that educators need to think continuously about and evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies and learning environment designs they are using. (Torrisi-Steele, 2005) 2: Analyzing events that have happened, usually in a group setting, so that events are seen from different perspectives. (Dingsyr, 2006)
Refresh Cycle
The frequency with which the data warehouse is updated (e.g., once a week). (Peter & Greenidge, 2005b)
Relective Practicum
A process in which students relect while performing a real-world task; also involves an ongoing dialogue with a coach. (Berg, 2005h)
Refusal of Response
Respondents outward omission of a response due to personal choice, conlict, or inexperience. (Brown & Kros, 2005)
Relective Society
One that takes a critical stance to information received and beliefs held. (Baralou & Stepherd, 2005)
Regional Area
A geographical area located outside major metropolitan centers. (Vrazalic et al., 2005)
Relective Software
Computational process that reasons about itself, comprising an ingredient process (interpreter) formally manipulating representations of its own operations and structures. (Kunz & Gaddah, 2005)
Relective Teaching
Teaching based on problem solving and examination, and questioning of assumptions, thoughts, and understandings brought to teaching and other aspects of the work of a professional teacher, in light of prior knowledge, experiences, personal practical theories, and values. (Wieseman, 2005b)
Regional Cluster
Geographic concentration of organizations, predominately SMEs, in the same or related industries that share resources and have access to other institutions important to competition, for example educational and training facilities. This close proximity creates a network of alliances that enables more productive operation, facilitates innovation, and lowers barriers to new entrants. (Mason et al., 2006)
Relexive Learner
This type of learner is someone who explores his or her experiences of learning to better understand how he or she learns and improve his or her learning, and thus becomes a lifelong learner. This kind of student is more self-aware and self-critical, honest about him or herself, open to criticism and feedback, curious and prepared to try different approaches, motivated to improve, and more able to carry through independent learning. Strategies that may help to improve and encourage relection include self- and peer assessment, learning logs, critical incident and ieldwork diaries, relective commentaries, and action research. (Correia & Sarmento, 2005)
Regional Development
1: The act, process, or result of actions to grow, expand, or bring a regional place to a more advanced or effective state. (Thompson, 2005) 2: The notion of development that has been recently better deined with the concept of learning region (regionalit apprendente) that suggests the existence of a dynamic net of relationships among different activity sectors (economic, administrative, educational, and cultural) of a region. It is thought that
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education and training represent the central device of such development. (Giorgi & Schrch, 2005)
in the center-based clustering algorithms are replaced by regression models. (B. Zhang, 2005)
Regional E-Forum
A community and citizen engagement process linking government agencies and community, using ICT as the means of communication, and extending across and involving a region. (Sutcliffe, 2005)
Regression Model
A pattern or set of patterns that allows a new instance to be mapped to one numerical value. Regression models are learned from data where a special attribute is selected as the output or dependent value. For instance, a model that predicts the sales of the forthcoming year from the sales of the preceding years is a regression model. Regression models can be learned by many different techniques: linear regression, local linear regression, parametric and nonparametric regression, neural networks, and so forth. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005b)
Regional Identity
A linguistic and cultural concept linked to the feeling of belonging shown by the inhabitants. (Giorgi & Schrch, 2005)
Regression Tree
1: A decision tree where the dependent attribute is numerical. (Gehrke, 2005) 2: An oriented tree structure obtained by a recursive partitioning of a sample on the basis of a sequential partitioning of the predictor space such to obtain internally homogenous groups and externally heterogeneous groups of cases with respect to a numerical response variable. (Siciliano & Conversano, 2005)
Regression
1: A regressive saccade. A saccade that moves back in the direction of text that has already been read. (Poole & Ball, 2006) 2: A statistical method of estimating the exact amount a variable of interest will change in reaction to another variable. (Benrud, 2005) 3: A statistical method of learning the relationship between two sets of variables from data. One set is the independent variables or the predictors, and the other set is the response variables. (B. Zhang, 2005)
Regulatory Framework
A sphere of concern; organizational level that is required to control the interoperable technical domain or legislation pertinent in m-commerce. Most important current concrete entities within this sphere of concern are governments and intergovernmental organizations (EU, OECD, UN, etc.), industry associations (OMA, W3C, etc.), and proper standardization bodies (ISO, ETSI, ANSI, etc.). (Veijalainen & Weske, 2005)
Regression Analysis
A statistical technique used to ind relationships between variables for the purpose of predicting future variables. (Yeo, 2005)
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into society. It also was enacted to ensure that the federal government plays a leadership role in promoting the employment of individuals with disabilities. (Bursa et al., 2005)
Unique Names Principle, the Domain Closure Axiom, the Completion Axioms, and Equality Axioms. This formalization permits identiication of the answering with logical consequences. (Alonso-Jimnez et al., 2005)
Reiication
The use of various ideological strategies for the purpose of maintaining a particular (social/organizational) order. (Land et al., 2006b)
Relapse
The tendency for repeated reversions to earlier patterns of the particular activity to recur and for even the most extreme patterns typical of the height of the addiction to be quickly restored after many years of abstinence or control. (Grifiths, 2005)
Reimbursement
Accepting telemedicine encounters by health insurance companies as one of the different medical outlets and accordingly reimbursing doctors and physicians for their encounters with, for example, rural patients, could assist in increasing telemedicine success and diffusion. (AlQirim, 2005)
Relation
1: A mathematical structure similar to a table in which every row is unique, and neither rows nor columns have a meaningful order. (Denton & Besemann, 2005) 2: From a type point of view, a relation is simply a set of tuples. In most implementations of the relational model, however, multisets (sets with repetitions) are used. (Badia, 2005d)
Relational Algebra
A collection of unary and binary operators that take one or two tables as input and produce a table as output. The relational algebra operators of Cartesian Product, Selection, Projection, set Difference, and Union are considered to be necessary and suficient for extracting any desired subset of data from a relational database. (Dadashzadeh, 2005)
Reinforcing Feedback
Visual, auditory, or tactile indications that the student stated the correct response. This type of feedback includes some form of praise for the correct response. (Lazarus, 2005a)
Relational Calculus
A notation founded on predicate calculus dealing with descriptive expressions that are equivalent to the operations of relational algebra. Two forms of the relational calculus exist: the tuple calculus and the domain calculus. (Dadashzadeh, 2005)
Relational Completeness
A relational query language is said to be relationally complete if it can express each of the ive principal operations of relational algebra. (Dadashzadeh, 2005)
Relational Data
Data where the original information cannot be represented in a single table, but requires two or more tables in a
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relational database. Every table can either capture the characteristics of entities of a particular type (e.g., person or product) or relationships between entities (e.g., person bought product). (Perlich & Provost, 2005)
called a database engine. (Rahman, 2005e) 2: A software application for managing databases utilizing the relational data model. (Dadashzadeh, 2005)
Relational Learning
Learning in relational domains that include information from multiple tables, not based on manual feature construction. (Perlich & Provost, 2005)
Relational Database
1: A collection of data items organized as a set of formally described tables from which data can be accessed or reassembled in many different ways without having to reorganize the database tables. (Alhajj & Polat, 2005a) 2: A database that has relations and relational algebra operations as underlying mathematical concepts. All relational algebra operations result in relations as output. A join operation is used to combine relations. The concept of a relational database was introduced by E. F. Codd at IBM in 1970. (Denton & Besemann, 2005) 3: A database that stores data in tables, which are sets of tuples (rows). A set of corresponding values across all rows of a table is called an attribute, ield, or column. (Koeller, 2005) 4: A method of storing data in tables and columns, and operating on that data through a set-oriented query language (SQL) and specialized software the takes care of the procedural and physical aspects of data storage and manipulations. (Millet, 2005) 5: Database management system (DBMS) type in which relations between tables are implemented only by means of connections in the data, rather than hard-coded in the database. Its main advantages are lexibility and maintainability. Current popular examples include Oracle and SQL Server. Increased system performance made it the preferred DBMS starting in the 1990s. (Schultz, 2005) 6: Widely used variety of databases based on the relation algebra by Codd. (Schmidt et al., 2005)
Relational Practice
Work practice related to communication with others, including formal and informal interaction. (P.M. Leonardi, 2005)
Relational Trust
Trust that develops over time after repeated interactions. (Ridings, 2006b)
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Relationship
1: A connection concept between object types. There are several types of relationships including: aggregation, composition, association, and inheritance (generalization/ specialization). (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 2: The basic element in one conceptual model. It is deined as an association among entities. (Cuadra et al., 2005)
Relative Advantage
1: Degree to which an innovation is seen as being superior to its predecessor. (Green et al., 2005) 2: The degree to which an innovation or process is perceived as being superior to that which preceded it. (Jones & Gupta, 2005)
Relationship Capital
The relationships with the irms customers, but also with suppliers and the environment in whole (also referred to as customer capital). (Ariely, 2006a)
Relationship Trust
The subjective probability with which organizational members collectively assess that a particular transaction will occur according to their conident expectations. (Ratnasingam, 2006)
Relevance
A score assigned to a search result, representing how well the result matches the search query. In many cases, a results relevance determines the order in which the result is presented to the user. (Guan, 2006d)
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Relevance Feedback
1: A technique in which the user associates a score to each of the returned hits, then these scores are used to direct the following search phase and improve its results. (Farag, 2005a) 2: A technique that requires users to identify positive results by labeling those that are relevant to the query, and subsequently analyzes the users feedback using a learning algorithm. (Wei & Li, 2005) 3: A score assigned to a search result, representing how well the result matches the search query. In many cases, a results relevance determines the order in which the result is presented to the user. (Guan, 2006f) 4: The information that is judged by a user and provided to an information system. (Meng & Chen, 2005) 5: The user evaluates the quality of the individual items in the ranking based on the subjective expectations/speciication of the sought item. Subsequently, the user supplies the system with the evaluation results (positive/negative instances, weights, etc.) and re-starts the query. The system considers the user-knowledge while computing the similarity. (Kao & Tendresse, 2005)
Religious Institution
An organization, including some universities and colleges, that is afiliated with or sponsored by a religious organization. (Rogers & Howell, 2005)
Relying Party
A recipient who acts by relying on a certiicate and an electronic signature. (Mitrakas, 2005)
Remote
Geographically distant from a center with technology support. (Brady, 2005)
Remote Access
The ability to control instruments or systems and retrieve relevant information at a distance. (Ko et al., 2005)
Reliability
1: The ability of a system or component to perform its required functions under stated conditions for a speciied period of time. (Schneidewind, 2005) 2: The improved quality of data transmission. Different types of reliability exist, including data accuracy or real-time delivery. (Hosszu, 2005a) 3: Measure of the consistency of responses to questions. (Witta & Lee, 2005) 4: Reliable assessment means that independent of who marks your work, it is expected you will receive the same mark. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005)
Remote Collaboration
They come together as their avatars through the communication networks as if they were gathered at the same place. (Terashima, 2005)
Remote Interaction
Information-technology-mediated human-to-human communication over a distance. (Wiberg, 2005)
Reliable Broadcast
Requires that each correct process delivers the same set of messages and that the set includes each message broadcast by correct processes, but no spurious messages. (MuozEsco et al., 2005)
Remote Mobility
Refers to remote users interacting with each other using technology. (Mkinen, 2006)
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servers and ask for data or functionality. (Fiege, 2005) 2: One way of communicating in a client server model. The client and the server are located in different computers in a network. An RPC is a synchronous operation requiring the requesting (client) to pass by value all the needed parameters to the server, then the client is suspended until the server returns back the associated results. (Karoui, 2005)
Remote Worker
An individual who works at a different location than his/ her co-workers and/or manager. That person is remote, in terms of physical presence from his/her colleagues. (Staples et al., 2005)
Rendering
1: A process in which the layout and typography for content is created for a speciic human viewer, program, or output device. (Honkaranta & Tyrvinen, 2005) 2: A process of producing realistic 3D images. There are four main rendering methods used in visualization, that is, ray tracing, volume rendering, radiosity, and polygon rendering. (Ozer et al., 2005)
This model generally features a reduction in class-meeting time, replacing face-to-face time with online, interactive learning activities for students. (Twigg, 2005)
Replicated Database
A regular database in which tables, queries, and reports cannot be modiied in design. (Parikh & Parolia, 2005)
Reorganization
Aims at changing the structure, the processes, and the policy of an organization. (Becker et al., 2006)
Repair
Minimal set of insert and delete operations which make the database consistent. (Greco et al., 2005)
Repatriation
Taking work that had been outsourced back in-house. (Beaumont, 2005)
Repeated Measure
One of a multiple ANOVA of variables over time performed in SPSS. (Molinari et al., 2005a)
Repository
1: A database in which the speciication and the description of the various artifacts of a software system are stored. As
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far as database engineering is concerned, the repository includes the schemas of the project database at all the abstraction levels, as well as the correspondence between them. All CASE tools rely on some sort of repository. (Hainaut et al., 2005) 2: A centralized database where metadata about database structure, applications, Web pages, users, and other application components are stored and maintained. It provides a set of mechanisms and structures to achieve seamless data-to-tool and datato-data integration. (Lee, Suh, et al., 2005) 3: Database where researchers self-archive their works, either pre-prints or post-prints. The Open Archives Initiative proposes standards to allow access to different repositories. (Rennard, 2006) 4: In information technology, a central place in which an aggregation of data is kept and maintained in an organized way, usually in computer storage. (Oshri, 2006)
that is being studied. Computer simulation is a form of representational decision support system. (McHaney, 2005)
Representational Dimension
The number of coordinates a vector space has. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
Representational Diversity
The practice according to which real-world entities are represented through totally independent and unsynchronized models in different information systems, leading to inconsistencies and maintenance problems. (Lepouras et al., 2006)
Representative Region
Area with the most notable characteristics of a multimedia object. (Hurson & Yang, 2005)
Representation
In GIS, a way to code the location, geometric shape, and topological behavior of objects. Involves the deinition of aspects such as resolution, level of detail, spatial dimension. (Davis et al., 2005)
Representative Sample
A sample whose distribution is the same as that of the underlying population. (Hou, Guo, et al., 2005)
Representation Level
Degree to which the problems faced by managers are well formalized in their own minds and can be represented for the purpose of DSS development. (Pomerol & Adam, 2005)
Reputation
1: The estimated trustworthiness in an agent as derived from the communicated opinions of other parts (directly or indirectly received); the resulting and emergent common opinion about the agents trustworthiness. (Falcone & Castelfranchi, 2005) 2: The extent to which buyers believe that the selling organization is honest and concerned about its customers. (Peszynski, 2005)
Representation Space
The representation space is formed with all the attributes of a learning problem. In supervised learning, it consists of the representation of the labeled instances in a multidimensional space, where all predictive attributes play the role of a dimension. (Muhlenbach & Rakotomalala, 2005)
Reputation Effect
The extent of association of a speciic information technology with perceived business beneits among a population of irms over a period of time, fuelling increased visibility and sustaining a mimetic diffusion pattern. (Grifin, 2005)
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Reputed Credibility
A credibility assessment based upon third-party reports or endorsements. (Danielson, 2006c)
Requirements Model
A model to represent the external requirement to a system without taking into account how the system looks inside. (Krogstie, 2005a)
Requirements Gathering
The process of eliciting the overall requirements of a product from the customer. (Singh & Dix, 2006)
Requisite Expertise
Having an adequate understanding of the task that helps to manage the task successfully. (Qudrat-Ullah, 2006)
Resampling
Validation technique employed to assess the sensitivity of the classiication method with respect to the choice of modeling data. (Galvo et al., 2005)
Research
Systematic endeavor to ind answers to a problem, with the help of scientiic methods or critical investigation. (Crdoba & Robson, 2006)
Research Front
A transient collection of highly cited scientiic publications by the latest publications. Clusters of highly co-cited articles are regarded as a representation of a research front. (Chen & Lobo, 2006)
Research Method
A unique and coherent approach to the study of certain phenomena. Principal among these methods are: case studies, correlation studies, experimental studies, phenomenological studies, and research synthesis. (Naidu, 2005b)
Requirement
1: A condition or capability needed by a user to solve a problem or achieve an objective. (Schneidewind, 2005) 2: Speciics based on deined criterion used as the basis for information systems design. (DeLorenzo, 2005)
Research Partnership
Industry-university partnership involving collaboration in applied irm-speciic research. In this type of partnership, funding from the industry partner is received in exchange for intellectual horsepower in the form of research services and technology transfer. (Kock, 2005)
Requirements Engineering
1: The human acts of identifying and understanding what people want from an IS. (Furtado, 2005) 2: The systematic handling of requirements. (Ferre et al., 2006)
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Re se a rch Pra c t ic e /Re se a rch De sign Re sourc e De sc rip t ion Fra m e w ork (RDF)
Research is conducted to acquire knowledge about a topic. Research design deines the way that knowledge is to be acquired. Hence research involves knowledge management. (Land et al., 2006b)
Research University
A university in which the primary objective is to produce research. (Rada, 2005)
Reservation Bandwidth
Reserving a portion of the available bandwidth for a given protocol or application, which ensures its network access will not be adversely affected by massive network trafic generated by other protocols or applications. (Guster et al., 2005)
Reserve Auction
In this case the seller sets a reserve price, or the lowest price the seller is willing to transact on. (Lei et al., 2005b)
Reservoir Sampling
A database sampling method that implements uniform random sampling on a database table of unknown size, or a query result set of unknown size. (Lutu, 2005)
Residency Requirement
Requirement to be on campus for a certain amount of time, continuously or accumulated, during the undertaking of a course or program at a particular institution of learning. (Kung-Ming, 2005)
Residual
Part of a variable that is not explained by the model. It can be deined as the difference of actual and predicted values. (Cho, 2005)
Any information resource like HTML-document, book, video, and so forth. (Hnisch, 2005) 3: Asset or means that fulills a requirement. (Yoon et al., 2005) 4: The entity (individual or organization) that can contribute or add value to a product, providing either a product (component, assembly) or an operation. A resource is (a view of) an enterprise object used to perform (or to support the execution of) one or more processes, and it is a subject of control. A resource can be primitive or complex. In the case of A/VE (see Agile/virtual enterprise), a person or enterprise (company), partner in A/VE. (Cunha & Putnik, 2005) 5: Also known as asset; comes in many forms, from common factor inputs that are widely available and easily purchased in arms-length transactions, to highly differentiated resources, like brand names, that are developed over many years and are very dificult to replicate. Resources come in two main forms: Tangible resources are the easiest to value and often are the only resources that appear on a companys balance sheet. They include real estate, production facilities, and raw materials, among others. Although tangible resources may be essential to a companys strategy, because of their standard nature they rarely constitute a source of competitive advantage. Intangible resources include such things as company reputations, brand names, cultures, technological knowledge, know-how shared among employees, patented process and design, trademarks, accumulated learning and/or knowledge, as well as experience. These resources often play important roles in competitive advantage (or disadvantage) and company value. Intangible resources also have the important property of not being consumed in usage. (Potgieter et al., 2005) 6: Anything that is not the application itself, but is changed or used by the application to determine its behavior. Examples are iles, registry entries, or the system time. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005)
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(Dotsika, 2006) 3: A speciication developed in 2000 by the World Wide Web Consortium as a foundation for processing machine-understandable metadata regarding resources on the Internet, including the World Wide Web. It uses XML. (Raisinghani & Sahoo, 2006) 4: An example of metadata language (metadata = data about data) used to describe generic things (resources, according to the RDF jargon) on the Web. An RDF document is a list of statements under the form of triples having the classical format <object, property, value>, where the elements of the triples can be URIs (universal resource identiiers), literals (mainly, free text), and variables. RDF statements are normally written into XML format (the so-called RDF/XML syntax). (Zarri, 2005b) 5: The basic language of the Semantic Web. It is used for describing Web resources. (Antoniou et al., 2005) 6: Part of the Semantic Web, and a way to uniquely identify a resource whether electronic or not. (Verhaart & Kinshuk 2006) 7: RDF provides means for adding semantics to a document. It is an infrastructure that enables the encoding, exchange, and reuse of information-structured metadata. RDF allows multiple metadata schemas to be read by humans as well as machines, providing interoperability between applications that exchange machine-understandable information on the Web. (Ishaya, 2005) 8: RDF provides the foundation for the processing and exchange of machine-understandable information on the Web. RDF can be used for cataloging, for resource discovery, and by intelligent software agents in content rating. (Hassan & Hietanen, 2006) 9: An XMLbased language for deining metadata for Web resources and relations between them. It is a W3C recommendation and serves as a basis for representing information and knowledge on the Semantic Web. (Stuckenschmidt, 2005) 10: A language for representing information about resources in the World Wide Web. (Goh & Kinshuk, 2005) 11: A mechanism to describe data as a list of triples: an object (a resource), an attribute (a property), and a value (a resource or free text). (Vardaki, 2005) 12: A framework deined by W3C for representing information in the Web that integrates a variety of applications, from library catalogs to syndication and aggregation of news, software, and content, to personal collections of music, photos, and events, using XML as an interchange syntax. The RDF speciications provide a lightweight ontology system to support the exchange of knowledge on the Web. (Sicilia & Garca-Barriocanal, 2006) 13: A framework for representing information in the Web. The underlying structure of any expression in RDF is a collection of triples, each consisting of a subject, a predicate, and an object.
A set of such triples is called an RDF graph. This can be illustrated by a node and directed-arc diagram, in which each triple is represented as a node-arc-node link (hence the term, graph). (Kapetanios, 2005)
Resource Inluence
One of an entitys resources deployed to execute and affect its conduct of knowledge management. (Holsapple & Joshi, 2006)
Resource Management
Set of mechanisms to eficiently control and allocate scarce network resources (often bandwidth) to users and trafic lows. (DaSilva, 2005)
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interest and involvement in the management of hospital and community units, making them responsible for operational and strategic decisions. (Barnes, 2005)
Restructuring
1: Replacing query terms using synonyms so that logical operators and numerical constraints can be restructured. (Guan, 2005e) 2: The transformation from one representation form to another at the same relative abstraction level, while preserving the subject systems external behavior. (Aversano et al., 2005)
Retention
1: Similar to persistence, this term typically refers to whether students inish their degrees or programs. (Lindsay et al., 2005a) 2: The number of learners or students who progress from one part of an educational program to the next. (Adkins & Nitsch, 2005)
Resource-Dependency Theory
Refers to outsourcing of a irms IT operations to external vendors to ill resource gaps within the irm for the purpose of providing the irm with strategic competitive advantage. (Gupta & Iyer, 2005)
Response Modeling
Predicting a response given individual characteristics by using data from a previous campaign. (Lo, 2005)
Retrieval
Accessing stored information from a database. (Geisler & Kao, 2005)
Responsibility
The moral construct or concept of taking ownership of acts and the consequences in social situations. (Skovira, 2005)
Retrieval Stage
The last stage in a content-based retrieval system where the extracted features from the query are compared to those stored in the metadata and matches are returned to the user. (Farag, 2005b)
Restructuration
The process of structural change associated with an organizations implementation of an innovation. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005a)
Retroduction
The central mode of inference (explanation) in critical realism research. Enables a researcher to investigate the potential causal mechanisms and the conditions under
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the concept of returns to scale is extended to multiple input and multiple output situations. (Chen, Motiwalla, et al., 2005)
Reusable Component
The aim of reusable components is to provide services to other components and to require services from others. There are three concepts associated with them: their interfaces, their architectures, and their realizations. (Felice & Riesco, 2005)
Reuse
1: Making use of a (digital) learning resource in a situation different from that in which it was originally created or used. (Collis & Moonen, 2005a) 2: A process where a technology asset (such as a function or class) is designed and developed following speciic standards, and with the intent of being used again. (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a)
Reuse Process
A method having the following steps: the decomposition of the goal speciication, the identiication for each speciication, the adaptation step using the appropriate operators, and the composition of the sub-speciications. (Felice & Riesco, 2005)
Reversal Pattern
A pattern in technical analysis that suggests, on the balance of probabilities, that price trend will change direction. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Reverse Auction
A ixed-duration auction hosted by a single buyer in which multiple sellers compete for business. (I. Lee, 2005)
Reverse Engineering
1: The extraction of higher-level software artifacts, including design, documentation, and so forth, from the source or binary codes of a software system. (Tan & Zhao, 2005b) 2: The process of analyzing a subject system to: (1) identify system components and their interrelationships, and (2) create representations of the system in another form or at a higher level of abstraction. (Aversano et al., 2005) 3: The process of transforming code into a model through
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RFID Reader (Interrogator): See Radio Frequency Identiication Reader (Interrogator). RFID Tag (Transponder): See Radio Frequency
Identiication Tag (Transponder).
Reversible Action
Any action that can be undone. Reversibility is a design principle that says people should be able to recover from their inevitable mistakes. (Roibs, 2006a)
Reversible Watermarking
A watermarking method that allows the original host media to be perfectly recovered after the marked media passes the authentication process. (C.-T. Li, 2005)
Revolutionary Innovation
A type of innovation that provides solutions outside the conines of contemporary scientiic knowledge and best practice in an area, and represents pioneering work. (Paukert et al., 2006)
Rewrite System
Consists of a set of conigurations and a relation xy, denoting that the coniguration x follows the coniguration y with the help of a rule application. (Fischer, 2005)
RF: See Radio Frequency. RFC: See Request for Comments. RFI: See Request for Information. RFID: See Radio Frequency Identiication. RFID Item-Level Tag: See Radio Frequency
Identiication Item-Level Tag.
Rigorous Process
A mathematically based technique for describing and reasoning about system properties. It provides frameworks within which people specify, develop, and verify systems in a systematic manner. (Felice & Riesco, 2005)
RFID Pallet-Level and Case-Level Tag: See Radio Frequency Identiication Pallet-Level and Case-Level Tag.
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Risk
1: A possibility of incurring inancial loss. (Wong, 2005) 2: An individual or organizations exposure to a chance of loss or damage. (Kitchens, 2005) 3: In a limited manner, the decision situation in which the full range of possible outcomes are known with certainty and the probability of their occurrence can be assessed accurately, usually by some objective means (e.g., rolling the dice is a classic risk decision situation). More usually, the probabilities must be assessed subjectively, often based on previous experiences or intuition, and the outcomes themselves may not be fully identiiable. The term risk is used commonly to generally deine decision situations that are really a combination of classical risk and uncertainty, that is, the more normal decision situation in organizations. (Ritchie & Brindley, 2005) 4: The probability that a vulnerability is exploited and results in a damage. (Weippl, 2006) 5: The chance of something happening that will have an impact upon objectives. It is measured in terms of consequence and likelihood. (den Braber et al., 2005) 6: The consumers perceptions of the uncertainty and adverse consequences of engaging in an activity. (Peszynski, 2005)
Risk Evaluation
The process used to determine risk management priorities by comparing the level of risk against predetermined standards, target risk levels, or other criteria. (den Braber et al., 2005)
Risk Handling
The process in which potential risks to a business are identiied in advance, analyzed, mitigated, prevented, and the cost of protection is balanced with the cost of exposure to the risk. (Kyobe, 2006)
Risk Management
The range of activities that may be taken to avoid the occurrence of an undesirable event or to modify, minimize, or eliminate the consequences should the event occur (e.g., an insurance policy against particular risks would not prevent the occurrence, but would compensate for the inancial and other consequences of the outcome). (Ritchie & Brindley, 2005)
Risk Perception
The term used to express how a situation is viewed or seen by the decision maker(s). Individual characteristics, experiences, and beliefs may inluence the way in which we might view a given situation as being either more or less risky. Usually this is measured on a subjective and relative scale (i.e., Situation A is perceived as riskier than B) rather than on an objectively measurable scale. (Ritchie & Brindley, 2005)
Risk Analysis
1: A systematic use of available information to determine how often speciied events may occur and the magnitude of their consequences. (den Braber et al., 2005) 2: To what extent particular data could be a subject of unauthorized access or alterations. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005) 3: Technique for providing a means of forecasting critical events. Risk analysis enables the identiication of necessary controls that must be incorporated in a secure information system. (Butcher-Powell, 2005)
Risk Treatment
Selection and implementation of appropriate options for dealing with risk. (den Braber et al., 2005)
Risk Assessment
1: A procedure undertaken to determine the vulnerability of a system. (Buche & Vician, 2005) 2: A set of procedures whose purpose is to identify, analyze, and manage the possibility that data quality has been degraded due to events and circumstances such as a breakdown in internal controls, system restructuring, changes in organizational culture, or alterations in the external environment. (ChengalurSmith et al., 2005) 3: Determined by measuring two quantities of risk, the magnitude of the potential loss and the probability that the loss will occur. (Mitrakas, 2006) 4: The overall process of risk analysis and risk evaluation. (den Braber et al., 2005)
RLO: See Reusable Learning Object. RM-ODP: See Reference Model of Open Distributed
Processing.
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Roaming
1: A signaling procedure in cellular networks to allow the provision of services in different networks. (Louvros et al., 2006) 2: Traditionally, wandering around an area. Now, synonymous with accessing wireless services when visiting a provider that is not ones home provider. (Efstathiou & Polyzos, 2006)
more robust. (Hosszu, 2005a) 3: The resistant ability of a hidden message against various attacks; that is, a message that is hidden in a carrier can be reliably detected after the carrier has been attacked. (Lou et al., 2006) 4: The robustness of watermarking schemes can be evaluated by applying attacks that are relevant for the application scenario under consideration. (Sattar & Yu, 2006)
ROANS
A PC software package for 3D simulation and programming of automated work cell, robots, and other peripheral devices. After designing work cell subsystems and their locations, it is able to create control programs for all devices that are working in multi-tasking mode. (Modrk & Marcn, 2006)
Robustness Analysis
A form of what-if analysis that seeks the maximum variation of a parameter that keeps a decision within acceptable values. (Pomerol & Adam, 2005)
Robust
An image that can be successfully restored after suffering attacks from normal image processing or attacks of intent. The restored image must be visually acceptable. (Chen, Chen, Ma, et al., 2005)
Role
1: A concept that individuals stand in relation to other individuals, and that they can enter and leave the extent of the concept without losing their identity. (Stamoulis et al., 2005) 2: The actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person. (Rada, 2005) 3: A set of norms expressed in terms of obligations, privileges, and rights assigned to an actor. (Daneshgar, 2005) 4: A situation- or context-speciic aspect of a real-world entity. A role may be dynamically associated and removed from an atoma construct when either the real-world entity evolves accordingly (e.g., a person becomes an employee or loses this property) or when the behavior modeled by the role becomes/ceases to be pertinent to the current context. (Lepouras et al., 2006) 5: In ORM, a part played in a fact type (relationship type). In UML, this is known as an association-end. For example, in the fact type Person works for Company, Person plays the role of employee, and Company plays the role of employer. (Halpin, 2005)
Robust Clustering
Refers to clustering techniques that behave robustly with respect to noise, that is, adding some noise to the data in the form changing the values of the data objects slightly as well as adding some outliers will not drastically inluence the clustering result. (Klawonn & Georgevia, 2005)
Robust Watermarking
A method for embedding a secret message/watermark that is intended to be detectable even after signiicant malicious or non-malicious manipulations on the host media in which it is embedded. (C.-T. Li, 2005)
Role Incompatibility
A situation in which each party perceives its concerns or needs to be mutually exclusive (or antagonistic) to the other partys concerns or needs; that is, role incompatibility exists when one perceives his or her needs cannot be met if the other partys needs are met. A situational factor proposed to contribute to the occurrence of Limited-Perspective Bias (LPB). (Moore & Burke, 2005)
Robustness
1: A property possessed by a system. A system is robust with respect to a perturbation when the perturbation effect on the system performance is tolerable according to a predeined threshold. (Alippi & Vanini, 2005) 2: In case of the ALM, the hosts are responsible to maintain the tree; in case of the IP-multicast, the routers deine the tree. Since the routers operate safely, non-stop, but the user can switch off a host anytime, in such a way the IP-multicast is
Role Playing
An element in gaming which requires the student to assume the role of another. (Pendegraft, 2005)
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Rotational Latency
The waiting time for the beginning of the desired data block to rotate under the disk head before the actual data transfer can begin. (Lu, 2005)
Rough Classiication
Finds mappings from the partitions induced by the equivalence relations in the condition attributes to the partitions induced by the equivalence relations in the decision attribute(s). These mappings are usually expressed in terms of decision rules. It performs the same type of classiication function as discriminant analysis or logistic regression, where there is a known sub-grouping in the data set, which is identiied by the decision attribute. (Voges, 2005)
Roll-Up
1: A cube operation that allows users to aggregate from detailed cells to summarized cells. (Abdulghani, 2005b) 2: Operation consisting of going in a hierarchy at a more aggregated level. (Schneider, 2005)
Rough Set
1: A method of modeling impreciseness and vagueness in data through two sets representing the upper bound and lower bound of the data set. (Bala et al., 2005) 2: An undeinable set. (Grzymala-Busse & Ziarko, 2005) 3: A subset (concept) of the universe of objects U in an information system (U,A) that cannot be expressed (deined) as a union of indiscernibility classes; otherwise, the set is called exact. (Pawlak et al., 2005) 4: The concept of rough, or approximation, sets was introduced by Pawlak, and is based on the single assumption that information is associated with every object in an information system. This information is expressed through attributes that describe the objects, and objects that cannot be distinguished on the basis of a selected attribute are referred to as indiscernible. A rough set is deined by two sets, the lower approximation and the upper approximation. (Voges, 2005) 5: A mathematical approach to extract knowledge from
RosettaNet
Open e-business standards, encompassing data dictionaries, implementation framework, and XML-based business message schemas and process speciications. (Hawk & Zheng, 2006)
Rotation Matrix
A linear operator rotating a vector in a given space. A rotation matrix has only three degrees of freedom in 3D and one in 2D. It can be parameterized in various ways, usually through Euler angles, yaw-pitch-roll angles, rotation angles around the coordinate axes, and so forth. (Sappa et al., 2005)
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imprecise and uncertain data. (Zhu, 2005) 6: A method of representation of uncertainty in the membership of a set. It is related to fuzzy sets, and is a popular datamining technique in medicine and inance. (Bose, 2005) 7: Mathematical algorithms that interpret uncertain, vague, or imprecise information. (Yeo, 2005) 8: A special types of interval set created by using equivalence relations. (Lingras et al., 2005)
Routing
The determination of a path that a data packet will traverse from source to destination. (Hu, 2005)
Routing Protocol
Facilitates the exchange of routing information between networks, allowing routers to build routing tables dynamically. (Dhar, 2005)
Contains a list of couples (treatment proxy, proile) that allow a proxy cache to choose, in function of a proile, the treatment proxy to which queries will be sent. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Routinizing
The inal stage in the innovation process; the innovation becomes part of the organizational routine. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005a)
Row Type
Constructed data type that contains a sequence of attribute names and their data types. (Taniar et al., 2005)
RPC: See Remote Procedure Call. RPF: See Reverse-Path Forwarding. RPG: See Role Playing Game. RRM: See Radio Resource Management. RRS Filter
A recursive running-sum ilter is an FIR ilter with all coeficients equal to 1 presented in a recursive form. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005c)
Router
1: A device that forwards packets (messages) between networks. (Vician & Buche, 2005) 2: A device used to link two or more networks. The router makes use of an Internet protocol, which is a connectionless protocol operating at layer 3 of the OSI model. (Ngoh & Shankar, 2005) 3: An Internet working device that connects two computer networks. It does the job of resolving difference between two interconnected computer networks. (Hu, 2005)
RS-Tree
A binary tree which describes the rhetorical structure of every coherent discourse. (Faz & Mahmoudi, 2005)
RSS: See Real Simple Syndication. R SS Net work i ng: See Rich Site S ummar y
Networking.
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RSVP: See Resource Reservation Protocol. RT Probe: See Reaction Time Probe. RTP: See Routing Table by Proile. RTS: See Regional Tourism System; Returns to Scale. RTS/CTS: See Request To Send/Clear To Send.
Set of constructs for the deinition of rules, events, conditions, and actions. (Cilia, 2005)
Rule Discovery
The process of inding rules that then can be used to predict some outcome (e.g., IF 13 <= age <= 19 THEN teenager). (Butler & Webb, 2005)
Rule Execution
An activity running the corresponding action of an instantiated rule. (Ale & Espil, 2005)
Rule Extraction
Given a complicated model such as an artiicial neural network and the data used to train it, produce a symbolic description of the model. (Zhou, 2005)
Rubric
1: A detailed set of expectations and associated scoring used to evaluate an assessment task. (Hawkins & Baker, 2005) 2: A document that identiies the instructional goals criteria of the activity plus the levels of potential performance; the rubric is distributed with the activity directions so that: (1) students can monitor their own progress, process, and product quality; and (2) instructors can evaluate against the rubrics information. (B.L. MacGregor, 2005)
Rule Generation
1: An automatic way of performing inductive reasoning through the generation of understandable rules underlying the physical system at hand. (Muselli, 2005) 2: The extraction from the data of the embedded synthetic logical description of their relationships. (Liberati, 2005)
Rule Induction
1: Process of learning from cases or instances the if-then rule relationships consisting of an antecedent (i.e., ifpart, deining the preconditions or coverage of the rule) and a consequent (i.e., then-part, stating a classiication, prediction, or other expression of a property that holds for cases deined in the antecedent). (Agresti, 2005) 2: The extraction of valid and useful if-then-else rules from data based on their statistical signiicance levels, which are integrated with commercial data warehouse and OLAP platforms. (Zhu, 2005)
Rule
A typical and useful way for representing knowledge. Can be of many forms, but typically are IF <conditions> THEN <conclusions>. Conditions also are referred to as antecedents, and conclusions as consequents. (Fuller & Wilson, 2006)
Rule List
An ordered list of IF-THEN rules discovered by the algorithm during training. When the rules are applied to classify cases in the test set, they are applied in order. That is, a case is matched with each of the rules in the list in turn. The irst rule whose antecedent (conditions in the IF
Rule Base
A set of ECA rules. Once this set is deined, the a DBMS monitors for relevant events. The rule base can be modiied (new rules can be added, or existent rules can be modiied or deleted) over time. (Cilia, 2005)
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part) matches the attribute values of the case is then used to classify the case; that is, the case is assigned the same class as the class predicted by the irst matching rule found in the discovered rule list. (Parpinelli et al., 2005)
Rule Model
Describes the structure of a rule (i.e., its event, condition, and action parts). (Vargas-Solar, 2005)
Rule Quality
A numerical factor that characterizes a measure of belief in the given decision rule, its power, predictability, reliability, and likelihood. (Bruha, 2005)
Rule Scheduling
An activity that determines the order of execution within a set of rule instances whenever they are ired simultaneously. (Ale & Espil, 2005)
Rules Repository
WCDSS information and knowledge base that contains directions and instructions to help e-shoppers make informed decisions online. (F. Wang, 2006)
A property that indicates whether the inal database state after rule processing is independent of the order of execution. (Ale & Espil, 2005)
Rule Signaling
An activity occurring when some source causes an event. (Ale & Espil, 2005)
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S
S-Commerce: See Silent Commerce. S-Problem
Where the relevance of a particular input variable depends on the values of other input variables. Back-propagation neural networks will require inordinate amounts of learning time for these types of problems, so they are unsuitable for S-problems. (Wilson et al., 2006a)
Safety
1: Protecting the user from dangerous conditions and undesirable situations. It can mean safety of users, safety of data, or both. (Yong, 2005) 2: Quality, state, or condition of being prevented of and/or protected against danger, risk, or injury, caused by accidental and unintentional effects or actions. Safety further includes the recovery from such accidental and unintentional effects or actions. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006)
S-Tree
A height-balanced multi-way tree. Each internal node corresponds to a page, which contains a set of signatures, and each leaf node contains a set of entries of the form <s, oid>, where the object is accessed by the oid and s is its signature. (Chen & Shi, 2005)
Sales/Revenue
Receipt of income for the exchange of goods or services. (Hunter, 2005)
Saccade
An eye movement occurring between ixations, typically lasting for 20 to 35 milliseconds. The purpose of most saccades is to move the eyes to the next viewing position. Visual processing is automatically suppressed during saccades to avoid blurring of the visual image. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
Sales Tax
An excise tax imposed on the transfer of goods, typically at retail. States vary as to whether the tax is imposed on the seller of goods or on the buyer; however, sales taxes are almost universally collected from the purchaser at the time of sale. (Raisinghani & Petty, 2005)
SAD: See Systems Analysis and Design Course. Salience Safe Enclave
A social area or community that shelters individuals from organizational social-political pressures to encourage knowledge sharing. They sometimes alter the organizational climate to provide a safe or desirable forum to share knowledge. Often they encompass shared electronic and non-electronic social spaces that allow for underlying or contrary views to be expressed. (Paquette, 2006a) Occurs when the particular activity becomes the most important activity in the persons life and dominates their thinking (preoccupations and cognitive distortions), feelings (cravings), and behavior (deterioration of socialized behavior). For instance, even if the person is not actually engaged in the behavior, they will be thinking about the next time they will be. (Grifiths, 2005)
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Salient Object
Interesting or signiicant object in an image (sun, mountain, boat, etc.). Its computing changes in function of the application domain. (Chbeir, 2005)
Produkte in der Datenverarbeitung (systems, applications, products in data processing). (Kurbel, 2005)
Sarbanes-Oxley Act
Requires compliance with a comprehensive reform of accounting procedures for publicly held corporations to promote and improve the quality and transparency of inancial reporting by both internal and external independent auditors. (Saha, 2005)
Salient Variable
One of the real players among the many apparently involved in the true core of a complex business. (Liberati, 2005)
Sametime
An IBM Lotus instant messaging client now known as IBM Lotus Instant Messaging. (Panton, 2005)
Satellite Communication
The ampliication and transmission of signals between ground stations and satellites to permit communication between any two points in the world. (Luppicini, 2006)
Sampling
1: A procedure that draws a sample, Si, by a random process in which each Si receives its appropriate probability, Pi, of being selected. (Liu & Yu, 2005) 2: A technique for selecting units from a population so that by studying the sample, you may fairly generalize your results back to the population. (Thomasian, 2005b) 3: Part of the data selected to represent the whole population. (Kumar, 2005) 4: The generation of a discrete-time signal x(n) from a continuous signal xc(t) is called sampling, where x(n)= xc(nT). T is called the sampling period, and its inverse 1/T is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate. (JovanovicDolecek, 2005b)
Satisiability
Standard reasoning service provided by digital libraries. It checks the consistency of an expression w.r.t. the knowledge elicited for a given domain. More formally, given a TBox T and a concept C, C is satisiable w.r.t. T if there exists at least one interpretation satisfying inclusions and deinitions of T in which the set of individuals belonging to C may be non-empty. (Colucci et al., 2006)
SBC: See Akaike Information Criterion and Schwartz Bayesian Criterion. SBC Filter Bank: See Subband Coding Filter Bank.
Sampling Distribution
The distribution of values obtained by applying a function to random data. (Mukherjee, 2005)
SBL: See Scenario-Based Learning. SCA DA: See Super visor y Cont rol and Data
Acquisition.
Scaffolding
1: A pedagogical structure designed to facilitate the increase in knowledge and understanding by students in an educational experience. (Woods & Baker, 2005) 2: A teaching method that provides the learner with supports or assistance (e.g., hinting, elaborating, nudging, commenting, simplifying, suggesting, etc.) to complete a task or problem when needed, and then removing that support as the learner takes more control over the learning event or situation. (Bonk et al., 2005) 3: An instructional
SAP
Software company based in Walldorf, Germany; market leader in ERP software worldwide. SAP is an abbreviation of the companys German name Systeme, Anwendungen,
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technique that chunks out a larger learner project over a timeline or allows a gradual introduction of skills that will lead the learner to a more complex learning level or project completion. (Bedard-Voorhees, 2005) 4: Cognitive and instructional supports for learning built into course design. (C. Cavanaugh, 2005) 5: Providing support that enables a learner to carry out a task that would not be possible without that support, and enabling the learner gradually to master that task without support. (Muukkonen et al., 2005) 6: Supporting student learning with assistance at the level of learning where it is needed. (Lerch et al., 2005) 7: The process by which learners are gradually guided from less-effective to more-effective learning strategies. (OLooney, 2006)
Scanner
Electronic device that converts bar-code information into digitized electronic images. (Kotzab, 2005)
Scanning
The activity/performance launched by antivirus software to examine iles and to inspect any malicious codes residing inside the iles according to the softwares deinition iles. (Luo & Warkentin, 2005)
Scalability
1: The degree to which a protocol or algorithm can be extended to an increasing number of users or network nodes and continue to function properly. (DaSilva, 2005) 2: The ability to increase enrollment while still remaining proitable, or at least inancially self-sustaining, without adversely affecting course and program quality. (Laws et al., 2005)
Scanpath
An eye-tracking metric, usually a complete sequence of ixations and interconnecting saccades. (Poole & Ball, 2006)
Scalar Equivalence
Refers to whether the construct is measured on the same metric across cultures. This occurs if the instrument has achieved all prior levels of equivalence, and the construct is measured on the same metric. (Karahanna et al., 2005)
Scatter Plot
One of the most common types of plots, also known as an x-y plot, in which the irst component of a two-dimensional observation is displayed in the horizontal dimension and the second component is displayed in the vertical dimension. (Burr, 2005a)
Scale of Impact
General size of the target audience and its geographical spread. (Kaufman, 2005)
Scatter Search
A metaheuristic that belongs to the evolutionary methods. (Mart, 2005)
Scale-Free Network
The characteristic of the majority of the e-mail discussion lists where a small minority of the members post the majority of the messages. (Kirlidog, 2005)
Scavenging
Attacking the physical access to a computer. (ButcherPowell, 2005)
Scaling Problem
A term that can be used to describe the problem of scroll bars and sliders not scaling to large document sizes. If a document is very long, the smallest unit to move the scroll bar or slider thumb on the screen, that is, one pixel, already represents a large jump in the ile, thus resulting in jerky visual feedback that is often considered irritating and disturbing, and in the worst case leads to a signiicant loss of information. (Hrst, 2006)
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of use-case descriptions describes the systems complete functionality. (Rolland & Kaabi, 2006) 3: A narrative description of a sequence of (inter-)actions performed by one or more persons in a particular context. Scenarios include information about goals, plans, interpretations, values, and contextual conditions and events. (Nash et al., 2005a) 4: Developed options for action used to consider the implications of one or more choices. (Shambaugh, 2005)
reinforcement depends on time, the schedule is called an interval schedule. (I. Chen, 2005)
Scheduling
A research ield in which we aim to program the execution of a set of tasks on a set of resources. The schedule obtained should respect some constraints and optimize one or many criteria. (Kacem, 2005)
Skepticism
The view that genuine human knowledge is impossible. Cartesian skepticism follows from reasoning presented by Descartes, who showed it is possible to doubt (almost) any particular knowledge claim, and thus those claims cannot be genuine knowledge. (Aarons, 2006)
Schema Abstraction
The activity that clusters objects belonging to a schema into homogeneous groups and produces an abstracted schema obtained by substituting each group with one single object representing it. (De Meo, Terracina, et al., 2005)
Schema Integration
1: Ability of the database schema to be created from the merging of several other schemas. (Bounif, 2005) 2: The activity by which different input source schemas are
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merged into a global structure representing all of them. (De Meo, Terracina, et al., 2005)
Schema Matching
The process of identifying an appropriate mapping from the schema of an input data source to the schema of an integrated database. (Koeller, 2005)
Schema Modiication
Ability to make changes in the database schema. The data corresponding to the past schema are lost or recreated according the new schema. (Bounif, 2005)
innovative, high-growth, technology-based businesses through the provision of infrastructure and support services, including: (1) collaborative links with economic development agencies; (2) formal and operational links with centers of excellence such as universities, higher education institutions, and research establishments; and (3) management support actively engaged in the transfer of technology and business skills to small- and mediumsized enterprises. (Moodley, 2005)
Schema/Script
Mental structure that organizes our knowledge of the world around speciic themes or subjects, and guides our behavior so that we act appropriately and according to expectation in particular situations. (Noyes, 2006)
Schema Transformation
A transformation is a rewriting rule through which the instances of some pattern of an abstract or concrete speciication are replaced with instances of another pattern. The concept also applies to database schemas where the rewriting rule replaces a set of constructs of a database schema with another set of constructs. Such a transformation comprises two partsa schema rewriting rule (structural mapping) and a data conversion rule (instance mapping)that transform the data according to the source schema into data complying with the target schema. (Hainaut, 2005)
A research ield that combines techniques from data mining, Web intelligence, and Webometrics to extract useful information from the links and text of academicrelated Web pages, principally concerning the impact of information and the relationships among different kinds of information. (Thelwall, 2005)
Scientometrics
The quantitative study of science and scientists, particularly the documentary outputs of science. (Thelwall, 2005)
Schema Versioning
Ability of the database schema to be replaced by a new version created with one of the several existing versioning methods. (Bounif, 2005)
SCM: See Supply Chain Management. SCMC: See Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication. Screen Name
1: Can be an individuals real name, a variation of an individuals name, or a totally made-up pseudonym. Screen names are especially required on the Internet for applications such as instant messaging. (Whitty, 2005) 2: An IM user name that serves as the address for sending and receiving messages. One can change his or her screen name at any time, and most IM programs also allow users
Science Center
An institution for the popularization and promotion of science and technology to students and the public. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005b)
Science Park
A business support initiative whose main aim is to encourage and support the start-up and incubation of
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to search for a screen name by e-mail address, name, or area of interest. (Hwang & Stewart, 2005)
SDBS: See Spatial Database System. SDK: See Software Development Kit.
Screen Reader
Software that interprets the signals sent to the computer screen and reads aloud the displayed text with the help of a speech synthesizer. (Schmetzke, 2005)
SDLC: See System Development Lifecycle. SDP: See Session-Description Protocol. SDSS: See Spatial Decision Support System. SE: See Software Engineering. Sealed-Bid Auction
Each bidder submits a bid without the knowledge of the other bids. (Guan, 2006a)
Screen Sharing
A technology associated with online meetings that allows multiple individuals in different physical locations to view and transfer control of a computer screen used during a Web conference or online meeting. (Panton, 2005)
Script
1: A condition-event structure that describes a stereotyped sequence of events in a particular context. Scripts are useful because, in the real world, there are patterns in the occurrence of events. Events described in a script form a causal chain. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005b) 2: Where all the stories in an organization follow a certain form with common messages, this indicates that the members of that organization are in effect reading a script. A certain type of story is the only legitimate one, and anyone telling stories that contradict the script will be eliminated. Expert communities are prone to rejecting new or novel stories that do not conirm with the establishment. (Snowden, 2006)
Seamless Education
Learning where boundaries between educational levels dissolve. For example, the transition between high school and college is becoming less distinct. (Lindsay et al., 2005b)
Script Kiddie
Derisive term for an amateur hacker who illegally invades a system using the path of least resistance. (Friedman, 2005)
Scripting Style
In the Middle Ages, and especially from the eighth to ifteenth centuries (before Gutenbergs invention of printing), different writing styles were used from copyists for the reproduction of ancient manuscripts. Beneventan, Caroline, Gothic, and Humanistic are four of the most important and widely used scripts in that period. (Cartelli, 2006a)
SCO: See Shareable Content Object. SCORM: See Sharable Content Object Reference
Model.
SCPC: See Single Channel Per Carrier. SCU: See Switch Control Unit.
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such a search depends on a variety of factors, including the number of Web sites that are searchable (or scope of the database), the syntax that a user enters a query in, and the algorithm for determining the relevance of a result, which is some measure of how well a given page matches the query. A typical problem is a user retrieving too few or too many results, and having dificulty broadening or narrowing the query appropriately. (Singh, 2005a) 6: A Web service that allows a user to ind Web pages matching the users selection of keywords. (Scime, 2005b) 7: Software that builds a database of Web pages, applies queries to it, and returns results. (Caramia & Felici, 2005) 8: Web service that helps search through Internet addresses for user-deined terms or topics. (Chen & Liu, 2005) 9: Method that facilitates content-based searching of digital iles. (Subramanian, 2005)
Seasonality
1: Periodic pattern that typically occurs within a year and repeats itself year after year. Most retail data exhibit seasonal variations that repeat year after year. (G.P. Zhang, 2005) 2: Used in a generalized term to indicate the dependence of a quantity on speciic times of the day, week, or year. (Kushnir, 2006)
Seat Time
Time spent in a traditional classroom. (Witta, 2005)
Search Server
Indexes and searches all the documents, information, applications, communities, Web sites, and other content accessible through the portal. (Wojtkowski, 2006)
Search Situation
The period of a search process during which the searcher interacts with sources potentially containing information related to his/her search task. (Pharo & Jrvelin, 2005)
Search Space
1: Set of all possible situations of the problem that we want to solve could ever be in. (Rabual Dopico et al., 2005) 2: The union of the search space of every transaction in a dataset. (Zou & Chu, 2005)
Search Transition
The period of a search process during which the searcher interacts with sources containing meta-information. (Pharo & Jrvelin, 2005)
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Second-Order Effect
Indirect and long-term impacts of e-government systems on the economy. (De, 2005)
queries, cookies, product correlation, and feedback from the customer companies. (Nayak, 2005c)
Secondary Market
A market in which an investor purchases a security from another investor rather than the issuer, subsequent to the original issuance in the primary market, also called the aftermarket. (Roofe, 2005)
Secondary Monitoring
Supports agents with verifying and assuring data and information compliance by assisting in analyzing and categorizing exceptions, or results, generated by a Primary Surveillance System (PSS). This assists in assuring the fulillment of the necessary and suficient evidence supporting (true positive/negative) or refuting (false positive) hypotheses of non-compliance. The input is the result of the organizations domain-speciic PSS, plus related information and human judgment from either human agents or machine agents encoded with heuristics. (Goldschmidt, 2005)
Section 255
A part of the Communications Act. Section 255 requires telecommunications manufacturers and providers of telecommunications services to make their products and services accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities, if readily achievable. (Bursa et al., 2005)
Secondary Task
The task that is used as a probe in a secondary task study. Changes in the performance of the secondary task are taken to suggest changes in the processing of the primary task or the detection of processing system overload. (Owen, 2006c)
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SET. Released in 1997, SET v1.0 established a standard speciically for handling electronic payments, describing ield formats, message types, protocol handshaking, and encryption mechanisms. The key difference between SET and SSL is that SET has digital certiicates for all involved parties as an integral part of its design. (Lei et al., 2005b)
Internet. It is one of a few competing security standards. (Bose et al., 2005) 3: A commonly used security protocol designed by Netscape Communications to enable secure Internet communications. It provides communication encryption, authentication, and message integrity. (Xu & Korba, 2005) 4: A protocol developed by Netscape for transmitting private documents via Internet. SSL works by using a private key to encrypt data that is transferred over the SSL connection. (Chim, 2006)
Security
1: A concept that contains the elements of conidentiality, integrity, and availability. It can also include the extended requirements of authentication, authorization, and nonrepudiation. (Xu & Korba, 2005) 2: A set of processes aimed at minimizing the vulnerability of assets and resources. (Trcek, 2005) 3: An investment instrument, other than an insurance policy or ixed annuity, issued by an enterprise, government, or other organization that offers evidence of debt or equity. (Saha, 2006b) 4: The combination of processes, procedures, and systems used to attain the conidentiality, accountability, integrity, and availability of the needed information. (Wang, Cheng, et al, 2006) 5: Encompasses the primary aspects of availability, integrity, and conidentiality. (Weippl, 2006) 6: Quality, state, or condition of being prevented of and/or protected against danger, risk, or injury, caused by intentional effects or actions such as access to information by unauthorized recipients and the intentional but unauthorized destruction or modiication of that information. Security further includes the recovery from such unauthorized destructions or modiications. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 7: System of user names and passwords to control access to programs and information on the computer and network. (Brady, 2005) 8: The capability to be reliable in delivering goods and information, and to keep conidential and safe that information and resources. (Samuel & Samson, 2006) 9: The combination of integrity, availability, and secrecy. (Cremonini et al., 2006) 10: The effort to create a secure computing platform, designed so that agents (users or programs) can only perform actions that have been allowed. (Guan, 2006g)
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Security Analysis
Security Management
In network management, the task of deining and enforcing rules and regulations regarding the use of the resources. (Kayacik et al., 2005)
Thorough analysis of a system in order to get a complete picture of its security level. Vulnerabilities, risks, treatments, and their costs are identiied. (den Braber et al., 2005)
Security Clearance
A set of privileges individually granted to an employee related to dealing with confidential information. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005)
Security Policy
1: Guidelines for security of the information, computer systems, and network equipment. (Hentea, 2005b) 2: A document that lays out the rules for network information access, determines the process to enforce policies, and lays out the architecture of the security environment of an organization. (Mitrakas, 2006) 3: Documented procedures that focus on the organizations management of security; it is about information conidentiality, integrity, and availability of resources. (Trcek, 2005)
Security Concern
Such as availability of secure modes for transmitting information, provisions made for alternatives, overall concern about security of transactions over the Internet, gathering of personal information, and so on. (Shih & Fang, 2006)
Seek Time
The data on a computer disk is arranged in concentric circles called tracks. Seek time is the time needed to move the disk head from its current position to the track that the desired data is on. (Lu, 2005)
Security Lattice
A partial (or total) order of security classes, where there is a least upper bound that dominates all the other security classes and a greatest lower bound that is dominated by all security classes. (Haraty, 2005b)
Segmentation Evaluation
A process to judge the performance of segmentation algorithms based on some deined quality criteria and/or
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ground truth in view to assess or reveal the property of algorithms in use. The inter-algorithm evaluation is also called segmentation comparison, while the intra-algorithm evaluation can be called segmentation characterization. (Zhang, 2005c)
Self-Checkout System
Can occur at the end or during shopping processes whenever cash-desk operations are outsourced to consumers. In that case, consumers self-register their items with speciic scanning devices. (Kotzab, 2005)
Self-Determination Theory
A motivation theory, developed by Deci and Ryan, which suggests that individuals have three innate psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It distinguishes between intrinsically motivated, or autonomous, self-determined activity, and extrinsically motivated activity, which is more controlled (i.e., less autonomous). (Hendriks & Sousa, 2006)
Selection
1: In biology, a mechanism by which the ittest individuals survive to reproduce, and the basis of speciation, according to the Darwinian theory of evolution. Selection in GP involves evaluation of a quantitative criterion over a inite set of itness cases, with the combined evaluation measures being compared in order to choose individuals. (Hsu, 2005b) 2: The choice of which stimuli should be considered and which issues should be addressed when presented with a set of stimuli and issues beyond the available capacity. (Yaniv & Schwartz, 2006)
Self-Directed Approach
Students have control over their progression, or pacing, in a course or program. (Laws et al., 2005)
Self-Directed Learning
1: Learning that occurs when learners explore, question, react, and respond to learning material relevant to their needs. (Eberle & Childress, 2005) 2: Students are empowered to learn at their own pace, catering to the different learning speeds and styles of individuals. (Knight et al., 2005)
Selective Attention
The idea that a person can actively choose to attend to one of multiple stimuli that are present, while ignoring others. (Owen, 2006b)
Selectivity
The ratio of the number of output tuples of a query to the total number of tuples in the relation. (Hou, Guo, et al., 2005)
Self-Direction
The ability to carry out a learning activity without being directed or managed by another person, and speciically, a teacher. The term can also refer to the ability to set ones own learning goals. (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005)
Self-Adaptive
Ability of a Web portal to automatically adjust its presentations to perceived user preferences. (Quah, Leow, & Yong, 2006)
Self-Eficacy
Self-Archiving
Consists of depositing researcher works in a repository. The researcher is generally responsible for the format of the deposit and particularly for its conformance to the archive standards. (Rennard, 2006)
1: Measure of a persons belief and conidence that he or she can perform a certain task. (Blignaut et al., 2005) 2: The belief in ones ability to successfully complete a task or execute a behavior. (Jawahar, 2005)
Self-Eficacy Theory
This motivation theory, developed by Bandura, posits that motivation is the combined product of beliefs about
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whether one is capable of performing (or learning) some task, and beliefs about whether such performance will lead to desirable outcomes. (Hendriks & Sousa, 2006)
Self-Organized Learning
Learning theory that emphasizes autonomy and responsibility of learners. (Beuschel et al., 2005)
Self-Evaluation
1: An activity where the student compares the rubric to his or her alternative assessment activity prior to inal submission to the instructor; assisting students to evaluate their own work offers opportunities for editing/correcting prior to teacher grading and for self-relection on the learning process. (B.L. MacGregor, 2005) 2: Where a person evaluates his or her own solution to a problem or other assignment. (Bieber et al., 2005)
Self-Organizing Group
A subset of a community where individuals decide for themselves how work structures, study activity, and so forth are coordinated. Such structures make use of social interactions and commonality to be sustained for as long as they are needed. (Fleming, 2005c)
Self-Maintainable View
A materialized view that can be maintained, for any instance of the source relations, and for all source relation changes, using only these changes, the view deinition, and the view materialization. (Theodoratos & Simitsis, 2005)
Self-Modeling
The process whereby an unaided user develops his or her own mental model of a system to explain its behavior, achieved through exploration or trial-and-error learning. (Maceield, 2006)
Self-Paced E-Learning
Students access computer-based (CBT) or Web-based (WBT) training materials at their own pace, and so select what they wish to learn and decide when they will learn it. (Cirrincione, 2005)
Self-Occlusion
When a part of an object is occluded by another part of itself. For example, when a person is walking, one leg may occlude the other leg or the torso may occlude one arm. (Aifanti et al., 2005)
Self-Paced Training
Training taken at a time and pace determined by the user. Used historically for text or audio/video self-study courses, the term is used by some organizations now to include computer-based, Web-based, and multimedia training. (Galitsky, 2005b)
Self-Organization
A system structure that often appears without explicit pressure or involvement from outside the system. (Lingras et al., 2005)
Self-Regulated Learning
Individual students rather than teachers set educational goals; involves active, goal-directed self-control of behavior and cognition. (Berg, 2005d)
Self-Report
Surveys where people provide their opinions and reactions. (Molinari, Anderberg, et al., 2005)
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Self-Service
1: One of the major differences between a traditional business information system and current Web-enabled business information systems is that the user does not need to be trained and is assumed to have sophisticated prerequisite knowledge to be able to use the system. A self-service system is a new trend of business systems that is Web enabled and has a user-conigurable interface. A system is deployed on the Web with a generic user interface. Self-service allows online users to select system functions to construct a Web information system in a way that is best suited for the users information needs. (Li, 2005a) 2: Online students register, request and pay for services, receive basic academic advising, and so forth, without accessing student support personnel. Under this model, students are no longer bound by the ofice hours of the provider. They can individually access their services anytime from anywhere. (Howell & Wilcken, 2005)
Semantic Annotation
Ontology-based metadata on a Web resource. These may either correspond to the semantics underlying the resource or to information not contained in the resource. Semantic annotations can correspond to instances of concepts or of relations of an ontology. The process of semantic annotation aims to transform a human-understandable content into a machine-understandable content. (Dieng-Kuntz, 2006)
Semantic Context
The speciication of the concepts particular to a domain that help to determine the interpretation of a document. (Banerjee et al., 2005)
Self-Sustainability
The ability to maintain an entity over an extended period of time without depleting the resources available to it. (Vrazalic & Hyland, 2005)
Semantic Dimension
Concept or entity of the studied domain that is being observed in terms of other concepts or entities. (Meo & Psaila, 2005)
Self-Usability
Sort of mechanisms set by users (e.g., use of acronyms in a SMS) in order to make more usable the interaction with complex human artifacts. (Roibs, 2006a)
Semantic E-Mail
E-mail framework in which the semantics of e-mails is understandable by both human and machine. A standardized deinition of semantic e-mail processes is required. (Bickel & Scheffer, 2005)
Sellink
A link from a site to a page within the same Web site. (Thelwall, 2006)
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Semantic Heterogeneity
Each information source has a speciic vocabulary according to its understanding of the world. The different interpretations of the terms within each of these vocabularies cause the semantic heterogeneity. (Buccella et al., 2005)
data with classes of an ontologythat is, the use of ontology for describing data. (Aleman-Meza et al., 2005)
Semantic Model
The conceptual representation of the problem domain. (Hoxmeier, 2005)
Semantic Network
1: A knowledge-representation formalism from the cognitive-science community (understood by cognitive psychologists to represent actual cognitive structures and mechanisms, and used in artiicial-intelligence applications) consisting primarily of textually labeled nodes representing objects, concepts, events, actions, and so forth, and textually labeled links between nodes representing the semantic relationships between those nodes. (Alpert, 2006) 2: Basically, directed graphs (digraphs) where the nodes represent concepts, and the arcs represent different kinds of associative links, not only the classical IsA and property-value links, but also ternary relationships derived from Case Grammar in Linguistics and labeled as Actor, Object, Recipient, Instrument, and so forth. Representational solutions that can be reduced in some way to a semantic network framework include, among (many) other things, Ceccatos Correlational Grammar which dates back to the 1950s, Quillians Semantic Memory, Schanks Conceptual Dependency Theory, Sowas Conceptual Graphs, Lenats CYC, and Zarris NKRL (Narrative Knowledge Representation Language). Semantic network solutions have been often used/proposed to represent different kinds of narrative phenomena. (Zarri, 2006c)
Semantic Integrity
The adjective in semantic integrity is often added to distinguish a set of explicitly deined integrity constraints, either from structural constraints that are implicitly given by the used data model (e.g., data types in relational databases must be scalar) or from integrity as required for the sake of security. (Decker, 2005)
Semantic Primitive
A symbol that has interpretation, but the interpretation is not implemented in the system. So in automated computing, semantic primitive is treated as symbols. However, in interactive computing, it may be treated as a word (not necessary). (T.Y. Lin, 2005)
Semantic Matching
Compares the speciications dynamic behavior. (Felice & Riesco, 2005)
Semantic Proile
Semantic Metadata
1: Metadata that describes the content of a document within the context of a particular domain of knowledge. For example, for documents relating to the homeland security domain, semantic metadata may include terrorist names, group afiliations, and so forth. (Banerjee et al., 2005) 2: Data about data that describes the content of the data. A representative example of semantic metadata is relating
A part of a users proile that deines what kinds of information (topics) he/she is interested in. (Abramowicz et al., 2006)
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The use of integrity constraints to constrain search in answering queries. (Grant & Minker, 2006)
Semantic Search
A search in natural language text, based on the meaning rather than the syntax of the text. (Navarro, 2005)
Semantic Technology
A software technology that allows the meaning of and associations between information to be known and processed at execution time. For a semantic technology to be truly at work within a system, there must be a knowledge model of some part of the world that is used by one or more applications at execution time. (Kapetanios, 2005)
Semantic Web
1: A vision of how the World Wide Web could be more intelligent, based on meta-tagging the content, together with the ability to inference automatically how different Web objects are related to one another. (Woods et al., 2006) 2: A Web that includes documents or portions of documents describing explicit relationships among things and containing semantic information intended for automatic processing by our machines. (Garca et al., 2006) 3: An extension of the current Web in which information is given well-deined meaning, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation. Berners-Lee said that in the context of the Semantic Web, the word semantic meant machine processable. He explicitly ruled out the sense of natural language semantics. For data, the semantics convey what a machine can do with that data. (Aldana Montes et al., 2005) 4: An extension of the current Web where information resources are attached with metadata to support people and computers as they work in cooperation. The metadata are intended to give welldeined meaning to resources and to support automated reasoning about the meaning and trustworthiness of resources. (Lyytikinen et al., 2005) 5: An extension of the current World Wide Web, proposed by Tim Berners-Lee, in which information is given a well-deined meaning. The Semantic Web would allow software agents, as well as humans, to access and process information content. (Banerjee et al., 2005) 6: An extension to the Web where information has well-deined meaning. Semantic Web services describe Web services capabilities and content in a computer interpretable language, and improve the quality of the existing tasks, including Web services discovery, invocation, composition, monitoring, and recovery. (Zhang, 2006) 7: Provides a common framework
that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries. It is a collaborative effort led by W3C with participation from a large number of researchers and industrial partners. It is based on the Resource Description Framework (RDF) and other Web ontology description languages (OWLs), which integrate a variety of applications using XML for syntax and Uniform Resource Identiiers (URIs) for naming. (Kapetanios, 2005) 8: An environment in which human and machine agents will communicate on a semantic basis. It is to be achieved via semantic markup and metadata annotations that describe content and functions. (Ishaya, 2005) 9: A mesh of information linked up in such a way as to be easily processable by machines, on a global scale. You can think of it as being an eficient way of representing data on the World Wide Web, or as a globally linked database. (Roldn-Garca et al., 2005) 10: Provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries. It is a collaborative effort led by W3C with participation from a large number of researchers and industrial partners. It is based on the Resource Description Framework, which integrates a variety of applications using XML for syntax and URIs for naming. (Raisinghani & Sahoo, 2006) 11: The vision for a World Wide Web in which resources are described with metadata expressed in languages oriented to machine- processing, thus enabling advanced services based on those descriptions. (Sicilia & Garca-Barriocanal, 2006)
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reactive behavior of a given system in response to speciic events), the transformation rules (used to implement translators between different versions of RuleML, and between RuleML and other rule languages like Jess), and so forth. (Zarri, 2006b)
Semantics
1: In a language, it is the meaning of a string, as opposed to syntax, which describes how the symbols of the language are combined. Most programming languages have their syntax deined formally (traditionally in BNF), while formal speciication languages have also their semantics deined formally. (Dasso & Funes, 2005) 2: Information should be in a form which is intelligible to those receiving it. (Kisielnicki, 2006) 3: Property that collects UD speciications and that should be preserved in the transformation schemata for all methodology phases. (Cuadra et al., 2005) 4: Study of meaning. Data semantics is the meaning denoted by some data. (Gillman, 2006) 5: The branch of linguistics that studies meaning in language. One can distinguish between the study of the meanings of words (lexical semantics) and the study of how the meanings of larger constituents come about (structural semantics). In the study of language, semantics is concerned with the meaning of words, expressions, and sentences, often in relation to reference and truth. Meta-semantic theories study key semantic notions such as meaning and truth, and how these notions are related. (Galitsky, 2005c) 6: The meaning of expressions written in some language, as opposed to their syntax, which describes how symbols may be combined independently of their meaning. (Ras & Dardzinska, 2005) 7: The purpose of semantics is to assign a meaning to syntactical elements. For Web services, it is the agreed-upon meaning of data, functions, QoS, and so forth exchanged between two or more services. (Cardoso, 2006)
Semantic-Based Representation
Describing multimedia content using semantic terms. (Hurson & Yang, 2005)
Semantics-Preserving Transformation
A schema transformation that does not change the information contents of the source schema. Both schemas describe the same universe of discourse. (Hainaut, 2005)
Semantic-Level Architecture
In semantic level architectures, modalities are integrated at higher levels of processing. Speech and gestures, for example, are recognized in parallel and independently. The results are stored in meaning representations that then are fused by the multimodal integration component. (Bourguet, 2006)
Semi-Fragile Watermarking
A method for embedding a secret message that is intended to be undetectable only after malicious manipulations of the host media in which it is embedded and detectable after non-malicious manipulations. (C.-T. Li, 2005)
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Semi-Honest Adversary
An adversary who follows the protocol speciication but may try to learn private information by analyzing the messages that it receives during the protocol execution. This models the inadvertent leakage of information even during legitimate protocol executions. (Lindell, 2005)
Semi-Supervised Learning
1: A variant of supervised learning that uses both labeled data and unlabeled data for training. Semi-supervised learning attempts to provide a more precisely learned classiication model by augmenting labeled training examples with information exploited from unlabeled data. (Kim, 2005) 2: Learning from both labeled and unlabeled data. (Muslea, 2005)
Semi-Structured Data
1: Data that does not adjust to a predeined schema or that has a very lexible, possibly dynamic, schema. (Mani & Badia, 2005) 2: Data whose structure may not match, or may only partially match, the structure prescribed by the data schema. (Denoyer & Gallinari, 2005) 3: Data with a structure not as rigid, regular, or complete as that required by traditional database management systems. (Sindoni, 2005a)
Semijoin
Variant of the regular join operator. The (left) semijoin of relations R and S on condition C involving attributes of R and S will generate as its output all the tuples in R that have at least one matching tuple in S that fulills C (i.e., the tuples in R that would participate in a regular join) without repetitions (the right semijoin is deined similar). Algebraically, the (left) semijoin is deined as the projection on the schema of relation R of the join of R and S. (Badia, 2005a)
Seminary
School or college created to educate persons for the practice of ministry and/or for teaching and research in the theological disciplines. (Rogers & Howell, 2005)
Semi-Structured Document
A semi-structured (or template-based) document refers to a document that is formatted between structured and unstructured documents. (Chang & Hsu, 2005)
Semi-Structured Information
The type of information that is a combination of structured and unstructured information. An example of semistructured information is an HTML (hypertext markup language) page. It is structured because it uses tags to describe the content of a Web page, but it is unstructured because there is free text between two tags. (Gangopadhyay & Huang, 2005)
Semiotic Learning
A dynamic-practice approach to facilitate organizational learning. It focuses on improving and developing the quality of organizational community life. The semiotic learning approach is directed to recovering the balance between the necessary mechanistic, utilitarian, transactional, and functionalistic procedures present in all kinds of organizations, and the less visible, implicit, subtle, yet powerful issues related to the meaning-creation process which constitutively sustains any organization and forms the bedrock of its community. The semiotic learning approach is supported and informed by social semiotics, critical realism, and action theory. It mediates philosophical forms of inquiry and adapts them to organizational contexts. Organizational learning promotes environments and establishes an organizational design that is conducive to knowledge creation and sharing, as well as to collaborative forms of work and learning. Semiotic
Semi-Supervised Classiication
The task of learning a mapping from instances to one of initely many class labels, coming from labeled data consisting of a sequence of instance-class pairs and unlabeled data consisting of just a sequence of instances. (Scheffer, 2005)
Semi-Supervised Clustering
A variant of unsupervised clustering techniques without requiring external knowledge. Semi-supervised clustering performs clustering process under various kinds of user constraints or domain knowledge. (Kim, 2005)
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learning goes beyond traditional organizational learning and knowledge management approaches by capturing the dynamism, innovation, and creativity spontaneously present in every organizational context, and turning this potential into effective and meaningful action at the organizational level. Therefore this approach is action based and action driven. (Nobre, 2006a)
SeniorComp
The name given to the project designed to provide computers and training in their use for seniors with limited incomes. (Mizell & Sugarman, 2005)
SeniorNet
An international non-proit organization headquartered in California that has established senior learning centers for technology throughout the U.S. and in some foreign countries. A Web site is maintained with technology news for seniors, chat rooms, resources for the volunteer instructors, and so forth. (Mizell & Sugarman, 2005)
Semiotics
1: A theory of signs and the use of signs in languages. Semiotics posits the arbitrary nature of the sign and looks at how human languages encode and transmit messages. (Kieler & West, 2005) 2: The science of signs. It covers the analysis of signs and the study of sign systems. A sign is something that stands for something else. So semiotics can also be understood as the study of meaning-making or semiosis. A culture is the system of daily living that is held together by a signifying order, including signs, codes, texts, and connective forms. Semiotics is not just a theory, but it is a common and unavoidable practice present in all forms of communication. Thus the study of semiotics in human communication may be a form of studying cultural anthropology. Semiotics can have a positivist application when focusing solely on the formal, explicit, and visible structures of language or other sign systems, or else it may take a more interpretative approach when focusing on the dynamic and transformative nature of the same sign systems. (Nobre, 2006a) 3: The science that analyzes signs and sign systems, and puts them in correspondence with particular meanings. It provides formal tools for image knowledge acquisition, generation, representation, organization, and utilization in the context of CBIR. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005a) 4: The study of signs and symbols, both visual and linguistic, and their function in communication. (Macfadyen & Doff, 2006) 5: The theory of signs; the assignment of meaning to data and the effectiveness of use of an information system are semiotic concerns. (Berztiss, 2006b)
Sense of Community
1: An individuals feeling of belonging to and contributing to a group that meets the needs of its members through mutual commitment. (Roberts et al., 2006c) 2: The level of interpersonal connection that a group of people in a speciic community feel. In the online learning community, members of the community do not have to be bonded geographically. (S.-K. Wang, 2005) 3: The trust and feeling of personal attachment that causes individuals to feel safe to socially exchange information for the purpose of beneiting the group. (Fryer & Turner, 2006)
Sensitivity Analysis
A form of what-if analysis that seeks the largest variation of an input value into a model input that leaves the outcome of the decision unchanged. (Pomerol & Adam, 2005)
Senior-Centered Design
A methodology that involves older users in the process of designing products that are targeted toward the aging population. (Zaphiris & Kurniawan, 2005)
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Some nodes have sensing capabilities, which frequently include environmental conditions, existence of speciic chemicals, motion characteristics, and location. Other nodes have actuation capabilities; for example, they may provide local control of mechanical, electrical, or biological actuators and optical long-range communications. (Roussos & Zoumboulakis, 2005)
Separation
The separation of what a method does (interface) from how the method does it (implementation). (D. Brandon, 2005a)
Sequence Alignment
The process to test for similarities between a sequence of an unknown target protein and a single (or a family of) known protein(s). (Tzanis et al., 2005)
Sensor Database
The total of stored sensor data in a sensor and actuator networked is called a sensor database. The data contain metadata about the nodes themselves, for example, a list of nodes and their related attributes, such as their location and sensed data. The types and the quantity of sensed data depend on the particular types of sensors that participate in the network. (Roussos & Zoumboulakis, 2005)
Sequencing
1: As a knowledge integration mechanism, sequencing refers to the assignment of tasks to those organization members who have the relevant knowledge for it. When creating routines of sequenced tasks, individuals only need to know their part of the routine in order to realize a coordinated application of knowledge. (Berends et al., 2006) 2: The process of determining the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein. (Tzanis et al., 2005)
Sensor Network
1: A large network of devices measuring (remote) sensor data, with frequently changing topology where broadcast is usually the means of communication. The sensors typically have limited processing ability and restricted power. (Shahabi et al., 2005) 2: A network of low-power, small form-factor sensing devices that are embedded in a physical environment and coordinate amongst themselves to achieve a larger sensing task. (Shahabi & BanaeiKashani, 2005)
Sequential Pattern
1: A sequence included in a data sequence such that each item in the sequential pattern appears in this data sequence with respect to the order between the itemsets in both sequences. (Masseglia et al., 2005) 2: Frequently occurring subsequence in a collection of sequences. (Manolopoulos et al., 2005)
Sensor Uncertainty
An inherent property of a sensor-based application, where each recorded data item in the database is only an older, approximate version of the entity being monitored in the external environment. (Cheng & Prabhakar, 2005)
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Server Accelerator
A machine dedicated to improving the performance of a Web server by caching popular Web objects. Usually it is installed in front of a single or a farm of Web servers in order to improve their performance and load the balance among them. (Danalis, 2005)
A sensitivity analysis method that involves sequential zeroing of weights of the connection between the input variables and the irst hidden layer of the neural network. (Yeo, 2005)
Serial Entrepreneurship
Starting a new venture, after having done so at least once previously; serial entrepreneurs have start-up experience. (Craig, 2006b)
Server Log
1: A ile that a Web server keeps about requests on its pages from users. It is usually in a standard format such as common log format. (Fu, 2005) 2: An audit ile that provides a record of all requests for iles on a particular Web server, also known as an access log ile. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005b)
Serializability
1: An execution is said to be serializable if its effect is the same as if the transactions were executed in serial order. (Coratella et al., 2005) 2: Requires that a schedule for executing concurrent transactions in a DBMS is equivalent to one that executes the transactions serially in a certain order. (Parker & Chen, 2005) 3: The generally accepted correctness criterion for concurrent execution of transactions. The concurrent execution should produce the same effect and lead to the same database state as one possible sequential execution of the same set of transactions. (Leong, 2005b)
Server Session
A collection of user clicks to a single Web server during a user session. (Yao & Xiao, 2005)
Server Side
Activities that occur on an organizations Web server which may interact with multiple clients. (Moore, Warkentin, et al., 2006)
Serializable
Produces the same output and has the same effect as that of a serial execution. (Haraty, 2005a)
Servant
A node in a P2P ile-sharing network that transfers a ile to a user in response to a request. (Hughes & Lang, 2005)
Service
1: A facility provided to the public in general to ensure their wealth and care. (Crdoba, 2006b) 2: A technological component of an Internet system, Web site, or other information system that plays a speciic role relevant to content. It may include publication of posts, search, poll
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conducts, forum management, and so forth. Traditionally, service uses one type of information and has typical functions. (Arkhypska et al., 2005) 3: High-quality online service is supported by skilled and empathic learning facilitators/professors and technical support persons who are experienced, credible, qualiied, accessible, responsive, understanding, and who encourage learners to be relective and aware of their own thinking and learning processes. (MacDonald et al., 2005) 4: Software modules that are accessed by name via an interface typically in a requestreply mode. (Protogeros, 2006)
Service Model
Consists of a set of service commitments. In response to a service request, the network commits to deliver some service. (Yang et al. 2005a)
Service Orchestration
Describes the interactions that two or more services have with each other to achieve a common goal, and the relation between these interactions. (Rolland & Kaabi, 2006)
Service Provider
1: Responsible for the execution of the IT services to the service recipient in IT outsourcing relationships. (Beulen, 2005) 2: This organization hosts the Web service that any application can consume. (Sethi & Sethi, 2006a)
Service Quality
1: A global judgment or attitude relating to an assessment of the level of superiority or excellence of service provided by the IS department and support personnel. (Wilkin, 2005) 2: A measure of end-user opinions on the overall support provided to them by top management, the IS department, and others. (Shayo & Guthrie, 2005)
Service Consumer
Software that embeds a service interface proxy (the client representation of the interface). (Protogeros, 2006)
Service Management
The strategic discipline for identifying, establishing, and maintaining IT services to support the organizations business goal at an appropriate cost. (Lin et al., 2005)
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renegotiation. (Beaumont, 2005) 4: A formal agreement (between a service provider and its customers) describing the level of service quality (e.g., availability, performance, timeliness) that will be provided. (Nichols & Chen, 2006) 5: A contract between a supplier and a customer that identiies: (1) services supported at each of three layersapplication, host (system), and network; (2) service parameters for each service; (3) levels of service quality; and (4) liabilities on the part of the supplier and the customer when service quality levels are not met. (D. Kim, 2005) 6: An agreement between an Internet service provide and a customer regarding the type and quality of the provided services. (Shuaib, 2005)
management. (Nichols & Chen, 2006) 8: A service is an information technology function that is well deined, selfcontained, and does not depend on the context or state of other services. A service-oriented architecture is an approach to building information technology systems as a collection of services which communicate with each other. The communication may involve either simple data passing between services, or it could involve infrastructure services which coordinate service interaction. SOA is seen as a core component of ubiquitous computing infrastructures. (Roussos & Zoumboulakis, 2005) 9: A design pattern for the construction of information systems. Its value lies in the fact that it can abstract enterprise architectures using the concept of the so-called Service Busthat is, a shared communications medium on which services may connect to and use in a plug-and-play manner. This is the equivalent of a bus in a computer architecture, which provides the foundation for core and peripheral components to connect and communicate transparently with each other. Different internal and external systems may connect to the bus transparently. (Tsekouras & Roussos, 2006)
Session
1: A delimited sequence of page views attributed to a single user during a single visit to a site. (Mobasher, 2005b) 2: A single visit of a user to a Web server. A session consists of all log records of the visit. (Fu, 2005) 3: Flow of IP data packets between the end user and the network. (Louvros et al., 2006)
Session Key
Crypto key intended to encrypt data for a limited period of time, typically only for a single communications session between a pair of entities. Once the session is over, the key will be discarded and a new one established when a new session takes place. For performance reasons, a random session key is generated for use with a symmetric algorithm to encode the bulk of the data, and only the session key itself is communicated using public key encryption. (Chim, 2006)
Session Layer
Layer 5 of the OSI model. Manages a logical connection (session) between two communicating processes or applications. (Ngoh & Shankar, 2005)
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Session Object
Information items that capture characteristics and activities of a user during a Web session. (Quah, Leow, & Yong, 2006)
Set-Based Analysis
A recent method that uses groups of sets. It facilitates the examination and comparison of data. (Raisinghani & Nugent, 2005)
Sessionization
1: Identifying the sessions (server sessions) from the Web logs, called sessionization; not a trivial task. It has two subtasks: user identiication and session identiication. A common way is to use the IP address to identify the user, that is, all entries with the same IP address belong to the same user. (Yao & Xiao, 2005) 2: The preprocessing task of partitioning the clickstream Web log data into sessions (i.e., delimited sequence of page views attributed to a single user during a single visit to a site). (Mobasher, 2005c)
Set
From a type point of view, a set is a collection construct that is homogeneous (i.e., it contains objects of the same type) and unbounded (i.e., it has no maximum or ixed size). Sets can only be handled as relations in the relational model, but the set constructor in the object-oriented data model means that a much higher degree of lexibility is needed in organizing information. (Badia, 2005d)
Settlement
The inalizing of the sale of securities as the title is transferred from the seller to the buyer (also called closing). A settlement marks the completion of all aspects of the trading instance. The average price at which a contract trades, calculated at both the open and close of each trading day, is called the settlement price. (Saha, 2006b)
Setup Message: See Control Packet. SG: See Semantic Gap. SGC: See Second-Generation Company. SGM: See Student-Generated Multimedia. SGML: See Standard Generalized Markup Language. Shadowing
The phenomenon that cuts off radio signals because obstacles are in the line of sight between signal source and receiver. (Kao & Rerrer, 2006)
Shape Feature
Characterizing the contour of an object that identiies the object in a meaningful form. (Chan & Chang, 2005)
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The search operation in 3D structures that matches only the surfaces of the structures without referring to the points inside the surfaces. (X. Wang, 2005)
application programming interface, a content-to-LMS data model, a content launch speciication, and a speciication for metadata information for all components of a system. (Ishaya, 2005)
Shape-From-X
The process of inferring surface depth information from image features such as stereo, motion, shading, and perspective. (Caelli, 2005)
Shared Accountability
All team members are responsible for achieving team outcomes, not just the team leader or manager. (Schoenfeld & Berge, 2005)
Shaping
Users or applications may shape trafic to comply with prespeciied parameters such as maximum data rate or maximum burst length. Leaky bucket and token bucket algorithms are often used for trafic shaping. (DaSilva, 2005)
Share of Wallet
The inancial services industry deines share of wallet as the percentage of a customers investable assets that are held by the provider. IPFS enables an organization to maximize its share of customer wallet by expanding the breadth of product and service offerings available. (Gordon & Mulligan, 2005)
Shared Goal
One of the goals that articulate what the teams stand for and their shared vision. (Panteli, 2005)
Shared Knowledge
The collective knowledge of a team that emerges as a function of team dynamics and problem solving. (Schaffer et al., 2006)
Shared Learning
The co-creation of mutual understanding by members of organizational sub-units of each others goals and objectives. (Peterson, 2005)
Shared Practice
The importance of sharing practice between the members of a community or a network; low shared practice means that the members do not (or rarely) work together. (MellerProthmann, 2006a)
Shared Repertoire
Refers to the fact that there is a pool of resources that members share, contribute to, and renew. These resources can be physical (e-mail, word processors, common textbook, etc.) or intangible (common discourse, common means, or methodology for accomplishing tasks). (Louis, 2006)
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Shared Whiteboard
A whiteboard is the name for any plastic glossy surface, most commonly colored white, where markings can be made. A shared whiteboard is an electronic version of the real one, open to multiple users. (Kao & Rerrer, 2006)
Shopping Bot
1: Also called shopping agent; a program that searches the Web and inds items for sale that meet a buyers speciications. Shopping bots take a query from an online customer, search online stores, and then report back on the availability and pricing range in a consolidated and compact format that allows comparison shopping at a glance. Not only do these shopping bots bring comparative product and price information from individual merchants Web sites, but they also provide the online merchants ratings. (M. Wang, 2006) 2: Computer program that searches the Internet for products on behalf of consumers. (Waterson, 2006) 3: An intelligent agent that enables online buyers to determine and compare prices and other attributes of products from different online sellers. (Dasgupta et al., 2006)
Shared Workspace
Part of the computer-supported collaborative learning system, usually represented as a designated window in the systems graphical user interface, where the members of the learning group build the joint solution to the problem they solve collaboratively. (Devedi, 2006)
Shared-Window System
System that allows a single-user application to be shared among multiple users without modifying the original application. Such a system shows identical views of the application to the users, and combines the input from the users or allows only one user to input at a time. (Roibs, 2006b)
Shortcut
Direct access mechanism for accessing a particular WAP page. (Quah & Seet, 2006)
Shareware
Software available to users only on payment of a nominal fee. (Fleming, 2005b)
Sharing of Knowledge
Members of a virtual organization collaborate to share their knowledge gained from individual activities performed. Since collaboration is facilitated through the communications channels that are afforded through the virtual organization, it is common to ind knowledge bases or other database systems that contain information and documents pertaining to past experience. (J. Lee, 2005)
Sharpening
The procedure for improving both the passband and the stopband of a symmetrical FIR ilter by repetition of the original ilter according to a chosen polynomial. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005c)
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Teo, 2005) 10: Similar to paging, SMS is a service for sending short text messages to mobile phones. (Patrick et al., 2006) 11: Allows the sending of short messages to and from mobile phones, and by Internet. (D. Stern, 2005) 12: A text message service that enables users to send short messages (160 characters) to other users and has the ability to send a message to multiple recipients. This is known as texting. It is a popular service among young people. There were 400 billion SMS messages sent worldwide in 2002 (Garrett, 2006b) 13: Mobile phone text message protocol. (Whateley et al., 2005) 14: A service giving the capability to a mobile-phone user to send a text message to another user. (Ververidis & Polyzos, 2006)
Shrinkwrap Agreement
Derives its name from software contained in a box wrapped in plastic (shrinkwrapped). The agreement pertaining to the software is either printed on the box and readable through the plastic, or there is a notice that the agreement is contained within the box. In either event, opening the box and installing and using the enclosed software is considered acceptance of the terms of the agreement. The shrinkwrap agreement has evolved into the Clickwrap Agreement, as well as the Browsewrap Agreement. (Sprague, 2005)
Signal
1: Detectable transmitted energy that can be used to carry information. A time-dependent variation of a characteristic of a physical phenomenon, used to convey information. Since the works of the French mathematician Jean Baptiste Fourier (1768-1830), we know that each signal can be represented equally well as a time-varying function or as a sum of sinusoids of different frequencies. Therefore, to each signal can be associated a frequency bandthat is, the portion of the spectrum comprising all the frequencies of the sinusoidal components of the signal. (Ragazzi, 2005) 2: Any physical quantity that varies with changes of one or more independent variables, which can be any physical value, such as time, distance, position, temperature, and pressure. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005a)
Short Term
Timeframe of a year to accomplish recommendations. (Raisinghani & Rahman, 2005)
Short-Term Memory
1: The place where information is processed before the information is transferred to long-term memory. The duration of short-term memory is very short, so information must be processed eficiently to maximize transfer to long-term memory. (Ally, 2005c) 2: A type of memory store where conscious mental processing occurs, that is, thinking. Short-term memory has a limited capacity and can be overwhelmed by too much information. Also called Working Memory. (Boechler, 2006b)
Signal Compression
Signal coding that allows a reduction of the total number of bits required to represent a given signal without distortion or with negligible distortion. (Perez-Meana & NakanoMiyatake, 2005)
Shot
A sequence of images in which there is no change of camera. (Swierzowicz, 2005)
Shoulder Suring
The practice of observing persons while entering secret authentication information in order to obtain illegal access to money or services. This often occurs in the context of PIN numbers and banking transactions, where shoulder suring occurs together with the stealthy duplication of credit or banking cards. (Richter & Roth, 2006)
Signature
1: A bit string generated for a keyword by using a hash function. (Dunn & Grabski, 2005) 2: A ixed length bit vector that is computed by applying a function M iteratively to every element e in the set and setting the bit determined by M(e). (Ramasamy & Deshpande, 2005) 3: A hash-coded bit string assigned to keywords used as indexes to speed up information retrieval. (Chen, 2005b)
Shouting
Posting a message written entirely or partially in capital letters. (Gur u, 2006)
Signature, Electronic
A code someone supplies electronically that conirms his or her identity. (Rowe, 2006a)
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Signature Identiier
For a signature in a signature ile, a positioned bit string which can be used to identify it from others. (Chen & Shi, 2005)
center) to be specialized by discipline or expertise, thus duplicating resources and requiring speciic skills training for users of such systems. (Schaffer et al., 2006)
Similarity
1: Correspondence of two data objects of the same medium. The similarity is determined by comparing the corresponding feature vectors, for example, by a metric or distance function. (Bretschneider & Kao, 2005) 2: Correspondence of two images. The similarity is determined by comparing the extracted feature vectors, for example by a metric or distance function. (Kao & Tendresse, 2005) 3: Maximum degree of match between two aligned sequences as indicated by some (arbitrarily chosen) scoring function, for example, percent identity. (Tsunoda et al., 2005)
Signature Matching
Signature matching enables a syntactic comparison of a query speciication with speciications existing in a model. (Felice & Riesco, 2005)
Signature Policy
A set of rules for the creation and validation of an electronic signature, under which the signature can be determined to be valid. (Mitrakas, 2005)
Similarity Measure
A measure that compares the similarity of any two objects represented in the multi-dimensional space. The general approach is to represent the data features as multidimensional points and then to calculate the distances between the corresponding multi-dimensional points. (Wei & Li, 2005)
Signiicative Learning
Type of learning in which contents are related in a substantial and not arbitrary fashion with what the pupil already knows. (Andrade, Ares, Garca, Rodrguez, Seoane, et al., 2006)
Similarity Model
A set of schematic descriptions that specify the measurement standard for the degrees of being similar. (Chen & McLeod, 2006)
Similarity Query
A query that retrieves objects which are similar to a query object. There are three basic similarity query types, namely, similarity range, similarity nearest-neighbor, and similarity join. (Kontaki et al., 2005)
Silo
1: Used to describe the situation where a section of an organization has become insular, and does not share information with the rest of the organization. Communication tends to move up and down within the silo, rather than horizontally across silo boundaries. (Toland, Purcell, et al., 2005) 2: The tendency for structures and processes within an organization (school system, plant, call
Similarity Relation
Used to describe fuzzy data, whereby the fuzziness comes from the similarity relations between two values in a universe of discourse, not from the status of an object itself. So similarity relations are used to represent the degree similarity of two values from the same universe of discourse. (Ma, 2005b)
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Sim ila rit y Tra nsfor m at ion Sim ple Ra ndom Sa m pling
Similarity Transformation
A group of transformations that will preserve the angles between any two curves at their intersecting points. It is also called equi-form transformation, because it preserves the form of curves. A planar similarity transformation has four degrees of freedom and can be computed from a two-point correspondence. (Y.-J. Zhang, 2005b)
includes two main software entity types: managers and agents. (Pulkkis, Grahn, & strm, 2005)
Simple Data
Data consisting of its identiier and a ield describing a single attribute (parameter, property, etc.) of an object. (Kulikowski, 2005)
Simple Environment
Monitoring environments in which the threshold levels either seldom change or only change over the longer term; the identiication of the variance fulills the conditions of necessary and suficient evidence to determine an instance of non-compliance; and the decisions, needed to determine if events comply, lie on the structured to highly structured portion of the decision-making continuum. Decision making in this environment is ex-ante, made of a single step, and the constraints are all predetermined. (Goldschmidt, 2005)
Simple Forgery
Forgery in which the semantics of the signature are the same as that of the genuine signature, but the overall shape differs to a great extent, since the forger has no idea about how the signature is done. (Chakravarty et al., 2005b)
Sim ple Ra ndom Sa m pling Wit h Re pla c e m e nt (SRSWR) S im ulat ion Tool
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natural computers. (de Castro, 2005) 5: The process of imitating a real phenomenon with sets of mathematical formulae representing the key determining factors using a computer. With reference to learning technology, the user (student) is presented with a range of variables; the output (usually a graphical display) represents the effect on the underlying formula of altering one or more of these variables. (Sieber & Andrew, 2005)
Simulation Game
1: An organized procedure involving particular building blocks allowing participants to improve communication about complex problems by providing a safe and controlled environment to experiment with different interventions under varying circumstances by means of models representing these complex problems. (Achterbergh, 2005a) 2: Games in which important aspects of a system are modeled so that game participants can engage in activities and deal with events that are comparable to those that system participants would encounter. (Oravec, 2005)
Simulated System
A simpliied, computer simulation-based construction (model) of some real-world phenomenon (or the problem task). (Qudrat-Ullah, 2006)
Simulation
1: An analysis technique capturing the behavior of a system as mathematical and logical algorithms into a model. The model is represented and realized in an environment where the resultant behavior of the model can be captured, analyzed, and used to further the understanding of the system. Simulation is not an optimization technique, but can be used with sensitivity analysis to probe the parameter space of the underlying system. The computational execution of a simulation model in a simulation environment according to an experimental design. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005) 2: A dynamic model of a system focusing on selected aspects of that system. (Pendegraft, 2005) 3: Imitation of the behavior of some existing or intended system, or some aspect of that behavior. (Yong & Choo, 2005) 4: Metaphorical model that stands for something else and may cover different levels of idelity or abstraction, which can be performed by physical modeling, by writing a special-purpose computer program, or by using a more general simulation package that is probably still aimed at a particular kind of simulation. Computer simulation is pervasive in natural computing. It has been used to design problem-solving techniques that mimic the behavior of several biological phenomena; it has served to drive synthetic environments and virtual worlds, and it has been used to simulate
Simulation in Education
Simulation is an application used to imitate real-life events. Real-life events are very complex; the more sophisticated the simulation application, the more representative the simulation. The leaner can use the application to manage the event by manipulating factors and observing the results of simulation, thus realizing the impact of each factor on the simulation. It is dificult for the teacher to show learners real-life events, and simulation application provides the best opportunity for learners to understand abstract scientiic concepts, such as virus reproduction or organization management. (Yang, 2005)
Simulation Model
The representation of a system in terms of the fundamental components, relationships, and interactions of its behavior, captured as mathematical and logical algorithms. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005)
Simulation Tool
Technology designed to support the modeling of qualitative and quantitative information. The key feature
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Single Cha nne l Pe r Ca rrie r (SCPC) Sit uat iona l Ass e ssm e nt
includes the capability to identify potential scenarios and effectively communicate complex ideas through graphical representations, animations, and low charts. (Chua, 2006)
and a matrix of eigenvectorsthe same as those obtained by PCA. (Thomasian, 2005b) 2: Algorithm able to compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix; also used to make principal components analysis. (Liberati et al., 2005)
Sink
A representation of a stock into which lows are leaving the boundary of the system. (Casado, 2005)
Single Instance
A one-time full-ledged company-wide initial operation of a system, as opposed to incremental (functionally or organizationally) or modular implementations. (Sarkis & Sundarraj, 2005)
Site Organization
The structure and navigational ease of a Web site. (Gao, 2005a)
Site Speciication
A design document for a Web site specifying its objectives and functionality. (T.S. Chan, 2005)
Single-Channel Hypothesis
A model of attention that assumes that some mechanisms can process only one task at a time in a serial fashion. Some mechanisms have structural limitations (e.g., eyes can only point to one place). Multiple tasks are processed within some timeframe by attention switching between tasks. (Owen, 2006b)
Situated Learning
1: Learning that results from activities taking place in a reallife particular context. It is a synonym for apprenticeship and emphasizes the real-life learning aspects of knowledge generation. (von Wartburg et al., 2006) 2: Situated learning is involved when learning instructions are offered in genuine living contexts with actual learning performance and effective learning outcomes. (Kwok Lai-yin & Tan Yew-Gee, 2005) 3: The creation of an environment where groups of students can, and do, explore and analyze, think and relect, propose and act in the context of everyday situations. (Askar et al., 2005)
Single-Hop
Direct communication between two nodes or entities without any intermediate station or network entity. (Erbas, 2005)
Situation Model
The mental representation of text created by readers. It is based on information in the text as well as prior knowledge and experience. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005b)
Situational Assessment
Important military concept referencing a common operational picture that provides current conditions with
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Situational Context
The details that make the situation unique for the user. (Albers, 2006)
and memory problems involved and the poor opportunities for practicing, which in turn breeds the dread that either the expensive hardware or its user may get damaged in one way or another (for instance, money can be transferred inadvertently to a wrong account). (Kalvet, 2005)
Skinner Box
Most of Skinners research was centered around the Skinner box. A Skinner box is an experimental space that contains one or more operands such as a lever that may be pressed by a rat. The box also contained various sources of stimuli. Skinner contributed much to the study of operant conditioning, which is a change in the probability of a response due to an event that followed the initial response. Changes in behavior are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. In his early career, Skinner started with experimenting with animals such as pigeons and rats. He later turned his research interests from animals to humans, especially his own daughters. (I. Chen, 2005)
Sketch
A basic construct of categorical logic. Roughly, it is a directed graph in which some diagrams are marked with predicate symbols taken from a predeined signature. A sketch morphism is a mapping of the underlying graphs compatible with marked diagrams. A fact of fundamental importance for generic MMt is that any meta-model (relational, XML schema, a speciic sort of ER or UML diagram) can be speciied by a sketch. Then the corresponding universe of models (relational schemas, XML DTDs, ER diagrams) can be presented as the category of instances of the corresponding sketch. It allows applying many CT ideas and results to MMt. (Diskin, 2005)
Skip-Out
A student who has not enrolled in a course for a small number of semesters (usually one or two semesters) after successfully completing at least one course. (Chyung, 2005)
Skew Correction
The technology detects and compensates for the inclination angle of a document image. (Chan et al., 2005)
Skolem Noise
A kind of anomalous answer obtained by resolutionoriented theorem provers when it works on non-clausal theories. The classical method of skolemization leads to new function symbols with no intended meaning. If these symbols appear in the output, the answer may not be consistently interpreted. (Alonso-Jimnez et al., 2005)
Skill
Practical application of teacher knowledge. (Shaw & Slick, 2005)
Skilled Forgery
The forger has a prior knowledge about how the signature is written and practices it well, before the inal attempt of duplicating it. (Chakravarty et al., 2005b)
Skunk Work
New venture unit with a role to explore beyond the perceived boundaries of the organization. (Whateley et al., 2005)
Slant
Either it is deined as the angle at which the image has maximum horizontal projection value on rotation, or it is
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Slat e Sm a ll Fir m
calculated using the total number of positive, negative, horizontally, or vertically slanted pixels. (Chakravarty et al., 2005a)
Slate
A tablet PC coniguration where the entire device lays lat on a table or can be held by a user in the same manner that a clipboard or notebook would be held. (Roldan, 2005)
Slice
Restricting the area of interest to a single value along a given dimension. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005)
of assets or turnover. (Iacob et al., 2005) 3: A business enterprise independently owned by contributing most of the operating capital and managed by the owners or managers, having fewer than 250 employees and a smallto-medium market share. (Rashid, 2005) 4: Small and medium-sized enterprises are socially and economically important, since they represent 99% of all enterprises worldwide and contribute to entrepreneurship; innovation; and economic, social, and cultural development. Precise deinitions that separate SMEs from large enterprises differ between countries and rely on variables such as headcount, turnover, and balance sheet size. (Demediuk, 2005) 5: A company which employs a limited number of people and which has a certain turnover, with the numbers varying among countries. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005c) 6: Enterprise with a speciic number of staff. A small size enterprise generally refers to irms with less than 20 employees. (Braun, 2006)
Small Business
1: Can be measured by number of employees, annual turnover, and/or assets. It usually represents those businesses with up to 20, 50, or 100 employees (depending upon the region being investigated). This term encompasses micro-businesses. (Burgess, 2005) 2: The commonly adopted deinition of a small business is that the irm size should be less than 500 employees. However, there are other interpretations of how small a business should be to be considered a small business, including irm sizes of less than 100 (The Netherlands), 50 (Ireland), or even 20 (Australia). Business turnover, management, and organizational structure, as well as other supplementary criteria, are also used by some authors. (Poon, 2005) 3: Various categories may be employed to deine this term. Some examples are as follows: Employees: micro-business: 0-10 employees; small business: 10-50 employees; medium business: 50-250 employees. (Hunter, 2005)
Sliding Window
A time series of length n has (n-w+1) subsequences of length w. An algorithm that operates on all subsequences sequentially is referred to as a sliding window algorithm. (Denton, 2005)
Slope Analysis
The plotting and visualization of certain operating functions in order to discern trends, often before others see them, thereby permitting alteration of strategies in order to gain competitive advantage. (Nugent, 2005)
Small Firm
There is no universal deinition for this term. Most deinitions are based on the number of employees, but some deinitions include sales revenue. For example, 20 employees is the oficial deinition in New Zealand, while in North America, a irm with 500 could be deined as a small irm. Another important aspect of any deinition of small irm is the irms independence: a small irm is typically considered to be independent, that is, not a subsidiary of another irm. (Cragg & Suraweera, 2005)
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Smart Card
1: Looks like a plastic credit card and has a microprocessor or memory chip embedded in it. The chip stores electronic data and programs that are protected by security measures enabling controlled access by appropriate users. Smart cards provide data portability, security, convenience, and transparency of inancial records and transactions. (Cecchini, 2005) 2: Used in token-authentication systems. It can be either a hardware-based card or smart IDs the size of about a credit card, with or without a numeric keypad. (Wang, Cheng, et al, 2006) 3: Card system that allows visitors to prepurchase products or product credits, and to use the card at venues and attractions (such as hotels, theme parks, tours, etc.) in lieu of direct payment. (Carson, 2005)
Smart Community
The result of the ongoing development and maintenance of innovative joint ventures between a diverse range of regional stakeholders, including community organizations, government, business, educators, researchers, and students, where the exponential sum of all of the parts is ultimately of greater value than the previous outcomes. The electronic community network creates value and transforms the way a community lives, works, and grows. (Baskin et al., 2005)
Small-World Model
It is believed that almost any pair of people in the world can be connected to one another by a short chain of intermediate acquaintances, of typical length about six. This phenomenon is colloquially referred to as the six degrees of separation, or equivalently, the small world effect. Sociologists propose a number of topological network models, the small-world models, for the social network to explain this phenomenon. (Shahabi & BanaeiKashani, 2005)
Smart House
House equipped with self-monitoring assistive devices of many types. Smart houses are popular with old people. (Abhishek & Basu, 2006)
Smart Organization
A further evolution of value networks and virtual corporations through use of more advanced business models, taking account of human ICT symbiosis and utilizing more intelligent applications and tools for collaborative work and holistic development of both product and service engineering. (Richards et al., 2005)
Smallest-Parent
In terms of either closest parent group-by or size of the parent group-by. (Tan, 2005a)
Smart Agent
A program or collection of programs that lives for some purpose in a dynamic environment and can make decisions to perform actions to achieve its goals. Individual agents may be conceptualized as having beliefs, desires, and intentions that can communicate with other agents to satisfy their goals. (Durrett et al., 2005)
Smart Phone
1: An enhanced handheld device which combines the functions of a mobile phone and a handheld computer. (Petrova, 2006) 2: Mobile phone with the capabilities of a PDA plus wireless access to cellular networks. (Gilbert,
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Sm a r t Se nsor SOAP
2005b) 3: A term used for the combination of a mobile cellular telephone and PDA in one small portable device. These devices usually use a small thumb keyboard or an electronic pen (or stylus) and a touch-sensitive screen for data input. (Garrett, 2006b)
SMWT: See Self-Managed Work Team. SN: See Segmented Network. SNCE: See Suspected Non-Compliance Event. SNHC: See Synthetic and Natural Hybrid Coding. Sniplet
A piece of knowledge or information that could be represented by one overhead transparency. (Verhaart & Kinshuk 2006)
Smart Sensor
Transducer that converts some physical parameters into an electrical signal and is equipped with some level of computing power for signal processing. (Vargas, 2005)
Smart Structure
A structure with a structurally integrated iber optic sensing system. (Kanapady & Lazarevic, 2005)
SmartSTOR
A scheme where the disk array controller for multiple disks assists the host in processing database applications. (Thomasian, 2005a)
SMC
Computes a function f (x1, x2 , x3 xn) that holds inputs from several parties, and at the end, all parties know about the result of the function f (x1, x2 , x3 xn) and nothing else. (Ashrai et al., 2005)
Snowlake Model
A variant of the star schema in which dimension tables do not contain denormalized data. (Kontio, 2005)
Snowlake Schema
1: A database schema with a fact table and a set of dimension tables. There are multiple tables per dimension, with each table storing one level in the dimension hierarchy. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005) 2: A dimensional model having some or all of the dimension tables normalized. (Delve, 2005) 3: A schema for organizing multi-dimensional data, where we have many levels in each dimension and there can be alternative paths for aggregation. This schema is the most usual for designing data marts. (Hernandez-Orallo, 2005a) 4: Star schema in which the dimension tables have been normalized, possibly leading to the creation of several tables per dimension. (Badia, 2005c)
SME: See Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise. SM IL: See Synchronized Media Integ ration
Language.
Smooth-Shading Technique
Interpolative technique that restores the smoothness of solids whose surfaces are represented by planar polygons. (Cottingham, 2005)
Smoothing
Adjustment of mortality rates using a combination of the knowledge about the rate in each area and the knowledge about the rates in surrounding areas. The smoothing removes the noise in disease maps and allows the assessment of speciic hypotheses concerning incidence or mortality. (Vidal-Rodeiro et al., 2005)
SNP: See Single Nucleotide Polymorphism. SNR: See Signal-to-Noise Ratio. SO Provider: See Specialist E-Fulillment Provider. SOA: See Service-Oriented Architecture. SOAP: See Simple Object Access Protocol.
SMR: See Standardized Mortality Ratio. SMS: See Short Message Service; Skeleton, Muscle,
Skin.
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Social Access
1: Refers to a mix of professional knowledge, economic resources, and technical skills to use technologies in ways that enhance professional practices and social life. (Kvasny & Payton, 2005) 2: The possession of the knowhow required to utilize information and communication technologies optimally. Such know-how is mainly engendered by and related to education and training. It is not enough to have physical access to ICTs when large sections of potential users do not have the knowledge and awareness or cognitive wherewithal that would enable them to exploit the opportunities offered by these technologies. (Mwesige, 2005)
Social Agency
The idea that social cues can prime the conversation schema. The beneit is that the learners will expend greater cognitive effort when they feel they are part of a conversation than when they are listening to a more formal narration. (Mitchell, 2005c)
Social Alignment
Describes a state where IT and HR business executives understand and are committed to each others plans. (Dery & Samson, 2005)
is managed equally by all members; property of the community. (Raja et al., 2006) 5: The collective value of all social networks and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other. (Li et al., 2006) 6: Social closeness, mutual knowledge, and cohesion that are products of a wide assortment of different kinds of informal, volunteer, and partially structured social interactions. (Oravec, 2005) 7: The set of resources, tangible or virtual, that accrue to a corporate player through the players social relationships, facilitating the attainment of goals. (Smith, 2006b) 8: The social networks and the assets that can be mobilized through these networks that enable social action generally and knowledge sharing more speciically. (Newell, 2006) 9: The sum of actual and potential resources embedded within, available through, and derived from the network of relationships possessed by an individual or social unit. The value of a cohesive group in organizational learning is emphasized. It is composed of three dimensions which include the structural dimension, the relational dimension, and the cognitive dimension. (Paquette, 2006a) 10: A common deinition of social community has usually included three ingredients: (1) interpersonal networks that provide sociability, social support, and social capital to their members; (2) residence in a common locality, such as a village or neighborhood; and (3) solidarity sentiments and activities. (Kwok Lai-yin & Tan Yew-Gee, 2005) 11: Goodwill available to individuals which results from the structure (coniguration) and the relational content of the actors social relations in a virtual community of practice. The goodwill can be valuable in different respects, that is, can bring about information advantages, solidarity, and inluence. (von Wartburg et al., 2006)
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(both outside the company, as well as inside the company), have suficient breadth of knowledge to grasp the overall phenomenon. (Potgieter et al., 2005)
Social Contract
Tacit and assumed set of conventions about human social involvement that frames all communal associations. (Skovira, 2005)
Social Dilemma
A situation where individual rationality (in the sense of maximizing personal gain) leads to social irrationality (in the sense of generating a suboptimal outcome for the social group). (Ekbia & Hara, 2006)
Social Engineering
1: The technique of exploiting the weakness of users rather than software by convincing users to disclose secrets or passwords by pretending to be authorized staff, the network administrator, or the like. (Richter & Roth, 2006) 2: Using deception to steal information such as passwords from people. (Rowe, 2006d)
Social Environment
The environment created by human beings with their knowledge, attitude, and behavior in a close neighborhood. (Ali, Ashley, et al., 2005)
Social Contagion
The process through which new community members are socialized and as such transform their personal identities, adapting their attitudes, behaviors, and values to those of the community. (Teigland & Wasko, 2006)
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outsourcing relationship between the irm and vendor by taking into account prior relationships, trust, and culture, and their effect on ongoing outsourcing relationships. (Gupta & Iyer, 2005) 3: The theory that people contribute to the welfare of others, either individuals, groups, or organizations, to a degree that is commensurate with their perceptions of the contributions that are made by others to them (over the long run). (King, 2006a)
Social Knowledge
Knowledge that is available to members of a social entity or organization. Thus, it is in contradistinction to individual knowledge, which is known only to a particular person. Thus, individual and social knowledge are opposite poles of a single dimension. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Social Exclusion
1: A shorthand term for the complex process of exclusion from the cultural, economic, political, and social life of the community in which one lives. (Kenyon, 2005) 2: Term used to refer to all positions of social disadvantage. The term has come to replace talk of class in much government discussion of social disadvantage. The weak conception of social exclusion suggests that there is a need to include the excluded. Stronger conceptions of social exclusion seek to identify the forms of oppressive inclusion by which some are excluded from advantageous conditions. (David, 2005)
Social Learning
1: Learning arising from social participation, involving four components: learning by doing, by participation, by becoming, and by experience. (Wenn, 2006a) 2: Learning based on attention, perception, and memory capacities is signiicantly inluenced by the socialization and education context, and particularly by language so as to create human knowledge. (Xodo, 2005) 3: Learning occurring in or by a cultural cluster, and including procedures for transmitting knowledge and practices across different work situations/settings and time. (Ali et al., 2006) 4: Learning through social interaction with other people. (Klobas & Renzi, 2005b) 5: Process of constructing knowledge by individuals working in groups. A shared understanding emerges from individual understanding coupled with communication or collaborative exploration of an area of interest. This style of learning generates intellectual capital (knowledge that is jointly held) and social capital (trust, mutual respect). (Fleming, 2005c)
Social Identity
A conception of the self consisting of: (1) self-awareness of membership in a speciic group, (2) emotional attachment or involvement with the group, and (3) a positive or negative value connotation attached to this group membership (i.e., group-based or collective self-esteem). These are sometimes referred to, respectively, as the cognitive, affective, and evaluative components of social identity. (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2005)
Social Inclusion
1: Providing connectivity, access, and education to those who are without knowledge and use of technology. (Reilly, 2005) 2: Refers to the extent that individuals, families, and communities are able to fully participate in society and control their own destinies, taking into account a variety of factors related to economic resources, employment, health, education, housing, recreation, culture, and civic engagement. (Kvasny & Payton, 2005)
Social Interaction
A chain of interrelated messages that include a social and fun element, and contribute to increasing familiarity among participants. (Panteli, 2005)
Social Loaing
1: The tendency for some members of a group to do less work than others in a team task in which they are not individually
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accountable for the product. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005b) 2: The tendency of members of groups to put in less effort in group activities when group performance is measured than when individual performance is measured. (Lam et al., 2006)
Social Marketing
The design, implementation, and control of communication programs calculated to inluence the acceptability of social ideas and innovations. (Weber & Lim, 2005)
Social Message
Created to both entertain and educate so that listeners will increase their knowledge on educational issues, develop favorable attitudes to the messages, and change their behavior. (Craddock & Duncan, 2005)
Social Network
1: A set of nodes (persons, organizations, etc.) linked by a set of social relationships of a speciied type (e.g., friendship). (Smith, 2006b) 2: A set of nodes (that represent actors, groups, etc.) and the ties that connect these nodes. (Dekker, & Hendriks, 2006) 3: Interconnected people who directly or indirectly interact with or inluence one another. (Smatt & Wasko, 2006) 4: A group of peers, subordinates, and interconnected people who provide general information about what is going on within the organization, ask speciic advice on how to accomplish assignments, and obtain feedback about the consequences of different strategies. (Rahman, 2006) 5: A set of social entities (or persons) and social relationships which connect them. (Chen, Duan, et al., 2006) 6: A set of people or groups of people with some pattern of contacts or interactions between them. These patterns can be friendships between individuals, business relationships between companies, and intermarriages between families. (Li et al., 2006) 7: Group of people formed through the establishment and fruition of common interests, as opposed to skill and practice. (Huq, 2006) 8: The decision to act on any form of knowledge involves an intervention. Thus, to implement any change through a community of practice is a micro-political process that operates through internal and external social networks. This may be geographical and/or spatial communities. (Grieves, 2006b) 9: The tight or loose connections between people (family, community, associations, work, etc.) that are key to sustaining regional connectivity. (Jain & Lyons, 2005)
Social Networking
1: Describes the process of connecting individuals via a personal network such as friends and acquaintances. In QP Corporation, social networking has been promoted for the foundation of knowledge exchange on its intranet. Social networking nurtures a trusting atmosphere for knowledge communities on an intranet. (Yamazaki, 2006) 2: The process of connecting individuals via friends, relatives, and acquaintances. These networks can then branch out and allow friends to connect with people inside their accepted social circle. (Y.-W. Lin, 2005) 3: The process of connecting individuals via friends, relatives and acquaintances to develop a personal social network. See Online Social Networking. (Mew, 2006)
Social Policy
The policies which governments use for welfare and social protection. (Kenyon, 2005)
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Social Presence
1: The extent to which a communication medium projects the physical presence of the communicating partners. (Chan, Tan, et al., 2005) 2: The ability of learners to project themselves socially and affectively into a community of inquiry. (Molinari, 2005) 3: The degree to which a knowledge-sharing medium, such as a network, facilitates an awareness of other people and the development of interpersonal relationships. (King, 2006a) 4: The degree to which a person experiencing a virtual environment feels part of potential or actual social interaction, with at least one other being also capable of social interaction and/or the degree to which they see social interaction (mutually perceived and understood) between two or more intelligent beings. One may argue whether social presence is social presence only when perceived to be so by one or all of the participants, or perceived to be so by external observers, or perceived to be so by all parties. (Champion, 2006a) 5: The extent to which a person is perceived as a real person in computer-mediated communication. (Xu et al., 2006b) 6: The feeling of immediacy or presence that one feels when in proximity to another. This presence can also be felt in electronic-based communications based on the frequency of communications along with other factors. (Day, 2005) 7: The perceived presence or salience of others in online discussion. (Swan, 2005) 8: The perception of physical and psychological access to another. Social presence theory often focuses on the aspects of communication media that permit people to connect or be present with others, and the theory sees some degree of social connectedness as crucial to work relationships. (Connaughton, 2005) 9: Theoretical construct created to help understand the effects of media on communications experiences. Social presence has been used to understand interactions between people in online communications experiences. (Newberry, 2005)
Social Semiotics
Explicitly takes a non-positivist approach as it focuses on the contexts, prerequisites, and conditions of possibility for a meaning creation process to occur. All meanings are made within a community. The analysis of sign systems and of sense-making processes cannot be separated from the social, historical, cultural, and political dimensions of these communities. Social semiotics also takes a noncognitivist approach: instead of referring solely to meaningmaking as the result of minds and of brain processes, it points to the role of social practices within communities. Communities are thus interpreted not as a collection of interacting individuals, but as a system of interdependent social practices. Social semiotics may be understood as a discourse on meaning-making where the aim is to examine the functions and the effects of the meanings we make in everyday life, within communities, organizations, and society. (Nobre, 2006a)
Social Subsystem
The internal climate and culture of an organization, usually seen as several continua focusing on dimensions such as structure, randomness, stress, empowerment of individuals, knowledge sharing, and so forth. (Dykman, 2005)
Sociability
The relative tendency or disposition to be sociable or associate with ones fellows. (Xu et al., 2006b)
Social Realism
An ontological position that entity classes exist in the shared meanings of a social group. (Artz, 2005c)
Socialization
1: The process by which students internalize the norms and values necessary for living in a civilized community. (Russell, 2005a) 2: A knowledge transfer mode that involves new tacit knowledge being derived from existing tacit knowledge. (Wickramasinghe, 2005) 3: One of four knowledge transmission mechanisms according to Nonaka. Socialization is about tacit-to-tacit knowledge transfers via observation, imitation, and practice. (Brock & Zhou, 2006) 4: The acquisition of the knowledge, behavior, and attitude needed to participate fully as a member of a team. (Long et al., 2005) 5: The adoption of the behavior patterns
Social Resistance
An organized struggle against a political ideology or process. (De, 2006)
Social Responsibility
The moral obligation of business organizations to seek goals that will provide common good for the communities that are beyond those required by business itself. (OchoaMorales, 2005)
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of the surrounding culture. (Adkins & Nitsch, 2005) 6: The process by which students internalize the norms and values necessary for living in a civilized community. (Russell, 2005b)
Socialization Cue
One of the behaviors and actions that people may recognize in others. Positively, they may make others seem more sociable or friendly; and negatively, they may make others seem less friendly. The potential impact for the distance education environment is the lack of these cues. (Martz & Shepherd, 2005)
Sociology of Translations
Another term used to refer to Actor-Network Theory. (Tatnall, 2005b)
Sociology of Uses
A domain of Sociology that studies how a given population uses technical objects. Initiated by telecom operators in the second part of the 20th century, the ield of research has been enlarged to encompass the use of any type of technical object. (Blandin, 2005)
Sociotechnical
1: Derives from SociusLatin for associate or companionhere meaning society and technicalthat is, a solution produced by technological means, which derives from TechnologiaGreek for systematic treatment. (Coakes & Clarke, 2006b) 2: The integration of social and technological systems to ensure optimal utilization of information and knowledge-based resources. (Ng & Pemberton, 2006) 3: The interactive interplay between humans and artifacts in work performances. (Munkvold, 2006)
Sociotechnical Approach
1: A paradigm in which both social and technical elements are integrated to give a holistic view of a phenomenon. There is a strong argument for an integrated sociotechnical approach to knowledge management (particularly organizational management) which recognizes the active participation of each organizational member in line with the use of technology. (Jasimuddin et al., 2006) 2: Sociotechnical approach means that the work practices in which information systems will be used are the starting points for design and implementation of the information systems. (Hyrinen & Saranto, 2005)
Socialware
Aims to support various social activities on a network. Rules of interpersonal communication are used and transferred into community software. (Kindmller et al., 2005)
Sociotechnical Method
Development method that attempts to produce systems that are both technically eficient and organizationally sensitive. (Doherty & King, 2005)
Sociotechnical Network
The network of associations formed between human and non-human actants. The actants are persuaded or enrolled
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into the network through a variety of socially mediated actions. (Wenn, 2006b)
Socratic Dialogue
A learning technology which requires the participants to answer a series of questions to discover an answer or truth concerning a certain topic; the questions are typically generated spontaneously from previous answers. (Benrud, 2005)
Sociotechnical Research
Involving both social and technical interactions, occurring in such a way that it is not easily possible to disentangle them. (Tatnall, 2005a)
Soft Data
Judgmental, qualitative data, often from external sources. Any data involving the future. (Holstein & Crnkovic, 2005)
Soft Factor
This concept comprises an ill-deined group of factors that are related to people, organizations, and environments like motivation, morale, organizational culture, power, politics, feelings, perceptions of environment, and so forth. (Chroust, 2006)
Sociotechnical Thinking
A part of social theory and of philosophy. Its original emphasis was on organizational design and change management. The term sociotechnical means a task design approach that is intended to optimize both the application and development of technology, and the application and development of human knowledge and skill. The underlying philosophy of sociotechnical approaches is based essentially on two ideas focusing on the individual and the organization. The irst is the humanistic welfare paradigm, involving the redesign of work for autonomy, self-actualization, the use of selfregulating teams, individual empowerment, and thus stress reduction. In this view the design of work systems is performed to improve the welfare of employees. The second (and perhaps contradictory philosophy) is the managerial paradigm, focusing on improving the performance of the organization. (Coakes & Clarke, 2006b)
Soft Skill
One of the cultivated elements of professionalism that derive from example, relection, imitation, and reinement of attitudes, personal capabilities, work habits, and interpersonal skills, and are expressed in consistent and superior performance, characterized by a customer service and team orientation. Current MIS curriculum examples include ability to work as a member of a team, well-developed oral and written presentation skills, and the ability to work independently. (Lowry & Turner, 2005)
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debate perceptions of the real world, taking action in the real world and again relecting on the happenings using systems concepts. The relection and debate is structured by a number of systemic models of purposeful activities. These are conceived as holistic ideal types of certain aspects of the problem situation rather than as accounts of it. It is also taken as given that no objective and complete account of a problem situation can be provided. (Vat, 2005c) 2: A general problem-solving tool that provides us with the ability to cope with multiple, possibly conlicting viewpoints based on systems theory, which attempts to study the wider picture; the relation of component parts to each other. It uses systems as epistemological devices to provoke thinking about the real world. (Abu-Samaha, 2005) 3: An approach developed by Peter Checkland to analyze complex problem situations containing social, organizational, and political activities. (Sharples, 2006)
Soft Technology
Set of instructional innovations, methods, strategies, and so forth. (Graham et al., 2005)
environment such as operating systems, computer applications, databases, networks, and virtual domains. (Chang & Hsu, 2005) 5: Computer program characterized by reactivity, autonomy, and proactivity. Therefore, the software agent interacts with its environment. (Seitz, 2005) 6: Personalized, continuously running, and semiautonomous object. They can play an important role in cooperative telemedicine. Such agents can be programmed for supporting medical diagnostic intelligence, and keep a watchful eye to discover patterns and react to pattern changes that usually occur in epidemics, and biological and chemical terrorism. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005d) 7: Piece of code that presents some unique characteristics like autonomy, collaboration, and learning. (Protogeros, 2006) 8: Software program that assists humans by automatically gathering information from the Internet or exchanging data with other agents based on the query provided by users. (M. Wang, 2006) 9: A computer program that carries out tasks on behalf of another entity. (Xu et al., 2006c)
Software Analysis
An analysis of the software in a software warehouse for software decision making (Dai, 2005b).
Soft Threshold
A fuzzy approach to decide the importance of a feature. This is in contrast to a hard threshold where a yes/no decision is made. (Sural et al., 2005)
Software Architecture
Rather like the architecture of a building, software architecture describes the principled, structural design of computer software. Contemporary software architectures are multi-tier (or n-tier) in nature. Essentially, these stem from a two-tier architecture in which user-presentation components are separated from the information-content components, hence the two overall tiers. Communication occurs through a standard interface between the tiers. This enables the easy swapping in and out of presentation components, thus enabling information to be encoded into the most appropriate physical form for a given user at any given time. (Polovina & Pearson, 2006)
Software
A computer program that provides instructions that tell a computer what to do. (Magagula, 2005)
Software Agent
1: A self-contained piece of software that runs on an agent framework with an intended function to accomplish a simple goal. (Zwitserloot & Pantic, 2005) 2: A piece of software that autonomously acts to carry out tasks on a users behalf. In agent-based applications, it is accepted that users only need to specify high-level goals instead of issuing explicit instructions, leaving the decisions of how and when to their respective agent. A software agent exhibits a number of features that make it different from other traditional components including autonomy, goal-orientation, collaboration, lexibility, self-starting, temporal continuity, character, communication, adaptation, and mobility. It should be noted that not all these features have to embody an agent. (Maamar, 2005) 3: A piece of autonomous or semi-autonomous, proactive and reactive computer software. Many individual communicative software agents may form a multi-agent system. (Guan, 2006d) 4: An artiicial agent that operates in a software
Software Component
A minimum manageable unit of a software warehouse that can be a class or a sub-routine. (Dai, 2005b)
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Software Contract
A means of negotiating obligations to which a service donator and client may agree. This may include information about several levels, from the technical (available communications protocol) to the non-functional (quality of service). (Gaedke et al., 2005)
Software Integration
Connecting different programs so that they can run together and use each others data and operations. (Kurbel, 2005)
Software Interoperability
Permits different software to run on different platforms with different operating systems. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005d)
Software Cube
The control part of a software warehouse system. (Dai, 2005b)
Software Metric
The term metric or software metric has, for many years, been accepted as the standard term used to refer to the instrument of measurement in the ield of software. The term software measure was introduced in the 1980s. This new term was introduced because, in general, a metric captures two arguments and brings the distance between them, so from that point of view, a software metric cannot really be deined as a metric. This last term emphasizes the fact that software metrics should be deined in accordance with the measurement theory. However, today both terms continue to be used. (Serrano et al., 2005)
Software Mining
1: A process to derive software patterns/regularities from a given software warehouse or a software set. (Dai, 2005b) 2: A special kind of knowledge discovery in which the source data is already in the form of rules or program code. (Raisinghani, 2005)
Software Package
Written programs, procedures, or rules and associated documentation that pertain to the operation of a computer system and that are stored in read/write memory. (Colmenares & Otieno, 2005)
Software Industry
Focuses on the needs of the software development industry in terms of infrastructure, know-how, capacities, and development. (Kamel, 2005a)
Software Process
1: Methodologies offering guidelines for improving software engineering performance by requiring developers to adopt a disciplined, structured approach to
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building software systems. (Zhao & Deek, 2005) 2: The development roadmap followed by an organization to produce software systems, that is, the series of activities undertaken to develop and maintain software systems. (Ferre et al., 2006)
Software Team
Group of agents which has tasks that are tightly interrelated; these teams roughly parallel a department of employees. (Durrett et al., 2005)
Software Warehouse
The repository of software components that can be in different languages, collected from multiple sources, stored under a uniform schema, managed using particular strategies, and can provide well-organized services for software reuse, thus facilitating automatic software engineering. (Dai, 2005b)
Software Quality
A quality model (ISO/IEC 9126-1, 2001) categorizes software quality attributes into the following six characteristics that are again subdivided into subcharacteristics. The characteristics are speciied for certain conditions of the software product: (a) functionality: the software product provides functions which meet needs; (b) reliability: the software product maintains performance; (c) usability: the software product should be understood, learned, used, and attractive to user; (d) eficiency: the software product provides appropriate performance relative to the amount of resources used; (e) maintainability: the software product should be modiiablemodiications include corrections, improvements, or adaptations; and (f) portability: the software product can be transferred from one environment to another. (Hvannberg et al., 2006)
Solenoid
A coiled length of wire such that when an electric current is passed through it, a magnetic ield is developed along the axis of the coil. This magnetic ield may in turn be used to attract or repel other magnets or ferro-magnetic materials. (Lahiri & Basu, 2005)
Software Requirement
An expression of the needs and constraints that are placed upon a software product that contribute to the satisfaction of some real-world application. (Ferre et al., 2006)
SOM: See Self-Organizing Map. SONET: See Synchronous Optical Network. SOTrieIT: See Support-Ordered Trie Itemset. Sound Card
A device that can be attached to a computer in order to obtain audible sound (e.g., voice or music) other than the beeps emitted from the PC speaker. The sound card may in turn be connected to external ampliiers and speakers. (Lahiri & Basu, 2005)
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Soundscape
The design of audio cues and their mapping to application objects or user actions. (Lumsden, 2005)
Source Map
A matrix linking data classes to sources. In the cells of the matrix, the sources are valued according to different criteria (e.g., accessibility, costs, timeliness of the data, etc.). (Vriens, 2005b)
Source
1: A representation of a stock from which lows are originated outside the boundary of the system. (Casado, 2005) 2: An originator of a message or the person who encodes the message. This requires skills, for example, in speaking or writing. This person may have a variety of purposes in mind (e.g., to persuade someone, to be friendly, to provide information). In this model, we focus on the purpose of sharing knowledge. (Jacobson, 2006) 3: Something or someone containing data and from which the data can be retrieved. Many distinctions regarding sources are given in the competitive intelligence literature, for instance, open vs. closed sources, primary vs. secondary sources, internal vs. external sources, and a distinction referring to the carrier of the data (human, electronic, or paper). (Vriens, 2005b)
Source System
An operational system of record whose function is to capture the transactions of the business. A source system is often called a legacy system in a mainframe environment. (Simitsis et al., 2005)
Source-Source/Text-Source Material
Original material designed for a speciic cultural group. (St.Amant, 2005a)
Source of Trust-Building
One of the factors, elements, or relevant concepts to support trust-building during mutual communication and interactions of participants in virtual communities. (Park, 2006)
Source Code
1: Programmers write software in source code, which are instructions for the computer to tell it how to use the software. But computers need a machine language to understand, so the source code of the software must be compiled into an understandable object code that computers can use to carry out the software instructions or source code. Without source code, a softwares instructions or functionality cannot be modiied. Source code that can be accessed by the general public is considered open (open source software). If it cannot be accessed, it is considered closed (proprietary software). (St.Amant & Still, 2005) 2: Programming code prior to execution. (Sahraoui, 2006)
Sourcing Decision
Decision whether to buy goods/services from the market or to make them. Sourcing decision can be made as an independent decision unit or as a part of a bigger group. (Suomi, 2005)
Space Constraint
One of many kinds of obstacles that arise with the costs of transferring from one place to another. (Cirrincione, 2005)
Space Element
One of the halls, corridors, shelves, and other items representing physical shopping mall components, which are used together with the multimedia representation of the merchandise to formulate the virtual reality-mall worlds. (Lepouras & Vassilakis, 2006)
Source Evaluation
The process of assessing the eficiency and effectiveness of a source or several sources, given certain criteria. The result of this process can be: (1) a judgment about the usefulness of a particular source for collecting data, and/or (2) an insight into the relative usefulness of all available sources. See also Source Map. (Vriens, 2005b)
Space Model
A geometry of the geographic space obtained by the identiication of geographic regions with similar behavior looking at a speciic metric. (Santos et al., 2005)
Source Identiication
Identifying suitable sources (i.e., eficient and containing the relevant data) given a certain data need. See also Source Map. (Vriens, 2005b)
Spam
1: Otherwise termed unsolicited e-mail, unsolicited commercial e-mail, junk mail, or unwanted mail, it has
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been used in opposition to the term ham, which is wanted e-mail. The term was developed from a Monty Python comedy sketch depicting spam as useless and ham as lovely, albeit in ironic terms. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006a) 2: Unsolicited e-mail that is sent to large numbers of people to promote products or services. (Rosson, 2006)
Spatial Analysis
Using geographic data to mathematically model the relationship between measures such those mentioned above, that is, alcohol outlets and violence. (Lipton et al., 2005)
Spamdexing
The promotion of irrelevant commercial pages by taking advantage of the search algorithms used by search engines. (Kasi & Jain, 2006)
Spatial Cluster
A greater-than-expected geographically close group of occurrences or events (e.g., deaths, crashes, alcohol outlets). (Lipton et al., 2005)
Sparse Data
Data that has metric values for a very small percentage of all possible combinations of the dimension values. (Deshpande & Ramasamy, 2005)
Spatial Consistency
Refers to the agreement between data representation and a model of space. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005a)
Spatial Data
1: Any information about the location and shape of, and relationships among, geographic features, usually stored as coordinates and topology. (Velibeyoglu, 2005) 2: Information related to a real system involving geometric (dimension, shape) and topological (relative position) aspects of it. (Zelasco et al., 2005) 3: Represents tangible or located features, such as a river, a 1,000 by 1,000 meter lot in a grid, a campus, a lake, a river, or a road. (Sadoun, 2006)
Spatial
Of or concerning space. (Hunter & Carr, 2005)
Spatial Ability
A persons ability to perceive, retain, and mentally manipulate different kinds of spatial information. There are numerous types of spatial ability (e.g., scanning ability, visualization) that can be measured by standardized tests to detect ability differences between learners. (Boechler, 2006a)
Spatial Accessibility
Consumers ability to overcome geographic barriers (distance or time) in order to gain access to service providers. (Wang & Lou, 2005)
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Spatial Database
A database that represents, stores, and manipulates static spatial data types, such as points, lines, surfaces, volumes, and hyper-volumes in multi-dimensional space. (Tzouramanis, 2005)
Spatial Locality
Describes the effect that when an object is referenced, its nearby objects will tend to be referenced soon. The notion of nearness can include the minimum number of hyperlinks that link the two objects, or it can describe semantic nearness. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005a)
Spatial OLAP
A visual platform built especially to support rapid and easy spatio-temporal analysis and exploration of data following a multi-dimensional approach. (Faz, 2005)
Spatial Operator
Represents one of the spatial relationships between spatial objects. The most representative spatial relationships are: (1) topological relationships, such as adjacent, inside, disjoint, and so forth, which are invariant under topological transformations like translation, scaling, and rotation; (2) direction relationships, for example, above, below, north_of, southwest_of, and so forth; and (3) metric relationships, for example, distance < 100. (Corral & Vassilakopoulos, 2005)
Spatial Partition
The subdivision of the 2D plane into pairs of disjoint regions where each region is associated with an attribute that can have a simple or complex geometric structure. (Pourabbas, 2005a)
Spatial Feature
Symbolizing the arrangement of objects within the image. (Chan & Chang, 2005)
Spatial Filtering
Commonly used to enhance satellite imagery for visual interpretation. It involves applying a mathematical formula such as a mean or median to a group of pixels in a raster image using a moving window. It is also being used to create smoothed maps. The method can also be used to remove random noise caused by inaccurate records or mislocated cases. (Ali, Ashley, et al., 2005)
Spatial Query
A set of spatial conditions characterized by spatial operators that form the basis for the retrieval of spatial information from a spatial database system. (Corral & Vassilakopoulos, 2005)
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Focuses on extracting information from a large amount of spatial data without actually changing the spatial database. It is different than the concept of query optimization that focuses on inding the best query evaluation plan that minimizes the most relevant performance measure (e.g., CPU, I/O, etc.). (Corral & Vassilakopoulos, 2005)
Spatial Regression
A spatial analytic technique modeling the relationship of various factors to the geographical distribution of some attribute measured on a continuous scale. (Garb & Wait, 2005a)
the current and past states, and the support of spatial queries that refer to present and past time-points as well. (Tzouramanis, 2005) 2: A spatio-temporal element is a inite union of spatio-temporal intervals. Spatio-temporal elements are closed under the set theoretic operations of union, intersection, and complementation. Databases that support spatial objects with continuously changing position and extent. The graphical user interfaces for spatiotemporal information, query processing in spatio-temporal databases, and storage structures and indexing techniques for spatio-temporal databases could have a strategic impact on business applications such as data mining and knowledge discovery. (Raisinghani & Klassen, 2005)
Spatial Risk
The risk that is linked to locations in geographic space, usually from physical or social environment. (Ali et al., 2005)
Spatio-Temporal Data
1: Multi-dimensional data with spatial (two- or threedimensional) and time dimensions. (Bozanis, 2006) 2: Multi-dimensional data, like points, line segments, regions, polygons, volumes, or other kinds of geometric entities, that vary in the course of time. (Vassilakopoulos & Corral, 2005)
Spatio-Temporal Relation
A combination of two spatial and temporal relations into one relation used to index video documents and objects evolution between two images (e.g., tumor evolution). (Chbeir & Yetongnon, 2005)
Speaker Corner
The main intranet Web site in PDO. (Al-Gharbi & Khalfan, 2005)
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Speaker Veriication
Signal processing required for verifying the speaker identity by using his/her speech features. (Perez-Meana & Nakano-Miyatake, 2005)
on the basis of some distinguishing characteristics of the entities in the superclass. (Bagui, 2005)
Specialized/Niche Portal
Portal designed to satisfy specific niche markets. Sometimes they provide detailed industry information, often available only for a fee. (Tatnall, 2006)
Speciic Knowledge
The contextual knowledge of one speciic individual, group, society, time, or location. It can be tacit or explicit. (Medeni, 2006a)
Speciication
A document describing what a system should do, what a problem is, or what a domain is all about. In formal methods this document is written in a formal language. (Dasso & Funes, 2005)
Speciication Matching
The process to determine if two software components are related. It allows us to distinguish when two component speciications match; we know that certain guarantees about the behavior of the system will hold if we substitute one component for the other. (Felice & Riesco, 2005)
Special-Needs Population
These populations include special education students with emotional disorders, learning disabilities, limited English language skills, or other mental or physical health problems that prevent full participation in school. (Glick, 2005a)
Spectral Clustering
The collection of techniques that perform clustering tasks using eigenvectors of matrices derived from the data. (Ma & Li, 2005)
Third-party e-fulillment providers may choose to offer a subset of e-fulillment capabilities. These may be either Physco or Knowco in nature, though a greater proportion of SO providers tend to concentrate on Physco capabilities. SOs appear to be driven by needs of dominant customers who dictate the services they need. Such providers are sensitive to such customers needs, and will modify and add capabilities that address them. (Alexander & Burn, 2006)
Spectrum
The distribution of component frequencies of the sound, each being a sine wave, with its amplitudes and phases (time locations of these components). These frequencies can be determined through Fourier analysis. (Wieczorkowska, 2005)
Speech Recognition
Enables the identiication of an individual based on the analysis of a voiceprint derived from the digital
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acquisition of unique patterns found in individual speech patterns. (Scott et al., 2006)
Spiral Model
A system development methodology that utilizes an iterative process that is focused on minimizing project risk. (Steinbach & Knight, 2005)
Speech Skimmer
A system developed by Barry Arons at the beginning of the 1990s with the aim of making speech skimming as easy as scanning printed text. For this, its interface offers various options to modify replay speed, especially by applying time-stretching and content-compression techniques. (Hrst & Lauer, 2006)
Splitting Predicate
Predicate at an internal node of the tree; it decides which branch a record traverses on its way from the root to a leaf node. (Gehrke, 2005)
Speech Skimming
A term, sometimes also referred to as speech browsing or scanning, that describes the actions involved in skimming through a speech recording with the aim of classifying the overall topic of the content or localizing some particular information within it. (Hrst & Lauer, 2006)
Sponsor
Organization delivering e-learning on behalf of the manufacturer of the products being marketed. (D. Wright, 2005)
Speech-Text Alignment
A dynamic program scheme to explore the correlations between speech and text. (Lee, Lin, et al., 2005)
Sponsored Link
A link that is returned on a search engine search for which an advertiser has paid a fee in exchange for prominent ranking. (Owen, 2006a)
Speed of Delivery
The application-layer multicast (ALM) theoretically cannot be more optimal than the IP-multicast tree, in such a way that the delivery of the ALM has higher delay than the IP-multicast. (Hosszu, 2005a)
Spooing
1: An activity where a malicious individual aims to compromise the security of a biometric system by substituting fake biometric data in some form or another. Anti-spooing techniques are measures designed to counteract spooing activities. (Fleming, 2005a) 2: In P2P ile-sharing networks, the practice of introducing dummy iles that have the name of a popular song attached, but not the actual music, in order to degrade the network. (Hughes & Lang, 2005) 3: The act to deceive. In the Internet world, it is the act of pretending to be someone or something else by fooling hardware, software, or human users. (Sockel & Chen, 2005) 4: The technique of obtaining or mimicking a fake identity in the network. This can be used for pretending to be a trustworthy Web site and for motivating users (e.g., entering banking information), pretending to be an authorized instance that requests the users password, or making users accept information that is believed to come from a trusted instance. (Richter & Roth, 2006)
Sphere of Concern
A set of issues and entities relevant for a particular modeling process, in this case modeling of m-commerce. See Universe of Discourse (UoD). (Veijalainen & Weske, 2005)
Spider System
A document management system which acts as a spidereach leg of the spider represents a dimension or category that serves to classify documents. (Ahmad & Al-Sayed, 2006)
Spin-Out
A new company formed by an organization, often a university, to develop and market a new technology or process invented within the host organization, usually (but not always) involving the inventor in a management capacity. (Warren, 2006)
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Spot Sourcing
Buying based on incidental and last-minute opportunities. Spot sourcing is transaction oriented and often involves short-term and incidental relationships. (Janssen, 2005)
SRC: See Social Complex Resource Combination. SRM: See Supplier Relationship Management. SRSWR: See Simple Random Sampling With
Spread Spectrum
A form of wireless communication in which the frequency of the transmitted signal is deliberately varied over a wide range. This results in a higher bandwidth of the signal than one without varied frequency. (Akhtar, 2005)
Replacement.
SSD: See Structured System Design. SSL: See Secure Socket Layer. SSM: See Soft Systems Methodology. SST Method Schema
A method schema developed to analyze search processes by identifying what external and internal factors interplay with the search process during, before, and after the process. (Pharo & Jrvelin, 2005)
Spreadsheet Program
1: A software program that creates a worksheet of rows and columns to enter and manipulate data. (Judd, 2005) 2: The most common standard package next to word processors, suitable for user systems development. (Avdic, 2005)
Stable Attribute
An attribute is called stable for the set U if its values assigned to objects from U cannot change in time. (Ras et al., 2005)
Stable Filter
A ilter for which a bounded input always results in a bounded output. (Jovanovic-Dolecek, 2005a)
Stable Model
An interpretation M is a stable model for a disjunctive Datalog program P, if and only if M is a minimal program for the program PM , denoting the ground positive program derived from ground(P) by: (1) removing all rules that contain a negative literal a in the body and aM, and (2) removing all negative literals from the remaining rules. (Greco & Zumpano, 2005b)
SQL: See Structured Query Language. SQL:1999: See Structured Query Language (SQL): 1999
(SQL: 1999)
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Stable State
Standard
1: A level of performance set by agreement among experts in the ield. (Brady, 2005) 2: An agreed-upon set of concepts, terminologies, and methodologies by a given community. (Karimi & Peachavanish, 2005) 3: Benchmark for quality performance. (C. Cavanaugh, 2005) 4: Detailed statement of action that complies with policy. (Mattord & Whitman, 2005) 5: Documented agreement containing technical speciications or other precise criteria that are used as guidelines to ensure that materials, products, processes, and services suit their intended purpose. (Lawson-Body, 2005)
A stable state of the shared application is given if the execution behavior of all instances is equivalent. For example, if a menu entry is selected, the same action belonging to the corresponding menu entry should be performed on all machines. Other terms are consistent or equivalent state. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005)
Staff Augmentation
When an employee of an outsourcing irm is lent to a client company for work. Normally a staff augmentation employee works at the clients worksite with the technical direction coming from the client company. (Hawk & Kaiser, 2005)
Standard Error
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic. In the case of approximate query answering, it measures the expected value of the error in the approximation of aggregation queries. (Das, 2005)
Stakeholder
1: A party with signiicant importance to the success of the destination marketing system. (Hornby, 2005) 2: An independent party who may have the ability to impact another party. (Hunter, 2005) 3: Any individual, group, or organization that will have an impact on or will be signiicantly impacted by the quality of the product or service an organization or institution provides. For example, stakeholders in a distance learning program can include: a college dean, department chairperson, instructors, students, the inancial aid ofice, the institutions registrar, the student services support team, and the information technology staff. Each of these individuals has a stake in the program and can have a profound or limited impact on the programs perceived quality. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005) 4: A person or organization with a stake in a particular issue or resource. Stakeholders can be deined as faculty, staff, and administrators who work in systems of higher education. (Proctor, 2005) 5: Those individuals or groups who have ownership and derive beneit from the training system. (Jeffery & Bratton-Jeffery, 2005)
Standard Knowledge
A document that records what the employees learned or discovered in the standard or required format. (Shen & Tsai, 2006)
Stand-Alone Program
Foreign language instructional program operated by an individual computer in a classroom. (Switala, 2005)
Standard Setting
Source code under such a license may be used only in activity that deines an industry standard. (Fleming, 2005b)
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Standardized Data
A collection of numeric data is standardized by subtracting a measure of central location (mean) and by dividing by some measure of spread (standard deviation). (Beynon, 2005a)
measures of interest are stored in the fact table (e.g., sales, inventory). For each dimension of the multi-dimensional model, there exists a dimensional table (e.g., product, time) that stores the information about the dimension. (Serrano et al., 2005) 3: A simple database design in which dimensional data are separated from fact or event data. A dimensional model is another name for star schema. (Bellatreche & Mohania, 2005) 4: A dimensional model that is composed of a central fact table and a set of constituent dimension tables. (Pourabbas, 2005b) 5: Relational database schema that results from ROLAP; facts and dimensions are stored in tables. The fact table is considered the core of the resulting database, connected to each and every dimension table. When visualized with the fact table in the center and the dimension tables surrounding it, they create the igure under which the schema is named. (Badia, 2005c) 6: The typical logical topology of a data warehouse, where a fact table occupies the center of the data warehouse and dimension tables are related to most fact table attributes. (Scime, 2005b)
Star Structure
Structure of a warehouse for which a fact is directly connected to several dimensions and can be so analyzed according to these dimensions. It is the most simple and the most used structure. (Schneider, 2005)
State Information
Information that describes the state or condition of a physical product or information good (i.e., a stock price or the number of SKUs in inventory). (McIntosh & Siau, 2005)
Star Model
A logical structure that has a fact table containing factual data in the center, surrounded by dimension tables containing reference data. (Kontio, 2005)
Statement
The basic structure found in an RDF speciication. It consists of a subject, which is a Web resource represented
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by a unique identiier, and a predicate, which is a property that links the subject to an object which is either also a Web resource or an atomic value. (Stuckenschmidt, 2005)
Statement of Applicability
Describes the control objectives and controls that are relevant and applicable to the organizations information security management system scope, based on the results and conclusions of the risk assessment and treatment process. (Tong & Wong, 2005a)
Statistical Database
Type of database system that is designed to support statistical operations, while preventing operations that could lead to the association of individuals with conidential data. (Saygin, 2005)
Statistical Metadata
Data about statistical data. Metadata provide information on data and about processes of producing and using data. Metadata describe statistical data and, to some extent, processes and tools involved in the production and usage of statistical data. (Vardaki, 2005)
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Stealth Mode
Operating a start-up venture quietly, so competitors and the general business community are unaware of it. (Craig, 2006b)
trusting parties. As a result, steganographic methods are usually not robustthat is, the hidden information cannot be recovered after data manipulation. (Nesi & Spinu, 2005)
Stealth Virus
A virus that hides the modiications it has made in the ile or boot record, usually by monitoring the system functions used by programs to read iles or physical blocks from storage media, and forging the results of such system functions so that programs which try to read these areas see the original uninfected form of the ile instead of the actual infected form. Thus the virus modiications go undetected by antivirus programs. However, in order to do this, the virus must be resident in memory when the antivirus program is executed. (Luo & Warkentin, 2005)
Stego-Image
An image that has important data hidden within. (Chen, Chen, & Cheng, 2005)
Stego-Medium
The medium after hiding a secret message into a cover medium. (Lou et al., 2006)
Stego-Object
The cover work with a watermark inserted or embedded. (K. Chen, 2005)
Steganalysis
Discovering the existence of hidden information. Hence, its major intent is to discover hidden information and break the security of the carrier. (Lou et al., 2006)
Stemming
1: Finding the root form of related words, for example singular and plural nouns, or present- and past-tense verbs, to be used as key terms for calculating occurrences in texts. (Kroeze, 2005) 2: For text mining purposes, morphological variants of words that have the same or similar semantic interpretations can be considered as equivalent. For example, the words computation and compute can be stemmed into comput. (Fung et al., 2005)
Steganography
1: Covered writing. It is a study of concealing the existence of a message. (K. Chen, 2005) 2: Hiding the existence of a message by hiding information into various carriers. The major intent is to prevent the detection of hidden information. (Lou et al., 2006) 3: Steganography (literally meaning covered writing) dates back to ancient Greece. It includes a vast array of methods of secret communications that conceal the very existence of the message. In todays computer security, steganography is the science of hiding information by embedding messages within other seemingly harmless messages. Steganography works by replacing bits of useless or unused data in regular computer iles (such as graphics, sound, text, HTML) with bits of different, invisible information. This hidden information can be plaintext, ciphertext, or even images. Unlike encryption, steganography cannot be detected. Therefore, steganography is used to supplement encryption. An encrypted ile may still hide information using steganography, so even if the encrypted ile is deciphered, the hidden message is not seen. (Mezgr, 2005) 4: Technique that allows secret communication, usually by embedding or hiding the secret information (called embedded data) in other, unsuspected data. Steganographic methods are based on the assumption that the existence of the covert communication is unknown, and they are mainly used in secret point-to-point communication between
Stereo Images
Two or more images of a real objects surface obtained from different points of view. (Zelasco et al., 2005)
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St e re ot ype St oplist
Stereotype
Stigmergy
The process that mediates the interaction between animals, and animals through the environment, and provides those clues from which any agent is able to infer what to do next. (Magnani & Bardone, 2006)
1: Allows the creation of new types of elements of modeling, based on the elements that form the goal-pattern UML, extending its semantics. (Riesco et al., 2005) 2: This is used in contrast to an archetype in that a stereotype is a way of labeling someone or something and may be positive or negative. Stereotypes are frequently stock characters or are clichd and lack depth or sympathy. Racial and culture stereotypes are common and nearly always negative. In organizational work, stereotypes often occur in respect to employees, bosses, competition, and/or the customer. (Snowden, 2006) 3: Extensions to the UML vocabulary, allowing additional text descriptions to be applied to the notation. The stereotype is shown between chevron brackets <<>>. (Gur u, 2005)
Stochastic Screening
A method to reproduce photographic images in printed media by creating a random placement of very small dots that change in frequency to create the perception of lighter and darker tones. (Snyder, 2005)
Stereotyping
An evaluator bias in analytic methods in which a system is evaluated with respect to a homogenous catch-all user not accounting for a wide-enough range of user characteristics. (Danielson, 2006a)
Stock Ramping
Also known as a pump and dump, usually involves an organized campaign aimed at increasing (decreasing) the price of a particular stock by the rapid dissemination of false or excessively optimistic (pessimistic) information through a variety of communication media, including Internet discussion sites. Typically companies with low capitalization are targeted for this type of activity. (Campbell, 2006)
Stewardship
Management of anothers property, affairs, or data. For agencies, stewardship includes functions of oficials and staff, such as privacy oficers and advocates, disclosure oficials, and survey managers. Stewardship carries responsibility for data subjects personal privacy, as well as data conidentiality and security. (Mullen, 2005)
Stickiness
1: Refers to the likelihood that visitors will stay on the site for a while and be inclined to return again and again. (Liu & Tucker, 2005) 2: The ability of a Web site to create both customer attraction and customer retention for the purpose of maximizing revenue or proit. (Forgionne & Ingsriswang, 2005)
Stopband
The frequency band that is blocked by the ilter and therefore eliminated from the output signal. (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
Stopband Attenuation
The desired minimum attenuation in the stopband. (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Daz-Carmona, 2005)
Stickiness of Knowledge
A characteristic of some types of knowledge is to only make sense in a particular or speciic context; attempts to disentangle or isolate such knowledge are thought to be made more dificult because the knowledge sticks to its context, making its transfer more challenging. (Connell, 2006)
Stoplist
Speciic collection of so-called noise words, which tend to appear frequently in documents. (Fernndez & Layos, 2005)
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Storage Bin
A generic knowledge retention device in which memory is stored. The storage bin concept as generally presented implies a static conceptualization of organizational memory. The memorys retention facility can be structured in terms of ive internal retention bins (individuals, culture, transformations, structures, ecology) and one external bin (external archives). (Jasimuddin et al., 2006)
interaction among business strategy, structure, information technology, and environment, while taking into account the most important contingencies like: the age, the size, the culture, and so forth. (Theodorou, 2005)
Strategic Alliance
1: An agreement between two or more to engage in business transactions, shared resources, or ventures to their mutual beneit. (Samuel & Samson, 2006) 2: Agreement to share costs, risks, and beneits emanating from business opportunities that arise. Such agreements can take many formsfor example, joint ventures or long-term contracts. (Pease & Rowe, 2005) 3: Business alliances among organizations that provide strategic advantages to the partner organizations. (Marshall & Gregor, 2005)
Storage/Retrieval
Focuses on issues relating to organizational memory, both tacit and explicit. (Lindsey, 2006)
Strategic Architecture
Refers to a companys capabilities, when applied in the marketplace. (Potgieter et al., 2005)
Stovepipe
The traditional orientation of government departments or business units, in which each department or business unit acts independently and autonomously. Lack of integration and interoperability, and issues of duplication of efforts, characterize stovepipe organizations. (Schelin, 2005)
Strategic Choice
The choices that executives make which impact on the strategic direction of the organization. These choices exist as the intended strategies of the organization. (Baker & Coltman, 2005)
Straight-Through Processing
An industry-wide initiative to streamline, transform, and automate processes in the inancial securities industry in order to achieve lower settlement times and quicker trading. (Saha, 2005)
Strategic
A tactical plan of action that is essential to the strategy of an organization, such as the use of communication to gain a competitive advantage. (McManus & Carr, 2005)
Strategic Experimentation
A form of strategic management in which irms continually start, select, pursue, and drop strategic initiatives before launching aggressively those initiatives whose values are inally revealed. (Narayanan, 2005)
Strategic Alignment
The appropriate use of IT in the integration and development of business strategies and corporate goals. (Lubbe, 2005)
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St rat e gic Goa l St rat e gic V ision for I nfor m at ion T e chnology
Strategic Goal
One of the broad targets that represent the desired outcomes the organization expects to achieve over the long term. (Brabston, 2005)
Strategic Plan
1: A document that outlines the goals of an organization and the steps that will be taken to ensure the successful accomplishment of those goals. (Baker & Schihl, 2005) 2: A formulation of an organization or institutions scheme or program for the accomplishment, enactment, or attainment of essential goals within a speciied period of time. (Poda & Brescia, 2005) 3: A process by which quality will be improved and maintained in meeting the goals of the organization. (C. Cavanaugh, 2005) 4: A carefully devised plan of action (or methodology)featuring multiple activities, tasks, and interventionsto achieve a long-term goal. (Bober, 2005) 5: Corporate long-term planning that ensures the existence of an organization. (Mandal et al., 2005) 6: The process of developing and maintaining a strategic it between the organizations goals and capabilities, and its changing marketing opportunities. (Brace & Berge, 2006) 7: Planning that identiies and justiies where your organization should be headed and why it should get there in terms of societal value added. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005)
Strategic Resource
Anything to which an organization has access to that may be strategically useful to it. (Saha, 2005)
Strategic Management
The process of strategy creation and implementation. The concept of strategy is one of marketplace strategy (i.e., winning in the marketplace against competitors, entrenched or incipient). Strategy creation involves both goal formulationdeined in terms of external stakeholders rather than operational milestonesand crafting of the strategic means by which to accomplish these goals. Implementation refers to the means of executing the created strategy. (Narayanan, 2005)
Strategic Thinking
The way in which everyone in an organization, as well as its external stakeholders, focus irst on value added for external clients and society, and then (and only then) deine what the organization should deliver, produce, do, and use. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005)
Strategic Objective
Long-term objective, such as innovation, rationalization, eficiency, quality, and so forth. (Tremblay, 2006a)
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vision. Like the organizations strategic vision, it is not as speciic as is the strategic vision for the information technology function. (Brabston, 2005)
Strategy Map
A depiction of strategic objectives with linkages with the aim of showing transformation of various organizational resources into desired outcomes. (Saha, 2005)
Strategy
1: A business plan of action. (Hunter, 2005) 2: A detailed plan for achieving success in situations such as war, politics, business, industry, or sport, or the skill of planning for such situations. (Lubbe, 2005) 3: A plan or method for obtaining a speciic result. (Ajiferuke & Olatokun, 2005) 4: A planning, rational process through which the company chooses a certain mode of development, from among all of the possible ones, and maintains that direction through a well-deined period (design view). In the process view, strategy is a process that might change on the way, giving rise to an emergent strategy. The realized strategy might be different than the original intended strategy. (Scupola, 2005) 5: A systematic plan of action for deliberately using an organizations resources in ways that fulill that organizations purpose. (Holsapple & Jones, 2006) 6: The determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an organization, and the adoption of courses of action and allocation of resources necessary for achieving these goals; major components of strategy include: goals, product/ market focus, business system focus, and competitive premise. (Craig, 2005)
1: A speciic procedure for biased sampling, where the database is partitioned into different strata, and each stratum is uniformly sampled at different sampling rates. Tuples that are more important for aggregation purposes, such as outliers, are put into strata that are then sampled at a higher rate. (Das, 2005) 2: For this method, before the samples are drawn, the population P is divided into several strata, p1, p2,.. pk, and the sample S is composed of k partial samples s1, s2,.., sk, each drawn randomly, with replacement or not, from one of the strata. (Lutu, 2005)
Stratiied Sampling
Stream
1: An aggregate of one or more lows, treated as one aggregate for the purpose of forwarding in layer-2 or layer3 nodes (e.g., may be described using a single label). In many cases, a stream may be the aggregate of a very large number of lows. (Gutirrez & Ting, 2005) 2: This technique is for transferring data such that it can be processed as a steady and continuous stream. Streaming technologies are becoming increasingly important with the growth of the Internet because most users do not have fast-enough access to download large multimedia iles quickly. If the stream is for transferring multimedia data, it is called a multimedia stream. (Yang et al., 2005b)
Stream Window
A mechanism to extract a inite set of records from an ininite stream. This mechanism selects stream items based on time periods, counting, or explicit starting and ending conditions. (Chatziantoniou & Doukidis, 2005)
Strategy Formulation
The process by means of which the desired portfolio of product-market-technology combinations is deined and updated. This process can be modeled using the viable system model consisting of four steps: deining proposals for innovation, reviewing these proposals, inalizing proposals, and consolidating inalized proposals. (Achterbergh, 2005b)
Streaming
Sending multimedia data to a client device at a rate the enables it to be played without having to store it. (N.C. Rowe, 2005a)
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Structural Determination
The principle that the actual course of change in an autopoietic system is controlled by its structure rather than direct inluence of its environment. (Abou-Zeid, 2005b)
A sequence of values, where each value corresponds to a time instance. The length changes, since new values are appended. (Kontaki et al., 2005)
Streaming Video
A technique for transferring data as a steady and continuous stream. A browser or plug-in can start displaying the data before the entire ile has been transmitted. (Burke et al., 2005)
Structural Equivalence
1: The extent to which the tie patterns of two or more nodes of the network are equal. (Dekker, & Hendriks, 2006) 2: Two actors are structurally equivalent if they have mathematically identical connections (structural similarity) to and from all other actors in a network. The actors who occupy same social positions are said to be structurally equivalent. (Assimakopoulos & Yan, 2006)
Structural Hole
1: A gap or lack of a connection in a social network. (Smatt & Wasko, 2006) 2: A gap in a network, which isolates one set of actors from another. Individuals whose personal ties bridge such gaps can exercise a brokerage role, which beneits them personally and facilitates the low of information and resources through the network. (Nelson & Hsu, 2006)
Structural Mechanism
In order to ensure that ethical decisions are practiced routinely, it is important to create positions and structural mechanisms that reinforce ethical behavior. Without structural mechanisms, a code of ethics will be forgotten. An example of such a mechanism is the social or ethical audit designed to assess whether the organization is practicing what it states in its formal guideline. (Grieves, 2006a)
Strong Rule
An association rule whose support (of the union of itemsets) and conidence are greater than user-speciied minimum support and conidence, respectively. (Shen, 2005)
Structural Coupling
The ongoing mutual co-adaptation between a system and its environment. (Abou-Zeid, 2005b)
Structural Model
1: A model concerned primarily with the internal workings and architecture of the system, and on what principles it operates and how a system achieves its functionality. (Maceield, 2006) 2: A UML model describing static structure (relationships and properties). (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a)
Structural Design
Forms of structure derived by optimal combinations of structural variables with information technology and business strategy in a way that increase competitive advantage. (Theodorou, 2005)
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Structural Restriction
Condition that relates one attribute or variable value with respect to other possible values of the same attribute or variable, or to the value of others attributes. In database terminology, a structural restriction is a kind of integrity constraint. Some examples of structural restrictions are: uniqueness of an attribute value, key for attribute, and foreign key for attribute. (Aldana Montes et al., 2005)
Structure-Based Retrieval
Retrieval based on document structure. This includes retrieval based on element units, as well as logical inclusion relationships among elements, because an element is a basic unit of XML documents. (Chang, 2005)
Structured Document
1: A textual representation of any object, whose content could be organized around a well-deined structure. (de Campos et al., 2005) 2: Document made by composing welldelimited pieces of content that can present an inclusion hierarchy between them. (Martnez-Gonzlez, 2005)
Structural Variable
One of the most important elements of structure (variables) that characterize and form the structural design (span of control, levels of hierarchy, level of standardization, etc.). (Theodorou, 2005)
Structured Information
Information that is speciic. An example is the price of a product. (Gangopadhyay & Huang, 2005)
Structuration Theory
A theory of societal processes on a high abstraction level. Adaptive structuration theory focuses on the analysis of the way existing technologies are taken up by groups and evolve in their role during the appropriation process (i.e., the process of adaptation to new technical tools, which changes the original situation). (Verburg et al., 2005)
Structure
1: Characteristic of a decision situation that determines whether the problem it involves can be programmed or described in speciic terms (i.e., for the purpose of developing a relevant DSS). (Pomerol & Adam, 2005) 2: The physical embodiment of a systems organization in a certain physical domain. (Abou-Zeid, 2005b)
Structure Capital
The knowledge embedded within the routines of an organization involves organizational structure, culture, and technology. Structure capital includes a technological component and architectural competencies. (Hsu & Mykytyn, Jr., 2006)
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Study Unit Structured UDT: See Structured User Deined Type. Structured User Deined Type (UDT)
A database schema object in SQL:1999 that allows types of objects, which encapsulate both attributes and methods, to be speciied. SQL/MM DM is based on this feature of SQL:1999. (Zendulka, 2005c) Composed of a number of components that have embedded the teachers teaching experience. The form of these components can be text notes and examples (with formulas, tables, drawings, and pictures), interactive or animated demonstrations, quick quizzes or self-tests, and so forth. For Web courses, the Web page is often the physical unit for study, that is, each study unit corresponds to an individual Web page. (Y.J. Zhang, 2005)
Student Support
All activities and arrangements that are put in place to facilitate the achievement of the intended learning outcomes. (Naidu, 2005b)
Student-Centered/Active Learning
Places the student into active, self-directed learning, learning by enquiry, and ownership of the learning goals. Active learning strategies include problem-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, and workintegrated learning. (Lowry & Turner, 2005)
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Subgraph
A graph G whose vertices and edges form subsets of the vertices and edges of a given graph G. If G is a subgraph of G, then G is said to be a supergraph of G. (Fischer & Meinl, 2005)
Subgraph Isomorphism
Decision whether a graph G is isomorphic to a subgraph another graph G. This problem is known to be NP-complete. (Fischer & Meinl, 2005)
Subschema Similarity
A particular interschema property. It represents a similitude between fragments of different schemas. (De Meo, Terracina, et al., 2005)
taxonomy. The subsumed entity inherits the characteristics of the classes above it. Example: The term dog exists in a subsumption relationship to the family Canidae, and inherits canine characteristics; dog does not, however, exist in a subsumption relationship to the family Felidae, so logically it cannot inherit feline or cat-like characteristics. (Buchholz, 2006) 2: For clauses in conjunctive normal form, a clause C subsumes (i.e., contains) a clause D if there exists a substitution s such that the set of predicates of Cs are a subset of the predicates in D. The subsumed clause D may be safely deleted, as it adds nothing to the logical meaning of the conjunctive normal form in a Boolean logic. (Buehrer, 2005) 3: Standard reasoning service provided by digital libraries (DLs). It is used to check if an expression, formalized in DL, is more speciic than another one w.r.t. the knowledge elicited for a given domain. More formally, given a TBox T and two concepts C and D, C subsumes D if C is more general than D in any interpretation satisfying inclusions and deinitions of T. (Colucci et al., 2006)
Subsystem
Any immediate inner system that is subsumed to the system. (Gelman et al., 2005)
Subscription Fee
Payment by a visitor in exchange for access to content or services on the Web site. (Shan et al., 2006b)
Subsidiary Awareness
Polanyis term for perception to which an individual does not have direct access, as it is not part of his or her focal awareness. Contrasts with focal awareness. (ZappavignaLee & Patrick, 2005)
Success Surrogate
A proxy for information systems success that takes the form of measurable values. A success surrogate is a dependent variable. (McHaney, 2005)
Subspace Clustering
1: An extension of traditional clustering techniques that seeks to ind clusters in different subspaces within a given dataset. (Ma & Li, 2005) 2: Simultaneous clustering of both row and column sets in a data matrix. (Domeniconi & Gunopulos, 2005)
Successive Approximation
Correct performance of the subskills that lead to a speciic target behavior. (Lazarus, 2005a)
Subsumption
1: An entity exists in a subsumption relationship to another entity when it falls in a directly lower class in the
Veriies that an update operation leads a consistent database state to a new consistent database state. (Ibrahim, 2005)
Suficient Test
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Superclass
1: The main set (entity) from which subsets (subclasses) are deined based on meaningful criteria needed for a particular database. (Bagui, 2005) 2: A class that is used to derive other classes. A superclass is also called a parent class or base class. The classes that are derived from a superclass are known as child classes or derived classes. A superclass allows for a generic interface to specialize functionality through the use of virtual functions. (Wong & Chan, 2006)
Text indexes that permit fast access to any text substring. (Navarro, 2005)
Summary Attribute
The numerical result of the application of aggregative functions to row data. It is described by the set of category attributes that form the multi-dimensional aggregate data structure (table or data cube). (Rafanelli, 2005)
Summary-Schemas Model
A content-aware organization prototype that enables imprecise queries on distributed heterogeneous data sources. (Hurson & Yang, 2005)
Superimposition
The process of matching two 3D structures by alignment through rigid translations and rotations. (X. Wang, 2005)
Summative Evaluation
1: An evaluation designed to present conclusions about the merit of a program and recommendations about its future. (Nelson, 2005) 2: Evaluation that is usually performed at the end of the design process. Summative evaluation indicates that the evaluation outcomes are used to describe and portray any given object of the evaluation, with no intent to use the evaluation results for improvement and change. (Zaphiris & Zacharia, 2005) 3: The collection of usability data to evaluate a completed system in use. (Danielson, 2006b) 4: The elicitation of information that can be used to determine if a program should be continued or terminated. (Nash et al., 2005a) 5: The gathering of data from stakeholders on an innovation following its implementation. (Naidu, 2005a)
Superior Structure
When superior structure is present, the online program has met the DDLM-deined standard for consumer demands of high-quality content, high-quality delivery, and highquality service. (MacDonald et al., 2005)
Supervised Classiication
Given a collection of labeled patterns, the problem in supervised classiication is to label a newly encountered but unlabeled pattern. Typically, the given labeled patterns are used to learn the descriptions of classes that in turn are used to label a new pattern. (Huang, 2005)
Supervised Graph
Graph in which each vertex and edge can belong to multiple categories to varying degrees. Such a graph complicates the ability to clearly deine transactions on which to perform data mining. (Holder & Cook, 2005)
Sunk Cost
The initial investment in a project or program that will not be recouped. Can include ofice space, supplies, hardware, software, and training. (G. Lang, 2005)
Supervised Learning
1: A learning process in which the exemplar set consists of pairs of inputs and desired outputs. The process learns to produce the desired outputs from the given inputs. (Lingras et al., 2005) 2: A machine learning technique for creating a function from training data; the task of the supervised learner is to predict the value of the function for any valid input object after having seen only a small number of training data. (Bashir et al., 2005) 3: A machine learning technique for creating a function from training data. The training data consists of pairs of input objects and desired outputs. (Fernndez & Layos, 2005) 4: Learning how to label each data point in a dataset through
Super-Imposed Object
Super-imposition is an image processing problem that occurs in music notation as music symbols are placed upon the stave lines. Separating the symbol from the lines becomes an important task in most approaches to recognition. Approaches either attempt to remove the stave lines or segment the music symbols. (George, 2005b)
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consideration of repeated examples (training set) where the labels are known. The goal is to induce a labeling for data points where the labels are unknown (test set). (Musicant, 2005) 5: This is performed with feedforward nets, where training patterns are composed of an input vector and an output vector that are associated with the input and output nodes, respectively. An input vector is presented at the inputs together with a set of desired responses, one for each node. A forward pass is done, and the errors or discrepancies between the desired and actual response for each node in the output layer are found. These are then used to determine weight changes in the net according to the prevailing learning rule. (R., 2005)
managers of utilities to operate the equipment and deliver services to customers. (Jeong et al., 2006)
Supplantive Method
Explicitly provides a linear approach to learning by directing the learner speciically in the learning process. The purpose is to limit the effort necessary for structuring the learning. (Stavredes, 2005a)
Supplier
1: Individual or irm that conducts business within the boundaries of a communitys place. (Porto Bellini & Vargas, 2006) 2: Refers to the entity which provides wanted or needed goods and services. (Barima, 2006a)
Supervised Training
Learning process of artiicial neural networks where each desired response (target) for each input pattern (example) is available in the training data. (Castro & Braga, 2006)
Supervised/Unsupervised
A supervised learning algorithm searches a functional link between a class-attribute (or dependent attribute or attribute to be predicted) and predictive attributes (the descriptors). The supervised learning process aims to produce a predictive model that is as accurate as possible. In an unsupervised learning process, all attributes play the same role; the unsupervised learning method tries to group instances in clusters, where instances in the same cluster are similar, and instances in different clusters are dissimilar. (Muhlenbach & Rakotomalala, 2005)
Supervisory Control
Formal actions by management to enhance the likelihood that employees will act in ways that management wishes them to act or in ways that are beneicial to the organization. (King, 2006a)
Supply Chain
1: A distribution channel of a product, from its sourcing, to its delivery to the end consumer (also known as the value chain). (Verbraeck et al., 2006) 2: A network of companies interacting among themselves with the ultimate aim of providing needed goods and/or services to the inal consumer. Three main items that low among the entities
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are goods/services, information, and funds. (Aigbedo, 2005) 3: A network of organizations that provide goods or services to each other. (Brindley, 2006) 4: Network of suppliers, storage facilities, distributors, transporters, and retailers that participate in the sale, delivery, and production of a particular product. (Braun, 2005c) 5: A series of activities that are involved in the transformation of raw materials into a inal product that is purchased by a customer. (Mathieu & Levary, 2005) 6: In its basic form, a buyer-centric chain or network of independent companies that are loosely inter-linked by activity along a manufacturing, servicing, and distribution channel of a product service specialty, from sources of raw material to delivery to an end customer. Supplementary to this supply chain management is a set of approaches utilized to integrate suppliers, manufacturers, warehouses, retail stores, and so on. Consequently, merchandise is produced and distributed in right quantities, and to right locations at the right time, to minimize system-wide costs, while at the same time satisfying service-level requirements. (Richards et al., 2005)
Supply Web
An elaborated web of supply chains intersecting each other. A small business can be on one or more of the supply chains within this web. Supply chains within this web may or may not be in the same industry. (Poon, 2005)
Supply-Side Stakeholder
A person or agency that is responsible for offering egovernment services, and who will have an impact on its design and functioning in a practical sense. (De, 2005)
Support
1: The use of synchronous and asynchronous technology by a tutor to interact with learners at a distance. (Ally, 2005b)
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2: A parameter used in the association-rules method for determining the percent of data cases that support both the antecedent of the rule X and the consequent of the rule Y in the set of data cases D. (Swierzowicz, 2005) 3: Given an association rule XY, the support of the rule is the number of transactions that satisfy or match XY, divided by the total number of transactions. Support is an indication of a rules statistical signiicance. (Imberman & Tansel, 2006) 4: The percentage of the tuples in which that subtuple occurs (T.Y. Lin, 2005) 5: The count of records that satisfy a particular predicate in classiication rules. (Richards & de la Iglesia, 2005) 6: The number of graphs in the analyses database in which a subgraph occurs. (Fischer & Meinl, 2005) 7: The rule AB has support s, if s% of all transactions contains both A and B. (Daly & Taniar, 2005b)
Support Set
A set of variables S for a data set (T, F ) such that projections of T and F on S still have an extension. (Boros et al., 2005)
Support System
Set of people, policies, and resources that are offered in service of organizational members; in some cases, structures put in place to assist faculty in the development and delivery of online instruction. (Baker & Schihl, 2005)
Support Threshold
A threshold value that is used to decide if an itemset is interesting/frequent. It is deined by the user, and generally, an association rule mining algorithm has to be executed many times before this value can be well adjusted to yield the desired results. (Woon et al., 2005)
Support Vector
A data point in a support vector machine classiication problem that lies on the wrong side of its corresponding bounding plane. (Musicant, 2005)
Support of a Pattern
The number of database transactions in which the pattern occurs. (Kryszkiewicz, 2005)
Support of a Rule
The fraction of the rows of the database that contain both the antecedent and the consequent of the rule. The support of a rule tells us in how many instances (rows) the rule can be observed. (Ale & Rossi, 2005)
Support of Itemset X
The fraction of the database that contains X, which is the ratio of the number of records containing X to the total number of records in the database. (Shen, 2005)
Support Rule
The support of a rule XIj, where X is a set of items and Ij is a single item not in X, is the fraction of the transactions containing all items in set X that also contain item Ij. (Wong, & Fu, 2005)
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distance between the hyperplane that represents the classiier and the vectors that represent the documents). Different functions for measuring this distance (kernels) can be plugged in and out; when nonlinear kernels are used, this corresponds to mapping the original vector space into a higher dimensional vector space in which the separation between the examples belonging to different categories may be accounted for more easily. (Sebastiani, 2005)
than the bare minimum. Surface learners do not fully understand the subject matter. At best, they are able to recite facts. (Pritchard, 2005a)
Surface Map
A three-dimensional portrait of the earth surface. Here, the third dimension is the spatial processes of the social environment of the study area. (Ali, Ashley, et al., 2005)
Suring
To navigate the Internet searching for topics of interest, usually considered an undirected form of browsing. (Hwang & Stewart, 2005)
Survey Knowledge
A type of spatial knowledge dealing with information about location, orientation, and size of regional features. (Sadeghian et al., 2006)
Suprasystem
The immediate outer system that subsumes any system. (Gelman et al., 2005)
Sustainability
A situation in which a particular mechanism is viable for a longer period. (Borbora & Dutta, 2005)
Surface Credibility
A credibility assessment based upon features observable via simple inspection. (Danielson, 2006c)
Sustainability Failure
An initiative that succeeds initially, but then fails after a year or so. (Velibeyoglu, 2005)
Surface Learning
1: A concentration on lower-order cognitive skills, such as recall of facts; rather than higher-order skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (associated with deep learning). (Salter, 2005a) 2: Learning that goes no further
Sustainability of VC
The extent to which the VC continues to attract and retain its target members who identify with the mission of the
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community by taking part in the activities sponsored by the VC. (Chuang, 2006)
Switching
The switching principle is a fundamental advantage that a virtual organization has over a traditional one. Because the links between organizational functions are largely electronic and non-physical, it is easy to replace a weak component with a stronger one. Where this activity could be considerably expensive if the item in question was a physical supply chain, it may only be a change of suppliers for the virtual organization and can be made with a phone call and database edit, as opposed to a building project. (J. Lee, 2005)
Sustainable Consumption
A recent movement in product design and consumer research on the need for a change in our patterns of consumption. The work cited here focuses particularly on the meaningfulness of the products and services we consume as integral to this shift in attitude. (Kettley, 2006b)
Switching Cost
1: Refers to how much cost it takes to switch from one vendor to another. (Liu & Tucker, 2005) 2: Refers to costs incurred by buyers when they switch to a different supplier. (Lee, Chen, et al., 2006) 3: Refers to the hidden costs consumers face when switching from one product or technology to another in the marketplace. (Li, 2005b)
Sustainable Development
Connected to the ideal of improvement achieved through self-reliant human scale development that lows from the individual level to the local, regional, and national levels, and that is horizontally interdependent and vertically complementary. (Rhodes, 2005)
Syllabus
A detailed description of the topics, objectives, content, and assessment tasks for a course. (Hawkins & Baker, 2005)
SW-CMM: See Software Capability Maturity Model. SVM: See Support Vector Machine. SVD: See Singular Value Decomposition. SWF: See ShockWave Flash. SWIFT: See Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial
Telecommunications.
Symbolic Image
Consists of a set of objects; each object stands for an entity in a real image. (Chan & Chang, 2005)
Symbolic Object
A description of a concept that provides a way of obtaining the extent or the set of individuals associated with the concept. (Murthy & Diday, 2005)
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Symbolic Rule
A pattern explicitly comprising an antecedent and a consequent, usually in the form of IFTHEN. (Zhou, 2005)
an integrated soundtrack, a separate video and sound ile can be used and synchronized via SMIL. This allows users to choose difference combinations, for example, to get a different language soundtrack, and permits text transcripts to be optionally presented; both options have accessibility beneits. (Lin & Chen, 2005)
Synchronous
1: A form of online discussion among students, workers, or instructors that is scheduled for a speciic time. It may be referred to as a live chat where all participants are online at the same time in a virtual chat room. (Iannarelli, 2005) 2: At the same time. Live conversation. (Coakes, 2006b) 3: Communication in which interaction between participants is simultaneous. (Danenberg & Chen, 2005) 4: Communication that requires both students and faculty to interact online at the same time, such as in a real-time chat. (Etter & Byrnes, 2005) 5: Occurring at the same time. In the context of communications technologies, synchronous technologies have communicators engaging in the communication experience or event at the same time or in real time. For example instant messaging or chat rooms. (Newberry, 2005) 6: Occurring at the same time; typically used to refer to technologies such as chat. (Ordonez, 2005) 7: Online communication that is carried out with all parties at the same time. For example, a Webcast and a chat-room discussion are both forms of synchronous communication. (Paoletti, 2005) 8: Refers to the ability for members of a learning community to complete a task at the same time. Computer whiteboards and chat tools are examples of synchronous tools used in the Web-based environment. (Morphew, 2005) 9: To make event/meeting/discussion happen at the scheduled time at different locations for different groups of people. It is basically used to create face-to-face environments. (Nandavadekar, 2005) 10: Transmission in which the data character and bits are transmitted at a ixed rate with the transmitter and receiver being synchronized. (Calzonetti & deChambeau, 2006)
Symmetric-Key Cryptography
Sender and receiver agree on a common secret key. This key is used to exchange encrypted messages. (Stickel, 2005)
Syncategorematic Term
A linguistic term that cannot stand as the subject or the predicate of a proposition. It must be used in conjunction with other terms, as it has meaning only in such combination. (Andrade Ares, Garca, Rodrguez, & Silva, 2006)
Synchronization
1: In multimedia, synchronization is the act of coordinating different media to occur or recur at the same time. (Guan, 2005d) 2: Connects handheld devices to desktop computers, notebooks, and peripherals in order to transfer or synchronize data. Other than using serial cables to connect handheld devices and other computing equipment, many handheld devices use either an infrared port or Bluetooth technology to send information to other devices. (Hu, Yeh, Yang, et al., 2006) 3: The harmonization of data on two (or more) digital devices so that both (all) contain the same data. Data commonly are synchronized on the basis of the date they were last altered, with synchronization software facilitating the process and preventing duplication or loss of data. (Garrett, 2006b)
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10: Communication that occurs between two or more people in which the communication is done in sync or at the same time (e.g., instant messaging, phone contact, or videoconferencing). (Day, 2005)
Synchronous Collaboration
Collaborative interactions, for example, over the Internet, carried out in real time, such as chat, video/audio conferencing, and shared applications. (Carroll et al., 2005)
Synchronous Communication
1: Real-time communication requiring all communication partners to be present at the same time. Many types of chat environments offer synchronous computermediated communication. (Roberts et al., 2006b) 2: Communication that occurs in real time. For two or more people to communicate synchronously, they need to be available at the same time. Synchronous communication utilizes such tools as chats and videoconferencing. (Erlich, 2005). 3: Communication where the relay of information is simultaneous and therefore occurs in real time (e.g., chat, audio and videoconferencing). (Stodel et al., 2005) 4: Computer-based communication in which interaction between parties takes place simultaneously. (Ketelhut et al., 2005) 5: Information exchanges taking place in the same space and time, often face-to-face. (Wong-MingJi, 2005) 6: Interaction between individuals where information is sent and received at the same time, as in audio conferencing or online chat. (Ally, 2005d) 7: Online interactive or realtime communication between the student and instructor or among students. (Gold, 2005) 8: Real-time exchange of messages. (Han & Hill, 2006) 9: Tools that enable realtime communication in the online environment, such as chat rooms and videoconferencing. (S.-K. Wang, 2005)
Synchronous Cooperation
Members are present at the same time within the cooperation group (co-presence). The communications among them are interactive and made with live media, such as videoconferences or application sharing spaces. (Villemur & Drira, 2006)
Synchronous Discussion
1: Occur when all participants are online and actively involved in the discussion at the same time. (Ingram, 2005) 2: The immediate exchange of messages in real time. It is best used for sharing ideas and brainstorming. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005b)
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The mode of distance learning where provider and recipient are communicating in real time, that is, talking to each other or seeing each other while geographically apart. (Kostopoulos, 2005)
Synchronous Replication
Eager replicationthat is, transaction updates are propagated before the transaction is committed. (MuozEsco et al., 2005)
Synchronous System
Requires the simultaneous participation of students with faculty in real time, that is, the modeling of a virtual classroom. It involves the use of live chat, white boards, and video and audio conferencing. (Sivakumar, 2006)
Synchronous Learning
1: A real-time, instructor-led online learning event in which all participants are logged on at the same time and communicate directly with each other. (TorresCoronas, 2005) 2: Learning that occurs in real time. Classroom-based, face-to-face instruction is an example of synchronous learning. (Chapman, 2005a) 3: Online courses and activities that require students and teachers to be online at the same time. (Lazarus, 2005b)
Synchrony
1: A feature of any communication medium. A communication medium is synchronous if the recipient of a message can respond immediately. For example, telephone and instant messaging are synchronous communication media, while e-mail and voicemail are asynchronous communication media. (Y.D. Wang, 2005) 2: Simultaneous occurrence of two or more events. Synchronous features would make it possible to perform lectures, demonstrations, and group activities in real time. (Rollier & Niederman, 2005)
Synchronous Media
Real-time delivery of media (e.g., videoconferencing). (Whateley et al., 2005)
Synonymy
A particular interschema property. A synonymy between two concepts A and B indicates that they have the same meaning. (De Meo, Terracina, et al., 2005)
Syntactic Metadata
Metadata that describes a documents structure and/or format. For example, document language, document
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size, and MIME type might all be included as elements of syntactic metadata. (Banerjee et al., 2005)
correspond to different data sets and scenarios of realworld behavior. (Tzouramanis, 2005)
Syntactic Search
A text search based on string patterns that appear in the text, without reference to meaning. (Navarro, 2005)
Syntax
The grammatical arrangement of words in sentences. (Galitsky, 2005c)
Synthesis
1: Occurs when the inal product of a group effort includes information and other elements from all members in such a way that individual contributions are dificult or impossible to identify. (Ingram, 2005) 2: The creation of a product by the group that is distinct from the contribution of the individual members. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005a) 3: Within the natural computing domain, synthesis corresponds to the act or process of developing or designing a computational system; an emulation or a simulation of a given natural phenomenon. It is usually an outcome of the analysis of the corresponding natural phenomenon. (de Castro, 2005)
Synthetic Economy
An economy of virtual goods or currency which essentially exists in the virtual world such as online games. However, it is not necessarily conined in virtual space, but often integrated with the real-world economy. (Park & Lepawsky, 2006)
System
1: A whole composed of subsystems, and at the same time included in a supra-system in such way that some particular properties of the whole and of the subsystems are getting lost when they are considered analytically, for example, by separation of the parts of the whole. (Gelman et al., 2005) 2: A collection of components (subsystems) together with their interrelations. (Szczerbicki, 2005) 3: A structured activity in which the whole is more than the sum of its parts. (Murphy, 2005a) 4: A group of devices or artiicial objects, or an organization forming a network, especially for distributing something or serving a common purpose. (Kabene, Takhar, et al., 2005) 5: A purposeful entity whose parts interact with each other to function as a whole. Thus, a system is not the sum of its parts; it is the product of their interactions (Ackoff, 1993). 6: A system can be part of a larger system. (Maani, 2005) 7: A system must exist within a world and cannot exist if its world is undeined: no world means no system. Existence is a property a system derives from the world around it. The nature of a system is the nature of the world that contains it; for example, a physical world, a world of ideas, and a social world may contain physical systems, idea systems, and social systems, respectively. A system that exists still needs an identity to deine what is a system and what is not a system. A system indistinguishable from its world is not a system; for example, a crystal of sugar that dissolves in water still has existence as sugar, but is no longer a separate macroscopic system. The point separating system from non-system is the system boundary. Existence and identity seem two basic requirements of any system. (Whitworth, 2006a) 8:
Synthetic Benchmark
A benchmark in which the workload model is artiicially generated, as opposed to a real-life workload. (Darmont, 2005)
Synthetic Character
Computer-generated semi-autonomous agent corporally embodied using multimedia and/or robotics. (Hall & Woods, 2006)
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Systems are being deployed by various political entities to form a global network. GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) is deployed by the Russian Federation. GPS (Global Positioning System) is deployed by the United States. Galileo is the GPS system being structured by the European Union. (Freeman & Auld, 2005)
2005) 3: An interdisciplinary method to enhance learning of complex systems that is based on nonlinear dynamics and feedback control. (Trcek, 2005)
System Encapsulation
The deinition and implementation of a software interface, called wrapper, that allows the access to the system, and its subsystems, from other applications. (Aversano et al., 2005)
System Aspect
One of the technological and physical speciicities of the e-learning experience at server and data layers, and the usability and accessibility issues of the presentation layer of the e-learning system. (Rentroia-Bonito et al., 2006)
System Engineering
The branch of engineering concerned with the development of large and complex systems. It includes the deinition and setup of adequate and controlled processes for the design and development of these complex systems. (Villemur & Drira, 2006 CSCW)
System Decomposability
The capability to decompose the system into a set of loosely coupled subsystems. (Aversano et al., 2005)
System Delay
The time lapse between action and response. Delays often destabilize the system and slow down a systems progress towards reaching its goal. System delays often mask anticipated outcomes as well as unintended consequences of actions since the intervening time lapse is often longer than expected. (Maani, 2005)
System Environment
In a changing world, changes outside a system may cause changes within it, and changes within may cause changes without. A systems environment is that part of a world that can change the system or be affected by it. What succeeds in the system-environment interaction depends on the environment. In Darwinian evolution, the environment deines system performance. Three things seem relevant: opportunities, threats, and the rates by which these change. In an opportunistic environment, right action can give great beneit. In a risky environment, wrong action can give great loss. In a dynamic environment, risk and opportunity change quickly, giving turbulence (sudden risk) or luck (sudden opportunity). An environment can be of any combination, for example, opportunistic, risky, and dynamic. (Whitworth, 2006a)
System Level
Is the physical world the only real world? Are physical systems the only possible systems? The term information system suggests otherwise. Philosophers propose idea systems in logical worlds. Sociologists propose social systems. Psychologists propose cognitive mental models. Software designers propose data entity relationship models quite apart from hardware. Software cannot exist without a hardware system of chips and circuits, but the software world of data records and iles is not equivalent to the hardware world. It is a different system level. Initially, computer problems were mainly hardware problems, like overheating. Solving these led to software problems, like ininite loops. Informational requirements began to drive chip development, for example, network and database protocol needs. HCI added cognitive requirements to the
System Dynamics
1: A methodology for modeling and managing complex feedback systems. This includes dynamic simulation models that allow policy formulation and testing. (Saha, 2005) 2: A scientiic tool that embodies principles from biology, ecology, psychology, mathematics, and computer science to model complex and dynamic systems. (Maani,
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mix. Finally, a computer-mediated community can also be seen as a social system. An information system can be conceived on four levels: mechanical, informational, cognitive, and social. Each emerges from the previous, not in some mystical way, but as a different framing of the same thing. If all levels derive from hardware, why not just use that perspective? Describing modern computers by chip and line events is possible but ineficient, like describing World War II in terms of atoms and electrons. As higher levels come into play, systems become more complex but also offer higher performance eficiencies. (Whitworth, 2006a)
a system interacts with its environment, usability can join non-functional IS requirements, like security and reliability, as part of system performance. The four advanced system elements (boundary, internal structure, effectors, and receptors) can maximize opportunity or minimize risk in a system environment. (Whitworth, 2006a)
System Quality
1: A global judgment of the degree to which the technical components of delivered IS provide the quality of information and service as required by stakeholders, including hardware, software, help screens, and user manuals. (Wilkin, 2005) 2: The reliability and eficiency of an information system. (Shayo & Guthrie, 2005)
System Migration
The incremental transformation of a legacy system toward newer and more modern technology. It entails the reuse of system components through their encapsulation. (Aversano et al., 2005)
System Reengineering
When an existing software system requires major changes, typically by altering its original design, speciic methodologies are used to help modify the design successfully. This process is referred to as system reengineering. (Gaffar, 2005)
System Model
A description of a system. Initially, the model describes what problem the system should solve, and then it can be gradually reined to describe how the system solves the problem. Finally, when operational, the system can be viewed as a model of some domain behavior and characteristics. (Hvannberg et al., 2006)
System Usage
The extent of actual use of a speciic information system (mostly voluntarily). (Shayo & Guthrie, 2005)
System of Innovation
A conceptual framework in which networks of irms, organizations, and other parties apply tacit and secondary knowledge to interactive learning processes to generate favorable economic outcomes. (Taylor, 2005)
System Performance
A traditional information systems performance is its functionality, but functions people cannot use do not add performance. If system performance is how successfully
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in which particular business rules exist and then extract those rules out from across applications. (Raisinghani, 2005)
Systems Acceptance
A function of perceived relevance, systems accessibility, and management support. (Ericsson & Avdic, 2005)
Systematic Sourcing
Buying pre-negotiated contracts with qualiied sellers. These contracts are often long term in nature and tend to have a cooperative nature. (Janssen, 2005)
Systems Accessibility/Development
Knowing who the user is, systematizing the actions workers perform in their work practice the system is to support, deciding the systems physical location, securing a certain degree of usage before the system is put into operation, and ensuring the systems design meets the goals of the system. (Ericsson & Avdic, 2005)
Systematic Thinking/Planning
Planning that is carried out in an organized, deliberate, and methodical manner. (Bober, 2005)
Systems Archetype
A generic pattern of relationships that occurs in a wide range of systems and circumstancesnatural, biological, political, social, and economic. A powerful tool for seeing high-level dynamics. (Maani, 2005)
Systems Biology
The quest of a mathematical model of the feedback regulation of proteins and nucleic acids within the cell. (Liberati, 2005)
Systems Development
A process where an information system is developed. (Avdic, 2005)
Systemic Understanding
A holistic view of an organization and its inter-relationships, an understanding of the fabric of relationships, and the likely effect of interrelated actions. (Ali & Warne, 2005)
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Systems Engineering
The systems engineering discipline covers the development of total systems, which may or may not include software. Systems engineers focus on transforming customer needs, expectations, and constraints into product solutions and supporting those product solutions throughout the product lifecycle. (Gibson, 2005)
Systems Failure
Systems abandoned before completion; systems completed but never used, under used, or failing to deliver key aspects of functionality; and projects that are signiicantly over budget or schedule. (Doherty & King, 2005)
Systems Implementation
Customization or parameterization and adaptation of the software application according to the needs of the organization. (Colmenares & Otieno, 2005)
Systems Integration
The process of tying together two or more computer systems for sharing data and functionality. (Hwang, 2005)
Systems Model
A comprehensive approach to considering the many interconnected components within an organization. (Baker & Schihl, 2005)
Systems Thinking
1: A manner of thinking that takes into account how the things being studied relate and connect to each other. A key idea embedded in systems theory is that it can assist us in understanding of phenomena and that its holistic emphasis will promote orderly thinking. It is an apt approach to use when thinking about complex issues and interactions. (Proctor, 2005) 2: Closely related to system dynamics; a methodology to model and analyze the dynamic, complex, and interdependent nature of systems. However, systems thinking seldom includes developing dynamic simulation models as in system dynamics. (Saha, 2005) 3: Thinking holistically and conscientiously about the world by focusing on the interaction of the parts and their inluence within and over the system. (Maani, 2005)
One of the policies codiied as standards and procedures used when coniguring or maintaining systems. (Mattord & Whitman, 2005)
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T
T-Commerce: See Television Commerce. T-1 (or T1)
The T-1 carrier is the most commonly used digital line in the United States, Canada, and Japan. In these countries, it carries 24 pulse code modulation (PCM) signals using time-division multiplexing (TDM) at an overall rate of 1.544 million bits per second (Mbps). In the T-1 system, voice signals are sampled 8,000 times a second and each sample is digitized into an 8-bit word. (Rahman, 2005c) the main forms of data entry, and they commonly have an A4-size footprint. (Garrett, 2006b)
Tabu Search
A metaheuristic procedure based on principles of intelligent search. Its premise is that problem solving, in order to qualify as intelligent, must incorporate adaptive memory and responsive exploration. (Mart, 2005)
T-1 Access
Provides a data transmission rate of 1.544 megabits per second (Mbps). (Butcher-Powell, 2005)
Tacit
From the Latin tacitus, meaning silent. (Zappavigna, 2006)
T-1 Line
A communications link that can be used for digital data transmission. Provides a data rate (bandwidth) of 1.544 million bits per second (Mbps). (Ruppel & Ruppel, 2005)
Tacit Knowledge
1: Deined as personal, context-speciic knowledge. It is knowledge acquired by experience and practice. It is therefore dificult to formally state, codify, and communicate such knowledge. (Sivakumar, 2006) 2: Experiential knowledgethat is, know-how represents knowledge that is gained through experience and through doing. (Wickramasinghe, 2006) 3: Highly personal and hard to formalize, making it dificult to communicate or share with others. Subjective insights, intuitions, and hunches fall into this category of knowledge. Tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in an individuals actions and experience, as well as in the ideals, values, or emotions he or she embraces. (Zeleznikow, 2006) 4: Implicit understanding of which the individual is not directly aware and which is involved in his or her skillful practice. (Zappavigna-Lee & Patrick, 2005) 5: Knowledge owned by the individual. It is personal, is developed through life experiences and education, and is not readily shared or made explicit. (Mitchell, 2005a) 6: Knowledge possessed by an individual who is unable to formulate and communicate it verbally. Such knowledge is frequently the product of intuition, emotions, and leeting impressions, which form inchoate or incomplete memories. Tacit knowledge is the partner of explicit knowledge on the
T-Test
A kind of statistical method that measures how large the difference is between two groups of samples. (Chu & Wang, 2005)
Table Scan
The sequential reading of all the blocks of a relational table to select a subset of its attributes based on a selection argument, which is either not indexed (called a sargable argument) or the index is not clustered. (Thomasian, 2005a)
Tablet PC
1: A mobile computing device that offers high portability, inking capability, and the slate coniguration. (Roldan, 2005) 2: A newer type of format of personal computers. It provides all the power of a laptop PC but without a keyboard for text entry. Tablet PCs use pen-based input, and handwriting and voice recognition technologies as
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dimension they share. (Ein-Dor, 2006) 7: Knowledge that has not been explicitly codiied. It resides in peoples minds as an understood thing. Mostly ingrained in experience and learning of a person. (Ray, 2006) 8: Knowledge that is in peoples heads and not externalized in documents or any other form. (Woods et al., 2006) 9: Knowledge that is dificult or impossible to express, except by demonstrating its application. (J.S. Edwards, 2005) 10: Knowledge that is known in the mind of an individual. Some of it may be verbalized, made explicit, and encoded to become explicit knowledge; some of it may not be explicable so that it must be demonstrated if it is to be transferred, as in a master craftsman showing an apprentice how to do something and the apprentice subsequently practicing what has been demonstrated. (King, 2006b) 11: Knowledge that is not written down but is held in the heads and minds of people. (Elshaw, 2006a) 12: Knowledge we do not know that we know. (Askar et al., 2005) 13: Knowledge that is embodied in peoples minds, not easily visible, and dificult to be transmitted in words by skilled people. The concept was brought to light by Polanyi (1966). (Nabuco et al., 2006) 14: Personal knowledge which includes cognitive technical and attitude elements. This knowledge coincides with the persons competencies. (Falivene & Kaufman, 2006) 15: Personal or subjective knowledge, which includes mental models, know-how, skills, and so forth. (Goldsmith & Pillai, 2006) 16: Polanyis statement We know more than new can say probably best explains what tacit knowledge is. In contrast to explicit knowledge, which is expressed in formal language systems (e.g., data, formulae, or any written document), tacit knowledge is personal and dificult to formalize. Personal insights, intuition, and sensing are examples of such knowledge. It is embodied in procedures, routines, activities, values, culture, and feelings. (Brock & Zhou, 2006) 17: Practical understanding possessed by individuals and shared in communities which is below-view in the sense that it is not subject to the conscious attention of those who hold it. (Zappavigna, 2006) 18: Relatively subjective, personal knowledge, which is hard to formalize and communicate. (Medeni, 2006a) 19: Knowledge gained through an individuals own experiences. (Neville & Powell, 2005)
Tactical Goal
More speciic target that represents the desired outcome the organization expects to achieve over the middle term; tactical goals are derived from the strategic goals. (Brabston, 2005)
Tactical Planning
1: Planning that identiies and selects the best ways and means to get from current results to desired onesto be tactical. (Kaufman & Lick, 2005) 2: Small-scale actions made or carried out with only a limited or immediate end in sight. (Bober, 2005)
Tag
HTML and XML markers that delimit semantically meaningful units in their code. (N.C. Rowe, 2005a)
Tagged Value
Extension to the properties of a UML element. (Gur u, 2005)
Tailorability
The dynamic accommodation of context-dependent behavioral variations in an existing software system. (Lepouras et al., 2006)
Tailored-Application
Application based on industry or organizational needs to complement the off-shelf software applications available in the marketplace. (Kamel, 2005a)
Tailoring
In the context of personalization, it can be with respect to content or navigation. Content refers to the information
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being displayed, and navigation refers to the structure of the links that allow the user to move from one page to another. (Anke & Sundaram, 2006)
Target Concept
The true, typically unknown model underlying a data set or data stream. (Maloof, 2005)
Tailoring Option
Describes how changes can be incorporated into the ERP system or how a maintenance request can be serviced. (Ng, 2005)
Target Culture
The culture for which one revises source materials in the localization process. (St.Amant, 2005a)
Taking Responsibility
Responsibility drives the desire to make progress on implementing actions. The individuals own desire to make progress on an actionor the feeling that they are being viewed negatively as a result of their lack of progress, or that they are hindering others making progressmight force their action. (Shaw et al., 2006)
Target Object
Object in a particular target table for which a prediction is to be made. Other objects reside in additional background tables, but are not the focus of the prediction task. (Perlich & Provost, 2005)
Target Population
A particular group within a larger group, about which the researchers are trying to generalize their study or research indings (e.g., seniors). Sometimes referred to as the reference group. (De Weaver, 2005)
Target System
The physical machine on which the data warehouse is organized and stored for direct querying by end users, report writers, and other applications. A target system is often called a presentation server. (Simitsis & Theodoratos, 2005)
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Task Design
The way key attributes of the task are arranged, in terms of the inluence of these attributes on the effectiveness of a team in performing the task. Research has found key design attributes include the need for a variety of skills, the perceived importance of the task, the independence and autonomy given to people to determine how the task will be done, and the way task feedback is provided. (Wong & Staples, 2005)
Task
1: An action and/or a goal an agent has to realize as delegated by another agent; thusin the opposite perspectivethe couple action/goal that an agent intentionally delegates to another agent, where at least the delegating agent knows one between the action and the goal. (Falcone & Castelfranchi, 2005) 2: An atomic process that is not divided further and is a logical unit of work. (Dustdar, 2005) 3: An object with a set of attributes and actions to achieve a speciic process goal using certain resource called process resource. (Daneshgar, 2005) 4: The mechanism by which an application domain is changed by a work system to achieve the work systems goals. (Diaper, 2006)
Task Environment
Includes those sectors that have a direct working relationship with the organization. It includes customers, competitors, suppliers, and the labor market. Effectively it is the industry in which the irm operates, which is a subset of the wider environment. (Rowe et al., 2006)
Task Knowledge
Knowledge required to perform a task in an organizational or extra-organizational context. Examples are storing inventory items, updating accounts, or delivering goods. The extent to which the task is performed solely within the organization or externally determines the nature of the knowledge on the task-context dimension. (Ein-Dor, 2006)
Task Analysis
1: A method of providing an extraction of the tasks users undertake when interacting with a system. (Xu et al., 2006b) 2: An analysis of the actions and/or knowledge and thinking that a user performs to achieve a task. (Sharples, 2006) 3: The systematic analysis of a terminal behavior to identify and sequence the subskills needed to master the terminal behavior. (Lazarus, 2005a)
Task Model
A description of how the system is supposed to be used to achieve pre-deined goals. Task models are usually deined in terms of the actions that must be carried out to achieve a goal. (Campos & Harrison, 2006)
Task Performance
The proiciency of accomplishing a task that allows discriminating the users (i.e., experts, novices). (Sas, 2006)
Task Culture
Characterized by an emphasis on problem solving by a team of experts. Teams are formed to deal with particular problems or projects. Once the task is completed or the project is over, the team will disband. Here the culture is one which attaches importance to knowledge and expertise. (Fong, 2006b)
Task-Based Practice
Work practice related to a speciic job description that must be carried out to produce a deliverable product, process, or idea. (P.M. Leonardi, 2005)
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A type of dialogue game based on techniques used in second-language teaching, designed to encourage discussion of a topic. Suggested as a means to elicit learning dialogues that may be useful as material for vicarious learning. (J.R. Lee, 2005)
Task-Level Model
A third-level model in the REA ontology is the most detailed level, which speciies all steps necessary for the enterprise to accomplish the business events that were included at the process level. (Dunn & Grabski, 2005)
Tax Holiday
No taxes for export-oriented software and data processing services industry every 10 years. (Raisinghani & Rahman, 2005)
consistent) architecture. Prominent examples include the widely adopted schema of Carl Linnaeus (biology) and Dmitrii Mendeleev (Periodic Table of Elements). Most taxonomies contain their own nomenclature for describing the taxons (singular) and taxa (plural) that correspond to formal units in the classiication scheme, such as kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species (adapted from Linnaeus). Taxonomies may evolve over time. Neither system of Linnaeus or Mendeleev is exactly in the original form as when irst presented, but both are fundamentally and substantially the same in all relevant aspects and overall structure, changing only as our knowledge of science changed over time to add additional granularity to the taxons and taxa of their brilliantly original and enduring descriptive taxonomies. (Lasnik, 2005)
Taxonomy, Mono-Dimensional
A taxonomy where an item can be classiied under a single concept only. (Sacco, 2006)
Taxonomy
1: An ordered list of taxa or categories. A subordinate taxon (category) inherits the deining characteristics of its superordinate (parent) taxon. Example: An automobile has all the characteristics of its superclass, vehicle, but not of its sibling class, truck. (Buchholz, 2006) 2: A classiication based on a pre-determined system that is used to provide a conceptual framework for discussion, analysis, or information retrieval. (Ashrai et al., 2005) 3: A classiication system used for analysis or information retrieval. (Millet, 2005) 4: A hierarchical organization of concepts going from the most general (topmost) to the most speciic concepts. A taxonomy supports abstraction, and models IS-A and/or PART-OF relations between a concept and its father. Tree taxonomies can be extended to support multiple inheritance (i.e., a concept having several fathers). (Sacco, 2006) 5: A hierarchical structure for organizing a body of knowledge; it gives a framework for understanding and classifying knowledge. (Metaxiotis, 2006) 6: Any system of categories used to organize something, including documents; often less comprehensive than a thesaurus. (Woods et al., 2006) 7: Classiication into categories and sub-categories. (Elshaw, 2006a) 8: From the Greek taxis (for arrangement, order) and nomos (law). Every serious taxonomy is an organizational scheme that includes a system representing structure, order, and relationship. Some form of hierarchical structure is generally deined, but this may be multi-dimensional and nonlinear in form. The purpose, domain, attributes, and granularity of schema vary, but all taxonomies attempt to provide a robust (i.e., logical, coherent, cohesive, internally
Taxonomy, Multi-Dimensional
A taxonomy where an item can be classiied under several concepts. (Sacco, 2006)
Taxonomy, Reduced
In a dynamic taxonomy, a taxonomy describing the current user focus set F which is derived from the original taxonomy by pruning from it all the concepts not related to F. (Sacco, 2006)
Taxonomy Tree
A collection of related concepts organized in a tree structure where higher-level concepts are decomposed into lowerlevel concepts. (Scime, 2005b)
TBT: See Technology-Based Training. TCE: See Transaction Cost Economics. TCO: See Total Cost of Ownership. TCP: See Transport Control Protocol; Transport Control Protocol. TCP/IP: See Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
Tcpdump
Computer network debugging and security tool that allows the user to intercept and display TCP/IP packets
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being transmitted over a network to which the computer is attached. (Lazarevic, 2005)
Teaching Machine
1: A device that uses linear programmed instruction, whereby frames present a question followed by feedback of the correct answer. Learning results from reinforcement of the students correct answer. (Owen & Aworuwa, 2005) 2: Constructions, usually in the form of a box, that allow test items to be presented for students to answer and receive feedback regarding their performance. (Lazarus, 2005a) 3: Invented in 1924 by Sydney L. Pressey to administer rudimentary drill and practice. They were also manufactured in the 1950s as programmed instruction devices based on either B.F. Skinners linear curriculumdelivery model or Norman Crowders branching model. (Reisman, 2006)
TDD: See Task-Directed Discussion. TDMA: See Time Division Multiple Access. TDOA: See Time Difference of Arrival. TDT: See Topic Detection and Tracking. Teacher Relection
Thinking about professional work and self-evaluation done by an individual preparing for a teaching career or an educator. (Wieseman, 2005a)
Teaching Strategy
1: Techniques used by teachers when presenting information to students. (Judd, 2005) 2: A simple tool that is used to accomplish teaching something. (Whitield, 2005) 3: Consists of didactic knowledge, a set of rules that controls the adaptation and sequencing of the course. (Esmahi, 2005)
Teacher-Educator Belief
We have beliefs about everything, but teacher-educator beliefs about the nature of knowledge and teaching have wide-ranging implications. The beliefs about teaching and learning inluence pre-service teacher beliefs about teaching and learning, and also the students within the early childhood, primary, and secondary settings. (Keppell et al., 2005)
Team
1: A collection of four to 12 individuals collaboratively working on a common and interdependent task or goal. The goal is often one requiring a decision or a solution to some problem. The elements of common tasks, goals, and interdependence are integral to our deinition of a team, at least with respect to an imposed need to arrive at a collective position on a matter under consideration. (Ferris & Minielli, 2005) 2: A collection of individuals who see themselves and who are seen by others as a social entity, who are interdependent because of the tasks they perform as members of a group, who are embedded in one or more larger social systems (e.g., community, organization), and who perform tasks that affect others. (Verburg et al., 2005) 3: A deined group that intentionally combines its members various skills and knowledge to undertake a shared task that requires them to coordinate their various
Teaching
Educational process wherein a teacher, using the transmission of knowledge, educates or instructs someone. (Andrade, Ares, Garca, Rodrguez, Seoane, et al., 2006)
Teaching at a Distance
Refers to all instructional activities that are carried out where and when the learners are separated from the learning organization and the teachers for much of the learning process. (Naidu, 2005b)
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efforts for satisfactory completion. Teams will normally have a deined leadership and authority structure, or deine their own in order to address the task. (Cargill, 2006b) 4: A small cross-functional group with complementary skills that is responsible for a time-speciic project, set of performance goals, and approach for which members hold themselves mutually accountable. (Hustad & Munkvold, 2006) 5: A small number of people, usually possessing complementary skills, who work together toward a common purpose, with shared performance goals and an approach to work for which they hold themselves and other team members accountable. (Dara-Abrams, 2006) 6: A social system of three or more people, whose members perceive themselves and are perceived by others as team members, and whose members collaborate on a common temporary task. (Lettl et al., 2006) 7: To make up a team, members must have a minimum of: (1) task interdependency among members, (2) shared responsibilities, (3) team identity, and (4) power to manage the relationship between the team and the organization. (Tremblay, 2006b)
interactions; involves an experience of increased ambiguity and artiiciality (i.e., unnatural quality) associated with distributed interaction, which inherently lacks the rich visual, auditory, and social array of cues traditionally available to co-located teams. (Cuevas et al., 2005)
Team Paradigm
A team perspective or belief which is collectively constructed and accepted by members of the team. (Fong, 2006b)
Team Productivity
Degree to which a group of two or more individuals can successfully coordinate their efforts to perform a task. (Cuevas et al., 2005)
Team-Based Co-Learning
Where two distinct organizations assemble a crossorganizational team with the purpose of learning from one another. This team utilizes the knowledge contained in each separate organization to create new knowledge beneicial for both. Intense interactions with the customer occur to gain their knowledge on processes and systems to facilitate systematic change. (Paquette, 2006b)
Team Characteristics
The composition of the team and the shared beliefs held within the team about the team. Team composition includes such things as the number of team members, the skills the team members collectively possess, and the stability of team membership. (Wong & Staples, 2005)
TeamBased Organization
Organization structure that gives a group of people responsibility for a coherent part of production, and assigns the associated control responsibilities to that group (selfmanaging teams). (Hendriks, 2006)
Team Charter
A document created when a project team is formed that details the teams objectives and rules of engagement, including items such as the mission statement, team roles and responsibilities, and deliverables to be produced. (Elshaw, 2006b)
Teamwork
Working with others interdependently to effectively achieve a goal. Teamwork involves both task and social/ interpersonal communication aspects among team members. (Petska & Berge, 2005)
Team Diversity
The combined variety of skills, backgrounds, experiences, ideas, thoughts, abilities, and perspectives that individuals bring to their team. (Staples et al., 2005)
Team Effectiveness
The ability of a team to perform its tasks on time, on budget, and with acceptable quality, as well as the satisfaction, motivation, and commitment of the team members. (Staples et al., 2005)
Tchn
1: Aristotles term for skills-based technical and actionoriented knowledge: how to perform a speciic task. The end result, or realization of tchn, is the production of something. (Schwartz, 2006) 2: Skills-based technical knowledge. The social activity that has as its concern the making or production of social artifacts is called
Team Opacity
Increased level of abstraction forced upon virtual teams due to the over-reliance on technology-mediated
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poiesis and involves the application of tchn. Tchn is knowledge of how to perform task-based activities in pursuit of some practical end: this end may be tangible or intangible. Thus, tchn provides managers, professionals, craftsmen, laborers, and scientists with an understanding of the why and the wherefore, the how and with-what of their concerns. The skills of qualiied craftsmen, artists, musicians, surgeons, computer programmers, physicists, accountants, and so on all fall into this categoryas indeed does the oft-ignored skills of ordinary unskilled workers. (Butler & Murphy, 2006)
and competent teachers are technicians who have a certain set of skills. (Wieseman, 2005b)
Technical Support
Consists of maintenance of hardware, software and communication infrastructure, archiving collected data, providing user support, and at times also providing user training for use of technology. (Rugelj, 2005)
Technical Analysis
The study of the behavior of market participants, as relected in the technical data. Used to identify early stages in trend developments, with a view to proiting from price movements. This style of analysis is generally short term. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Techno-Economic Paradigm
Best-practice model made up of a set of all-pervasive generic technological and organizational principles that represent the most effective way of applying a particular technological revolution, and of using it for modernizing and rejuvenating the whole economy and social sphere. When generally adopted, these principles become the common-sense basis for organizing any activity and for structuring any institution. (Kalvet, 2005)
Technical Data
The term used to describe the components of price history for a security. These components are open price, low price, high price, close price, volume traded, and open interest. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Technical/Functional Evaluation
This type of evaluation focuses on the technical (IT) components. The evaluation is concerned with the relationship between inputs and outputs. Its focal point is on eficiency in terms of the technical performance and the control of resources. Further interests lie around the increased and improved capacity, fewer errors, greater reliability, humanpower savings, and so forth, and also in terms of software performance developments and quality (e.g., TQM). The driving force for the timing of evaluation is the traditional systems development lifecycle. (Serafeimidis, 2005)
Techno-Economic Rationality
Logical justiication for making a connection between technical advances and economic growth. (McPherson, 2005)
Technolibertarianism
A companion political ideology to digital Darwinism that argues in an age of global connectivity for radical individualism and no governmental regulation of digital life. (Skovira, 2005)
Technical Indicator
Indicator produced as a result of various computations on technical data. Primarily used to conirm price action. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Technical Relection
Technoliteracy
1: A shorthand term referring to ones competence level, skill, and comfort with technology. (Macfadyen, 2006a) 2: The ability to understand, use, critically analyze, and improvise solutions within an information technology infrastructure. (Hantula & DeRosa, 2005)
Relection concerned with the effective application of skills and technical knowledge in a classroom; stems from a belief system that education serves the needs of an economy, rather than being oriented toward social change,
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Technological Access
Refers to the physical availability of suitable information and communication technologies, including computers of adequate speed and equipped with appropriate software for a given activity. (Kvasny & Payton, 2005)
of some form of technology (often information technology) into an organization. (Tatnall, 2005b)
Technological Instrumentalism
The view that technologies are merely useful and cultureneutral instruments, and that they carry no cultural values or assumptions in their design or implementation. (Macfadyen, 2006b)
Technological Addiction
These addictions are operationally deined as non-chemical (behavioral) addictions that involve human-machine interaction. They can either be passive (e.g., television) or active (e.g., computer games, Internet), and usually contain inducing and reinforcing features which may contribute to the promotion of addictive tendencies. Technological addictions can be viewed as a subset of behavioral addictions and feature core components of addiction, that is, salience, mood modiication, tolerance, withdrawal, conlict, and relapse. (Grifiths, 2005)
Technological Model
Incorporates ICT without changing bureaucratic engineering, in the belief that incorporation itself should improve public management. The political level considered makes no decision in regard to e-government; therefore, ICT development is delegated to IT experts. (Kaufman, 2005)
Technological Subsystem
Sociotechnical system component representing the technology (e.g., collaborative information technology) available to the organizational unit, inluencing the nature of information low (synchronous or asynchronous) and format (e.g., text, audio, video). (Cuevas et al., 2005)
Technology
1: Any electronic tool (digital camera, computer, scanner, laboratory probe, etc.) and/or software (database, spreadsheet, word processing, etc.). (Johnson, 2005) 2: Applied science, systematically organized knowledge. (Mockler & Dologite, 2005)
Technological Factor
One of the aspects characterizing a technical system (i.e., computer-generated world) and its components that impact the quality of interaction and task performance. (Sas, 2006)
Technology Adoption
The decision, by an organization or individual, to utilize and implement a technology. (Tatnall & Burgess, 2005)
Technological Fluency
In addition to traditional literacy, technological literacy is increasingly becoming a necessity in higher education and in society. With the abundance of available information, information literacy is also growing in importance. (Lindsay, Williams, et al., 2005)
Technology Anxiety
A state of apprehension, uncertainty, and fear relative to implementing technology. (Scarpi & DallOlmo-Riley, 2006)
Technology Convergence
When one function of one or more technologies is combined in a device. Example: Some current telephones combine Web, telephone, and personal digital assistant functions. (Bedard-Voorhees, 2005)
Technological Innovation
1: The introduction or alteration of some form of technology (often information technology) into an organization. (Tatnall & Burgess, 2005) 2: The introduction or alteration
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Technology Costing
Techniques and tools for determining the full costs of technology integration into the teaching and learning process. (S.M. Johnstone, 2005)
Technology Use
The usage of a technology whether it be e-mail, chat rooms, automated tests, software, and so forth. (Martz & Reddy, 2005)
Technology Diffusion
Pervasive application and use of technology in everyday life. (Efendioglu, 2006)
Technology Value
1: The perceived beneits obtained by the use of technology. (Martz & Reddy, 2005) 2: The users beneits (perceived and actual) over the costs (perceived and actual) created by the use of technology. (Martz & Reddy, 2005)
Technology Implementation
The putting into place, at a system level of a school, the conditions that support the integration of technology at the classroom level. (Dexter, 2005)
Technology Infrastructure
The required supporting activities and facilities including network, hardware, software, development, and maintenance. (LeRouge & Webb, 2005)
Technology Integration
1: A variety of technologies used as tools in educational activities to achieve curriculum goals and objectives. (Judd, 2005) 2: The use of technology in teaching to support learning. (Dexter, 2005)
Technology Partnership
In a technology partnership, the technology and a common objective are included in inter-irm collaboration. R&D collaboration is a typical example. (Blomqvist, 2005)
Technology Plan
Goals and benchmarks for technology systems and support in an organization. (C. Cavanaugh, 2005)
Technology-Enabled Education
The use of advanced electronic technologies for purposes of direct support and enhancement of the student learning experience, in all of its aspects and wherever it might occur. (Garten & Thompson, 2005)
Technology Trust
The subjective probability by which organizations believe that the underlying technology infrastructure is capable of facilitating transactions according to their conident expectations. (Ratnasingam, 2006)
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students. The use of technology can facilitate or mediate this relationship. In this sense, technology provides strategies to bridge the gap between, or bring closer, teachers and learners. (Ching et al., 2005)
Technology-Mediated Instruction
Learning that is aided or entirely accomplished through the use of computer-based technology. (Kaur et al., 2005)
Technology-Mediated Learning
Learning where the learners interactions with learning materials, other students, and/or instructors are mediated through information technologies. (Dixon et al., 2005)
center equipped with the necessary ICTs and manned by adequately skilled staff to allow the community members to connect to the global communications network (telephone, fax, and Internet). Usually additional oficelike facilities are offered such as photocopying, printing, scanning, and multimedia. (Trusler & Van Belle, 2005) 7: Computer-based distance learning centers usually located in non-educational settings. Sometimes referred to as telecottages when in a rural location. (David, 2005) 8: Multi-purpose community-based centers equipped with computers, Internet- and Web-connected computers, audioconferencing, videoconferencing, photocopiers, fax machines, printers, TV and video, cameras, scanners, and so forth. (Latchem, 2005)
Teleclass
Voice-only communications linking two or more sites. A standard method used is to connect multiple telephone lines for an audio conference through a phone bridge. A telephone bridge where the conference is established by having all of the distant sites call in to a common bridge telephone number. (T. Cavanaugh, 2005)
Telecare
The use of information and communications technology to provide medical services and resources directly to a patient in his or her home. (Becker, 2006)
Telecommunication
1: Any transmission, emission, or reception of signs, signals, writings, images, sounds, or information of any nature by wire, radio, visual, or other electromagnetic systems. (Melkonyan, 2005) 2: A broadly dispersed communications network involving a transmitter, a medium (line), a channel imposed upon the medium, and a receiver. (M. Mitchell, 2005b) 3: The exchange of information between computers via telephone lines. This typically requires a computer, a modem, and communications software. (Luppicini, 2006) 4: The transmission of data, text, sound, and images over long distances, and the physical infrastructure that supports such endeavor. (Ochoa-Morales, 2005) 5: The transmission, emission, or reception of signs, signals, writings, images, sounds, or information of any nature by cable, radio, visual, optical, or other electromagnetic systems. It refers to long-distance communication carried out with the aid of electronic equipment such as the radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. The information that is transmitted can be in the form of voice, symbols, pictures, or data, or a combination of these. The physical equipment for a telecommunications system includes a transmitter, one or more receivers, and a channel or means of communication such as the air, water, wire, cable, communications satellite, or some combination of these. (Magagula, 2005)
Telecenter
1: A multi-functional office area outfitted with communication and information processing equipment using computer assets with access to telecommunication networks. (Kabene, Leduc, & Burjaw, 2005a) 2: An open social system where people interact among themselves, with technology and with their context, exchanging information, materials, ideas, feelings, and so forth. The purpose of a telecenter is to maintain this low by: (1) carrying out cultural, pedagogic, distributive, and socio-organizational functions; and (2) providing access to the necessary technology. (Santos, 2005) 3: Shared site that provides public access to ICT. (Cecchini, 2005) 4: A public-access facility providing electronic communications services, especially in marginalized or remote areas where commercial development of ICT is not prevalent. (Songan et al., 2005) 5: A public-access facility providing electronic communication services, especially in marginalized or remote areas where ICTs are not prevalent. Computers and networking facilities are normally available in the telecenter. (Gnaniah, Yeo, et al., 2005) 6: A shared, centrally located community
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Telecommunications Act
The irst major overhaul of American telecommunications policy in nearly 62 years. This act added Section 255 to the Communications Act of 1934. (Bursa et al., 2005)
Teleconferencing
1: Communication that allows participants to hear and see each other at multiple remote locations. (C. Wright, 2005) 2: Many-to-many synchronous communication between two or more groups in separate sites via audio, video, and/or computer systems. Participants at each site can simultaneously hear and see each other via monitors. Connecting two sites together is known as point-topoint or site-to-site conferencing. A connection between three or more sites is known as multi-point or multi-site conferencing. (Erlich, 2005)
Telecommunications Infrastructure
The aggregate of equipment, such as radios, telephones, teletypewriters, facsimile equipment, data equipment (computers, modems and other equipment), cables, and switches, used for providing telecommunications services. (Melkonyan, 2005)
Telecottage
A community-based facility to assist learning, access to technology, and access to work. (Kabene, Leduc, et al., 2005)
Telecommunications Technology
All technologies, including telephone, telex, fax, video/ audio conferencing, e-mail telecommunications channels or networks (e.g., either wired or wireless: local public telephone lines or more sophisticated channels and networks such as ISDN, Frame Relay, DSL, microwave, satellite, and LAN and WAN technologies), which could provide up to several gigabits of data transfer per second (Gbps). (Al-Qirim, 2005)
Teledensity
1: The number of telephone lines per 100 inhabitants in a given geographic area. (Poda & Brescia, 2005) 2: The number of telephone mainlines per 1,000 people. (Cecchini, 2005) 3: The number of telephones per 100 people in a region. (Roofe, 2005)
Telecommuting
1: Work arrangement that allows employees to work at home during regular work hours. Also called Telework. (Blanger, 2005) 2: The practice of working from the employees home instead of physically commuting to a company ofice location. The connection to the ofice is done via telecommunications, rather than physically commuting (i.e., traveling) to the ofice. (Staples et al., 2005)
Teleducation
1: Term used in Latin America to deine educational systems in which the main delivery technology is television. It is often used as a synonym of distance education. Telecourse, teleschool, and telecenter are derivations of teleducation. (Barrera, 2005) 2: Teacher support and educational resources supplied mainly through computers using one-way or two-way communication for distance education programs from K-12, universities, or adult learning. (Harris, 2005)
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Te le he a lt h Te le w ork ing
Telehealth
1: ICT-enabled clinical health care, health education, and health administration. (Latchem, 2005) 2: The use and transmission of video, voice, and text data for a multitude of health-related issues, including health management, patient care, and health worker training and education, as well as individual and patient education on health matters. (Kabene, Takhar, et al., 2005) 3: The use of information and communications technologies to provide a broader set of health care services including medical, clinical, administrative, and educational ones. (Becker, 2006)
from ones own physical location. Telepresence creates a virtual or simulated environment of the real experience. (El-Gayar et al., 2005)
Teleservice Center
Electronic points of presence (often in rural areas) that provide a range of services, training, and facilities. A hub for information and knowledge economy development. (Geiselhart & Jamieson, 2005)
Television
The combination of text, graphics, audio, and video with links and tools that allows the user to navigate and interact, but lacks the means to provide users the opportunity to create and contribute their own ideas. (Bradley et al., 2005)
Telemedicine
1: A means of delivering medical services to any place, no matter how remote, thereby removing the limitations of space and time that exists in todays health care settings. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005d) 2: ICTenabled exchange of medical information to help doctors, nurses, and so forth. (Latchem, 2005) 3: Medicine from a distance where distant and dispersed patients are brought closer to their medical providers through the means of telecommunication technologies. (Al-Qirim, 2005) 4: Refers to the delivery of health care at a distance using telecommunications or the Internet. (Wang, Cheng, et al, 2006) 5: The delivery of health care through the Internet or other computerized means such as videoconferencing. (Cannoy & Iyer, 2006) 6: The provision of clinical advice by health care professionals to patients living in remote rural areas. Technology used in telemedicine can range from telephones to more sophisticated applications that employ advanced image as well as audio capabilities, for example, x-rays or teleconferencing. (Harris, 2005) 7: The use of information and communications technologies to provide medical services and resources. (Becker, 2006)
Telework
1: Working from a remote location operating through electronic transmissions. (Calzonetti & deChambeau, 2006) 2: Ability to carry out work from a distance, for example, sitting at home and doing ofice work. Telework does not imply that the worker is mobile (i.e., in motion) in any sense, even though the concept of telework is sometimes used as a synonym for mobile work. (Wiberg, 2005) 3: ICT-enabled work, product, or service delivery or communication with employers or customers undertaken in a telecenter, at home, or while traveling. (Latchem, 2005) 4: Use of computers and telecommunications to enable people to work remotely away from the ofice. The substitution of telecommunications for transportation. (OHagan, 2005)
Telepointers
The act of moving an on-screen tracking symbol, such as a cursor, by manipulating the input device from a remote site. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005d)
Teleworking
The concept of teleworking was originally conceived during the oil crisis of the early 1970s to describe the possibility of working from home by means of computers and telecommunications to avoid the day-to-day commuting to the central oficetelecommuting. Its connotation has since been extended to include all workrelated substitutions of ICT for travel. Today, teleworking is generally used to refer to a variety of lexible work organizations with different combinations of work in the central ofice, at customer sites, in satellite centers, on the road, or at home. (Kimble & Li, 2006)
Telepresence
1: A psychological phenomenon of being mentally present at a technologically mediated remote world. (Sas, 2006) 2: The degree to which the individual feels present in the virtual environment rather than in his/her immediate physical environment. (Roberts et al., 2006a) 3: The experience of presence in an environment by means of a communication medium. (P.M. Leonardi, 2005) 4: The feeling of being fully present at a remote location
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TELNET
1: A terminal emulation program for TCP/IP networks such as the Internet. The TELNET program runs on the client computer and connects it to a host on the network. Commands can be then entered through the TELNET program, and they will be executed as if the user was entering them directly on the server console. (Kontolemakis et al., 2005) 2: An early protocol for network computing, enabling a user to log on to a remote machine and access its iles. (Murphy, 2005a)
Temporal Database
1: A database that has transaction time support, valid time support, or both. In the literature, it is loosely used to mean a database that has some kind of time support. (Tansel, 2005) 2: A database that supports some aspect of time, not counting user-deined time. (Ale & Rossi, 2005) 3: A database that supports the maintenance of time-evolving data and the satisfaction of specialized queries that are related to three notions of time for these data: the past, the present, and the future. (Tzouramanis, 2005) 4: A database that records time-variant information. It is deined as an union of two sets of relations Rs and R1, where Rs is the set of all static relations and R1 is the set of all time-varying relations. (Raisinghani & Klassen, 2005) 5: Ability of the database to handle a number of time dimensions, such as valid time (the timeline of perception of the real world), transaction time (the time the data is stored in the database), and schema time (the time that indicates the format of the data according to the active schema at that time). (Bounif, 2005)
Temporal Document
A document in which the currently valid version and also the previously valid versions of the document are kept in the system,. Every document version has an associated time period in which it was valid. (Nrvg, 2005)
Template Matching
Involves designing template masks, which are capable of detecting incidences of the relevant feature at different orientations. (Chan, Ho, et al., 2005)
Temporal
Of or relating to time. (Hunter & Carr, 2005)
Temporal Element
Union of maximal time intervals in which no two time intervals overlap or meet. (Tansel, 2005)
Temporal Data
Time-oriented data. (Artz, 2005d)
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Te m pora l Loc a lit y Te r m ina l Ac c e ss-Cont rolle r Ac c e s s-Cont rol Syst e m (TACACS)
Temporal Locality
Terabyte
A unit of memory or data storage capacity equal to roughly 1,000 gigabytes. (Pang, 2005a)
Describes the effect that an object, which has just been referenced, has a high (or increased) probability of being referenced again in the near future. Formally: let pi(k) denote the probability that, following a reference to object i, the next reference to object i occurs within k references. We say that a particular object shows temporal locality of reference if there exists a k > 0 such that pi(k) > 1 - (1 - 1/n)k. (Katsaros & Manolopoulos, 2005a)
Term
One of the dimensions of the vector space in which documents are represented according to the vector space model. In thematic applications of text categorization, terms usually coincide with the content-bearing words (or with their stems) that occur in the training set; in nonthematic applications, they may be taken to coincide with the topic-neutral words or with other custom-deined global characteristics of the document. (Sebastiani, 2005)
Temporal Recommender
Recom mender that incor porates time into the recommendation process. Time can be either an input to the recommendation function, or the output of the function. (Schafer, 2005)
Term Frequency
The number of times a term appears in a document. (Fan & Pathak, 2005)
Tracking actions while within a speciied time domain. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006)
Temporally Bound
A story that has a beginning, an end, and a chronological sequence. (Hunter,2006a)
Temporary
Virtual organizations are often formed to ill temporary needs, only extending to the end of the speciic project that is charged to them. In a manufacturing project, a virtual organization may be formed between the engineers who design the project, suppliers who provide the raw materials, and the factory who processes those into inished goods. At the end of that particular project, those alliances are dissolved as they are no longer necessary to beneit the three independent groups. (J. Lee, 2005)
10 Gigabit Ethernet
Compatible with Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet technologies. Deined by the IEEE 802.3ae standard, 10 Gigabit Ethernet provisions CoS or QoS assurances for multimedia transmissions, whereas ATM supports QoS guarantees. (Littman, 2005)
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Terminal Defense
An initiative, undertaken by the owners of individual nodes in a network, to protect their individual nodes from persistent, well-supported intrusion. (Janczewski & Portougal, 2005)
sampling distributions which are known a priori. However, under certain circumstances, null sampling distributions for arbitrary functions can be obtained by computational means. (Mukherjee, 2005)
Termination Condition
The condition in a CQ which speciies to terminate the evaluation of the query. (Khan, 2005)
Territory-Related Ontology
Descriptive speciication of terms and their respective relations, within the context of a physical or virtual space. It is an abstract, although explicit, conceptualization used to describe, comment, and exchange knowledge and meaningful content among computational resources and users of a geographical domain. (Moutinho & Heitor, 2005)
Testing Case
Each of the cases (records) of the test set. (Parpinelli et al., 2005)
Text Classiication
1: The task of assigning documents expressed in natural language to one or more categories (classes) of a predeined set. (Bickel & Scheffer, 2005) 2: The task of automatically assigning a set of text documents to a set of predeined classes. Recent text classiication methods adopt supervised learning algorithms such as Nave Bayes and support vector machine. (Kim, 2005)
Tertiary Courseware
A type of courseware based on accumulating discussions of problems and learning impasses. The idea is derived from a three-stage cyclical theory of learning in which the irst stage (conceptualization) gives rise to primary courseware that is essentially expository, and the second stage (construction) to secondary courseware that provides activities such as problem solving. The third stage (dialogue) may often occur in relation to issues and impasses that arise at the second stage and ind resolution through discussion. Capturing such discussion gives rise to tertiary courseware. (J.R. Lee, 2005)
Text Database
A database system managing a collection of texts. (Navarro, 2005)
Test Set
A set of cases unseen during the training phase of the algorithm and used to compute the predictive accuracy of the list of rules discovered during the training phase. (Parpinelli et al., 2005)
Text Expansion
Situation in which one language requires more words to express the same meaning than does another language. (St.Amant, 2005a)
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Text Mining
1: A computer-supported process that uses computational algorithms and tools over textual data with the objective of discovering statistical patterns. Most common methods include clustering, classiication, and association analysis. Most of the time, the expression is interchangeable with knowledge discovery from texts, however the last is a larger process where the irst one is involved. (Antonio do Prado et al., 2005) 2: A process of identifying patterns or trends in natural language text including document clustering, document classiication, ontology learning, and so forth. (Chung et al., 2005) 3: Known as text data mining or knowledge discovery from textual databases, and refers to the process of extracting interesting and non-trivial patterns or knowledge from text documents. (Faz & Mahmoudi, 2005) 4: The application of analytical methods and tools to usually unstructured textual data for the purpose of identifying patterns and relationships such as classiication, prediction, estimation, or afinity grouping. (Yang & Lee, 2005) 5: The automatic analysis of a large text collection in order to identify previously unknown patterns, trends, or anomalies, which can be used to derive business intelligence for competitive advantage or to formulate and test scientiic hypotheses. (Kroeze, 2005) 6: The process of discovering new information analyzing textual collections. (Loh et al., 2005)
Text Segmentation
The process of partitioning a text into segments according to a given criterion. (Kulyukin & Nicholson, 2005)
Text Summarization
A process of generating summary from a longer text, usually based on extracting keywords or sentences, or generating sentences. (Mladeni, 2005)
Texture Feature
Depicting the surface of an image object. (Chan & Chang, 2005)
Text-to-Speech (TTS)
A TTS synthesizer is a software application that takes text input and produces its corresponding voice rendition. (Lahiri & Basu, 2005)
T he m at ic Se a rch Engine T hird Ge ne rat ion of M obile Com m unic at ions Te chnology (3 G)
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Theory
A set of patterns of a pdBf (T, F ), such that each data vector in T has a pattern satisfying it. (Boros et al., 2005)
posits that an individuals attitude toward a given behavior is determined by the belief that this behavior will result in a particular outcome. (McHaney, 2005) 2: States that the intention to adopt is affected directly by attitudinal components (beliefs about the outcome of the behavior and beliefs of the consequences of the behavior) and the subjective norm component (level of importance or desire to please signiicant others and/or society). (McManus & Standing, 2005)
Theory of Systems
A research inquiry paradigm based on an expansionist world view, a synthetic and holistic thought, and teleological principles, which makes it suitable and effective for studying complex phenomena. (Gelman et al., 2005)
Thesaurus Module
A keyword-expansion mechanism to increase the coverage and success rate of information search using a user-entered keyword (or keywords). (Quah, Leow, & Soh, 2006)
Thinking Along
Consists of the temporary application of ones knowledge to somebody elses problem. This includes the application of tacit knowledge, intuitions, associations, and hunches. The application of this knowledge may yield ideas, hypotheses, suggestions, comments, questions, and so on. (Berends et al., 2006)
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the ability to transfer both voice data (a telephone call) and non-voice data (such as downloading information, exchanging e-mail, and instant messaging). (Wong, 2006) 4: Long-awaited digital mobile systems with a maximum data rate of 2 Mbps under stationary conditions and 384 kbps under mobile conditions. This technology is capable of handling streaming video, two-way voiceover IP, and Internet connectivity, with support for high-quality graphics. (Akhtar, 2005) 5: A wireless communication technology which supports multimedia, video streaming, and videoconferencing. (Petrova, 2006) 6: A wireless system that can provide fairly high-speed (384 Kbps) packet-switched wide-area wireless Internet access to support multimedia applications. (Lee, Hu, & Yeh, 2005) 7: The generic term used for advanced multimedia wireless communication. (M. Rowe, 2005a)
Third-Party Logistics
The activity of outsourcing activities to an independent company that perform clients management function of the logistic operations. (Tyan, 2006)
Third-Person Perspective
The visualization of the gaming environment through an external body of the character. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
Thoroughness
A measure for assessing usability inspection methods. Determined by dividing the number of real problems found by the Usability Inspection Method (UIM) by the number of known problems. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006)
Thou Relation
Relation where no reciprocal awareness exists among us and our partners, and therefore, understanding involves more anonymous types of meaning. (Shariq & Vendel, 2006)
Third Mission
The desire of the UK government to extend the remit of UK universities beyond their traditional research and teaching role to a broader set of commercially oriented activities, including the establishment of spin-out companies. (Warren, 2006)
Threaded Discussion
1: An asynchronous collaboration medium in which participants contribute to topics and to contributions under topics, creating a nested discourse structure. (Carroll et al., 2005) 2: Asynchronous communication via the Internet whereby data can be transmitted intermittently or at any time and at irregular intervals. An example would be e-mail, whereby a message can be sent at any time by the user and read at any time by the recipient. (Cooper, 2005)
Third Sector
A generic collective name for charity, voluntary, community, and non-government organizations. Third sector refers to a set of civic and social organizations or institutions situated between the state (irst sector) and the business world (second sector). (Arkhypska et al., 2005)
Third Wave
A term used by Alvin Tofler (1981) to describe a new phase of societal development based on an Information Revolution. The irst and second waves are the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, respectively. (Lepawsky & Park, 2006)
Threat
1: Event that disrupts the normal operation of a building, organization, or network of computers. (Thuraisingham, 2005) 2: Something that can go wrong or that can attack the system. Examples might include ire or fraud. Threats are ever present for every system. (Tong & Wong, 2005a)
Third Way
Political ideology proclaiming the need to move beyond the supposed dogmas of rigid social regulation and total deregulation. For some this means a movement that abolishes traditional forms of state/community and free markets. For others it has meant a fusion of both. (David, 2005)
3D Interface
An interface in which text and images are not all on the same lat level. (Xu et al., 2006b)
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3G: See Third Generation of Mobile Communications Technology. 3GPP: See Third-Generation Partnership Project. 3.5G
1: Interim system between 3G and 4G allowing a downlink data rate up to 14 Mbps. Also called high-speed downlink packet access. (Akhtar, 2005) 2: Based on a technology called high-speed downlink packet access. It will be upwardly compatible with 3G W-CDMA systems, but will enable more than 10 times the peak data rate and more than 6 times the capacity of initial 3G systems. (Lei, 2006)
should not be visible to the user, but should be resolved internally by the database system. (Baumann, 2005)
Time Activator
Trigger for initiating automatic update of the report in the informationbase. Could be calendar day, month or year, inancial (booking) month, and so forth. So, if the trigger is calendar day, the report is produced automatically each day. If the trigger is booking month, the report is produced whenever booking month is changed in the database. (Dragan, 2005)
Three-Tier Application
Consists of clients in the front tier, servers that perform the application business logic processing in the middle tier, and databases that store the application data in the backend tier. (Zhao et al., 2006)
Three-Tier Client/Server
Three-tier splits the logic between: (1) clients that run the graphical user interface (GUI) logic, (2) the application server running the business logic, and (3) the database and/or legacy application. (Galup et al., 2005)
Time Bank
A tool for community building. The basic idea is that people help each other by exchanging the performance of simple, though useful, tasks among them. Examples include gardening, cooking, simple home repairs, teaching languages, and so forth. (Camarinha-Matos & Ferrada, 2006)
Three-Tier Model
A model consisting of a headquarters, and regional and student modules. The student module is the interface for the student and it communicates only with the regional module. The regional module acts an intermediary between the student and the headquarters module. The regional module also aggregates all the communications from the individual students before sending them to the headquarters and vice versa. (Shareef & Kinshuk, 2005)
Time Barrier
Time is typically the most commonly cited barrier by teachers to involvement in staff development and development of online learning materials. (Salter, 2005b)
Time Compression
A term that describes the faster replay of continuous media iles, such as audio or video signals. In the context of speech recordings, time compression usually assumes that special techniques are used to avoid pitch shifting, which otherwise results in unpleasant, very high voices. (Hrst & Lauer, 2006)
Tie Strength
The strength of a tie is a function of frequency of contact, affect, and reciprocity. The stronger the tie, the more easy it is for one actor to inluence and convey complex, multifaceted information to another. (Nelson & Hsu, 2006)
Time Constraint
Refers to the need to catch something just when it takes place because time lows. (Cirrincione, 2005)
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T im e De la y T im e St re t ching
Time Delay
Often, the decisions and their consequences are not closely related in time. For instance, the response of gasoline sales to the changes in price involves time delays. If prices go up, then after a while, sales may drop. (Qudrat-Ullah, 2006)
Time Domain
The representation of a signal, such as the amplitude or pressure of a sound wave, as a function of time. (Dixon, 2005)
Time Expansion
A term that describes the slower replay of continuous media iles, such as audio or video signals. In the context of speech recordings, time expansion usually assumes that special techniques are used to avoid pitch shifting, which otherwise results in unpleasant, very low voices. (Hrst & Lauer, 2006)
Time Granularity
Unit of time, such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years. Time advances by each clock tick according to the granularity used. (Tansel, 2005)
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TIP: See Text Input Panel. TMC: See Translation-Mediated Communication. TMS: See Time Management System. TMUX: See Transmultiplexer Filter Bank. TOA: See Time of Arrival. TOE: See Target of Evaluation. Token
Time-Space Compression
Dislocating aspects of technological change that force shifts in perceptions of time and space. Usually, transport and communications technologies are cited as prime examples, for example, the world before and after the automobile, the jet plane, the telegraph, or the telephone. (Lepawsky & Park, 2006)
An abstract concept passed between places to ensure synchronized access to a shared resource in a distributed environment. (Guan, 2005d)
Tolerance
The process whereby increasing amounts of the particular activity are required to achieve the former effects. For instance, a gambler may have to gradually have to increase the size of the bet to experience a euphoric effect that was initially obtained by a much smaller bet. (Grifiths, 2005)
Tonal Music
Music following the rules of tonality (i.e., based on scales). Usually opposed to atonal music such as serial music (based on the principle that all notes must be used with the same frequencies), spectral music (based on the nature of sounds rather than on pitches), minimalism, and so forth. (Pachet, 2006)
Time-to-Live (TTL)
A ield in the IP packet header. Its value is the allowed hop-count, the number of routers, which can forward the packet before delivery or dropping out. (Hosszu, 2005a)
Tool
An artifact used to achieve speciic, predetermined goals. Deined by human-computer interaction and certain branches of philosophy by its disappearance in use. (Kettley, 2006b)
Timeslice/Snapshot Query
A query that asks for data as of a given transaction time. For example, ind all objects alive during a time interval. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005b)
Top-Down Approach
Initiating from the highest level of a hierarchy, down to the grassroots level. Opposite of Bottom-Up Approach. (Gnaniah, Yeo, et al., 2005)
Timing Advance
A GSM-speciic method for determining the distance between a base station and a mobile device. (Fraunholz et al., 2005)
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aggregating over already computed iner-grade cells in the lattice. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
is provided, their topics as well as the associations among topics are identiied and are used to form a map that guides the user through the topics. (Yang & Lee, 2005)
Topic
The object or node in the topic map that represents the subject being referred to. However, the relationship between topics and subjects is (or should be) one to one, with every topic representing a single subject, and every subject being represented by just one topic. (Yang & Lee, 2005)
Topic Occurrence
A topic may be linked to one or more information resources that are deemed to be relevant to the topic in some way. Such resources are called occurrences of the topic. (Yang & Lee, 2005)
Topic Association
The relationship between two or more topics in a topic map. (Yang & Lee, 2005)
Topic Ontology
A collection of terms that characterize a topic at multiple levels of abstraction. (Chung et al., 2005)
Topic Tracking
A TDT component that tracks events of interest based on sample news stories. It associates incoming news stories with the related stories, which were already discussed before, or it monitors the news stream for further stories on the same topic. (Chung et al., 2005)
Topic Type
Topics can be categorized according to their kind. In a topic map, any given topic is an instance of zero or more topic types. This corresponds to the categorization inherent in the use of multiple indexes in a book (index of names, index of works, index of places, etc.), and to the use of typographic and other conventions to distinguish different types of topics. (Yang & Lee, 2005)
Top-Level Ontology
An engineering object deining the very general concepts on which a model of knowledge is created. In particular, top-level ontologies give account to the notions of relation, entity, and instance, and model space, time, matter, and the notion of things. (Cristani & Cuel, 2006)
Topological Consistency
Two representations are consistent if they are topologically equivalent or if the topological relations are valid under certain consistency rules. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005a)
Topic Knowledge
Declarative memory consists of two types of knowledge topic or semantic and episodic. Topic knowledge refers to the meaning of a word, such as its deinitions in a dictionary or textbook. (Raisinghani, 2005)
Topological Relationship
The intersections of boundary and interior of two regions embedded in R2. (Pourabbas, 2005a)
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Topological Relation
Describes the intersection and the incidence between objects. Six basic relations have been identiied in the literature: disjoint, meet, overlap, cover, contain, and equal. (Chbeir & Yetongnon, 2005)
Topological Requivalence
Two representations are said to be topologically equivalent if one can be mapped into the other by a topological transformation of the real plane. Examples of topological transformations are rotation, scale change, translation, and symmetry. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005a)
time, installation, maintenance, training, and so forth. (Sowe et al., 2005) 3: Developed by the Gartner Group, an accounting method used by organizations seeking to identify their both direct and indirect systems costs. (Pang, 2005a) 4: An evaluation method with a broad perspective on the costs of system ownership, including training, lost productivity during learning cycles, maintenance, and so forth. TCO methodologies bring into focus a softer side of the cost equation. (Dykman, 2005) 5: The total amount of money that the decision of introducing new software costs. (Sahraoui, 2006)
Topology
The branch of mathematics that deals with the properties of geometric conigurations that are not altered by homomorphic transformations. In GIS, topology refers to a set of techniques that allows us to determine the relative positioning between two spatial objects, regardless of their exact coordinates. (Davis et al., 2005)
Topos
A category endowed with a certain collection of diagram operations that allow one to perform many manipulations with objects and morphisms. Roughly, in a topos one can perform all constructive operations with objects: intersections, unions, and other analogs of common set theoretical operations, including the powerset (forming the object of all sub-objects of a given object). Typical examples of toposes are the category of sets and mappings between them, the category of graphs, and graph mappings. (Diskin, 2005)
Tort
A civil wrong committed by another. Tort law recognizes that individuals or businesses may owe a duty of care to others with whom they have contact. If that duty of care is breached, and the breach results in damages, the party that owed the duty of care may be liable for the resulting damages. (Sprague, 2005)
Tourism Supplier
A business that supplies a tourism product for consumption by tourists. These may take various forms, such as transport, attractions, events, accommodations, or hospitality. (Hornby, 2005)
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or discussion format was used. The same problem occurs in grouping all distance learners and delivery formats together, when in reality a great deal of variation exists. (Lindsay, Howell, et al., 2005a)
Traditional Familiarity
Combines an assumption of continuity with the past experience of a partner. Traditional trust, therefore, relies on the fact that virtual enterprise partners who could be observed as trustworthy in the past will display the same kind of behavior in the future. (Wong, 2005)
Traceability
1: The ability to describe the life of a requirement in both backward and forward directions. (Doorn, 2005) 2: The property of software design and development that makes it possible to link any abstract artifact to the technical artifacts that implement it and conversely. In addition, this link explains how and why this implementation has been chosen. In the database realm, traceability allows a programmer to know exactly which conceptual object a deinite column is an implementation of. Conversely, it informs him/her on how a conceptual relationship type has been implemented. The transformational paradigm is one of the most promising approaches to formally guarantee traceability. (Hainaut et al., 2005)
Traditional Learning
Occurs in situations where students learn primarily from the instructor (sage-on-the-stage) and/or from resources such as books, journals, audiotapes, and videotapes. (McInnerney & Roberts, 2005)
Traced Forgery
A signature instance or its photocopy is used as a reference and tried to be forged. (Chakravarty et al., 2005b)
Traditional Menu
This type of menu is essentially a series of display screens that appear sequentially as the user responds to the requests detailed on each screen. (Henley & Noyes, 2006)
Tracking
The process of estimating the parameters of a dynamic system by means of measurements obtained at successive time instances. An example is the estimation of the position of a moving object based on an image sequence. (Aifanti et al., 2005)
Traction
Successfully putting a business model into operation, proving its viability. (Craig, 2006a)
Traditional Course
A course taught using in-class, face-to-face instruction. (Baugher et al., 2005)
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Trafic Aggregation
Using a domain name, often multiple domain names, to drive trafic (visitors) to one Web site. (Owen, 2006d)
Training Sample
A set of documents or other pieces of text, together with categories that are assigned to them to be used for training an automatic text classiier; there may be exactly one category assigned to each or there may be any number of categories, including zero, assigned to each piece of text. (Woods et al., 2006)
Trail
A track of Web sites that have been visited. (Guan, 2005b)
Training
1: A process that aims to improve knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or behaviors in a person to accomplish a speciic job task or goal. Training is often focused on business needs and driven by time-critical business skills and knowledge, and its goal is often to improve performance. (Snchez-Segura et al., 2005) 2: Improving performance, with the help of coaches and mentors, to reach a speciied level of standard to complete a task. (Ally, 2005a)
Training Set
A set of cases used by the algorithm to discover the classiication rules. For example, at each iteration of AntMiner, only one rule is discovered. The training cases that are covered correctly by the discovered rule (i.e., cases satisfying the rule antecedent and having the class predicted by the rule consequent) are removed from the training set. This process is performed iteratively, while the number of uncovered training cases is greater than a user-speciied threshold. (Parpinelli et al., 2005)
Training System
An organizational system with the primary mission of training employees to improve performance. (Jeffery & Bratton-Jeffery, 2005)
Training Case
One of the cases (records) of the training set. (Parpinelli et al., 2005)
Trajectory
1: A set of multi-dimensional points which deine the route of a moving object during a time interval. (Bozanis, 2006) 2: The track followed by a moving object in the course of time (due to the change of its position). (Vassilakopoulos & Corral, 2005)
Training Data
1: A representative subset of records for which the truth of classiications and relationships is known and that can be used for rule induction in machine learning models. (Winkler, 2005) 2: Collection of observations (characterized by feature measurements), each paired with the corresponding class label. (Domeniconi & Gunopulos, 2005)
Trajectory of Use
No designer, artist, or developer can predict the outcomes of the many and consequential readings or uses to which a public will put his work. The work is a starting point of social interaction, not an end in itself. (Kettley, 2006a)
Trans-Urbanity
The capacity of the worldwide network of computers, and of the Internet, to support the proper practical relations of an urbanity in environments that surpass a physical city
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and involve a set of varied urbanities, in accordance with the practice of the participants of the society on the Net who coexist in a digital way, but who also have a physical existence in the urban context which they inhabit. The urbanity then surpasses the local place, thus extending the concrete practice of the citizens beyond the immediate physical context. (Matta, 2005)
Transaction/Global Transaction
A transaction is a sequence of operations on a database that should appear as if they were executed non-interfered, even in the presence of other concurrent transactions. A transaction should satisfy the ACID properties, namely, atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. A global transaction is a distributed transaction that is executed on two or more database systems. (Leong, 2005b)
Transaction
1: A record containing the items bought by a customer. (Wong, & Fu, 2005) 2: Some set of items chosen from a ixed alphabet. (Zhou & Wang, 2005) 3: An atomic set of processing steps in a database application such that all the steps are performed either fully or not at all. (Tan & Zhao, 2005a) 4: An instance that usually contains a set of items. For example, extending a transaction to a composition of a head and a tail (i.e., N=X:Y), where the head represents a known frequent itemset, and the tail is the set of items for extending the head for new frequent patterns. (Zou & Chu, 2005) 5: Group of operations that are either performed all or none. (Meixner, 2005)
Transaction Processing
An application programming paradigm that is based on the notion of a transaction. A transaction is a set of operations on the application state that exhibit the atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability (ACID) properties. (Zhao et al., 2006)
Transaction Abort
Removal of a transaction, such as one managed by a concurrency control method that detects that some unwanted isolation anomalies have occurred. (Frank, 2005b)
Transaction Time
1: Designates the time when data values are recorded in the database. (Tansel, 2005) 2: The time when an element (i.e., anything that may be stored in a database) is part of the current state of the database. It can be seen as the valid time of an element that is currently in the database, that is, valid time of element e is current in the database. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005b)
Transaction Cost
One of the costs associated with contractual relationships in a market economy, such as costs that the consumer or the producer pays to make the market transaction happen. (C.-S. Lee, 2005)
Transaction Trust
Trust-based exchange between a buyer and a seller of a product or service. (Efendioglu, 2006)
Transaction-Based Community
Community focuses on purchasing-related topics. A virtual community organized in a business site is generally transaction based. (Wang, Wei, et al., 2006)
Transaction-Processing System
This is a computer system designed to support the recording and completion of value exchange activities. (Law, 2005)
Transaction Fee
The commission the Web site earns for each transaction that is made over the Web site. (Shan et al., 2006b)
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Transactional Software
Search engines for inding and comparing products; negotiating software; encryption and payment; ordering (front ofice) inventory and back ofice software. (Singh, 2005)
Transactive Memory
Refers to the set of individual memory systems in combination with their intercommunications; transactive memory exists as a property of a group as group members share their memories through their interactions with each other and with external memory storage devices. (Goldsmith & Pillai, 2006)
Transactional Content
Refers to the kind of relationship that exists between two actors rather than the shape of the network or the actors position within the network. Many types of relationship are possible, including inluence, information exchange, advice, emotional support, antagonism, and exchange of goods and services. (Nelson & Hsu, 2006)
Transcoding
1: A process to change the resolution of a multimedia object. (Tse, 2006) 2: A technique for content adaptation by modifying the incoming and outgoing HTTP stream. (Goh & Kinshuk, 2005) 3: The process of changing one multimedia object format into another. (Knight & Angelides, 2005) 4: The process of converting a compressed multimedia signal into another compressed signal with different properties. (Cavallaro, 2005)
Transactional Data
1: All data that are acquired, processed, and compiled into reports, which are transmitted to various organizations along a supply chain. (Mathieu & Levary, 2005) 2: Data that contains records of purchases over a given period of time, including such information as date, product purchased, and any special requests. (Cook, 2005)
Transducer
1: A inite state machine speciically with a read-only input and a write-only output. The input and output cannot be reread or changed. (Chang & Hsu, 2005) 2: An electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. (Trewin & Keates, 2006)
Transactional Distance
1: Refers to the extent to which time and distance impact communications and interactions in a virtual learning environment. (McCracken, 2005) 2: The dynamic of teacher-learner relationships that exist when learners and instructors are separated by a combination of space or time. (Marcinkiewicz & McLean, 2005b)
Transfer
Includes a variety of interactions between individuals and groups; within, between, and across groups; and from groups to the organization. (Lindsey, 2006)
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Transformation
Transition Economy
Country that is moving from socialist toward a market (capitalist) economy. (Damaskopoulos & Gatautis, 2006)
1: Generation (creation) or consumption (destruction) of an object, or a change of its state. (Dori, 2006) 2: The conversion of incoming data into the desired form. (Peter & Greenidge, 2005b) 3: To convert the ields to the format required by a speciic pattern discovery algorithm. (Yao & Xiao, 2005)
Transitive Closure
The transitive closure of a directed graph G is a graph G*, in which there is an edge from node a to node b if there exists a path from a to b in G. (Chen, 2005a)
Transformation Logic
XML-based documents can be read by other applications. Their contents can be manipulated according to desired rules and algorithms, and then transformed to new documents with partial or different contents. These rules are referred to as transformation logic and are determined by the applications. (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005)
Translation
1: The interpretation given by the proponents of a system of their interests and the interests of the people they are trying to convince. (Brady, 2005) 2: The process involved in converting the source text written in one natural language into the target text in another language. (OHagan, 2005)
Transformational Leader
Inspires others, through charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration, to transcend his or her own self-interests for a higher collective purpose. (Sipior, 2005)
Transistor
The basic active circuit element semiconductor device. The essential building block of microprocessors and all parts of a computer that manipulate data. (Strauss, 2005)
Transmission Medium
The physical path between a transmitter and receiver; can be wired (guided medium) or wireless (unguided medium). (Statica & Deek, 2006)
Transition Band
The range of frequencies between the passband and the stopband is called the transition band, and for which no ilter speciication is given. (Jovanovic-Dolecek & DazCarmona, 2005)
Transmission Paradigm
A model of learning that involves one-way teacher-led delivery of academic material, most often in the form of
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a 50-minute lecture, to a group of passive learners in the absence of interaction. (Shaw, 2005)
Transmission Protocol
The communication language used for transmission of data. For videoconferencing, there are several available transmission protocols. (Dudding, 2005)
The principle of iltering is that documents are analyzed only once, hence only new documents are processed by the system. Transparent iltering can be further divided into proiling and iltering. Those two sub-processes are mutually independent. (Wecel et al., 2005)
Transparent Proxy
A proxy that closely cooperates with either a router or a Layer 4 switch, to intercept Web requests while invisible to the users. Other than being invisible, it works as a regular proxy cache. (Danalis, 2005)
Transmissive Pedagogy
Teaching based on an assumption that students receive information from the teacher and slot it straight into an empty ledge base, or at best, work on it later to make it their own. (Vat, 2005c)
Transparent Retrieval
A spontaneous process triggered by data warehouse users each time they launch a data warehouse report. In this process the data warehouse library is mechanically searched for documents that match the current context of a given data warehouse report. The context is extracted from the report metadata and data. The ranked list of matching documents is compared against the user proile and presented to the business user as an extension of structured information displayed on the report. (Wecel et al., 2005)
Transmutator
Knowledge transformation operator that modiies learner knowledge by exploring learner experience. (Leni et al., 2005)
Transparent Technology
Technology that workers use on a daily basis without thinking about it. Most often a technology is considered transparent when a worker forgets that he or she uses it. When a worker must think about how and when to use a speciic technology, it is no longer transparent. (P.M. Leonardi, 2005)
Transparency
1: Also known as disappearance, transparency is largely considered the hallmark of good interaction design, wherein the user is able to complete tasks without cognitive interference caused by the interface. The user is said to act through the computer rather than to interact with it. (Kettley, 2006a) 2: Systems supporting decision making in administrative organizations should be transparent to users so that it is clear to all actors involved (street-level bureaucrats, clients, legal and administrative supervisors, appeal boards) how certain conclusions have been reached. (Svensson, 2005)
Transport Layer
Layer 4 of the OSI model. Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data between end points. (Ngoh & Shankar, 2005)
Trap Doors
Pieces of code inserted into a program. Trap doors generally are used for the purpose of debugging or bypassing standard access control mechanisms. (Butcher-Powell, 2005)
Transparent Filtering
A continuous process, transparent for business users, in which documents are acquired from Web sources and stored in the data warehouse library with appropriate descriptions.
Travel Card
Credit card issued to federal employees to pay for costs incurred on oficial business travel. (Pang, 2005b)
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The proportion of time allocated by individuals for travel per day. (Jain & Lyons, 2005)
duration, diversity, and intensity. Primary quality measures of trend detection include sensitivity and accuracy. (Chen, Toprani, et al., 2006)
Treatment Group
1: Individuals who are contacted (e.g., mailed) in a campaign. (Lo, 2005) 2: The group in an experimental study that receives experimental treatment and is otherwise similar to the group not receiving the treatment, in all relevant respects. (Fisher, 2005)
Trialability
1: Perceptions of the degree to which an innovation can be used on a trial basis before conirmation of the adoption must occur. (Green et al., 2005) 2: The degree to which a product can be tried on a limited basis. (Owens et al., 2005)
Treatment Proxy
Identiied as a powerful machine with high capacities for storage, treatment, and/or communication. In addition to storage capacity, its main task is to manage a set of cache proxies of the same proile and to maintain the index of their content. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Trialability of Innovation
The degree to which an innovation can be tried on a limited basis before full implementation. (Askarany, 2005)
Triangle Inequality
The property d(x,y) d(x, z) + d(z,y) that a distance d must satisfy in order to be a metric. (Chvez & Navarro, 2005)
Tree
A tree is a graph with a root in which the indegree of each node is equal to 1. (Chen, 2005a)
Triangle Pattern
A triangle is a particular pattern observed using technical analysis. There are a variety of circumstances under which a triangle can occur, and dependent on the circumstances, the triangle can be either a reversal or continuation pattern. (Vanstone & Tan, 2005)
Triangulation
When a subject is viewed from more than one perspective during the learning or perceptual process. (Maceield, 2006)
Tree Inclusion
Given two ordered labeled trees T and S, the tree inclusion problem is to determine whether it is possible to obtain S from T by deleting nodes. Deleting a node v in tree T means making the children of v become the children of the parent of v and then removing v. If S can be obtained from T by deleting nodes, we say that T includes S. (Chen, 2005b)
Trie
An n-ary tree whose organization is based on key space decomposition. In key space decomposition, the key range is equally subdivided, and the splitting position within the key range for each node is predeined. (Woon et al., 2005)
Trend
1: Long-term movement in a time series that represents the growth or decline over an extended period of time. (G.P. Zhang, 2005) 2: The continuous growth or decline of a variable over a period of time. (Chen, Toprani, et al., 2006)
Trigger
1: A schema object in the database that deines the event, condition, and action part of a production rule. (Ale & Espil, 2005) 2: An SQL statement that automatically generates an action (e.g., an update or a reset) upon a speciied update request. Triggers are a procedural means to enforce and preserve integrity. See Integrity Enforcement. (Decker, 2005) 3: One operation invoking another operation; a call from one method to another method within the same or different object type (class). (D. Brandon, Jr., 2005a) 4:
Trend Detection
Using quantitative methods to identify the presence of a trend. A number of domain-speciic criteria may apply to determine what qualiies as a trend, for example, in terms of
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Rule of the form Event-Condition-Action, used in relational database systems to implement active functionality. (Badia, 2005b)
Trojan Horse
1: A program in which malicious or harmful code is disguised as a benign application. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not replicate themselves but can be as destructive. (Tassabehji, 2005a) 2: A program that appears to be legitimate but is designed to have destructive effects, as to data residing in the computer onto which the program was loaded. (Friedman, 2005) 3: A program that appears to perform only advertised tasks, but which is in reality performing further, often malicious, undocumented tasks in the background by the unauthorized user. (ButcherPowell, 2005)
Triggering Condition
The condition in a CQ which speciies when to evaluate the query. (Khan, 2005)
Triple-Loop Learning
When information cannot be processed within the given knowledge system, the system has to be revised. This is what Argyris and Schn call single- and double-loop learning. Single-loop learning is based on negative feedback and correction of deviation from the norm. Learning is limited to operational actions that are allowed. Single-loop learning works at the level of facts. Learning is focused on the question of how we can reach an existing goal in the best possible way within existing norms. Doubleloop learning is directed to correction of mistakes based on deined norms. It implies an extra loop reconsidering existing rules and their validity. Triple-loop learning considers not only the facts and the norms, but also the context. Triple-loop learning works on perception and the permanent questioning of inconsistencies in the action theory of the organization. (Hall & Croasdell, 2006)
Trolling
1: Acting in a deliberately inlammatory way to provoke a response online, usually in a newsgroup and usually with insincerity. (N.C. Rowe, 2006d) 2: Posting a controversial message on a Discussion Forum, with the purpose to attract or instigate a laming response, mainly targeting the inexperienced members of the forum. (Gur u, 2006)
True Negative
A potential usability problem discovered in a usability inspection that upon analysis is correctly eliminated by the analyst as an improbable problem. The discovered problem is conirmed in real use as causing the user no dificulties. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006)
True Positive
A prediction of a usability problem reported in a usability inspection that is proven to be a real problem in actual use with real users. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006)
Triune Continuum
One of the principles of the Triune Continuum Paradigm. The principle introduces three continuums (spatiotemporal, constitution, and information continuums) to justify a minimal set of modeling concepts that are necessary and suficient to cover the representation scope of the general system modeling domain on the most abstract level. (Naumenko, 2005)
Trust
1: The provision of adequate measures to ensure the security of private or sensitive data, thus providing conidence in the reliability of electronic services. (Scott et al., 2006) 2: A mechanism that enables cooperation and participation between members of a community in relation to the engagement of the practice. (Raja et al., 2006) 3: A relationship between individuals or a group of individuals that includes a dependency on another individual to have a need met, or a choice or willingness to take some risk as a part of the relationship. (Gangeness, 2005) 4: The lack of physical interaction places a higher regard to the trust that exists between each entity involved in the organization. Since fewer checks and balances can be placed on appropriate departments, management and other entities trust that they will complete the appropriate work
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on time or be straightforward about delays or problems. If two entities working on a project together, separated by thousands of miles, are unwilling to trust each other, the work slows and suffers to a critical point. (J. Lee, 2005)
Trust-Inducing Design
The application of empirically veriied features of a Web site to enhance a consumers perception that the online vendor is trustworthy. (Y.D. Wang, 2005)
Trusted Time
Trusted time is emerging as the industrys best practice. Trusted time is auditable, secure, available, warranted, accurate, and managed. Trusted time is essential to ensuring that the network and operations infrastructure run accurately, securely, and reliably, and ensure legal enforceability of electronic business transactions. The auditable sourcing, setting, and synchronization of time involve a chain of trust that is complex, requires time specialization, and involves multiple sources of risk. (Mezgr, 2005)
Trust Center
It is important to assure the identity of the owner of a public key. Otherwise potential adversaries may pretend to have another identity by using their own public keys in conidential transactions. Trust centers certify the identity of owners of public keys. (Stickel, 2005)
Trust Chain
A solution for addressing trust is to build a chain of trust, where each link is strong but also connects to its neighbor by verifying its trustworthiness. (Mezgr, 2006b)
Trustee
The e-merchant in which trust is placed. (Jeanson & Ingham, 2006)
Trust Management
A unified approach to specifying and interpreting security policies, credentials, and relationships; it allows direct authorization of security-critical actions. A trustmanagement system provides standard, general-purpose mechanisms for specifying application security policies and credentials. Trust-management credentials describe a speciic delegation of trust and subsume the role of public key certiicates; unlike traditional certiicates, which bind keys to names, credentials can bind keys directly to the authorization to perform speciic tasks. (Mezgr, 2005)
Truster
The individual who willingly enters into a commercial transaction and expects the trustee to fulill the contract underlying the transaction. (Jeanson & Ingham, 2006)
Trustworthiness
1: Ability to create and develop trust. Trustworthiness is the assurance that a system deserves to be trusted. (Oermann & Dittmann, 2006) 2: Beliefs based on which people are willing to trust. Typically, these are ability, integrity, and benevolence. (Paravastu & Gefen, 2006) 3: The ability to attain and maintain a trusted state, which is deinable, measurable, validatable, and demonstrable over time. Digital trustworthiness means a veriiable level of electronic process integrity, security, control, authenticity, and reliability that captures, preserves, retrieves, veriies, renders, and makes available in human readable form the essential transaction content, context, notice, intent, and consent, to meet the electronic forensic evidence requirements necessary for legal admissibility and regulatory compliance. (Mezgr, 2006b)
Trust Relationship
A relationship in which each party is assured of the reliability of the character, ability, strength, or truth of someone. (Hanson et al., 2005)
Trust Signaling
Actions available to organizations participating in virtual B2B communities to increase their perceived level of trustworthiness. (Turner, 2006)
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TSQL: See Temporal Structured Query Language. TT: See Turing Test. TTL: See Time-to-Live. TTS: See Text-to-Speech. Tuning Time
The total time a mobile client must listen to the channel, which is used to indicate its energy consumption. (Waluyo et al., 2005)
Tutored-Video Instruction
A distance education technology whereby students watch a videotaped classroom lecture as a group and then undergo an organized, systematic discussion of that lecture led by a tutor. (Murray & Efendioglu, 2005)
Tutorial Function
Program used to help students gain and/or refresh understanding of general principles and basic ideas, available in computer format on an educators Web site. (Beck & Schornack, 2005)
Tutoring Tunneling
1: The encapsulating of protocol information for the transmission of data via the Internet to a private network. (Butcher-Powell, 2005) 2: Allows one network to transmit its data via another networks connections. In the context of the IPv4/IPv6 discussion, tunneling refers to the encapsulation of IPv4 data in order to be carried by an IPv6 network, or the opposite. (Papagiannidis et al., 2005) A support system for learning. A tutor is acting as a facilitator for learning and group processes. Tutoring is a role, which can be shifted between different actors (e.g., teachers, students). (Lammintakanen & Rissanen, 2005b)
TV Object
A video ile embedded in a TV site, normally surrounded by other elements such as textual information. (Prata, 2005)
Twice-Learning
A machine learning paradigm using coupled learners to achieve two aspects of advantages. In its original form, two classiiers are coupled together where one classiier is devoted to the accuracy while the other is devoted to the comprehensibility. (Zhou, 2005)
Tuple Space
A globally shared, associatively addressed memory space that is used by processes to communicate asynchronously, based on the notion of tuples and tuple matching. (Kunz & Gaddah, 2005)
Twisted Pairs
Two pairs of insulated copper wires intertwined together to form a communication medium. (Hin & Subramaniam, 2005a)
2D Interface
An interface in which text and lines appear to be on the same lat level. (Xu et al., 2006b)
Turning Point
Marks the beginning or the end of a trend. For example, the point at which economy turns from recession to growth. (Chen, Toprani, et al., 2006)
2.5D Interface
An interface that applies various graphical algorithms to simulate the sense of depth on a 2D interface. (Xu et al., 2006b)
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2.5G changes wireless service to a packet-switched service that dramatically increases transmission speeds. It describes the state of wireless technology and capability usually associated with General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)that is, between the second and third generations of wireless technology. (Lei et al., 2005a)
Two-Layered Approach
An approach similar to the CD-ROM-Internet hybrid model where both online and off-line approaches are used to reach the students. This approach uses the Internet to communicate between the headquarters module and regional modules, and CD-ROMs to deliver the content to the students. (Shareef & Kinshuk, 2005)
Type of Authentication
Authentication generally can be based on three types of information: by some thing the user has (e.g., bank card, key, etc.), by something the user knows (e.g., password, number, etc.), or by something the user is (e.g., biometric methods like ingerprints, face recognition, etc.). (Richter & Roth, 2006)
Two-Phase Locking
The most used concurrency control method for implementing the isolation property. (Frank, 2005b)
Typeface
The particular style and design of alphabetic letters, numbers, and symbols that make up a font. (Szabados & Sonwalkar, 2005)
Typography
The art of selecting, designing, and using appropriate typefaces in the content of the material in order to produce clear, legible, and aesthetically appealing reading material for print or screen. (Szabados & Sonwalkar, 2005)
Two-Tier Client/Server
Two-tier splits the processing loading in two. The majority of the applications run on the client (often referred to as fat client), which typically sends SQL requests to a server-resident database. (Galup et al., 2005)
Typosquatting
Registering and using a domain name that is a misspelled variation of a trademark or organization name. (Owen, 2006d)
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U
UaE Approach: See User-as-Editors Approach. Ubiquitous Computing
1: A vision of the future and a collection of technologies where information technology becomes pervasive, embedded in the everyday environments and thus invisible to the users. According to this vision, everyday environments will be saturated by computation and wireless communication capacity, and yet they would be gracefully integrated with human users. (Roussos & Zoumboulakis, 2005) 2: A vision where computers are made available throughout the physical environment, but effectively invisible to the users. (Cremonini et al., 2006) 3: An environment where computers are embedded in our natural movements and interactions with our environments. Combines mobile and pervasive computing. (Krogstie, 2005b) 4: Computing technology that is invisible to the user because of wireless connectivity and transparent user interface. (Ally, 2005c) 5: Includes computers everywhere, the wireless technologies wave, and various portable and networked technologies in our daily lives. Ubiquitous computing can help to create an anytime, anywhere learning environment that learners, teachers, and parents can access easily. Ubiquitous computing has been changing the way teachers and students utilize technologies in the classroom. (Yang, 2005) 6: Refers to the ability to perform computing or communications from anywhere at any given time. Thus, untethering individuals from wired networks creates opportunities but is constrained by other issues such as power consumption. (Chen, Sockel, et al., 2005) 7: The evolution of mobile human-computer interation whereby user-centered principles of hardware and software development embed the nature of mobile computing into the background of everyday life. (Mohamedally et al., 2005) 8: The trend of technological development to integrate into any kind of object information processing and communication capabilities. (Falcone & Castelfranchi, 2005) 9: Integrating computation into the environment rather than having computers that are distinct objects. Promoters of this idea hope that embedding computation into the environment will enable people to move around and interact with computers more naturally than they currently do. (Dhar, 2005)
UCC: See Uniform Commercial Code. UDDI: See Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration. UDF: See Unit Development Folder. UDP: See User Datagram Protocol. UEM: See Usability Evaluation Method. UIL: See User Interface Language. UIM: See Usability Inspection Method. UM: See Uniied Messaging. UMA: See Universal Media Access. UML: See Uniied Modeling Language. UML Profile: See Unified Modeling Language
Proile.
UN/EDIFACT
An international EDI standard that is similar to and based on X12. Its syntax is somewhat different from X12s, but it follows the same basic principles and architecture. (Hawk & Zheng, 2006)
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Undifferentiated-Capacity Hypothesis
A model of attention that assumes a lexible, multipurpose central processor that can process multiple tasks concurrently. This processor has a limited amount of resources, however, that can be allocated across all tasks. (Owen, 2006b)
Entails the division of traditional faculty tasks. No longer are all faculty designing their instruction, implementing it, and then conducting the assessment of learning. More and more, different people or technological devices are performing these and other functions. (Lindsay, Williams, et al., 2005)
Uncertain Attitude
A perception about IT that results in behavior that shows indecision about IT, hesitation to invest in IT, and anxiety about using IT. (Winston & Dologite, 2005)
Unicast
1: Oneto-one communication. (Barolli & Koyama, 2005a) 2: The one-to-one communication way, where only one host transfers data with another host. In the traditional IP, the unicast is applied. (Hosszu, 2005a) 3: The point-to-point delivery of data, for example, when a Web server delivers a page to a visitor. (Papagiannidis et al., 2005)
Unconscionability
Generally involves a lack of meaningful choice on the part of one of the parties to a contract together with terms that are unreasonably favorable to the other party. Unconscionability also refers to a contract that is so unfair or one-sided that a judge cannot in good conscious enforce the contract. (Sprague, 2005)
Unicast Stream
A data low communicated over a network between a single sender and a single receiver. (Kacimi et al., 2005)
Unconstrained Movement
Movement (of a moving object) that is not conined according to a set of spatial restrictions. (Vassilakopoulos & Corral, 2005)
Unicode
A 16-bit character set standard, designed and maintained by the non-proit consortium Unicode Inc. that aims to standardize all non-roman languages. The hexadecimal range U+1780 to U+17FF in Unicode/ISO10646 includes characters of the Khmer/Cambodian script. With Unicode Version 4.0, an additional range has been added: U+19E0 to U+19FF. The Khmer script, in turn, is used to record text in the following languages: Khmer, Sanskrit (transliteration), Pali (transliteration), Cham, Krung, and other minority languages used in Cambodia. Khmer Unicode is the only globally standardized encoding of the Khmer script. (Hutchinson, 2005)
Uncontrolled Indexing
The indexing of objects using uncontrolled vocabularies, such as descriptions or semi-structured metadata. (Gaedke et al., 2005)
Understanding
A layer above the traditional three-tier model of data, information, and knowledge to address the additional need of military personnel for knowledge systems capable of conveying understanding or expertise for the decision maker. (Maule, 2006)
Underwriter
An employee of an insurance company whose job duties include analyzing an application for insurance and making a decision whether to accept or reject the application. If accepted, the underwriter further determines the premium to be charged. Underwriters also review existing insurance contracts for renewal. (Kitchens, 2005)
As used in multilingual Web-based systems, the uniied content model refers to word-for-word translation of the content from one language to another. (Gangopadhyay & Huang, 2005)
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motivational model, and social cognitive theory. (McManus & Standing, 2005)
1: Also known as Universal Resource Identiier, it is a string that unambiguously identiies a resource. A URI describes the mechanism used to access the resource, the speciic computer where the resource is housed, and the speciic name of the resource. URL (Uniform Resource Locater), the most common form of URI, and URN (Uniform Resource Name) are subsets of the URI. (Pereira & Freire, 2005) 2: A short string that identiies resources on the Web: documents, images, downloadable iles, services, electronic mailboxes, and others. They make resources available under a variety of naming schemes and access methods such as HTTP, FTP, and Internet mail addressable in the same simple way. (Raisinghani & Sahoo, 2006)
A predeined set of stereotypes, tagged values, constraints, and notation icons that collectively specialize and tailor the UML for a speciic domain or process. (Zendulka, 2005b)
Identiies abstract or physical resources. A resource can be a collection of names that has been deined by some organizations, or it can be a computer ile that contains that list. The most familiar form of URI is the uniform resource locator (URL). (Sethi & Sethi, 2006a)
A model in which all or most of the inancial services a consumer might want are provided within a single corporate structure. (Gordon & Mulligan, 2005)
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U nifor m Sa m pling U nive rsa l De sc ript ion Disc ove r y a nd I nt e grat ion (U DDI )
of the server, and the relative path to the resource on the server. (Manolopoulos et al., 2005)
Uniform Sampling
1: A random sample of k tuples of a database, where each subset of k tuples is equally likely to be the sample. (Das, 2005) 2: All objects or clusters of objects are drawn with equal probability. (Hou, Guo, et al., 2005)
Univariate/Multivariate
A univariate (or monothetic) method processes a particular attribute independently of the others. A multivariate (or polythetic) method processes all attributes of the representation space, so it can ix some problems related to the interactions among the attributes. (Muhlenbach & Rakotomalala, 2005)
Universal Access
1: Communal access to telephone and other ICT services usually measured by indicators such as distance, population, and time. (Frempong & Braimah, 2005) 2: Provision of ICT services to all of a countrys households through shared facilities. (Cecchini, 2005) 3: The availability of information and communication technologies such as telephones, computers, and the Internet to the widest range of potential users. (Mwesige, 2005)
UNION Query
By inserting the key word UNION between multiple SQL SELECT statements, the resulting rows from these statements are appended into a single result set (provided the number and data types of the columns match). (Millet, 2005)
Unique Knowledge
Knowledge that is irm speciic and applies to the possession by social actors of knowledgeself-knowledge and skillsbased knowledgeof unique organizational routines, production processes, and IT infrastructures, to mention a few. (Butler & Murphy, 2006)
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and discover each other. It is similar to a traditional phone books yellow and white pages. (Lalopoulos et al., 2005b) 8: A Web-based distributed directory for discovery of Web services offered by companies. It is similar to a traditional phone books yellow and white pages. (Nicolle et al., 2005) 9: Provides a registry for businesses to list themselves on the Internet. It functions as an online version of a telephone books white and yellow pages. (Hawk & Zheng, 2006) 10: The UDDI speciications deine a way to publish and discover information on Web services. At a conceptual level, the information provided in a UDDI business registration consists of three components. First, the white pages component includes address, contact, and known identiiers. Second, the yellow pages component includes industrial categorization based on standard taxonomies. Finally, the green pages component includes the technical information about services that a business exposes. At a business level, the UDDI business registry can be used for checking whether a given partner has particular Web service interfaces, inding companies in a given industry with a given type of service, and locating information about how a partner or intended partner has exposed a Web service. The objective is to become aware of the technical details required for interacting with that service. (Maamar, 2005)
Universal Design
1: A concept or philosophy for designing and delivering products and services that are usable by people with the widest possible range of functional capabilities. (Zaphiris & Kurniawan, 2005) 2: A concept similar to accessible design. Its meaning is broader in that it refers to design that strives to create products that are usable by all people, regardless of age, gender, (dis)ability, handedness, and so forth. Its meaning is narrower in that it seeks one solution to accommodate the needs of all people. (Schmetzke, 2005) 3: An approach to the design of products and environments fostering usability by as many people as possible, without adaptation. (Newell & Debenham, 2005)
Universal Emotions
Mainly after the inluence of Ekman, these six emotions are considered to be universal, in the sense that they are uniformly recognized across different cultures. (Karpouzis et al., 2005)
Universal Service
1: Provision of ICT services to all of a countrys households within their homes. (Cecchini, 2005) 2: Widespread access to telephone and other ICT services normally related to household access. (Frempong & Braimah, 2005)
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promoting universal services and access to historically underserviced areas. One of its most visible instruments is the establishment of MPCCs. (Trusler & Van Belle, 2005)
Unstructured Information
Information that is not well speciied. An example is a free-text description of a certain product that cannot be exhaustively characterized by specific features. (Gangopadhyay & Huang, 2005)
Universal Usability
Concerns research and design activities that enable interfaces to be accessed and used by all users. (Knight, 2006b)
Unsupervised Clustering
Automatic classiication of a dataset in two of more subsets on the basis of the intrinsic properties of the data without taking into account further contextual information. (Liberati et al., 2005)
Unsupervised Learning
1: Learning that occurs when you are given a set of observation with the aim of establishing the existence of classes or clusters in the data. (Awad & Khan, 2005) 2: A machine learning technique that typically treats input objects as a set of random variables. A joint density model is then built for the data set. (Fernndez & Layos, 2005) 3: A machine learning technique, which is used to create a model based upon a dataset; however, unlike supervised learning, the desired output is not known a priori. (Cunningham & Hu, 2005) 4: A speciic type of a learning algorithm, especially for self-organizing neural nets such as the Kohonen feature map. (R., 2005) 5: Learning in the absence of external information on outputs. (Lingras et al., 2005) 6: The task of learning a model that describes a given data set where the attribute of interest is not available in the data. Often, the model is a mixture model, and the mixture component, from which each instance has been drawn, is not visible in the data. (Scheffer, 2005)
Universe of Discourse
1: A collection of all those entities that have been, are, or ever might be in a selected portion of the real world or the postulated world. (Marjomaa, 2005) 2: The application domain of an information model viewed from a semantic perspective. (Artz, 2005c) 3: The environment in which the software artifact will be used. It includes the macrosystem and any other source of knowledge. (Doorn, 2005)
Unlabeled Data
A sequence of training instances without corresponding class labels. (Scheffer, 2005)
Up-Sampling
Inserting L-1 zeros between every two samples. (Mili, 2005)
Unnesting
A particular technique in query rewriting that aims at transforming SQL queries with subqueries in them into equivalent queries without subqueries. Also called lattening. (Badia, 2005a)
Update Time
Time necessary to draw graphical content to display; the update step is part of the displaying pipeline. (Rosenbaum et al., 2006)
Unremarkable Computing
An approach that focuses on designing domestic devices that are unremarkable to users. Here, unremarkable is understood as the use of a device being a part of a routine, because, it is believed, routines are invisible in use for those who are involved in them. (Oulasvirta & Salovaara, 2006)
Uplink
The communication link from an Earth station to a satellite. (Statica & Deek, 2006)
Upper Approximation
In rough sets theory, one of the two sets used to deine a rough or approximate set. The upper approximation
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contains objects that may or may not be in the approximation set. It can be formally deined as the union of the lower approximation and the boundary region. It is the complement of the set of objects deinitely not in the set. (Voges, 2005)
URI: See Uniform Resource Identiication; Uniform Resource Identiier. URL: See Uniform Resource Locator; Universal Resource
Locator.
with which speciied users can achieve speciied goals in a particular environment. (Yong, 2005) 6: Generally regarded as ensuring that interactive products, such as e-commerce applications, are easy to learn, effective to use, and enjoyable from the users perspective. It involves the optimization of user interaction with these interactive products. (Singh, 2005b) 7: How easy an interface design is to understand and use. A user-friendly document will let the user read or play any content at will; it will have unambiguous interactive controls and a clear navigational scheme. (Liu & Tucker, 2005) 8: How effectively site visitors can access a sites informationthings enacted to make a Web site easier to use. (Falk & Sockel, 2005) 9: Usability of hypertext/Web is commonly measured using established usability dimensions covering these categories of usability defects such as screen design, terminology and system information, system capabilities and user control, navigation, and completing tasks. (Theng, 2005) 10: Study of the usefulness of technology as it relates to an individual being able to successfully perform his or her task with ease. Usability is measured through the ability of the technology to do the right job and to do the job right. (Carstens, 2005) 11: The ease and speed with which the user can ind and understand material on the Web site without assistance. (Stodel et al., 2005) 12: The ease with which a user can accomplish a desired task within a Web site. One also talks of a site being user friendly. (Duchastel, 2005) 13: The ease with which a user can learn to operate, prepare inputs for, and interpret outputs of a system or component. (Proserpio & Magni, 2005) 14: The extent to which a product or system can be used by speciied users to achieve speciied goals with effectiveness, eficiency, and satisfaction in a speciied context of use. (De Troyer, 2005) 15: The external quality factor that is deined as a set of attributes that bear on the effort needed for the use and on the individual assessment of such use by a stated or implied set of users. (Xenos, 2006) 16: The capacity of an object to be used within a given course of action. It includes the ease of use of the object for the action and its usefulness or utility for the user to achieve the action. (Blandin, 2005) 17: Addresses the full spectrum of impacts upon user success and satisfaction. Usability is accomplished through user-centered (not necessarily user-driven) design. The usability engineer provides a point of view that is not dependent upon designers goals because the usability engineers role is to act as the users advocate. (Y.-W. Lin, 2005) 18: Refers to how well an application is designed for users to perform desired tasks easily and effectively. (Chan & Fang, 2005)
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U sa bilit y Ba rrie r U se Ca se
Usability Barrier
Technical, cognitive, social, or organizational constraint or bias that decreases usability-data quality, consequently hindering the optimal detection of, and response to, a systems usability deiciencies. (Danielson, 2006a)
Usability Practitioner
A person who designs and evaluates software user interfaces. (Henry, 2006)
Usability Engineering
1: A systematic approach to making software (Web designs) easy to use, thus meeting the needs of the targeted users. (Becker, 2005b) 2: Provides structured methods for optimizing user interface design during product development. (Singh & Kotze, 2006)
Usability Requirement
Related to users satisfaction and the performance of the system. (Furtado, 2005)
USB: See Universal Serial Bus. USB Port: See Universal Serial Bus Port. Use
1: These are the different ways a tool is used. Use is highly cultural and depends upon the context of use and the culture of the social surroundings. (Blandin, 2005) 2: Things people do with mediathe how of media use motivations. (Stafford, 2005)
Usability Evaluation
1: A procedure to assess the usability of an interface. The usability of an interface usually is expressed according to the following ive parameters: easy to learn, easy to remember, eficiency of use, few errors, and subjective satisfaction. (Karoulis et al., 2006) 2: The act of measuring (or identifying potential issues affecting) usability attributes of a system or device with respect to particular users performing particular tasks in particular contexts. (Fortino, 2005) 3: Evaluation focusing on effectiveness, eficiency, and satisfaction with which speciied users can achieve speciied goals in particular environments. (Zaphiris & Zacharia, 2005)
Customer activities and the enjoyment that derives from such activities, particularly in a mass media context. (Stafford, 2005)
Use Case
Used during system analysis to help specify the behavior of a proposed system. A use case is a largely text-based description of a complete transaction as seen from the users perspective. A use case should emphasize what the system will do, not how it will do it, and it should be written in the users language. Thus, use cases are an important communication tool between developers of systems and the intended users. (Dobing & Parsons, 2005)
Usability Fraternity
A group of people that designs and evaluates software user interfaces. (Henry, 2006)
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in reference to system speciications and the extent of coverage of end users tasks supported by the system, but not on end-user performance testing. (Theng, 2005)
Usenet
A worldwide distributed discussion system. It consists of a set of newsgroups with names that are classiied hierarchically by subject. Articles or messages are posted to these newsgroups by people on computers with the appropriate softwarethese articles are then broadcast to other interconnected computer systems via a wide variety of networks. Some newsgroups are moderated; in these newsgroups, the articles are irst sent to a moderator for approval before appearing in the newsgroup. Usenet is available on a wide variety of computer systems and networks, but the bulk of modern Usenet trafic is transported over either the Internet or UUCP. (Kontolemakis et al., 2005)
User
1: A person who works with a computer without bothering about the hows and whys of its functionality, like a person who reports a virus instead of ixing it. (Magagula, 2005) 2: A person who operates a workstation for ones own beneit or for the beneit of ones customer. (Maris, 2005) 3: An individual that is accessing the Web through a browser. (Yao & Xiao, 2005) 4: An individual who interacts with a computer system to complete a task, learn speciic knowledge or skills, or access information. (Ally, 2005c) 5: Individual interacting with the system (ISO 924110). (Bevan, 2006) 6: Anyone with the willingness and capacity to access online e-government services provided for him/her and his/her community peers. Peers could be people with the same interests or similar concerns. (Crdoba, 2006b) 7: Individual who uses online media as a mechanism for accessing, presenting, or exchanging information. (St.Amant, 2005e)
Use Quality
The value of the experience of interacting with a product or service. (Knight, 2006a)
Use Tax
A complementary or compensating tax imposed by all states that impose a sales tax. Use taxes are typically charged on the storage, use, or consumption of goods in the taxing state. Liability to remit use taxes usually falls on the buyer of taxable property or services. Since it is administratively dificult to compel individual selfassessment of use taxes, most of those taxes will go uncollected unless the states can compel sellers to collect them. Signiicantly, a state may impose use tax collection responsibilities on Internet sellers if they have nexus with the state. The use tax is intended to stem the erosion of the sales tax base when a states residents purchase taxable goods or services from sellers located outside of the state. (Raisinghani & Petty, 2005)
User Acceptance
With respect to information technology in general, user acceptance has been conceptualized in several ways. First, it is equated with routinization, the point at which an innovation ceases to be perceived as something unusual and is considered to be a routine part of the process into which it was introduced. Second, user acceptance is equated with time since adoption, implying that an innovation that endures in an organization has been accepted. Finally, user acceptance is equated with usage. Usage is considered an objective measure of acceptance
Usefulness
1: The user is convinced that the use of computers in the workplace is an eficient and effective means to solve problems. (Blignaut et al., 2005) 2: This is debatable. Some make the distinction between usability and usefulness. Although it is impossible to quantify the usefulness of a system, attempts have been made to measure its attainment
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when certain conditions are met: (1) users are motivated to use the system; (2) users have convenient access to the system; and (3) users understand the system and what it can do. (Chen & Lou, 2005)
User Focus
The set of documents corresponding to a user-deined composition of concepts; initially, the entire knowledge base. (Sacco, 2006)
User Goal
The speciic objective that a user wants to solve. In most complex situations, goals form a hierarchy with multiple tiers of subgoals that must be addressed as part of solving the primary goal. (Albers, 2006)
User Belief
One of the viewpoints and opinions that users hold about a domain due to their knowledge and experience. From the interestingness perspective, a pattern that contradicts user beliefs is interesting. Intensity of interestingness increases with an increase in this conlict. (Natarajan & Shekar, 2006)
User Interaction
In multimedia, the act of users intervening or inluencing in designing multimedia presentation. (Guan, 2005d)
User Interface
1: A collection of interaction techniques for input of information/commands to an application, as well as all manner of feedback to the user from the system that allow a user to interact with a software application. (Lumsden, 2005) 2: An aspect of a wireless device or a piece of software that can be seen, heard, or otherwise perceived by the human user, and the commands and mechanisms the user uses to control its operation and input data. (Lawson-Body, 2005) 3: Controls how data and instructions are entered and how information displays on a screen. (Liu & Tucker, 2005) 4: Facilitates the communications between a user (a person) and an information system, and may be tailored uniquely to an individual. (Singh, 2005) 5: The control and information-giving elements of a product, and the sequence of interactions that enable the user to use it for its intended purpose (ISO DIS 20282-1). (Bevan, 2006)
User Collaboration
Voluntary collaborative efforts from users in developing open source software. The collaboration includes looking for bugs, suggesting new features, reviewing/submitting source code, documentation, and offering project administration assistance. (Zhao & Deek, 2005)
User Engineering
A phrase used by IBM to describe an integrated process of developing products that satisfy and delight users. (Sharples, 2006)
User Model
1: A model induced by machine-learning techniques from the available information and patterns of data from the user. This model is used by the system to predict future user actions. (Abhishek & Basu, 2006) 2: A model that captures information about users. User models range from simple collections of information about users to cognitive architectures that attempt to simulate user behavior. (Campos & Harrison, 2006) 3: A model that contains
User Friendliness
Quality of a program or user-interface that is easy to use and appropriate for end users. With graphical interfaces, in particular, human-computer interaction is made easier and more intuitive for end users. (Vaast, 2005)
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information about users characteristics and preferences. (Gaudioso & Montero, 2006) 4: A quantitative description of a users interaction behavior that can be used to describe, predict, and/or simulate user performance on speciic tasks. (Keates et al., 2006) 5: Representation of the preferences and the state of knowledge of the user (to be used as a basis for adaptation). (Houben et al., 2006)
User Modeling
1: The process of gathering information speciic to each user either explicitly or implicitly. This information is exploited in order to customize the content and the structure of a service to the users speciic and individual needs. (De Meo, Quattrone, et al., 2005) 2: The process of using analytical or machine learning techniques to create an aggregate characterization of groups of users with similar interests or behaviors. (Mobasher, 2005c) 3: In the context of adaptation, the describing/modeling of the users preferences, interests, usage, and environment. (Knight & Angelides, 2005)
User Proiling
A process for automatic modeling of the user. In the context of Web data, it can be content based, using the content of the items that the user has accessed, or collaborative, using the ways the other users access the same set of items. In the context of text mining, we talk about user proiling when using content of text documents. (Mladeni, 2005)
User Resistance
Any user behavior, action, or lack of action that inhibits the development, installation, or use of an information system. (Mullany, 2005)
User Satisfaction
The overall affective evaluation by an end user of his or her experience with a computer or information system; generally measured with a Likert scale. (Hantula, 2005)
User Proile
1: A data log representing a model of a user that can be used to ascertain behavior and taste preferences. (Parmar & Angelides, 2005) 2: A description of the range of relevant skills of potential end users of a system. (Jaspers, 2006) 3: A model of a user representing both the users preferences and behavior. (De Meo, Quattrone, et al., 2005) 4: A proile on a portal for each user that deines customization for that user. (Wojtkowski, 2006) 5: System-level representation (model) of a user, used for customizing system responses. (Koutrika, 2005) 6: The proile contains all the data associated with the user or learner, for example, educational background, preferences, learning aims, competitive level, and so forth. (Leung & Li, 2005) 7: Speciies what data and network resources a user can access and the type of access. (Paraskevi & Kollias, 2006) 8: With a large number of customers, a service provider may need to analyze its customers in terms of a list of identiied business-critical factors. A user proile is a dynamically maintained data repository that groups user behaviors and classiies them into different categories according to their attributes such as age, gender, profession, and so forth, so that the user
User Session
A delimited set of user clicks across one or more Web servers. A click corresponds to a page on the Web server, which is uniquely identiied by an URI (Universal Resource Identiier). (Yao & Xiao, 2005)
User Study
Any of the wide variety of methods for understanding the usability of a system based on examining actual users or other people who are representative of the target user population. (Roibs, 2006b)
User Testing
A family of methods for evaluating a user interface by collecting data from people actually using the system. (Roibs, 2006b)
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User Tracking
An automated logging mechanism that stores and retrieves information on a users progress as he or she advances through the courses on an e-learning system. (Quah, Leow, Soh, 2006)
drive development and designs, and to improve the usability and usefulness. (Y.-W. Lin, 2005)
User-Centered Evaluation
An evaluation carried out with users in mind. (Zaphiris & Zacharia, 2005)
User View
A subset of the external schema for querying the coursematerial knowledge base; the subset is usually deined based on the corresponding user proile for extracting relevant data and information. (Leung & Li, 2005)
User-Centered Design
1: A client or user-centered philosophy in which the individual is at the center of an iterative design process encompassing multiple factors in an interaction between user and information product. UCD considers cognitive, sociocultural, political, and technological factors involved in deining user tasks and goals that drive the design and development of software, Web sites, information systems, and processesanything with which people interact. UCD is concerned with the usefulness, usability, desirability, legibility, learnability, accessibility, and meaningfulness of an information product. (Campbell, 2005) 2: A method for designing ease of use into a product by involving end users at every stage of design and development. (Keates et al., 2006) 3: A well-established process of designing technology that meets users expectations or that involves potential users in the design process. (Sharples, 2006) 4: An approach to the design of system interfaces that seeks to ensure technology matches users needs and supports the tasks that users would like to perform. (Porter, 2006) 5: A philosophy that places the person (as opposed to the thing) at the center of the design process. (Zaphiris & Kurniawan, 2005) 6: Puts the user into the center of the software design process. (Zaphiris et al., 2005) 7: The real users and their goals, not just technology, should be the driving force behind the development of a product. (Singh, 2005b) 8: An approach to software development that advocates maintaining a continuous user focus during development, with the aim of producing a software system with a good usability level. (Ferre et al., 2006) 9: A software process that seeks to answer questions about users and their tasks and goals, then uses the indings to
1: Any type as deined through the use of some basic constructors, such as CREATE TYPE. The objectrelational model provides user-deined type in an attempt to make the system more customizable for applications with particular requirements of the data representation. (Badia, 2005d) 2: A named data type deined by a user. It can contain a list of attributes, in which case it is said to be a structured type (or object type, in Oracle). It is an abstraction of a real-world entity. It can also provide explicitly deined methods that implement operations with the entity. (Zendulka, 2005b) 3: Any data type formed by the users contained of any other data type and usually including the routines. (Pardede et al., 2005)
User-Deined Type
User-Developed Application
An information system developed by a user-developer. The system is often small and dedicated to a speciic task in the user-developers working environment. (Avdic, 2005)
User-Developer
A person who develops user-developed applications that support the user-developer in his work. The user-developer has deep (often tacit) knowledge about, and is often (partly) responsible for (part of) the organization the system is to serve. (Avdic, 2005)
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events with mobile phones. The main application is wireless emergency call service (WECS), in which wireless carriers pinpoint mobile users when they dial emergency numbers and deliver their emergency calls as well as location information to local public-safety answer points. (Sun, 2005)
over the Internet, and are charged according to resource usage. (Feuerlicht & Vorisek, 2006)
Utopia
1: A real or imagined society, place, or state that is considered to be perfect or ideal. (Macfadyen, 2006b) 2: Imaginary place or state of things in which everything is perfect. (Signoret, 2006)
UUCP: See Unix-to-Unix Copy. UUID: See Universally Unique ID. UWEP Utilitarian
Plain, practical, useful. (Bridges et al., 2006) An incremental association rule algorithm. Such algorithms use the information obtained in previous association rule processing to reduce the amount of dataset scans when new transactions are added. (Imberman & Tansel, 2006)
Utilitarian/Economic Consumer
Consumer who considers the shopping expedition as a task to be fulilled; the consumer is goal oriented, does not derive pleasure from the act of shopping, and values quick shopping expeditions. (Scarpi & DallOlmo-Riley, 2006)
Utilitarianism
The philosophical view that the moral act is the one that results in the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of people. (Gilbert, 2005)
Utile
Numerical utility value, expressing the true worth of information. Such values are obtained by constructing a special utility function. (Sundaram & Portougal, 2005b)
Utility
1: The extent to which the system provides the right kind of functionality so that users can do what they need or want to do. (Yong, 2005) 2: The quality or condition of being useful (usefulness). (Croasdell & Wang, 2006) 3: Measures the degree of usefulness of an object. Classical economical theories consider that the utility of an object and the available quantity of this object determine its price. (Blandin, 2005)
Utility Computing
Computing services are provided on demand by a provider organization that uses its computers and facilities. Customers access the computers via a private network or
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V
V Model
1: A modified system development lifecycle which emphasizes quality assurance. (Steinbach & Knight, 2005) 2: A model for training that aligns the business context and needs with the evaluation strategy. (Waddington et al., 2005)
Valid Time
1: Designates when data values become valid. (Tansel, 2005) 2: The time when a fact (i.e., a statement with an associated truth value) is true in the modeled reality. (Rodrguez-Tastets, 2005b)
Validation
1: The process of determining whether an expert system to be used in an administrative process is correct. This involves a combination of methods of which the most important are: letting domain experts verify the knowledge in the knowledge base, using automated procedures to check the system for consistency, and applying the system to a larger number of test cases. (Svensson, 2005) 2: The process of showing the correspondence between the physical system and the simulated system is within acceptable tolerances of output performance. Validation relies on statistical conirmation of the simulated output to it the behavior exhibited by a target, physical system. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005) 3: Ensuring that the assumptions used in developing the model are reasonable in that, if correctly implemented, the model would produce results close to that observed in real systems. Model validation consists of validating assumptions, input parameters and distributions, and output values and conclusions. (Al-Hanbali & Sadoun, 2006)
Valence Model
Model showing that the overall attractiveness of an application to a user is the summation of the products of the attractiveness of those outcomes associated with the application and the probability that the application will produce those outcomes. (Chen & Lou, 2005)
Valid Scope
The area within which the data instance is the only answer with respect to a location-dependent query. (Xu, 2006)
Validation Tool
One of the tools available for semi-automatic validation of Web site accessibility. Such tools test only the code syntax and style sheets, without considering semantic aspects where the human control is needed. (Costagliola, Di Martino, Ferrucci, et al., 2006)
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Validity
1: A measure for assessing usability inspection methods. Determined by dividing the number of real problems found by the Usability Inspection Method (UIM) by the number of problems predicted by the UIM. (Woolrych & Hindmarch, 2006) 2: An assessment is valid if it measures what is intended to be measured. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005) 3: Extent to which a measure correctly represents the desired concept. (Witta & Lee, 2005)
Validity Time
A time interval within which the message remains valid, available, and useful to its recipients. After the validity time of a message, the message becomes useless and may be discarded. The notion of validity time is important in multimedia communication. (Yang et al., 2005b)
Value
1: A fair return or equivalent in goods, services, or money for something exchanged. (Ryan, 2005) 2: The amount a buyer is willing to pay for a product or service. A business can add value by being low-cost providing, meaning providing a unique or differentiated product or service or illing a niche market. (Darbyshire & Burgess, 2005) 3: The beneits that stakeholders derive from experiencing an enterprises products, services, experiences, and knowledge. Perceptions of value are shaped by: (1) outcomes, (2) experiences, and (3) cost. (Norris, 2005) 4: The beliefs that people carry, formed of identity, national culture, behavior, and understanding that translate into organizational values at the corporate level, formed of common understanding at work. (Huq et al., 2006) 5: Deined as desirable states, objects, goals, or behaviors transcending speciic situations and applied as normative standards to judge and to choose among alternative modes of behavior. (Zakaria & Yusof, 2005)
distribution, and sales of components, equipment, raw materials, and so forth to manage a series of resource and information low. (D. Kim, 2005) 3: A string of diverse companies working together to create or satisfy market demand for a particular product or a bundle of products. (Braun, 2005a) 4: The sequence of business processes and functions through which value (utility) is added to products and services. It can be useful to consider such value chains to understand how they work, and how they can be improved and dis-intermediated. (Gordon & Lin, 2005) 5: Refers to the way value is added to a product or service along the supply chain, from inbound logistics, through operations (manufacturing), outbound logistics, marketing, and sales and service. (Marshall & Gregor, 2005) 6: The activities of a corporation such as procurement, production, marketing and sales, and customer support. (Scupola, 2005) 7: The fundamental organizational processes that add value to the product or service that is produced by a company. (Mendonca, 2005) 8: The interconnection of business processes via resources that low between them, with value being added to the resources as they low from one process to the next. (Dunn & Grabski, 2005) 9: The visualization of an organization as a sequential array of processes or activities that convert uninished inputs into inished outputs. (Bahn, 2006)
Value Activity
A physically and technologically distinct activity that the company performs and which adds value to a product or service. (Jeffcoate, 2005)
Identiies nine generic, distinct categories of activity that an organization performs in the course of doing business, whichif performed better than competitorscan yield a competitive advantage for the organization. (Holsapple & Jones, 2006)
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implies a irms ability to produce and deliver customervalued outcomes. The test of value creation is whether customers are willing to pay for a irms products and services under conditions of wide competitive choices open or available to them. Other modes are: creation value by globalizing deeply embedded local knowledge and converting knowledge to strategic knowledge to create shareholder wealth. These two value creation ways focus on a irms employees and investors. (Cepeda-Carrin, 2006)
Value Proposition
1: Attributes that supplying enterprises provide, through their products and services, to achieve satisfaction and build loyalty with their targeted customers. (Cepeda-Carrin, 2006) 2: The particular value targets articulated by an enterprise for its stakeholders. (Norris, 2005)
Value Delivery
This term (although variable) may generally refer to the delivery of tangible or intangible things of worth or importance. In a product transformation process, this term may refer to eficient processes, and the effectiveness in attaining the right inputs, results, impacts, goals, and so forth, and in managing any relative context. (Barima, 2006a)
Value-Added Service
Telecommunication service with the routing capability and the established additional functionality. (Hulicki, 2005)
Refers to positioning to deliver value to it or exceed expectations of any relatively defined value. This positioning may entail both cognitive and behavioral aspects. (Barima, 2006a)
Value-Based Query
A probabilistic query that returns a single value. (Cheng & Prabhakar, 2005)
Value Network
This term is ambiguous, as the analytical perspective colors its meaning. Nevertheless, the value network in general terms evolves from a supply chain through mutual use of ICT, and more closely linked collaboration and mutual dependency between the partner organizations or independent companies. Collaboration means electronic communication via extranet or Internet, cooperation and coordination of work low, information and knowledge exchange, negotiation and dynamic trading, and joint decision making. Value is derived through the exchanges with partner organizations in the network and its shared knowledge. The value network also aims to deliver the highest value to the end consumer and to its stakeholders. (Richards et al., 2005)
Variable Group
The hosts can create, join to, or leave any group at any time. The communication does not need any control center to coordinate the activity of the hosts. (Hosszu, 2005a)
Variance
A statistical measure of dispersion around the mean within the data. Factor analysis divides variance of a variable into three elementscommon, speciic, and error. (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005)
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Variance Estimation
Average of the sum of the squares of the differences of the values attained by a random variable from its mean. (Zelasco et al., 2005)
Vector Primitive
Geometrical object with certain properties, mostly belonging to one of the basic classes: point, line, or triangle. (Rosenbaum et al., 2006)
Variant
Applied to many structural elements of a database (class, table, constraint, etc.), it is used to deine mutable elements or elements whose modiication is highly probable. An invariant is the opposite of a variant, that is, an element not involved in the evolution of the database. Variants of database objects or object properties can be modiied and can generate versions. (Camolesi & Veira, 2005)
Vector Quantization
A signal compression technique in which an n-dimensional space is mapped to a inite set of vectors. Each vector is called a codeword and the collection of all codewords a codebook. The codebook is typically designed using LindeBuzo-Gray (LBG) quantization, which is very similar to k-means clustering. (Denton, 2005)
Vector Space VC: See Value Chain. VCA: See Value Chain Analysis. VCoP: See Virtual Community of Practice. VCRoD: See Videoconference Recording On-Demand. VDSL: See Very-High-Speed DSL. Vector
A quantity having both direction and magnitude. This quantity can be represented by an array of components in a column (column vector) or in a row (row vector). (Lee, Peterson, et al., 2005) A model that represents every document in a collection with an n-dimensional vector for some constant n. (Meng & Chen, 2005)
Vector Analysis
In vector analysis, all operations are possible, because features in one theme are located by their position in explicit relation to existing features in other themes. The complexity of the vector data model makes for quite complex and hardware-intensive operations. (Sadoun, 2006) 1: A vector graphic ile contains all the calculations to redraw an image onscreen. A vector graphics ile size remains small, and the image can be scaled to any size without any degradation to image quality. (Szabados & Sonwalkar, 2005) 2: Approach for the description of graphical content by vector primitives. (Rosenbaum et al., 2006)
Vectorization
The representation of objects in a class by a inite set of measures deined on the objects. (Caramia & Felici, 2005)
Vector Graphic
Vendor Lock-In
A situation where a software product is dependent on a single vendors implementation of a technology. (Sowe et al., 2005)
Vector Model
A model to measure the relevance between a document and a query, based on sharing distinctive words. (Navarro, 2005)
Created by a vendor in order to ix bugs in the packaged software, adapt to new legal requirements, impose the
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vendors maintenance-support strategy and upgrade path availability, and provide additional enhancement to business process functionality and meet user requirements. (Ng, 2005)
one matching process for determining whether the user is indeed the one he/she claims he/she is. (Li, 2006)
Version
A set of variations of an object with a high degree of similarity. Document versions are never completely equal, but they are similar enough so as to be recognizable as the same document. (Martnez-Gonzlez, 2005)
Venture Capital
A general term to describe inancing and investing for startup and early stage businesses. (Hwang & Stewart, 2006)
Venture Capitalist
To provide funds and other assistance to start-up ventures. (Craig, 2006b)
Version Control
Set of mechanisms that support object evolution in computer applications. (Martnez-Gonzlez, 2005)
Venture Deal
Statement of what entrepreneurs are giving up and what the new venture is receiving in return; covers inancing amount(s), method and timing of release(s), terms and conditions, equity given up, and so forth; usually starts with a term sheet. (Craig, 2006a)
Provides online applications customized for a speciic industry such as staff or operations scheduling for hospitals, material procurement for the steel industry, and so forth. (D. Kim, 2005) Classiication systems can be divided into horizontal and vertical classiication systems. Vertical classiication systems concentrate on a certain part of a domain, but they tend to deine this part in a very detailed way. An example for a vertical classiication system is ETIM, which was deined for classifying electro-technical products. (Abels & Hahn, 2006)
Veriication
1: A one-to-one match with a biometric takes place during which the user must claim an identity irst and then is checked against his or her identity (also referred to as authentication). (Lowry, Stephens, et al., 2005) 2: Comparing the two biometric templates (enrollment template and veriication template) and giving the validity of the claimed identity as to whether both are from the same person or not. This is a one-to-one comparison. (Vatsa et al., 2005) 3: The process of determining the correctness of the programmed components in terms of typographical errors, numerical accuracy, algorithm completeness, and logical unity. Veriication covers all aspects of logical, syntactic, and semantic debugging of computer programs. (Vitolo & Coulston, 2005) 4: The process of determining whether or not the products of a speciication phase fulill a set of established requirements. Sometimes this is also used to indicate the process of proving that a more concrete speciication preserves the properties of a more abstract speciication. (Dasso & Funes, 2005) 5: The process of inding out whether the model implements the assumptions considered. A veriied computer program, in fact, can represent an invalid model. (Sadoun, 2006) 6: A one-to-
The process of inding patterns and knowledge from data organized in vertical formats, which aims to address the scalability issues. (Perrizo, Ding, Ding, et al., 2005)
Vertical Decomposition
A process of partitioning a relational table of horizontal records to separate vertical data iles, either to attribute level or bit level, usually retaining the original record order in each. (Perrizo, Ding, Serazi, et al., 2005)
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Vertical Disintegration
Differentiation or unbundling of the functions of an organization, enabling these functions to be either outsourced or dealt with by partners in strategic alliances; for example, instead of an organization having its own IT department, it may outsource this function to a specialist IT service provider. (Marshall & Gregor, 2005)
signals from a ground-station computer that acts as a hub that controls the entire operation of the network. (Latchem, 2005) 2: A very small earth station used for receipt of broadcast transmission of data or video, as well as interactive communication with a host computer or database for a multitude of applications. (Songan et al., 2005) 3: A transceiver used to receive signals from and transmit signals to the satellite. (Gnaniah, Yeo, et al., 2005)
Viability
The ability of a system to maintain a separate existence. Most organizations are continuously trying to maintain their viability. (Achterbergh, 2005b)
Usually based around a speciic industry, it aims to aggregate information relevant to these groups of closely related industries to facilitate the exchange of goods and services in a particular market as part of a value chain. (Tatnall et al., 2006)
Vicarious Learning
Learning via exposure to the learning experiences of others. The claim is that processes such as reinforcement, explanation, correction, and so forth can be effective for the observer as well as for the original participant. These processes are especially evident in learning dialogues, hence dialogue becomes a focus in studying vicarious learning. (J.R. Lee, 2005)
Vertical Portal
A portal providing content that is of interest to speciic markets or demographic categories. (Vrazalic & Hyland, 2005)
Video Adapter
An integrated circuit card in a computer or, in some cases, a monitor that provides digital-to-analog conversion and a video controller so that data can be sent to a computers display (alternate terms include graphics card, display adapter, video card, video board, and almost any combination of the words in these terms). (Bochicchio & Fiore, 2005)
Vertically focused application service providers offering industry-speciic applications are also emerging. Their basic premise is that each industry (health, inance, transportation) has its own unique set of characteristics that can best be served by companies that focus exclusively on the given industry. (Guah & Currie, 2005)
Video Analysis
Analysis of videorecordings of the user/computer interactions with the aim to detect usability problems of the computer system. (Jaspers, 2006)
A process of inding correlations and patterns previously unknown from large video databases. (Oh et al., 2005)
Video Indexing
The selection of indices derived from the content of the video to help organize video data and metadata that represents the original video stream. (Farag, 2005b)
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V ide o M a pping V ie w
Video Mapping
A system is allowing the mapping of an audio, video movie, or animation on to the surface of a 3D object. A progressive video mapping system allows a user to collect color video and infrared data which includes exact location information on every recorded frame via GPS (global positioning system), and links this to computerized graphical information systems. (Modrk & Marcn, 2006)
Video Shot
A sequence of contiguous video frames taken using the same camera. (Farag, 2005b)
to connect two or more sites together in such a way that both ends see and hear each other synchronously. (Baxendale, 2005) 7: Two-way, interactive communication of audiovideo data that occurs in real time between participants located in two or more locations. (Dudding, 2005) 8: The use of information and communications technology to allow people at different locations to hear, see, and speak to one another. It often includes the sharing of documents and textual communications. (Chan, Tan, et al., 2005) 9: A video communications session among three or more people who are geographically separated. (Parikh & Parolia, 2005) 10: Engages communication and transmission between two or more persons/parties in different geographical locations via video and audio through a private network or Internet. It allows face-to-face conversations. (Nandavadekar, 2005) 11: This technology allows people in two or more distance locations to speak with each other simultaneously. It allows users to discuss ideas when face-to-face interaction is desired but not possible. (Gillani, 2005b) 12: A conference between two or more participants at different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. (Hazari, 2006)
A VoD system which is also able to dump and archive networked media streams. (Fortino, 2005)
Videogame
An interactive game played on a stand-alone arcade machine or home console. (Ip & Jacobs, 2006)
Videoconferencing
1: A synchronous audio-visual connection where two or more geographically separated parties can see and hear each other, which usually involves a TV and/or computer, speakers, microphones, and one or more cameras; a video phone. (Dell, 2005) 2: Conducting a conference between two or more participants at different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. (Kabene et al., 2005a) 3: Electronic technique used to allow three or more people at two or more or more locations to communicate. (Lateh & Raman, 2005) 4: Information technology tool that transfers video (closed-circuit television) as well as audio, and is used by two or more people working together at different physical locations for collaboration in real time. (Ribire & Romn, 2006) 5: The use of multimedia elements, digital cameras, and microphones to capture video and sound, and transmit it live to other users who will receive it using their display units and speakers. (Laghos & Zaphiris, 2005a) 6: The use of video and audio technologies
Videotext
Text graphically superimposed on video imagery, such as caption text, headline news, speaker identity, location, and so on. (Aradhye & Dorai, 2005)
View
1: A collection of data whose values either have to be derived from other data (when the view is not materialized), or have been pre-computed from other data and stored (when it is materialized). (Lu, 2005) 2: A named query. (Theodoratos & Simitsis, 2005) 3: A logical representation of information contained in a database. It is an abstract vision of source data. (Cannataro et al., 2005) 4: A view V on S is an assignment of values to the elements of the set. If the assignment holds for the dimensions and measures in a given cell X, then V is a view for X on the set S. (Abdulghani, 2005b) 5: In multiview learning, the available attributes are partitioned
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into two disjoint subsets, or views, which are required to be independent and compatible. (Scheffer, 2005)
Viral Marketing
View Deinition
Maps the view schema into view domain (data sources) using a view deinition language. Typically an SQL-like query language is used to map data from sources to views. (Cannataro et al., 2005)
1: A recent contribution to the marketing mix that uses technical networks such as the Internet or mobile phone network, to start an epidemic that spreads an idea or message (the virus infection) through social networks. (Foth, 2005) 2: When individuals forward information online to each other so that it spreads exponentially like a virus or rumor. (Goldsmith, 2006) 1: Being such in force and effect, though not actually or expressly such. (Rollier & Niederman, 2005) 2: Images and text messages that only appear on a screen and are experienced as real thanks to advanced technology. (Srinivasan, 2006) 3: Simulated; performing the functions of something that is not really there. For example, virtual classroom space refers to a simulated, electronic classroom space created on a Web site rather than a physical space in a physical location. (Riffee & Sessums, 2005) 4: The three-dimensional and multimodal simulation or abstraction of a comprehensible situation that has some degree of perceived interactivity. (Champion, 2006b) 5: Without physical place. (Ridings, 2006a) 6: Being or acting as what is described, but not accepted as such in name or oficially. (Signoret, 2006) A network of business organizations that share a common interest of conducting business-to-business electronic commerce over the Internet. (Turner, 2006)
View Domain
Deines the data sources on which views are built and contains the origins of data. (Cannataro et al., 2005)
Virtual
View Maintenance
When the base data of materialized views is updated, the values of the views need to be updated accordingly. This process of keeping materialized views consistent with their base data is knows as view maintenance. (Lu, 2005)
The sum of the cost of propagating each source relation change to the materialized views. (Theodoratos & Simitsis, 2005)
View Monotonicity
A query Q is view monotonic on view V if for any cell X in any database D such that V is the view for X for query Q, the condition Q is FALSE for X implies that Q is FALSE for all X`X. (Abdulghani, 2005b)
Virtual Campus
View Schema
Describes how data are represented in the view both structurally and logically. (Cannataro et al., 2005)
An institution-based interactive online learning environment that may be supported either by dedicated computer conferencing software or on the Internet. (Newell & Debenham, 2005)
View Validation
Deciding whether a set of views is appropriate for multiview learning. (Muslea, 2005)
Viewing Position
Web-based, customizable e-learning environment that integrates a variety of educational tools with interfaces to accommodate the technology competencies of the user and his or her learning needs. (Boateng & Boateng, 2006a)
The point in three-dimensional space where the user is positioned to view the data. There is also an associated direction where the user is looking. (Cottingham, 2005)
Virtual Character
Synthetic representation of an entity (humans, animals, plants) able to be animated. (Prteux & Preda, 2005)
Violation
An action that is in opposition to either the community normative state or a local policy. (Bertino et al., 2006)
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learners to interact in pursuit of an instructional objective and to access supporting materials such as books and blackboards. The use of linked computers makes it possible for such interaction to take place without the physical presence of teachers and learners, or any instructional materials or devices such as books and blackboards. The Internet now provides a global infrastructure for this so that the terms have become synonymous with holding classes, lectures, seminars, and tutorials on the Internet. (Rajasingham & Tifin, 2005)
participants work in their own computers but share data and information by means of a users interface. (Xodo, 2005)
Virtual Classroom
1: A classroom without physical space; a classroom deined by its participants, content, and afiliation. (Reilly, 2005) 2: A set of tools for communication support that allows collaboration between participants in the educational process (i.e., lecturers, tutors, learners) and gives them an impression of learning in a community. (Rugelj, 2005) 3: An Internet-mediated forum for distribution of learning materials, classroom discussion, and collaborative working. (Grasso & Leng, 2005) 4: An online learning space where students and instructors interact. (Soh & Jiang, 2006) 5: A Web-based environment that allows students to participate in live training events without the need to be physically in the same place. In a virtual classroom, one listens to lectures, participates in lab exercises, asks questions to teachers or students, and receives feedback just as you would do in a conventional classroom. (Agosti, 2005)
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(1) it exists in cyberspace, and the communication between the members of the community is computer mediated; (2) it uses communication technologies, such as e-mail, message boards, blogging, and online chatting, for communication; (3) it develops largely through the activeness and interests of their participants. The content of virtual communities is formed through the communication between the members of such communities; and (4) it leads its members to form sustained relationships as a result of their interaction. (Hassan & Hietanen, 2006)
An individual or organization providing inancial, technical, and/or ideological support to a virtual community in an effort to keep it vibrant and active or to increase its ability to address issues on behalf of its members. (Baim, 2006d)
Virtual Document
A document (intellectual entity) that exists in the conscience of individuals, but of which there is no physical copy available. (Martnez-Gonzlez, 2005)
Virtual Education
1: A distance education system that has the virtue to improve the learning process exclusively using new information and communication technologies. (Barrera, 2005) 2: Includes aspects of both online and e-learning, but goes somewhat further. While it is largely Web-centric, it does not necessarily limit itself to learners outside a conventional classroom. It uses multimedia and, besides delivering content, also enables a high level of interaction among learners, content, teachers, peers, and administration both synchronously and asynchronously. (Torres-Coronas, 2005)
Virtual Enterprise
1: A temporary alliance of existing enterprises or organizations that share skills, competencies, and resources in order to better respond to some common business goals and whose cooperation is supported by computer networks. (Rolland & Kaabi, 2006) 2: A temporary business organization set up between trading partners operating from geographically dispersed sites for the duration of a common project. The design and manufacture of new
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V ir t ua l Ent it y V ir t ua l Le a r ning
products or services frequently require the talents of many specialists. When many corporations combine their specialties to create a product or service, the result can be called a virtual enterprise. A virtual enterprise must be able to form quickly in response to new opportunities and dissolve just as quickly when the need ceases. (Wong, 2005) 3: A temporary network of independent enterprises or enterprise units, connected by new communication and information technology, to share technical competences, costs, and risks accessing thus to new markets, answering to a speciic business opportunity. (Pires et al., 2006) 4: Set of economic actors, mainly enterprises, that combine their strengths to provide a speciic service traditionally provided by a single enterprise. (Protogeros, 2006) 5: Refers to an enterprise that consists of groups of people working together on an undertaking, regardless of their physical location, across enterprises and countries, in real time (synchronously) or deferred time (un-synchronously). (Tahinakis et al., 2006) 6: A virtual corporation or enterprise is formed from a pool of competencies and capabilities resulting from a club of pre-qualiied partners that may be expanded or contracted through the mutual desires of the club. The management body for a virtual enterprise selects partners, from the pool of competence available, to provide products or comprehensive services to any industry in direct competition to single companies or other virtual enterprises. It is necessary to have strong collaborative relationships between partners in the club. The virtual enterprise may exist only on a temporary basis to take market chances, for example tendering. It may also exist for a longer term for optimization of a value network to service a market need. (Richards et al., 2005)
Virtual Facility
Conceptual representation of an actual commercial or business site. (Raisinghani & Hohertz, 2005)
Virtual Group
A group of people who may never actually meet, but who use ICT to enable them to interact and perhaps work together in a virtual way. (Taylor et al., 2005)
Virtual Identity
Representation of the individual in a virtual environment. The form of representation varies across virtual environments and may range from a pseudonym only (Internet relay chat), a pseudonym combined with a character description (multi-user dimensions), through to graphical representations, or avatars, in graphics-based environments. An individual may have multiple virtual identities. (Roberts et al., 2005)
Virtual Integration
The amalgamation of the organizations respective capacities, irrespective of time, effort, and distance barriers, enabling the realization of a more competitive advantage. (Kamel, 2005b)
Virtual Interaction
Computer-mediated interaction between persons who do not occupy the same physical space. (Murphy, 2005c)
Virtual Entity
An entity with a virtual life, generally supported by computational means and artifacts, with the ability to learn, communicate, and interact with other entities (virtual or real). It is characterized by properties like anthropopathy and autonomy. (Analide et al., 2006)
Virtual Laboratory
1: An experiment is set up in the remote laboratory for users to access through the Internet at any time and any place. Compared to a traditional laboratory, a virtual laboratory is particularly useful when some experiments involve equipment that may cause harmful effects to human beings. Another meaning of virtual lab is to implement the laboratory by means of software simulation. (Chu, 2005) 2: A computer-accessible laboratory that may be simulated by running a software package or that may involve real remote experimentation. (Ko et al., 2005) 3: Used for virtual experimentation and can provide a problemsolving environment to scientists. It can enable a group of scientists to collaboratively work on problems under study and assist them throughout their experimentations. (Unal et al., 2006)
Virtual Environment
1: A 3D computer-synthesized world in which a user can navigate, interact with objects, and perform tasks. (Sadeghian et al., 2006) 2: A place that is rendered to provide the illusion of a 3D environment, which is replicated on the Internet. (Dara-Abrams, 2006)
Virtual Experience
A psychological and emotional state consumers undergo when interacting with visual products; an indirect experience in which the product affordances do not originate from the sensory and motor systems, but are provided by interactive virtual images/simulations. (Scarpi & DallOlmo-Riley, 2006)
Virtual Learning
Simulated; especially simulated by electronic technology, for example, a virtual paradise, meaning a computer
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the e-learning application that delivers the course to the learner. (ODea, 2005) 5: A set of teaching and learning tools designed to enhance a students learning experience by including computers and the Internet in the learning process. The principal components of a VLE package include curriculum mapping, student tracking, online support for both teacher and student, electronic communication, and Internet links to outside curriculum resources. There are a number of commercial VLE software packages available, including Blackboard, WebCT, Lotus LearningSpace, and COSE. (Torres-Coronas, 2005) 6: Groupware system that has been developed to replace or supplement conventional classroom-based education. (Diamadis & Polyzos, 2005) 7: System on the Internet whose functions enable learning situations through information and communication technologies. (Beuschel et al., 2005)
Virtual Library
1: The aggregated digital learning resources and associated librarian-assisted services that support the curricula and degree programs of online, virtual universities. (Garten, 2005) 2: More than just a means of collocating electronic resources (full-text materials, databases, media, and catalogs), a virtual library also provides user assistance services, such as reference, interlibrary loan, technical assistance, and so forth. (Burke et al., 2005) 3: Services and resources that are provided in a digital or electronic format and accessed via a computer either in a library or remotely from another workstation. (Hanson, 2005)
Virtual Machine
A software system that enables a collection of heterogeneous computers to be used as a coherent and lexible concurrent computational resource. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005)
Virtual Marketplace
A simulation of the real marketplace where buyers and sellers meet to negotiate transactions. (Guan, 2006h)
Virtual Me
A framework that uses Internet technologies to structure a personal portfolio and allows external users to add annotations. A sniplet is its basic unit, and digital assets are structured as multimedia objects. (Verhaart & Kinshuk 2006)
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Virtual Mobility
1: Movement of electronic data and information between locations, which includes telephone calls, e-mails, Internet searches, and so forth. (Jain & Lyons, 2005) 2: The use of the Internet to access activities without recourse to physical mobility by the person undertaking the activity. (Kenyon, 2005)
Virtual Museum
A collection of digitally recorded images, sound iles, text documents, and other data of historical, scientiic, or cultural interest that are accessed through electronic media. A virtual museum does not house actual objects, and therefore lacks the permanence and unique qualities of a museum in the institutional deinition of the term. (Dez-Higuera & Daz-Pernas, 2005)
Virtual Nation
Nation whose cohesiveness and boundaries are provided by television, transnational pop culture, tourist attractions, and Internet chat groups. (Srinivasan, 2006)
Virtual Network
A form of network that provides virtual circuits and that is established by using the facilities of a real network. The term virtual network is used to refer to the appearance of a single, seamless network system. (Rahman, 2006)
Virtual Networking
1: A form of information exchange that takes place on or is initiated through the Web that simulates the real-world act of building or maintaining a relationship. In terms of virtual business networking, it is a communications transaction initiated on the Web that builds or sustains a working relationship and produces results that are the same as if the event had taken place in the real world. (Rahman, 2005f) 2: A process of using the virtual network to gain access to speciic resources, and exchange of information for mutual beneit relecting an initial level of trust and commitment among participating organizations. (Rahman, 2006)
Virtual Organization
1: A commercial or nonproit enterprise that does not exist as a tangible entity at a single location, nor even at multiple sites, but comprises networked nodes and individuals who are connected solely for the purpose of pursuing that enterprise. (Cargill, 2006b) 2: The translation of the traditional organization to higher realms of work in
terms of distance, time, space, and interaction; typically used to refer to organizations that engage in the use of ICTs to bridge gaps in these four dimensions. (Raja et al., 2006) 3: A contemporary organization form characterized by a temporary collection of geographically dispersed individuals, groups, or organizations that must trust each other and work together with the support of advanced information communication technology in order to explore a business opportunity that could otherwise not be explored. (Wang & Gwebu, 2006) 4: A geographically distributed organization whose members have a long-term common interest or goal bind, and who communicate and coordinate their work through information technology. Virtual organization refers to a temporary or permanent collection of geographically dispersed individuals, groups, organizational unitswhich do or do not belong to the same organizationor entire organizations that depend on electronic linking in order to complete the production process. They are usually working by computer e-mail and groupware, while appearing to others to be a single, uniied organization with a real physical location. (Mezgr, 2006c) 5: An organization in which business partners and teams work together across geographical or organizational boundaries through the use of information technology. A strategy for revolutionizing customer interaction, asset coniguration, and knowledge leverage. (Hassan et al., 2006) 6: A combination of technology, expertise, and networks to support an organization with little physical infrastructure, relying on connections through computer systems rather than shared presence in the same physical location. (DaraAbrams, 2006) 7: A network form of organization that operates across space, time, and organizational boundaries through an intricate Web of information technology. (Zhao, 2005) 8: A network of institutions that, using cutting-edge technology, unite to provide a value-added competitive advantage. (Kamel, 2005b) 9: An ICT-enabled collaboration between legally independent subjects aimed at the joint provision of goods or services, where each partner contributes to speciic activities. It does not aim at achieving an autonomous legal status, but appears as one organization toward third parties. (Cevenini, 2005) 10: An organization in which business partners and teams work together across geographical or organizational boundaries through the use of information technology. It is also a strategy for revolutionizing customer interaction, asset coniguration, and knowledge leveraging. (Hassan & Hietanen, 2006) 11: An organization which relies upon electronic communication between its participants. In the context of small and medium enterprises (SMEs): business structure based upon electronic communication between partners; often characterized by low departmentalization and intensive use of outsourcing. (Pease & Rowe, 2005) 12: Composed of multiple, distributed members temporarily linked together for competitive advantage
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that share common value chains and business processes supported by distributed information technology. (Wei & Wang, 2006) 13: An electronic transformation process for any organization transitioning from a bricks-and-mortar entity to its clicks-and-mortar counterpart, emphasizing the appropriate use of information technologies in the three vectors of virtual encountering the organization, virtual sourcing the tangible and intangible assets of the organization, and virtual expertizing (managing) the knowledge of the organization. (Vat, 2006b) 14: An integrated approach to becoming an extended organization by focusing on customer assets, supplier alliances, and employee empowerment through ICT-enabled knowledge management. (Burn & Ash, 2006)
computer modeling and simulation to enable a person to interact with an artiicial three-dimensional visual or other sensory environment. VR applications immerse the user in a computer-generated environment that simulates reality through the use of interactive devices, which send and receive information and are worn as goggles, headsets, gloves, and so forth. (Dez-Higuera & Daz-Pernas, 2005) 3: 3D digital world, simulating the real one, allowing a user to interact with objects as if inside it. (Sappa et al., 2005) 4: A term often used interchangeably to refer to technical systems and their effects that simulate real and imagined worlds, especially visually, by creating an apparently immersive environment for the user(s). (Lepawsky & Park, 2006) 5: Computer-generated environment that simulates three-dimensional reality. (Arya, 2005) 6: Immersive, interactive, illustrative, and intuitive representation of the real world based on visualization and computer graphic. (Viktor & Paquet, 2005) 7: A modern technology that gives to its users the illusion of being immersed in a computergenerated virtual world with the ability to interact with it. (Sala, 2005b) 8: Simulation of a real environment where users can have feelings of seeing, touch, hearing, and smell. (Terashima, 2005) 9: Uses computer-based technology that creates the illusion of reality, and the user interacts with that environment. The objective is to provide as realistic an environment for the user as possible. (Aurum & Demirbilek, 2006)
Virtual Public
Symbolically delineated computer-mediated space whose existence is relatively transparent and open, allowing groups of individuals to attend and contribute to a set of computer-mediated interpersonal interactions. (Shan et al., 2006b)
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Computer tool which aids the imitations of the real worlds scenarios, places, and so forth which a person could experience or part-take. (Barima, 2006b)
Virtual Reference
Reference service which is initiated electronically, often in real time; patrons employ computers or other Internet technology to communicate with reference staff, without being physically present. Communication channels used frequently in virtual reference include chat, videoconferencing, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP), co-browsing, e-mail, and instant messaging. (Calzonetti & deChambeau, 2006)
only, or a networked university having multiple campuses and offering Net-based learning facilities. (Haugen & Ask, 2005) 10: Depending on a context, the term points to networked universities or open and distance education at the universities. However, distance education is widely used to support face-to-face education, and many Web-based courses combine distance and on-campus learning. (Pys & Lowyck, 2005) 11: A university that delivers courses (typically for credit but also non-credit) primarily online, that is, by networks such as the Internet or intranets, using asynchronous technologies such as computer conferencing or Web-based technologies especially conceived for education. (Sala, 2005a) 12: An online learning community or environment in which distance education takes place through courses and instructional programs offered on the Internet and other technologically enhanced media. (Beck & Schornack, 2005)
Virtual School
1: The term virtual refers to the communication capabilities of these institutions and implies that they can be achieved by means of computers linked by telecommunications which, in effect today means by the Internet. The term virtual is used to contrast the way communications in conventional schools, colleges, and universities requires the physical presence of teachers and learners and instructional materials, and invokes the use of transport systems and buildings. (Rajasingham & Tifin, 2005) 2: A distance learning vehicle. (G. Lang, 2005) 3: A form of schooling that uses online computers for part or all of a students education. (Russell, 2005a) 4: School that offers entire degrees via Internet instruction. (Lazarus, 2005b) 5: All the learning and administration activities are done through e-learning and very minimum physical interactions, or no physical interactions at all. (Fernando, 2005) 6: Institution that exclusively offers distance courses and programs, often on a global scale. (C. Wright, 2005) 7: Post-secondary learning environment characterized by the delivery of courses and degree programs completely via the Internet, without regard to time constraints or location. The term encompasses a broad range of entities and activities, including corporate training centers, individual institutional distance learning initiatives, nonproit and governmental education activities, and state-side and multi-state higher learning collaborations. (Garten, 2005) 8: A loosely deined term, but usually refers to a large, coordinated, degree program offered by one institution or a consortium in which students can take classes at any time and from any global location. (Rollier & Niederman, 2005) 9: A university without one ixed campus; either an institution offering online/Net-based learning
Virtual Space
1: Any space, physical or virtual, is an environment where many different interactions, usually focused on one or a small set of goals, occur. A virtual space is an application that is reachable via a communication network and is organized in a way that allows different people to connect and perform a deined set of activities such as discussions, structured information storage and retrieval, or real-time communication. (Agosti, 2005) 2: Space that is literally in a computers memory but that is designed to resemble or mimic some more familiar conception of space (such as a physical ile or a window or a street). (Murphy, 2005b)
Virtual Store
Store (point-of-sale) on the World Wide Web. (Msiska, 2005)
Virtual Storefront
A commercial enterprise using Internet and Web servers to sell products or services. (Efendioglu, 2006)
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as though the various entities in the chain were all part of the same company. (Aigbedo, 2005)
Virtual Teaching
Students in the virtual teaching environment are given instructions by the lecturer on the requisite technology necessary to accomplish the virtual format of instruction. This technology includes instruction through accessing Web pages, e-mail, the World Wide Web, and newsgroups. To assure student competency, the virtual class may meet sometimes to review the previous instructions, thereby maximizing the ability to carry out the class in the virtual setting. (Chu & Lam, 2006)
Virtual Team
1: A team with members that are not co-located and so use technology to communicate and conduct their work. (This term is predominantly used in the corporate literature and means the same thing as computer-mediated team.) (Graham & Misanchuk, 2005) 2: A given number of people at distributed locations communicating and working to some degree via information and communication technologies on a set project or task, which may be of a limited or unlimited duration. Face-to-face meetings at the start-up of the team or at regular intervals are possible in a virtual team. (Pauleen, 2005) 3: A group of geographically and organizationally dispersed workers brought together across time and space through information and communication technologies. (Long et al., 2005) 4: A group of individuals who work on interdependent tasks, who share responsibility for outcomes, and who work together from different locations (i.e., they are geographically dispersed, in terms of their normal work location). (Staples et al., 2005) 5: A group of people and subteams who interact through interdependent tasks guided by a common purpose and work across space, time, and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by information, communication, and transport technologies. (Hassan et al., 2006) 6: A group of people brought together from different locations who do not meet face-to-face, but work as a team. (Elshaw, 2006b) 7: A group of people who are geographically separated and who work across boundaries of space and time by utilizing computer-driven technologies such as desktop videoconferencing, collaborative software, and Internet/intranet systems. How these teams interact deines them as virtual. (Torres-Coronas & Gasc-Hernndez, 2005) 8: A group of people who are located in different physical locations, who work together to achieve shared goals, supported by technology. (Dara-Abrams, 2006) 9: A group of people working on the same project from different locations linked by computer networks. (OHagan, 2005) 10: A group of remotely situated individuals who rely primarily on electronic communication to work together on group tasks. (Lam et al., 2006) 11: A relatively small,
formally designated, and formally controlled group that generally works together through text-based computermediated means, for example, e-mail, listservs, and so forth. (Wasko & Teigland, 2006a) 12: A social system of three or more people, whose members perceive themselves and are perceived by others as team members, whose members collaborate on a common temporary task, and whose members rarely meet in person, but communicate mainly through telecommunication and information technologies. (Lettl et al., 2006) 13: Consists of members who are scatted in different locations that are across geographical boundaries, and who are working together mainly based upon information technology. (Chuang et al., 2005) 14: A team constructed of collaborative relationships supported by information technology to overcome boundaries of time, location, and organizational boundaries. (Morris et al., 2005) 15: A work unit that is created for the purpose of contributing some function, project, or other output to an organizations mission, but which does not exist in a particular location or place. Remotely located team members are obliged to interact with each other via codiied and acknowledged authority structures, each contributing to the team output by means of electronic and/or telephonic linkages. These connect the team and enable the shared task to be progressed. Virtual teams are often multi-location and international in nature. (Cargill, 2006b) 16: An organizational unit that is unconstrained by geographical, temporal, organizational, and/or national boundaries, and whose members rely upon electronic communication processes to work together both synchronously (e.g., videoconferencing) and asynchronously (e.g., electronic mail) to accomplish their tasks. (Cuevas et al., 2005) 17: In addition to a common purpose as a team, these groups are geographically dispersed with no or a moderate level of physical proximity, who share a common virtual space where they collaborate by means of ICT to fulill the goal of the project. (Hustad & Munkvold, 2006) 18: Team of people who work interdependently across space, time, and organizational boundaries through the use of technology to facilitate communication and collaboration. (Hantula & DeRosa, 2005) 19: Team that works without bounds of time or space, and often with the support of synchronous and asynchronous technologies. Team members are often located in different geographic regions from the manager as well as other team members. (Schaffer & Schmidt, 2006)
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selecting team members; setting team tasks and team member roles; ensuring project or task completion; liaising with stakeholders and clients; establishing communication and team protocols, facilitating interpersonal and team communication, handling conlict, managing technology, and in general ensuring effective participation of all the team members. (Pauleen, 2005)
Virtual Work
1: The combination of task-based, relational, and presence practices conducted by workers who work from a remote location. (P.M. Leonardi, 2005) 2: Work environments where individuals spend some time working in a non-faceto-face (FTF) mode, using information and communication technologies to perform work activities. (Blanger, 2005)
Virtual World
The computer-based, digitally generated, and Internetconnected network space of which principal features include spatiality, temporality, interactivity, physicality, and persistence. (Park & Lepawsky, 2006)
Virtual Textbook
A collection of multimedia learning materials with some additional functionalities, such as interactive computersupported examination and access to dynamically changing information resources. (Rugelj, 2005)
Virtuality
Virtual View
A view that does not contain data is a virtual view. Generally views are virtual and data can only be found in the data sources. Queries against such views are evaluated using view deinition to retrieve results on demand from data sources (view domain). (Cannataro et al., 2005)
Virtual Web
A form of virtual organization that belongs to the typology of dynamic networks and has the following properties: (1) The member organizations of the network perform separate functions that are performed by functional units in traditional organizations. (2) Brokers in a virtual Web combine resources to build business units and subcontract to bring together the necessary functions available in the organization. They play a leading role in building business units and subcontracting for needed services. (3) Internal and external market mechanisms hold the network together and regulate its performance. (4) The information system is open, and there is free access to the Webs joint knowledge base. Companies belonging to the network have integrated their information systems into the networks continuously updated information system via broadband access in return for a general payment structure for the value they add to the network. (Hassan & Hietanen, 2006)
Virtue
An attribute or non-quantitative quality for data nodes. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
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Virtue Chip
The hardware chip that contains the standard table for the virtue nets (virtue map). (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
virus patterns into the software, to enable easy updating. (Luo & Warkentin, 2005)
Virtue Manager
A module within the operating system that manages the virtue net and learns the preferences of the user(s). (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Visibility
1: Points and quality of presence on where potential customers can ind a Web site. (T.S. Chan, 2005) 2: The perception of the actual visibility of the innovation itself as opposed to the visibility of outputs. (Green et al., 2005)
Virtue Map
A table used to store virtue-net pathways. Table values relect attributes in the table. It is dynamically updated in programmable virtue chips. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Visibility of Location
Virtue Net
A set of weighted pathways between data nodes based on various attributes they have in common within a cognitive nodes control. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
In the ield of Web usability, visibility of location refers to letting users know where they are in a Web site, as well as the status of their inputs and navigation. Examples of ways to increase visibility of location include providing a site map, headers, and navigation paths. (Chalmers, 2006)
Virtue Path
A set of virtue links grouped by their relationship to fundamental primary emotions. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Vision
1: A statement of values and beliefs that sets forth the organizations overriding beliefs. (Brabston, 2005) 2: Discernment or foresight to create a path toward excellence, often used in regard to a future state of desired activity, production, or being for individuals, as well as for corporate entities. (Hanson et al., 2005)
Virtue Plane
A virtual plane of existence for each virtue or attribute. (Croasdell & Wang, 2006)
Visual Aging
Takes into account age-related changes in vision that have consequences on daily activities. The consequences may be related to using the Web. (Becker, 2005a)
Visual Attention
1: Attention is a neurobiological conception. It implies the concentration of mental powers upon an object by close or careful observing or listening, which is the ability or power to concentrate mentally. (Hua et al., 2006) 2: The process by which we select the visual information most relevant to our current behavior. In general, of all the visual stimuli we receive, we only attend to a few; this determines what we see. Visual attention controls the selection of appropriate visual stimuli both by pruning irrelevant ones and by guiding the seeking of relevant ones. Research in visual attention aims at understanding the mechanisms by
A ile that provides information to antivirus software to ind and repair viruses. The deinition iles tell the scanner what to look for to spot viruses in infected iles. Most scanners use separate iles in this manner instead of encoding the
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which human sensory and cognitive systems regulate what we see. (Thomas & Roda, 2006a)
Visual Complexity
Graphical effects that evoke curiosity to see more. (Wishart, 2005)
Visual Reconstruction
Computing for each corresponding point pair in the images a point in space. (Ozer et al., 2005)
Visualization
1: Graphical display of data and models facilitating the understanding and interpretation of the information contained in them. (Tzanis et al., 2005) 2: Graphically displayed data from simple scatter plots to complex multi-dimensional representations to facilitate better understanding. (Zhu, 2005) 3: The graphical expression of data or information. (Viktor & Paquet, 2005) 4: To make something visible by means of some representation. A visualization consists of two elements: a mental process and a graphical language. Note that to visualize is different from to see. (Pareja-Flores & Iturbide, 2005) 5: Viewing data in picture form in an attempt to gain a further understanding of the trends and relationships it contains. (Cottingham, 2005) 6: Visualization tools to graphically display data in order to facilitate better understanding of their meanings. Graphical capabilities range from simple scatter plots to three-dimensional virtual reality systems. (Liu, 2005)
Visual Interface
Visual Language
Language characterized by a set of visual sentences, each composed of icons spatially arranged over a twodimensional space. (Polese et al., 2005)
Visual Metaphor
Graphic depiction of seemingly unrelated graphic shape that is used to convey an abstract idea by relating it to a concrete phenomenon. (Eppler & Burkhard, 2006)
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2005) 7: Standard for making telephone calls via an Internet connection. It enables the lexible use of different input devices, including video telephone applications. (Blecker & Graf, 2006) 8: Web-based telephone service. (BedardVoorhees, 2005) 9: Application sending telephone voice calls over the Internet inexpensively, by transforming peoples voices into packet-based data. (Phala, 2005) 1: A technique foriication or identiication based on the users vocal features such as frequency, cadence, and duration of voice pattern. (Li, 2006) 2: A technology that enables computers to recognize the human voice, translate it into program code, and act upon the voiced commands. (Lawson-Body, 2005)
Voice Recognition
Vocational Training
Short (in time) practical mode of instruction, aiming to provide the students with skills with regards to a speciic domain. (Karoulis & Pombortsis, 2005b)
Voice Synthesis
The process that allows the transformation of the text to sound. (Garca et al., 2006)
VOIP: See Voice over Internet Protocol. VOISS: See Virtual Online Instructional Support
System.
Volatility
The most important input to the BlackScholes model (a.k.a. standard deviation of the underlying asset price returns). (Lajbcygier, 2005)
Voluntariness
Degree to which use of an innovation is perceived as being of free will. (Green et al., 2005)
Voluntary Attention
The idea that a person can actively seek out information or things to think about. (Owen, 2006b)
Voluntary Organization
Anonproit-driven, non-statutory, autonomous organization, run by individuals who do not get paid for running the organization. (Bellarby & Orange, 2006)
Volunteer
A person who performs or offers to perform a service on behalf of an organization, cause, beneit, and so forth, out of his or her own free will, often without payment. (Bellarby & Orange, 2006)
Vortal
A vertical portal. A vertical industry, or market, or speciic group portal on the Internet. (Dotsika, 2006)
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Vote Accuracy
Conformity of the output data of a vote-tallying system with logically correct and acceptably precise treatment of all input data provided to the system. (Gibson & Brown, 2006)
Voting
Classiication method based on the combination of several different classiiers obtained by different methods and different data. (Felici & Truemper, 2005)
1: The identiication and quantiication of vulnerabilities in a system that seeks network and information security measures. (Mitrakas, 2006) 2: An examination process of the ability of a system or application, including current security procedures and controls, to withstand an intrusion. A vulnerability assessment may be used to identify weaknesses that could be exploited and predict the effectiveness of additional security measures in protecting information resources from attack. (Cardoso & Freire, 2005)
Voucher
A highly controversial school inance model whereby parents are given vouchers worth a certain amount of money for schools that they can use in any private or public school of their choice. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is considered to be a major testing ground for the impact of voucher programs. (Glick, 2005b)
Vygotskian
A general theory of cognitive development, developed by Vygotsky (1979, 1989) in the 1920s and 1930s in Russia, suggests that: (1) social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition, and (2) consciousness is the end product of socialization, for example, that cognitive development depends upon the zone (contextual) of proximal development. (Faiola, 2006)
VoxML: See Voice Markup Language. VPN: See Virtual Private Network. VR: See Virtual Reality. VREFALS: See Virtual Reality Education for Assisted Learning System. VRML: See Virtual Reality Markup Language; Virtual Reality Modeling Language. VSAT: See Very Small Aperture Terminal. VSM: See Vector Space Model. VSP: See Vertical Service Provider. VTS: See Vehicular Telematics System. Vulnerability
1: This makes a system more prone to attack by a threat, or makes an attack more likely to have some success or impact. For example, for ire, a vulnerability would be the presence of inlammable materials (e.g., paper). (Tong & Wong, 2005a) 2: A systems weakness or error that might allow to penetrate the security barriers. (Weippl, 2006)
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W
W-CDMA
1: A w ideba nd spre a d- sp e ct r u m 3G mobi le telecommunication air interface that utilizes code division multiple access (or CDMA, the general multiplexing scheme). (Wong, 2006) 2: Wideband CDMA is a technology for wideband digital radio communications of multimedia and other capacity-demanding applications. It is adopted by ITU under the name IMT-2000 direct spread. (Akhtar, 2005)
War Game
Learning event that allows simulating the battleield in advance, either in order to test various scenarios or to train decision makers at all levels. (Ariely, 2006b)
Wardriving
Also termed WiLDingWireless Lan Driving, it is an activity whereby individuals drive around an area detecting Wi-Fi wireless networks, which they then can access with a laptop. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006a)
WAAS: See Wide Area Augmentation System. Warranty WAI: See Web Accessibility Initiative. WAN: See Wide Area Network. Waste Exchange System WAP: See Wireless Application Protocol. WAP Gap
A security weakness in WAP. It is caused by the inclusion of the WAP gateway in a security session such that encrypted messages sent by end systems might temporarily become clear text on the WAP gateway when messages are processed. (Lee, Kou, et al., 2005) An e-commerce system for exchanging industrial residues in the form of waste-related information exchange among waste generators, waste recyclers, waste users, and possibly landill managers, which can beneit the society by reducing the total waste volume and facilitating waste reuse, recycle, and disposal. (Chen, Li, et al., 2006) A representation by a vendor regarding the quality of the product. (Sprague, 2005)
Waterfall Model
A modiied system development lifecycle which allows some overlap and splashback between phases. (Steinbach & Knight, 2005)
WAP Stack
A set of protocols that covers the whole process of wireless content delivery, from the deinition of WML and WMLScript for creating and layout of the actual content, and the speciication of security measures in the WTLS to the lowest parts of the stack dealing with the actual transport of content. (Yow & Mittal, 2006)
Watermark
The code hidden into a digital or analog object containing an ID (identiication) code or other pieces of information. The watermark is used for identifying the ields of embedded data (serial numbers, logos, etc.) that tell us who is the owner of the object or supply an ID in order to identify data connected with the digital object. (Nesi & Spinu, 2005)
WAPS
A reusable W2000 interpreter to prototype Web applications. (Paiano, 2005)
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Watermark Embedding
A technique to hide the watermark in the original unwatermarked image, that is, host image. (Sattar & Yu, 2006)
the small detail as noise), or such that the small luctuations are emphasized (with the larger scale luctuations as background). (George, 2005b)
Wayinding
The cognitive element of navigation dealing with developing and using a cognitive map. (Sadeghian et al., 2006)
Watermark Reading
Process of extracting the watermarked code into the watermarked object. (Nesi & Spinu, 2005)
Watermarking
1: A technique for media authentication and forgery prevention. A watermarked media M can be mathematically represented as M =M + W where M is the original media content and W is the embedded watermark. It is common that the extracted watermark W could be different from the original watermark W because of the intentional or unintentional attacks or post processing. To detect the watermark, a watermark detector is used to evaluate the similarity between W and W . (Kwok, 2005) 2: Process of inserting a hidden code or message into a digital or analog object. As opposed to steganography, it has the additional notion of robustness against attacks. As the name suggests, the additional data (the watermark) is added in order to protect the digital document from copyright infringements. Even if the existence of the hidden information is known, it has to be hard for an attacker to destroy the embedded watermark without destroying the data itself. (Nesi & Spinu, 2005)
WBE: See Web-Based Education. WBL: See WBMS: See Web-Based Mentoring System. WBT: See Web-Based Training. WCAG 1.0: See Web Content Accessibility Guidelines. WCDMA-FDD: See Wideband Code-Division Multiple Access, Frequency-Division Duplex. WCET: See Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications. WDM: See Wavelength Division Multiplexing. We Intention
Decision of a person to participate in joint action and which involves an implicit or explicit agreement between the participants to engage in the joint action. (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2005)
We Relations
Relations where we experience others directly, we and they share a common sector of time and space, and thus we and they age together. (Shariq & Vendel, 2006)
Wavelet
1: Mathematical transformations implementing hierarchical decomposition of functions leading to the representation of functions through sets of wavelet coeficients. (Buccafurri & Lax, 2005) 2: A relatively recent mathematical approach extending some of the principles of Fourier analysis for the study of periodic signals, decomposing a signal into its component parts. Wavelets permit the signal to be viewed so that the large-scale luctuations are emphasized (with
Wear-Down Effect
A reduction in the participants favorable responses after repeated exposure to a message. (Xu et al., 2006c)
Wearable Computing
Technology that moves with a user and is able to track the users motions both in time and space, providing real-time information that can extend the users knowledge and
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metrics (e-metrics) to determine the effectiveness of the site content and organization, and to understand the online purchasing decisions of customers. (Mobasher, 2005c)
Web Application
An application that presents the characteristics and the issues of both hypermedia applications and traditional applications. In other words, this kind of application has the navigational issues of Web sites joint to the traditional operation issues. (Paiano, 2005)
Wearable Device
May include a microprocessor worn as a wristwatch or as part of clothing. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006b)
Wearable Sensor
Can be worn and detected by local computing systems. (de Freitas & Levene, 2006b)
Web Bug
A single-pixel, transparent (or sometimes even visible) GIF image that can surreptitiously pass along information about a site user to second party. (Friedman, 2005)
Web Cache
Stores Web content locally to improve network eficiency. (Littman, 2005)
Web Accessibility
1: Presentation of Web-based content in a way that allows disabled users to maximally and equally beneit from the site content. It can be achieved by using some assistive technologies (cfr.). (Costagliola, Di Martino, Ferrucci, et al., 2006) 2: Means that any person, regardless of disabilities, is able to use Web technology without encountering any barriers. (Becker, 2005a)
Web Cast
Communication between one or many persons through electronic media. A communication made on the World Wide Web. (Nandavadekar, 2005)
Web Client
A software program (browser) that is used to contact and obtain data from a server software program on another computer (the server). (Nasraoui, 2005)
Web Collaboration
A particular use of a virtual space where people can connect together in a certain number and perform synchronous activities such as communication (text, audio, and video), polling/surveying, and share or work together on any kind of digital content displayed on a common interface. (Agosti, 2005)
Web Community
Can be described as a collection of Web pages, such that each member node has more hyperlinks (in either direction) within the community than outside of the community. (Mobasher, 2005a)
Web Advertising
Advertising through banners, sponsorships, interstitials, hyperlinks, and pop-up and pop-under windows in the Internet media. (Gao et al., 2006)
Web Conferencing
1: A communication conducted via the WWW between two or more parties/persons in different geographical locations. It is in the form of synchronous real time or in an asynchronous environment (at your convenience). (Nandavadekar, 2005) 2: A relatively new technology that
Web Analytics
The study of the impact of a site on the users and their behaviors. In e-commerce, Web analytics involves the computation of a variety of site- and customer-oriented
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uses the telephone or voice over IP, a workstation, and a Web browser. It provides the capability to individuals in multiple locations to have online meetings and training sessions using features such as whiteboarding, screen sharing, and polling. (Panton, 2005) 3: Communication that allows audio participation with simultaneous visual presentation through a Web browser. (C. Wright, 2005)
Web Enabled
Business systems that are supported by Internet technologies. (Braun, 2006)
Web Enabling
A modiication process whereby information formerly requiring a locally constrained interface for access becomes available to commodity Web viewersproducts such as Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, or Mozilla-compliant browsers. (Horiuchi, 2005a)
Web GIS
A GIS system empowered with a Web-based interface. (De Antonellis et al., 2005)
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Web Initiative
Any use of the World Wide Web for a speciic purpose. (Craig, 2005)
Web Link
Hyperlink (hot link) to another Web site that is embedded in the active pages of a Web-based education course. (Marold, 2005)
Web Log
1: An online diary, typically authored by an individual, where unstructured comments are made and annotations can be attached. (Verhaart & Kinshuk 2006) 2: A ile in which a Web server records requests for pages. (Artz, 2005d) 3: File stored by the Web server containing data on users accesses to a Web site. (Meo & Psaila, 2005) 4: A Web log ile records activity information when a Web user submits a request to a Web server. A log ile can be located in three different places: (1) Web servers, (2) Web proxy servers, and (3) client browsers. (Hu, Yang, Lee, & Yeh, 2005) 5: Generally used as a frequent and chronological publication of personal thoughts, ideas, and Web links. To facilitate the process of learning, relaying information to students, and enhancing communications between students and faculty, teachers are increasingly using Web logs. (Brown, 2006)
field that supports knowledge workers who try to extract information in our data rich, information poor environment. Its name stems from the idea of mining knowledge from large amounts of data. Any method used to extract patterns from a given data source is considered to be a data-mining technique. When the data resides on the Web, the process is that of Web mining. (Hamdi, 2005b) 3: The application of data-mining techniques to extract knowledge from the content, structure, and usage of Web resources. It is generally subdivided into three independent but related areas: Web usage mining, Web content mining, and Web structure mining. (Mobasher, 2005a) 4: The use of data-mining techniques for discovering and extracting information from Web documents and services. It is distinguished as Web content, structure, or usage mining depending on which part of the Web is mined. Web usage mining examines usage data typically in the form of server logs. (Markellou et al., 2006) 5: The use of data-mining techniques to automatically discover and extract information from Web documents and services. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005a) 6: Using data-mining techniques to automatically discover and extract information from Web data and services. (Zhao & Bhowmick, 2005) 7: The integration of information gathered by traditional datamining methodologies and techniques with information gathered over the World Wide Web. Web mining is used to capture customer behavior, evaluate the effectiveness of a particular Web site, and help quantify the success of a marketing campaign. (Lee, Suh, et al., 2005)
Web Page
1: A ile that is on the Web and is accessible by its URL. (Scime, 2005b) 2: A hypermedia document that expresses the knowledge content in an artistic and dynamic fashion, combining text, graphics, audio, and video formats. (Handzic & Lin, 2005) 3: The basic unit of information visualized on the Web. (Caramia & Felici, 2005)
Web Marketing
The dissemination of information, promotion of products and services, execution of sales transactions, and enhancement of customer support via a companys Web site. (Gao, 2005b)
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We b Por t a l We b Se r ve r
content, in real time, to a speciic user. (Craig, 2005) 3: The process of customizing the content and structure of a Web site to the individual needs of speciic users, based on the analysis of the users navigation data, Web content, structure, and user proile data. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005b) 4: The process of dynamically serving customized content (e.g., pages, products, recommendations, etc.) to Web users, based on their proiles, preferences, or expected interests. (Mobasher, 2005c)
Web Proile
Short biography of a student enrolled in a Web-based education course. The proile may contain Web links to the students own homepages and digitized photos of the student. (Marold, 2005)
Web Portal
1: Provides Internet access to a broad array of Web pages and linked services. (Inoue & Bell, 2005) 2: A primary starting site for users when they get connected to the Web. Most portals offer users the ability to create a site that is personalized for their individual interests. (Chapman, 2005a) 3: A secure, single point of interaction with diverse information, processes, and people, personalized to a users needs and responsibilities. A campus Web portal acts as a gateway to information and services, serves as a point of access for constituent groups, and represents a community/learning hub. (Wild, 2005) 4: A special Web site designed to act as a gateway to give access to other sites. (Tatnall & Burgess, 2006) 5: A Web site that serves as a gateway to distributed network resources, applications, and other Web sites. (Littman, 2006) 6: Commonly referred to as simply a portal. Web portal is a Web site or service that offers a broad array of resources and services, such as e-mail, forums, search engines, and online shopping malls. The irst Web portals were online services, such as AOL, that provided access to the Web, but now most of the traditional search engines have transformed themselves into Web portals to attract and keep a larger audience. (Sharma, Wickramasinghe, et al., 2005) 7: One of a number of focal points on the Web which provide a place to start. Web portals facilitate the location of information by incorporating the strengths of search engines and additionally provide more eficient access to information by categorizing it into easily recognizable subcategories or channels. (Thompson, 2005)
Web Quest
An educational Web page with hyperlinks used by students to explore a topic. (Morphew, 2005)
Web Repository
A Web site that contains a wide collection of items. It can be unstructured, semi-structured, or structured. (ParejaFlores & Iturbide, 2005)
Web Resource
A resource accessible through the HTTP protocol from a Web server. Web resources (or Web objects) may be static, such as images or existing HTML pages, or they may be dynamic, such as database-driven Web applications or Web services. Each Web resource is identiied uniquely by a uniform resource identiier (URI). (Mobasher, 2005b)
Web Server
1: A computer program running on a machine permanently connected to the Internet, dedicated to serving requested Web pages to the users browser (client). (Manolopoulos et al., 2005) 2: A computer running special server software (e.g., Apache), assigned an IP address, and connected to the Internet so that it can provide documents via the World Wide Web. (Nasraoui, 2005) 3: A computer used for publishing the contents of a Web site. It is usually dedicated for this service and, depending on the prospective visitors, it can be an ordinary PC or a very powerful computer. (Kirlidog, 2005) 4: A network computer that delivers Web pages to other computers running a client browser program. (Murphy, 2005b) 5: A computer that is addressable by a
Web Process
Describes the logic to control and coordinate Web services participating in a process low to carry out a speciic goal. It directly addresses business process challenges such as control low, data low between Web services, longrunning nested units of work, faults, and compensation. (Cardoso, 2006)
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URL and that houses objects. Objects include Web pages (HTML iles), JPEG images, and other applications or programs. (Dasgupta & Chandrashekaran, 2005)
Web Service
1: A software application identiied by a URI whose interfaces and bindings are capable of being deined, described, and discovered using XML, and that supports direct interactions with other software applications using XML-based messages via an Internet protocol. Web services provide a standard way of integrating Web-based applications using XML, SOAP, WSDL, and UDDI over the Internet. (Moser & Melliar-Smith, 2006) 2: A software system designed to support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. It has an interface described in a machine-readable format (speciically, WSDL). Other systems interact with the Web service in a manner prescribed by its description using SOAP messages, typically conveyed using HTTP with an XML serialization in conjunction with other Web-related standards. (Nicolle et al., 2005) 3: Describes a standardized way of integrating Web-based applications using open standards. A Web service is deined as a remotely callable function or procedure which communicates via the HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) using standardized protocols. (Cardoso, 2006) 4: Data provided over the Internet, usually in a WSDL (Web service description language), meant as communication between computer software. (Barone, 2005) 5: An accessible application that other applications and humans can discover and trigger. The following properties deine a Web service: (1) independent as much as possible from speciic platforms and computing paradigms; (2) developed mainly for inter-organizational situations rather than for intra-organizational situations; and (3) easily composable so that its composition with other Web services does not require developing complex adapters. (Maamar, 2005) 6: A modular self-describing software service universally accessible in a standardized and platform-independent way. (De Lucia et al., 2006) 7: A software system identiied by its location on the World Wide Web, whose interface and supported modes of interaction are described using XML. Interaction between systems using the Web service also is also carried out using XML
messages transferred over the Internet. Web services allow for the loose integration of service components, and have the distinct advantage of employing widely available and standardized Web technologies. (Tsekouras & Roussos, 2006) 8: Integration of Web-based applications using common standards over an Internet protocol backbone. (Hazari, 2006) 9: A modular business service, with each module fully implemented in software and delivered over the Internet. The modules can be combined, can come from any source, and can eventually be acquired dynamically and without human intervention when needed. (Protogeros, 2006) 10: Modular Internet-based business function that performs speciic business tasks to facilitate business interactions within and beyond the organization. (Ratnasingam, 2006) 11: Self-contained, self-describing, modular application that has an open, Internet-oriented, standards-based interface and can be published, located, and invoked across the Web. (Nichols & Chen, 2006) 12: Software component that is a selfcontaining, self-describing, modular application that can be published to, located on, and invoked across the Web. Allows applications to interoperate in a loosely coupled environment, discovering and connecting dynamically to services without any previous agreements having been established between them. (Rolland & Kaabi, 2006)
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to a Web services implementation in terms of format of the messages, binding of the abstract messages to a concrete protocol, and address of the endpoint. (Nichols & Chen, 2006) 6: Written in XML, and used to describe and locate Web services. (Cardoso, 2006)
Web Site
1: A collection of Web pages located together on a Web server. Typically the pages of a Web site have a common focus and are connected by hyperlinks. (Scime, 2005b) 2: A set of iles stored on the World Wide Web and viewed with a browser such as Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. A Web site may consist of one or more Web pages. (Snchez-Segura et al., 2005) 3: The location of a hyper-linked document. (Msiska, 2005)
Web Spooing
Registering and using a domain name that is deceptively similar to a trademark or organization name. This could be through transposing words or inverting a phrase. (Owen, 2006d)
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can be divided further into two kinds, based on the kind of structural data used: hyperlinks connecting Web pages and the document structure in semi-structured Web pages. (Mobasher, 2005a) 4: The discovery of useful information from the underlying hyperlink structures of the Web. (Lee-Post & Jin, 2005a)
Web Visibility
The popularity of a Web site among online shoppers. (Wan, 2006)
Web-Assisted Instruction
A course that uses the Internet to provide a signiicant amount of course content on the Web to learners outside of class time. Materials may be supplemental in nature or provide content in an alternative form that may be viewed at the learners convenience. Learners interact with other learners outside of class through e-mail, message boards, or chat. (Kinuthia, 2005)
Web Student
A student that plans to take the majority, if not all, of his or her classes in a particular program of study over the Internet. (Benrud, 2005)
Web Technology
1: Refers to the combination of the Internet communication protocols (TCP/IP), networks, Web server (e.g., IIS), and client (e.g., Opera) software, and the languages that can be used to develop Web applications. (R. Zhang, 2005) 2: The set of all instruments that allows people to use the Web and its protocols for improving communication and acquiring information. These are based on hardware, which are mostly networks of computers, and software resources, which are mostly Web servers using the HTTP protocol for communicating, interfaced with relational data base management systems. (Cartelli, 2005a)
Web-Based Class
Class offered via the World Wide Web. (Witta, 2005)
Web-Based Classroom
The application of a selection of intellectually stimulating lessons implemented within a creative and collaborative learning environment that utilizes the resources of the World Wide Web. (Neville & Powell, 2005)
Web-Based Control
The control of instruments or apparatuses through the Internet. (Ko et al., 2005)
Web Television/TV
Movies, interviews, or shows transmitted via the Internet. (de Medeiros et al., 2006)
Web-Based Course
1: A course that is delivered entirely by electronic methods, such as the Internet. (Nantz, 2005) 2: A course, typically delivered by a higher education institution, which is delivered at a distance utilizing Internet technology. (Ordonez, 2005)
Web Usability
1: The part of human-computer interaction that deals with the World Wide Web. It is a quality attribute that assesses how easy user interfaces are to use. (Askar et al., 2005) 2: Refers to the user satisfaction associated with a Web site. It typically includes the effectiveness of the site in meeting the needs of the user. It also includes the sites performance, reliability, and overall eficiency in supporting speciied user goals. (Becker, 2005a)
Web-Based Customization
An e-commerce business model that provides customers with the possibility to individualize their products via the electronic channel. (Blecker & Abdelkai, 2006)
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Web-Based Discussion
An asynchronous discussion in which messages are placed on the Web under deined topics. (Ingram & Hathorn, 2005b)
Web-Based DSS
A computerized system that delivers decision support information or decision support tools to a manager or business analyst using a thin-client Web browser like Internet Explorer. The computer server that is hosting the DSS application is linked to the users computer by a network with the transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP). Web-based DSS can be communications driven, data driven, document driven, knowledge driven, or model driven. (Power, 2005)
using message boards, electronic drop boxes, or e-mail attachments to the instructor. Interaction occurs via e-mail, message boards, chats, or conferencing programs. Webbased instruction often utilizes the multimedia capacity of the technology. (Kinuthia, 2005) 2: Can be deined as using the Web as the medium to deliver course material, administer a course (registrations, supervision, etc.), and communicate with learners. (Magoulas, 2006) 3: The process of teaching and learning on the Web. (Aisami, 2005) 4: The use of computer-mediated communication such as e-mail, chat, or a threaded discussion by a group to communicate for the purposes of carrying out a task. (Toland, Frank, et al., 2005)
Web-Based Laboratory
1: A laboratory that typically involves physical experiments and that can be accessed remotely through the use of the Internet. (Ko et al., 2005) 2: Use of Internet technologies for delivering instruction. (Dixon et al., 2005)
Web-Based Environment
A new paradigm in which applications are meant to be distributed over the World Wide Web, offering universal interfaces, and remote accessibility and processing across the Internet. (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005)
Web-Based Forum
A speciic type of software that facilitates public discussions through the exchange of messages which are accessed by clicking a hyperlink. (Al-Saggaf & Weckert, 2005)
Web-Based HMI
An advanced and extended form of computerized HMI characterized by the logical separation of the computer unit from the machine itself. (Blecker & Graf, 2006)
Web-Based System
1: A loose term that in its broadest sense embraces all software systems that somehow rely upon the WWW as a platform for execution, including not just interactive Web sites, but also applications such as Web crawlers and middleware. In a narrow sense, it is generally taken to
Web-Based Instruction
1: Courses or programs mediated by computers where instructional material is delivered via the World Wide Web. Instruction that is solely delivered through the Internet
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mean systems for which human-computer interaction is mediated through a Web browser interface. (M. Lang, 2005) 2: Software environments accessible via Web browser, containing an integrated set of tools and functionalities. (Collis & Moonen, 2005a)
Web-Enhanced Instruction
A combination of online and classroom instruction. (Aisami, 2005)
Web-Based Teaching
All or most teaching takes place on the Web with no or little face-to-face interaction. (Szabados & Sonwalkar, 2005)
WebCT
1: An asynchronous Web-based course-management system that provides a platform for e-learning and teaching practices, used among educational institutions. (Bodomo, 2005a) 2: Software that provides electronic learning in a lexible integrated environment. (Lewis, 2005)
Webill
An e-commerce business model for construction and demolition waste exchange in the Hong Kong construction industry, in which construction contractors, property managers, manufacturers, recyclers, and landill managers are all involved to participant the waste exchange. It is being further developed to an online C&D waste exchange portal for the Hong Kong construction industry. (Chen, Li, et al., 2006)
Webinar
1: Seminar conducted on the Web through the use of an intranet or the Internet. (Coakes, 2006a) 2: Web-enabled (virtual) seminar. (Coakes, 2006b)
WebMAIL
An online system developed by AFTA providing travel agencies in Australia with access to tourism product and service offerings from participating industry suppliers. (Sharma, Carson, et al., 2005)
Web-Enhanced Course
A traditional course with some electronic enhancements, such as Web pages for course syllabi, data iles, and test reviews. (Nantz, 2005)
Webometrics
1: First deined by Almind and Ingwersen (1997), it applies bibliometric methodologies and procedures to measure
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the virtual world of the WWW. This technique refers to the quantitative analysis of the nature, the structures, and the properties of Web pages and sites. (Maggioni & Uberti, 2005) 2: The study of quantitative aspects of Web publishing and use. (Thelwall, 2006)
New England (NEBE), the South (SREB), and the Midwest (MHEC). WICHE runs a vast network of student exchange programs among the 15 western United States, conducts national research projects, and is active in higher education policy. (S.M. Johnstone, 2005)
Weight
1: Connections between neurons of neural networks have a weight. This weight can be changed during the training of the net. (Fischer, 2005) 2: Strength of a connection between two neurons in a neural network. (Yeo, 2005)
What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG) Visual Design Tools
1: A category of application development tools that emphasizes the visual design of the front-end graphical user interface (GUI); that is, What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG). These tools often have prototyping features, such as automatic code generation and customizable inbuilt application templates. Examples include Microsoft Frontpage and Macromedia Dreamweaver. (M. Lang, 2005) 2: A user display that shows text and graphical information exactly as it will appear in print or other subsequent distribution. This includes expressional and artistic variations of text fonts, such as italics, bold, and underlined text. (Kieler & West, 2005) 3: A WYSIWYG (pronounced Wiz-zee-wig) application is one where you see on the screen exactly what will appear on the printed document (i.e., text, graphics, and colors will show a one-to-one correspondence). It is particularly popular for desktop publishing. (Henley & Noyes, 2006)
Weirdness Ratio
The ratio that relects preferential use of a word in a specialist domain as compared to its everyday usage. (Ahmad & Al-Sayed, 2006)
What-If Question
A question about what will happen to a system under given conditions or inputs. (Kontos & Malagardi, 2006)
WEP: See Wired Equivalent Privacy. WES: See Wireless Emergency Service. Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications (WCET)
The cooperative advancing the effective use of technology in higher education founded in 1989 by WICHE. (S.M. Johnstone, 2005)
White Lie
Lie that is minor and supposedly harmless. (Rowe, 2006c)
Whiteboarding
A technology that allows a presenter to draw on a computer screen using the mouse pointer, generally for the purposes of highlighting a particular screen area. (Panton, 2005)
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goals of avoiding duplication of effort while achieving greater course consistency. (Twigg, 2005)
through leased lines or satellites. (Velibeyoglu, 2005) 2: Refers to a network that spans a large geographical area or distance. (Shuaib, 2005) 3: The oldest type of network that extends to large geographical areas such as a state, nation, or the world. (Butcher-Powell, 2005)
Whole Product/Service
Direct product/service provided by a irm, augmented by everything else required by customers (installation, training, support, integration, etc.). (Craig, 2006a)
Whole Query
Query to retrieve information of whole class with selection predicates originated at the part classes. (Taniar et al., 2005)
Wideband Signal
Signal with a bandwidth wider than that of the telephone channel, usually between 50Hz to 20 kHz. This fact results in major subjective improvements. (Perez-Meana & Nakano-Miyatake, 2005)
Widgets
The way of using a physical input device to input a certain value. These are extensively used and are popular in the case of people with neuromotor disabilities. (Abhishek & Basu, 2006)
Wholesaler
A business that distributes manufacturers products to retailers (pharmacies) and other distributors. (Rosson, 2006)
Wi-Fi: See Wireless Fidelity. WICHE: See Western Interstate Commission for Higher
Education.
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by other users. (Wiki comes from the Hawaiian term for quick or super-fast.) (Waterson, 2006)
voice, data, Internet, and video signals. (Calzonetti & deChambeau, 2006)
Wireless Application
An application running on a wireless device that transmits and receives data over a wireless network. (K.J. MacGregor, 2005)
Wire-Frame Drawing
Only the lines deining the edges of patches are drawn, which is useful as a quick previewing tool. (Cottingham, 2005)
Wireless
1: Refers to transmission through air, vacuum, or water by means of an antenna. (Ngoh & Shankar, 2005) 2: Using the radio-frequency spectrum or microwave network for
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digital mobile phones and other mobile terminals that allows Internet content to be viewed in text format on special WAP-enabled GSM mobile phones. (Latchem & Maru, 2005) 13: An approach to link wireless devices to the Internet by optimizing Internet information so it can be displayed on the small screen of a portable device. (Nayak, 2005d) 14: An open, global speciication that empowers mobile users with wireless devices to easily access and interact with information and services instantly. The WAP is a standard for providing cellular phones, pagers, and other handheld devices with secure access to e-mail and text-based Web pages. (Lei et al., 2005a) 15: A suite of open, global speciications developed by the WAP Forum. It is for developing applications that operate over wireless communication networks, and it allows users with mobile handheld devices to easily access and interact with information and services instantly. (Hu, Yang, & Yeh, 2006) 16: An application-level communication protocol that is used to access services and information by handheld devices with low-resolution displays and low bandwidth connections, such as mobile cell phones. (Melliar-Smith & Moser, 2005)
Engineers (IEEE) and including Wi-Fi (802.11) and Bluetooth (802.15). (Garrett, 2006b)
Wireless Device
A communication device with computing power connected to a network via a wireless network adapter using, for instance, wireless LAN or Bluetooth standards. (Kao & Rerrer, 2006)
Wireless Environment
More and more people are equipped with handheld devices such as cell phones, PDAs, and laptops. To manage all these devices, a computing model is deployed. It consists of two entities: mobile clients and ixed hosts. Some of the ixed hosts, called mobile support stations, are augmented with wireless interfaces. A mobile support station communicates with the mobile clients within its radio coverage area called wireless cell. Each cell has an identiier that is periodically broadcasted to each mobile client residing in the cell. The aim is to be fully aware of the mobile clients that are under the management of the cell. Mobile clients get information from information servers, through the mobile support stations. As long as a mobile client stays in the coverage area of the same mobile support station, there are no major issues in pushing information to the clients mobile device. As soon as the client leaves that coverage area, another mobile support system has to be in charge of the information transfer. (Maamar, 2005)
Wireless Cell
The radio coverage area in which a mobile client can communicate with the wireless infrastructure. (Xu, 2006)
Wireless Commerce
The buying and selling of goods and services through wireless handheld devices such as cellular phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs). (Galanxhi-Janaqi & Nah, 2005)
Wireless Communication
1: Data communication that does not require a wired connection between communicating peers, typically using radio or infrared transmissions. (Kunz & Gaddah, 2005) 2: Interaction through a wireless device (e.g., cellular phone, pager, PDA, etc.). (Clarke & Flaherty, 2005) 3: To communicate with or send communications by wireless means, relating to radio or communication by radiotelegraphy or radiotelephony. (Hanson, 2005)
Wireless Connectivity
The communication of digital devices between one another using data transmission by radio waves. A variety of standards for wireless data transmission now exist, established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
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sense multiple access with collision avoidance) for path sharing. Wi-Fi supports a range of about 150 feet and data rates up to 11mbps. (Lei, 2006) 3: A popular wireless networking technology, also known as Wireless Ethernet. (Efstathiou & Polyzos, 2006) 4: A wireless network that provides high-speed data connections over short distances, allowing visitors with laptops to connect to the Internet at so-called hot spots, such as airport terminals or cafs. (D. Stern, 2005) 5: A set of product compatibility standards for WLAN based on the IEEE 802.11 speciications. Wi-Fi was intended to be used for mobile devices and LANs, but is now often used for Internet access. It enables a person with a wireless-enabled computer or PDA to connect to the Internet when in proximity of an access point. (Wong, 2006) 6: Involves the use of wireless communication technologies to access the Internet or the World Wide Web. (St. Amant, 2005e) 7: IEEE 802.11b (Wi-Fi) is a wireless local area network standard. It operates in an unlicensed radio frequency band at 2.4 GHz and provides data access at 11 Mbps. (Lee, Hu, et al., 2005) 8: A set of product compatibility standards for wireless local area networks. (Flavin & Guinalu, 2006) 9: A technology that covers certain types of wireless local area networks, enabling users to connect wirelessly to a system or wired local network and use speciications in the 802.11 family. (Sofokleous et al., 2005) 10: Wi-Fi networks use small, low-power antennas to carry voice and data communications between a backbone and users at schools, businesses, households, and public places, all without laying a single wire, thus greatly reducing the cost of traveling the last mile. (Phala, 2005) 11: Wireless idelity technology allows devices to connect to the Internet without the need for landlines. Wi-Fi-enabled computers can send and receive data from anywhere within the range of their base station. (Toland, Purcell, et al., 2005)
that uses radio waves as its carrier. (Cremonini et al., 2006) 3: A wireless network installed in a local area such as a building. (Yang, 2005) 4: A wireless network that provides access to subscribers with end-to-end IP connections. (Louvros, Karaboulas, et al., 2005)
Wireless Markup Language (WML) Script Wireless LAN: See Wireless Local Area Network. Wireless Local Area Network (Wireless LAN, WLAN)
1: Refers to a local area network that uses either infrared or radio frequencies rather than physical cable as the transmission medium. (Sarkar, 2005) 2: Local area network Scripting for micro browsers. WMLScript is used with WML to offer some dynamic effects on WAP Web pages. (Chen, Sockel, et al., 2005)
Wireless Network
Computer networking that permits users to transmit data through a wireless modem connecting the remote
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Witness Learning
A term coined by Dr. Helmut Fritsch, senior researcher at the Fern Universitt in Hagen, Germany, that refers to the indirect learning possibilities of learners who do not actively take part in interactions, but learn from witnessing the interactions of others, for example, in online discussion forums. (Link & Wagner, 2006)
Wizard
A program within an application that helps the user perform a particular task within the application. For example, a setup wizard helps guide the user through the steps of installing software on his or her PC. (Garrett, 2006a)
Wireless System
A system that provides service through wireless channels. (W. Wang, 2006)
WLAN: See Wireless Local Area Network. WLL: See Wireless Local Loop. WML: See Wireless Markup Language. WML Script: See Wireless Markup Language Script. Word Processing Program
1: A software program that creates written documents. (Judd, 2005) 2: Words, intrastream synchronization assures that a constant-rate source at the sender again becomes a constant rate source at the receiver despite delay jitter in the network. (Yang et al., 2005b)
Wireless Technology
1: New forms of portable devices such as mobile phones and laptop computers which allow users to communicate using radio signals, microwave, and satellite links. (Harris, 2005) 2: Technologies that communicate without landlines, for example, satellite, microwave, cellular radio, infrared. Common uses are pagers, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants, mobile data communications, and personal communications services. (Toland, 2006)
Work
The change to an application domain by a work system to achieve the work systems goals. (Diaper, 2006)
Work Breakdown
A problem in the work practice. (Notess, 2005)
Wisdom
1: A pragmatic unit of cognition that generates volition, a chosen way of acting and communicating. It is a process of choosing ordered routines that provide success and eliminate obstacles in performance. (Targowski, 2005) 2: The organic application of information and knowledge to human dilemmas and desires. Wisdom is a quality of thought that ties us to the cultural heritage, and gives us the ability to ind and build the moral framework upon which human life is deined and within which meaning resides. (Hartoonian & Johnson, 2005)
Work Group
1: A group of people, often with a distinct hierarchy and role structure, whose emphasis is eficiency before learning.
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Focus is on the outcome and productivity, with the idea that the best product will be most eficiently created when everyone works using their present strengths. (Graham & Misanchuk, 2005) 2: A relatively small, formally designated, and formally controlled group that generally works together in face-to-face situations. (Wasko & Teigland, 2006a) 3: A group of individuals who share network resources in order to collaborate and communicate with each other while they work together on a common project. (Dara-Abrams, 2006) 4: People, usually from the same department with a shared responsibility for a product or service. (Hustad & Munkvold, 2006)
Work-Conserving Scheduling
A work-conserving scheduler allows the link to go idle only when there is no packet of any service class awaiting service. (DaSilva, 2005)
Work-Integrated Learning
A hybrid approach that achieves learning outcomes through a combination of alternating periods of traditional academic pedagogy, with extended periods of practical experience in the professional workplace. Work-integrated learning is a mature pedagogical strategy that is often referred to as sandwich and end-on courses. (Lowry & Turner, 2005)
Work Modeling
Data gathered by contextual inquiry is used to create diagrammatic representations of the work practice. Work models include sequence models, low models, cultural models, physical models, and artifact models. The second step in contextual design. (Notess, 2005)
Working Group
A group of individuals with a common working practice who do not constitute a formal work team. The group cuts across traditional organizational boundaries and enables individuals to acquire new knowledgeotherwise unavailableat a faster rate. (Ribire & Romn, 2006)
Work Motivation
Involves the restriction to those motivation elements that relate to the work situation; concerns the individuals degree of willingness to work towards organizational targets. (Hendriks & Sousa, 2006)
Working Memory
Denotes the memory capable of transient preservation of information, which is functionally different from the memory that stores historical information (long-term memory). See also Short-Term Memory. (Lin & Kinshuk, 2005)
Work Practice
The way in which people accomplish their intentional activities, including their motivations, pressures, habits, sequences, collaborations, artifacts, environments, and so forth. (Notess, 2005)
Working Relationship
The kind of relationship exempliied by people who work together toward the completion of work-based tasks. It involves communication related to sharing information, coordinating tasks, meeting timelines, and so forth. (Pauleen, 2005)
Work Redesign
The consolidated models and insights gained are used to generate ideas for improving work practice. The redesigned work practice is expressed in storyboards. The fourth step in contextual design. (Notess, 2005)
Workaround
Informal or unauthorized changes to a computer system to bypass a problem. (Brady, 2005)
Work Relationship
The task connections or interdependencies involved in input-output combinations: output of one task gets used as input for another. The concept of work relationships focuses on the content side to these combinations, and involves an abstraction from the personal elements in work-related cooperations. (Hendriks, 2006)
Worklow
1: A collection of tasks organized to accomplish some business activity between the customer and the trader supported by suitable protocols. (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2005c) 2: A recurring unit of work of which the coordination, control, and execution can be partially or completely automated. (Signoret, 2006) 3: Comprises cases, resources, and triggers that relate to a particular process. (Dustdar, 2005) 4: Systems which are meant to automatize and control business processes.
Work System
That part of the assumed real world that attempts to change an application domain to achieve the work systems goals. (Diaper, 2006)
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Among its functions are task assignment, alerts, common tasks cooperation, align resources with the strategy, automatization of business processes, and tracking and oversight. (Xodo, 2005) 5: Term used to describe the tasks, procedural steps, organizations or people involved, required input and output information, and tools needed for each step in a business process. The worklow management focuses on processes rather than documents. (Sarmento, 2005) 6: The automation of a business process, in whole or part, during which documents, information, or tasks are passed from one participant to another for action, according to a set of procedural rules (WFMC.org) (sometimes also used as a synonym for business process). (Heucke et al., 2005) 7: The automation of a business process, in whole or part, during which documents, information, or tasks are passed from one participant to another for action, according to a set of procedural rules. (De Lucia et al., 2006) 8: The result of automation, in whole or part, of a business process. (Berztiss, 2006b)
Worklow Technology
A software component that provides the languages and interpreters to implement process management. (Bussler, 2005b)
Workload
The log of all queries that execute on a database system. Workloads often are used by database administrators as well as by automated systems (such as AQA systems) to tune various parameters of database systems for optimal performance, such as indexes and physical design, and in the case of AQA, the set of sample tables. (Das, 2005)
Workload Model
In a database benchmark, a database and a set of read and write operations to apply on this database. (Darmont, 2005)
Workplace Learning
A process of developing the employees knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and actions in relation to the workplace environment. It is the main means by which the employee improves work, and it is a key strategic element in achieving organizational objectives and goals. (Rugelj, 2005)
Worklow Engine
A software component deined by WfMC. Worklow engine is application independent. When a worklow plan is executed, there may be multiple worklow instances concurrently running at different states. Worklow engine is responsible for resolving the problems such as resource/data dependency, process dependency, live-lock or deadlock, event-trigger handling, and so forth. (Li, 2005a)
Workstation
A computer that performs tasks for an individual. (Maris, 2005)
Worklow Instance
Also, process instance. Each execution instance of a process managed by the worklow management system. (Pinheiro, 2005)
A system that deines, creates, and manages worklows by the use of software, running on one or more worklow engines, which is able to interpret the process deinition, interact with worklow participants, and where required, invoke the use of applications. (De Lucia et al., 2006)
Worklow Software
Tools that deal with the automation of business processes in a managed environment. (Asprey et al., 2005)
Worklow System
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standards for storing, retrieving, formatting, and displaying knowledge in a networked environment. (Handzic & Lin, 2005) 3: An application that runs on the Internet, and a collection of electronic documents, or Web pages, that can be viewed on your computer using a Web browser. The words Internet and Web are used synonymously, although by deinition they are very different. (Singh, 2006a) 4: A hypertext-based client-server system that is one component of the larger Internet. The hypertextbased format of the WWW allows users to navigate through the system by using graphical user interface software known as browsers. (Hinnant & Sawyer, 2005) 5: A system of Internet servers that support specially formatted documents. The documents are formatted in a markup language called HyperText Markup Language (HTML) that supports links to other documents. (Sala, 2005a) 6: An Internet client-server, hypertext-distributed, information-retrieval system that originated from the CERN High-Energy Physics laboratories in Switzerland. (Vician & Buche, 2005) 7: Computer network consisting of a collection of Internet sites that offer text, graphics, sound, and animation resources through the hypertext transfer protocol. (Barolli & Koyama, 2005b) 8: Worldwide collection of electronic documents on the Internet that have built-in hyperlinks to other related documents. Also called the Web. (Inoue & Bell, 2005) 9: A popular application of the Internet sometime known as the the Web. The WWW is a software tool that uses hypertext links to allow computers to easily retrieve and add information from different computer sources. (Escalante, 2005) 10: Originally created as an online information tool for highenergy physics research at CERN (the European Center for Nuclear Physics Research in Geneva, Switzerland), information is organized as a series of documents referring to each other with links of search and retrieval of text, images, sound, and video. Based on its likeness to a spiders web, this world of hypertext links is also called the Web. (Theng, 2005) 11: Resources on the Internet that are using the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP). (Ortega Egea & Menndez, 2006)
Japan, which are responsible for core development and local support. The W3C has around 350 member organizations from all over the world and has earned international recognition for its contributions to the growth of the Web. W3C was established initially in collaboration with CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), and the European Commission. (Pereira & Freire, 2005) 2: An international consortium of companies involved with the Internet and the Web. (Mohamed & Ottmann, 2006) 3: Develops interoperable technologies such as: speciications, guidelines, software, and tools to lead the Web to its full potential. W3C is a forum for information, commerce, communication, and collective understanding. (Yu, 2005a) 4: A part of the Internet where documents and other resources are accessible through hyperlinks. Using the Web for teaching materials diffusion places the onus on the student to download iles. (El Louadi, 2005a) 5: An international organization devoted to the development of interoperable technologies, such as speciications, guidelines, software, and tools, to lead the Web to its full potential. (Fagan, 2005) 6: The international body that governs Internet standards. It was created in 1994 and is open to all interested organizations. It has about 500 organization members from the world that jointly develop protocols that promote the evolution of the Web while ensuring interoperability. The W3C holds speciications for many of the Web technologies such as HTML, XML, and RDF, as well as many Web services standards such as SOAP and WSDL. (Zhang, 2006) 7: A consortium that uses relatively simple technologies with suficient scalability, eficiency, and utility that it has resulted in a remarkable information space of interrelated resources, growing across languages, cultures, and media. (Signoret, 2006)
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Worm
1: A program or algorithm that resides in active memory and replicates itself over a computer network, usually performing malicious actions, such as using up the computers resources and shutting down systems. Worms are automatic and are only noticed when their uncontrolled replication has used so much of a systems resources that it slows or halts other tasks. (Tassabehji, 2005a) 2: A self-replicating, self-propagating program that uses basic computer operating system code to transfer instances of itself from computer to computer. (Horiuchi, 2005b) 3: Self-replicating program that aggressively spreads through a network by taking advantage of automatic packet sending and receiving features found on many computers. (Lazarevic, 2005)
WWAN: See Wireless Wide Area Network. WPA: See Wireless Fidelity Protected Access. WWW: See World Wide Web. Wrapper
1: A program that extracts data from the input documents and wraps them in user desired and structured form. (Chang & Hsu, 2005) 2: A software tool to extract content from data sources and perform data format translation. (De Antonellis et al., 2005) 3: An application routine that can retrieve and transform data from one format into another. (Wan, 2006)
Wrapper Induction
Learning (highly accurate) rules that extract data from a collection of documents that share a similar underlying structure. (Muslea, 2005)
Write Performance
The maximum number of write operations per time unit. Replication will normally decrease write performance and give rise to possible inconsistency between the replicated data. (Frank, 2005a)
WSDL: See Web Service Deinition Language; Web Services Description Language. WSMP: See Web Services Management Platform. WSN: See Web Services Network. W3C: See World Wide Web Consortium.
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X
X-Group Methodology: See Extraction Group
Research Methodology. Schema.
XPath
1: A language designed to access the different elements of an XML document. (de Campos et al., 2005) 2: A language for addressing parts of an XML document. It is used together with XSLT and XPointer. (Goh & Kinshuk, 2005)
XBRL: See Extensible Business Reporting Language. XMI: See Extensible Markup Language Metadata
Interchange.
XML: See Extensible Markup Language. XML Content Analysis Mining: See Extensible Markup Language Content Analysis Mining. XML Document: See Extensible Markup Language
Document.
Xpointer
The XML Pointer Language that deines an addressing scheme for individual parts of an XML document. (Goh & Kinshuk, 2005)
XQuery
An XML query language, the speciication of which is deined by the W3C, the authorities body behind XML. It can access XML databases and documents, and offer different querying capabilities. (Gaffar & Seffah, 2005)
XSL
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X SL X yle m e
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XSL
Extensive Stylesheet Language is a W3C standard that speciies how a program should render XML document data. (Goh & Kinshuk, 2005)
XSP: See Extended Service Provider. XSS: See Cross-Site Scripting. X3D
1: eXtensible 3D graphics. X3D is an open standard for Web 3D-Graphics, whose primary goal is to express the geometry and behavior capabilities of VRML, using XML for description and encoding. (Di Giacomo et al., 2005) 2: Open Standards XML (Extensible Markup Language) enabling 3D (dimensional) ile format, realtime communication of 3D data across all applications and network applications. (Swierzowicz, 2005)
X12
The X12 EDI standard deines the data structure and content for business transactions transmitted between information systems with dictionaries that specify name, length of data ield, description, data type, and meaning. (Hawk & Zheng, 2006)
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Y
Yahoo Virtual Community
One of a number of virtual Internet communities facilitated by the Internet service product provider Yahoo! Inc. (Fryer & Turner, 2006)
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Z
Z-Transformation
With the z-transformation, you can transform the values of any variable into values of the standard normal distribution. (Klawonn & Rehm, 2005)
Zero-Knowledge Protocol
A cryptographic technique to provide identiication to a third party. In contrast to other techniques, no secret information is transmitted between the communicating partners. Nor is any secret information stored on the third partys server. Zero-knowledge protocols try to prove that the client knows a secret without revealing this secret to a third party. (Stickel, 2005)
Zoom
1: A user interface operation that deines a new user focus by ORing user-selected concepts and ANDing them with the previous focus; a reduced taxonomy is then computed and shown to the user. (Sacco, 2006) 2: Changes the fraction of an image being displayed when that image is taken from a larger one. (N.C. Rowe, 2005a)
0-1 Distance
The 0-1 distance between a vector of predicted values, Xg, and a vector of observed values, Xf, is:
0 1
d = 1(X fr X gr )
n r =1
0-Safe Design
Replication method where none of the copies are consistent and up to date. (Frank, 2005a)
Zone
Can encompass an expansive desert or be a city. Zoning usually implies a small delay or pause to the game, as additional data from the server is needed to update a characters geographic point and to load up the new area of play. (Grifiths et al., 2006)
Zone of Inluence
The network of people affected by patients participating in the online discussion, although many in the network might not participate directly in the online discussion. (Rada, 2006)
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