Problem Solving forms part of thinking.

. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills (Goldstein & Levin, 1987). It occurs if an organism or an artificial intelligence system does not know how to proceed from a given state to a desired goal state. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Overview The nature of human problem solving methods has been studied by psychologists over the past hundred years. There are several methods of studying problem solving, including; introspection, behaviorism, simulation and computer modeling, and experiment. Beginning with the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany (e.g. Duncker, 1935), and continuing through the 1960s and early 1970s, research on problem solving typically conducted relatively simple, laboratory tasks (e.g. Duncker's "X-ray" problem; Ewert & Lambert's 1932 "disk" problem, later known as Tower of Hanoi) that appeared novel to participants (e.g. Mayer, 1992). Various reasons account for the choice of simple novel tasks: they had clearly defined optimal solutions, they were solvable within a relatively short time frame, researchers could trace participants' problem-solving steps, and so on. The researchers made the underlying assumption, of course, that simple tasks such as the Tower of Hanoi captured the main properties of "real world" problems, and that the cognitive processes underlying participants' attempts to solve simple problems were representative of the processes engaged in when solving "real world" problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for reasons of convenience, and thought generalizations to more complex problems would become possible. Perhaps the best-known and most impressive example of this line of research remains the work by Newell and Simon (1972). Characteristics of difficult problems As elucidated by Dietrich Drner and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, difficult problems have some typical characteristics that can be summarized as follows: Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation) o commencement opacity o continuation opacity Polytely (multiple goals) o inexpressiveness o opposition o transience Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations, and decisions) o enumerability o connectivity (hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation) o heterogeneity Dynamics (time considerations)

temporal constraints temporal sensitivity phase effects dynamic unpredictability The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of these characteristics that are encountered. Steps in problem solving Problem interpretation involves defining a problem and assigning it to a

o o o o

category. For example, defining the problem of how to pay for a college education would involve arriving at what the total costs will be including tuition, books, lab fees, housing, transportation, and so forth, in order to have a clear idea of the exact dimensions of the problem. Evaluation of solutions , the process of deciding on a strategy to solve a problem,

may be accomplished by trial and error: guessing or randomly trying an approach information retrieval : retrieval of pertinent information from long-term

memory; for example, recalling what a friend told you about her success in combining student loans and money earned from a part-time job to pay her expenses algorithms: the methodical development of a step-by-step method to solve a

problem; for example, creating a spreadsheet detailing plans for income-producing activities and projected expenses for each year of college heuristics: rules of thumb to deal with a problem, sometimes based on

information easily available in memory. For example, you might believe that since you've often heard that college funds are always available to students if they're willing to search them out, such funds will necessarily be available to you. You may, however, be inaccurate in your judgment if the information you've recalled is inaccurate. A well-known heuristic tactic is called means/ends analysis. The process requires the identification of discrepancies that exist between a current situation and the

achievement of a goal and then making changes that will reduce the differences. Another tactic is the formation of subgoals , the development of intermediate steps necessary to solve a problem. In some cases, it helps to work backward from the solution. This heuristic procedure requires consideration of the goal, conceptualization of steps necessary to solve the problem, and then accomplishing the steps nearest the goal first. For example, in planning for college, the student first chooses the college, then determines what the costs will be, then selects a job or prepares for getting a job that will allow that amount to be earned or first determines what the college's entrance requirements are and then plans for all of those to be met, and so forth. Some problem-solving techniques There are many approaches to problem solving, depending on the nature of the problem and the people involved in the problem. The more traditional, rational approach is typically used and involves, eg, clarifying description of the problem, analyzing causes, identifying alternatives, assessing each alternative, choosing one, implementing it, and evaluating whether the problem was solved or not. Another, more state-of-the-art approach is appreciative inquiry. That approach asserts that "problems" are often the result of our own perspectives on a phenomena, eg, if we look at it as a "problem," then it will become one and we'll probably get very stuck on the "problem." Appreciative inquiry includes identification of our best times about the situation in the past, wishing and thinking about what worked best then, visioning what we want in the future, and building from our strengths to work toward our vision. [1] 1. divide and conquer: break down large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems 2. Hill-climbing strategy, (or - rephrased - gradient descent/ascent, difference reduction) attempting at every step to move closer to the goal situation. The problem with this approach is that many challenges require that you seem to move away from the goal state in order to clearly see the solution. 3. Means-end analysis, more effective than hill-climbing, requires the setting of subgoals based on the process of getting from the initial state to the goal state when solving a problem. 4. Working backwards 5. Trial-and-error 6. Brainstorming 7. Morphological analysis 8. Method of focal objects 9. Lateral thinking 10. George Plya's techniques in How to Solve It 11. Research: study what others have written about the problem (and related problems). Maybe there's already a solution? 12. Assumption reversal (write down your assumptions about the problem, and then reverse them all) 13. Analogy: has a similar problem (possibly in a different field) been solved before? 14. Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove the assumption.

15. Constraint examination: are you assuming a constraint which doesn't really exist? 16. Incubation: input the details of a problem into your mind, then stop focusing on it. The subconscious mind will continue to work on the problem, and the solution might just "pop up" while you are doing something else 17. Build (or write) one or more abstract models of the problem 18. Try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. Where the proof breaks down can be your starting point for resolving it 19. Get help from friends or online problem solving community (e.g. 3form, InnoCentive) 20. delegation: delegating the problem to others. 21. Root Cause Analysis Framing the problem Einstellung The frame of a problem is the set of assumptions and attitudes with which you approach it. Making assumptions about possible solutions to a problem can limit creativity, causing difficulty. However, these limits can aid problem solving by preventing us from pursuing wild and improbable paths, such as depending on Martians for help in our solution. Overall, though, the limits placed on us by our own rigidity probably prevent us from finding the best solution at least some of the time. Rigidity in framing the problem is called Einstellung.

Obstacles to solving problems Although arousal (motivation) is necessary for problem solving, high arousal is

detrimental to the process. Relaxation techniques can help to reduce such arousal and increase problem-solving efficiency. A mental set, a predisposition to approach problems in a certain fashion, can be

helpful or harmful, depending on the set. For example, the set to do all homework before watching evening TV may be more likely to result in academic achievement than the reverse set of TV/study. Functional fixedness is the tendency to view an object or an activity in only one wayfor example, seeing mathematics as a subject to be feared rather than as one that simply requires the learning of rules to solve problems and that is necessary to career development. People tend to regard an object as if it had only one possible function. For example, they look at a saw and see a tool only good for cutting. But, a saw could also be used as, say, a musical instrument! The failure to see other possible uses for an object is called functional fixedness. Try to solve the following problem without looking at the solution below: You are

given a candle, a book of matches, and a box of tacks. Your task is to find a way to attach the candle to the wall so that it will burn properly at eye level and light up the room. (Once you have tried to solve this problem, look at the solution below.) This problem is difficult because people tend to think of the box as only having one function: as a container. It becomes much easier if people are able to escape that functional fixedness and think of the box as a possible platform. Strategy Rigidity When trying to solve a new problem, people tend to try a few different paths until they find one that works. However, after solving several of the same type of problem, people tend to get stuck in a rut. If the same path works for each problem, people will stop trying new strategies since they have found one that appears to be reliable. This reliance on a single strategy, called strategy rigidity, can be a problem if they encounter a new problem that requires them to use a different method. A problem that might have been easy before, when they were trying several different solutions, now seems impossible, since they are stuck using only one strategy. For example, after solving several complex mathematical problems that require subtraction, a person might have trouble solving a problem that requires addition. He will try again and again to subtract and will keep getting the wrong answer. Although it might be easier to channel out other possible paths if it seems like one is sufficient, this rigidity can seriously limit creativity in problem solving. Starting Assumptions People also make assumptions about the problem itself at the very start of the problem-solving process. They assume that some strategies will tend to be useful while others will not. In addition, they may make limiting assumptions about the rules of the problem and about what operators are available to them. As an example, try to solve the Nine Dot Problem, pictured below.

The Nine Dot Problem In this problem, the goal is to draw four straight lines, passing through all nine of the dots, without lifting your pencil from the page. You might find it helpful to replicate the dots on a piece of paper for practice. Once you have tried to solve the problem, look at the solution, pictured below. Solution to the Nine Dot Problem This problem is difficult on its own, but it is made more difficult by the starting assumptions that people make. They assume that their lines must stay inside the square even though that limitation is not stated anywhere in the problem.

Aids in solving problems To establish expertise is to establish the knowledge necessary to solve a

problemfor example, by reading the chapter in the psychology text before attempting to answer the questions at the end of it. puzzle. Insight is the sudden perception of the relationship between the components of a

problemfor example, suddenly thinking of the word that fits the spaces in a crossword

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