ABSTRACT

With the modern Electronic wireless communication and Radar development, an antenna is a critical item. Every electronic equipment either transmits or receivers or both, an antenna is indispensible. Hence we propose to design an aero space Micro strip Antenna in s-band for telemetry or commanding application by using conventional and classical method for the design of dimension for rectangular type. This will be fabricated by using printed circuit technique. A micro strip structure is structured by using a dielectric material at the top and bottom. Bottom is used as ground plane and top is etched by standard techniques. We will fabricating this by taking the mask ant he screen printing will done. We propose to feed the antenna by using the available coaxial RF connector for input/output of SMA type. This will be tested after connecting the connector for its electrical characteristics like VSWR, input impedance, Return losses on a smith chart. After satisfying and iterating for correct frequency, we will finalize the feed point location. We propose to design a VSWR of 2:1 ratio and return loss of more than or equal to 15db at a particular frequency in s-band and hence we get the antenna band width from this measurement. We propose to carry out the antenna radiation to find E & H plane beam width of antenna pattern coverage and gain. Since the above design is only for a particular frequency, for a band of frequencies or at any frequency a software program with mat lab is complied for various thickness and various dielectric. Finally results will be compared with expected, measured and simulate one and their variations and analyzed.

INDEX

ABSTRACT LIST OF SYMBOLS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES

Page no:

CHAPTER1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definition Of Antena 1.3 Origin of Antenna

INTRODUCTION 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7

1.4 History of Antenna Technology 1.5 Basic Antenna Characteristics 1.5.1 Radiation pattern 1.5.2 Gain 1.5.3 Directivity 1.5.4 Polarization 1.5.5 VSWR 1.5.6 Reflection Coefficient and Return Loss 1.5.7 Bandwidth 1.5.8 Beam width 1.6 Types of Antenna 1.7 Aim and Objective of the Project

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF THE MICROSTRIP ANTENNA 9 9 10 11 13 13 15

2.1 History Of Micro Strip Antenna 2.2 Definition Of Micro Strip Antenna 2.3 Advantages And Disadvantages 2.4 Radiation Mehcanism 2.5 Various Micro Strip Antenna Configurations 2.5.1 Micro strip patch antenna 2.5.2 Micro strip or Printed Dipole Antenna CHAPTER3 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Basic Principles of Operation 3.3 Resonant Frequency 3.4 Radiation Patterns 3.5 Radiation Efficiency 3.6 Bandwidth 3.7 Input Impedance 3.8 Feed Techniques 3.8.1 Micro strip Line Feed 3.8.2 Coaxial Feed 3.8.3 Aperture Coupled Feed 3.8.4 Proximity Coupled Feed 3.9 Methods of Analysis HARDWARE IMPLIMENTATION OF PROJECT

16 17 18 18 20 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 29

3.9.1 Analytical Models 3.9.2 Transmission Line Model CHAPTER 4 IMPLEMENTATION & FABRICATION

29 31

4.1 Selection of Substrate 4.2 Design procedure for Rectangular Micro strip Antenna 4.2.1 Considered Values 4.2.2 Initial Design Values 4.3 Microwave Co-axial Connector 4.4 Fabrication Procedure 4.5 Step By Step Design Procedure CHAPTER-5 MEASUREMENTS, TESTING & RESULT ANALYSIS

35 38 38 38 44 47 49

5.1 MESUREMENTS 5.2 TESTING 5.2.1 Network Analyzer 5.2.2 Elements of Network Analyzer 5.2.3 Reflection Measurement 5.2.4 RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMENTS 5.2.5 Gain Measurement 5.3 ANALYSIS CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSIONS

53 53 53 54 58 63 67 69 71

CHAPTER-7 CHAPTER-8 CHAPTER-9

FUTURE SCOPE BIBLOGRAPHY MAT LAB PROGRAM

72 73 75

LIST OF SYMBOLS

B C E I K L S V W Z r eff Vp Rr Fr o o o

Band Width of the Micro Strip Antenna Velocity of Antenna Electric Field Vector Feed Current Magnetic Current Line Source Length of Rectangular Patch Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Feed Voltage Width of Rectangular Patch Input Impedance Relative Di-electric Constant Effective Di-electric Constant Phase Velocity Radiation Resistance Resonant Frequency Free Space Wavelength Skin Depth Loss Tangent Wavelength in Di-electric Substrate Free Space Impedance Conductivity of Metal Permeability of Free Space Permittivity of Free Space

R, , Rin Q, Qt Qs Qr Qd Qc Psw Prad, P Ko Js h

Spherical Co-ordinates Input Resistance Total Q Factor Associated Q Factor of the Surface Wave Loss Associated Q Factor of the Radiation Loss Associated Q Factor of the Di-electric Loss Associated Q Factor of the Conductor Loss Power Lost in Surface Wave Generation Power Radiated Wave Number Electric Current Vector Thickness of Substrate

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9 Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11 Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13 Figure 3.14

Schematic of an Antenna System Electromagnetic spectrum Structure of a Microstrip Patch Antenna Electric field distributions in microstrip cavity Charge distribution and current density on a microstrip antenna Microstrip patch antenna shapes commonly used in practice Other possible geometries of Microstrip patches Rectangular Patch Antennas Circular Patch Antennas Electric & Magnetic Current Distributions Simulated Radiation Pattern (E & H plane) polar plot Radiation Efficiency for a rectangular patch Antenna Calculated & Measured Bandwidth Equivalent Circuit of Patch Antenna Microstrip Line Feed Probe fed Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna Aperture-coupled feed Proximity-coupled Feed Microstrip Line Electric Field Lines Microstrip Patch Antenna proximity feed

Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 antennas Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7

Top View of Antenna Side View of Antenna Variation of Width with Frequency Variation of Length with the Frequency Variation of Gain with the Frequency Variation of Bandwidth with Frequency for different dielectric substrate

APC-7 Connector BNC Connector SMA Connector SMC Connector TNC Connector Type N Connector Flow chart showing the fabrication process Photographic Negative of ground plane Used for Fabrication Photographic Negative of patch Used for Fabrication Major elements of Network Analyzer Vector Network Analyzer used for testing of our antenna Plot of our antenna Return Loss measurement for resonant frequency Plot of our antenna SWR for resonant frequency Plot of our antenna Impedance on a Smith Chart Experimental Set Up For Plotting Radiation Pattern Anechoic Chambers with Free Space Environment

Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11

Anechoic Chamber when Our Antenna is being Tested Plot of Our antenna Radiation pattern in E and H plane Bottom (ground plane) view of Our Antenna Top view (patch) of Our Antenna

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3

Characteristics of the Different Feed Techniques Thickness of Cladding for Different Materials Dielectric and Loss Tangent for Different Materials Basic Features of the Most Common Connector Series Specifications of Network Analyzer Gain Measurement Comparison of calculated and measured values

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In high performance aircrafts, spacecrafts, satellites, missiles and other aerospace applications where size, weight, performance, ease of installation and aerodynamics profile are the constraints, a low or flat/conformal profile antenna may be required. In recent years various types of flat profile printed antennas have been developed such as Microstrip antenna (MSA), strip line, slot antenna, cavity backed printed antenna and printed dipole antenna. When the characteristics of these antenna types are compared, the micro strip antenna is found to be more advantageous. Microstrip antenna are conformable to planar or non planar surface, simple and inexpensive to manufacture, cost effective compatible with Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMIC) designs and when a particular patch shape like rectangular, circular, triangular etc., And excitation modes like TM01, TM10 are selected; they are very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, radiation patterns and impedance. In this Project work Design, Fabrication and Testing of linear polarized co-axial fed microstrip rectangular patch antenna in S-band at 2250 for aerospace applications is presented. Microstrip antennas have several advantages compared to conventional microwave antennas and therefore have many applications over the broad frequency range from 100MHz to 50GHz.

1.2 Definition of Antenna

An antenna (or aerial) is a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice-versa. They are used with waves in the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is, radio waves, and are a necessary part of all radio equipment. Antenna has many uses: communication, radar, telemetry, navigation etc.

Figure 1.1 shows the output from a coherent source (e.g. an oscillator) is directed out into free space using an antenna. The signal source is linked to the antenna by some kind of transmission line (like open wire), co-axial cable, waveguide, strip lines and microstrip lines. The antenna acts as a sort of impedance (50ohm of transmitter impedance to free space impedance of 377ohm vice-versa) transformer. It takes the electromagnetic field pattern, moving along the guide and transforms it into some other pattern, which is radiated out into free space.

Figure 1.1 Schematic of an antenna system Using this simple picture one can establish two basic properties of any antenna: Firstly, the antenna doesn't itself generate any power. So, unless the antenna is imperfect and dissipates some power, the total powers carried by the guide and free space fields must be the same. (In reality, all practical antennas tend to be slightly resistive so some power is normally lost, but for now one can assume any loss is small enough to ignore.)

Secondly, the antenna is a reciprocal device i.e. it behaves in the same way
irrespective of which way it pass signal power through it. This reciprocal behavior

is a useful feature of a coherent antenna. It means that, in principle, the only real difference between a transmitting and a receiving antenna is the direction one has chosen to pass signals through it.

1.3 Origin of Antennas

Communication is the process of transferring information from one entity to another. Communication has existed since the beginning of human beings, but it was not until the 20th century that people began to study the process. At first this was achieved by sound through voice. As the distance of communicating increased, various devices were introduced, such as drums, horns and so forth and for even greater distances visual methods were introduced such as signal flags and smoke signals in the daytime and fireworks at night. These optical communication devices, of course, utilize the light portion of electromagnetic spectrum. It has only been recently in human history that the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible region has been employed for communication, through the use of radio.

Figure 1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum The antenna is an essential component in any radio system which provides a means for radiating or receiving radio waves that is it provides a transition from a guided wave on a transmission line to a free-space wave.

1.4 History of Antenna Technology

The theoretical foundations for antennas rest on Maxwells equations. James Clark Maxwell in 1864 presented his results before Royal Society, which showed that

light and electromagnetics were one in physical phenomenon and also predicted that light and electromagnetic disturbances both can be explained by waves travelling at the same speed. And in 1886 Heinrich Hertz verified the above and discovered that the electrical disturbances could detected with a secondary circuit of proper dimensions for resonance and containing an air gap for sparks to occur. Guglielmo Marconi built a microwave parabolic cylinder at a wavelength of 25 cm for his original code transmission and worked at longer wavelengths for improved communication range. Marconi is considered as the father of amateur radio. Antenna developments in the early years were limited by the availability signal generators. About 1920 resonant length antennas were possible after the De Forest triode tube was used to produce continuous wave signals up to 1MHz. At these higher frequencies antennas could be built with a physical size in resonant region. Just before World War II microwave (about 1 GHz) klystron and magnetron signal generators were developed along with hollow pipe waveguides. These lead to the development of horn antennas, although Jagadish Chandra Bose in India produced the first electromagnetic horn antenna many years earlier. The first commercial microwave radiotelephone system in 1934 was between England and France and operated at 1.8G Hz. During the war an intensive development effort primarily detected toward radar, spawned many modern antenna types, such as large reflectors, lenses and waveguide slot arrays.

1.5 Basic Antenna Characteristics

An antenna is a structure that is made to efficiently radiate and receive radiated electromagnetic waves. There are several important antenna characteristics that should be considered when choosing an antenna for application such as Gain, radiation pattern, bandwidth, beam width etc., are as follows: 1.5.1 Radiation pattern Practically any antenna cannot radiate energy with same strength uniformly in all directions. The radiation from antenna in any direction is measured in terms of field

strength at a point located at a particular distance from antenna. Radiation pattern of an antenna indicates the distribution of energy radiated by the antenna in the free space. In general radiation pattern is a graph which shows the variation of actual field strength of electromagnetic field of all the points equidistant from antenna. The two basic radiation patterns are field strength radiation pattern which is expressed in terms of field strength E (in V/m) and power radiation pattern expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle. Field radiation pattern is a 3-dimensional pattern. To achieve this it requires representing the radiation for all angles of and which give E-plane (vertical plane) and H-plane (horizontal plane) pattern respectively. 1.5.2 Gain Antenna gain relates the intensity of an antenna in a given direction to the intensity that would be produced by a hypothetical ideal antenna that radiates equally in all directions (isotropically) and has no losses. Since the radiation intensity from a lossless isotropic antenna equals the power into the antenna divided by a solid angle of 4 steridians, we can write the following equation: Gain = 4 * Radiation Intensity/Antenna Input Power

1.5.3 Directivity The directive gain of the antenna is the measure of the concentration of radiated power in a particular direction. It may be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction. It is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average radiation intensity. Generally D > 1, except in the case of an isotropic antenna for which D = 1. An antenna with directivity D >> 1 is directive antenna. 1.5.4 Polarization

Polarization is the orientation of the electromagnetic waves far from the source. There are several types of polarization that apply to antennas. They are Linear (which comprises vertical and horizontal), oblique, Elliptical (left hand and right hand polarizations), circular (left hand and right hand) polarizations. 1.5.5 VSWR VSWR is the ratio of the maximum to minimum values of the voltage standing wave" pattern that is created when signals are reflected on a transmission line. This measurement can be taken using a "slotted line" apparatus that allows the user to measure the field strength in a transmission line at different distances along the line. The voltage standing wave ratio is a measure of how well a load is impedancematched to a source. The value of VSWR is always expressed as a ratio with 1 in the denominator (2:1, 3:1, etc.) It is a scalar measurement only (no angle), so although they reflect waves oppositely, a short circuit and an open circuit have the same VSWR value (infinity:1). A perfect impedance match corresponds to a VSWR 1:1, but in practice you will never achieve it. Impedance matching means you will get maximum power transfer from source to load. 1.5.6 Reflection Coefficient and Return Loss Reflection coefficient shows what fraction of an incident signal is reflected when a source drives a load. A reflection coefficient magnitude of zero is a perfect match, a value of one is perfect reflection. The symbol for reflection coefficient is uppercase Greek letter gamma (). Note that the reflection coefficient is a vector, so it includes an angle. Unlike VSWR, the reflection coefficient can distinguish between short and open circuits. A short circuit has a value of -1 (1 at an angle of 180 degrees), while an open circuit is one at an angle of 0 degrees. Quite often we refer to only the magnitude of the reflection coefficient. Return Loss shows the level of the reflected signal with respect to the incident signal in dB. The negative sign is dropped from the return loss value, so a large value for return loss indicates a small reflected signal. The return loss of a load is merely the

magnitude of the reflection coefficient expressed in decibels. The correct equation for return loss is: Return loss = -20 x log [mag ()] 1.5.7 Bandwidth The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna with respect to some characteristics conforms to a specific standard. The reason for this qualitative definition is that all the antenna parameters are changed with frequency and the importance of the different parameters as gain, return loss, beam width, side-lobe level etc., much depends on the frequency band. The bandwidth of an antenna for gain (-3dB from the maximum) is defined as Bandwidth (%) = (fv-fl)*100 fc Where fv is the upper frequency, fl is the lower frequency, and fc is the centre frequency. 1.5.8 Beam width Antenna beam width is defined as the angle between half power point on the main beam. In case that we have a logarithm radiation power pattern in [dB] units, it means that we measure the angle between two 3dB points.

1.6 Types of Antennas

There are two fundamental types of antenna directional patterns, which, with reference to a specific two dimensional plane (usually horizontal [parallel to the ground] or [vertical perpendicular to the ground]), are either: 1. Omni-directional (radiates equally in all directions), such as a vertical rod (in the horizontal plane) or 2. Directional (radiates more in one direction than in the other).

In colloquial usage "omni directional" usually refers to all horizontal directions with reception above and below the antenna being reduced in favor of better reception near the horizon. A directional antenna usually refers to one focusing a narrow beam in a single specific direction such as a telescope or satellite dish, or, at least, focusing in a sector such as a 120 horizontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell site. The present antenna in this project i.e., Microstrip antenna is an antenna which radiates normal to the patch surface into the hemisphere (180 in elevation plane).

1.7 Aim and Objective of the Project:

1. The main aim of the project is to design an aerospace wide beam width rectangular micro strip antenna for an aerospace vehicle such as a missile, satellite, aircraft etc., by using available Microstrip substrate (printed circuit board of type FR4 with dielectric constant of 4.4 and loss tangent of 0.02 and thickness of 1.6mmof double clad copper), calculated the dimensions of the patch W (width) and L (length) and also theoretically calculated the antenna bandwidth for VSWR of 2:1 at a frequency of 2250MHz in s -band (2-4 GHz) frequency. And then we calculated the 3-dB beam width in principle E-plane and H-plane. 2. The Micro strip antenna is carried out for fabrication by using the AutoCAD software on a PC of size 13.5cm 13.5cm and h=1.6mm (thickness). The fabrication process has been done with help of M/s Sravanthi Electronic Industry by using the standard PCB techniques. After the fabrication, the feed point at 1/3 of half distance is drilled with 1.3mm hole and then connected sub miniature typeA (SMA) female RF connector of type radial R12540300 with the centre conductor of diameter 1.28mm. This has been soldered on the Microstrip patch at a point where 50s impedance is achieved at 2250MHz. The ground plane is also soldered with the outer conductor of coaxial connector. 3. Then the centre conductor is checked, to not have short circuit with the ground plane by an ohm meter and it is found that there was no short circuit. The antenna has been tested by using an automatic vector network analyzer of type R&S ZVL

at M/s Advanced Communication Division, Charlapally, Hyderabad, a sister concern of Advanced Radio Mast (ARM). The test has been conducted for the following: 1. VSWR 2. Return Loss 3. Impedance by smith chart 4. Radiation pattern in E-plan and H-plane 5. Gain

CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

2.1 History of Microstrip Antenna
The concept of microstrip radiators was first proposed by Deschamps as early as 1953. The first practical antennas were developed in the early 1970s by Howell and Munson. Since then, extensive research and development of microstrip antennas and arrays, exploiting the new advantages such as light weight, low volume, low cost, low cost, compatible with integrated circuits, etc., have led to the diversified applications and to the establishment of the topic as a separate entity within the broad field of microwave antennas.

2.2 Definition of Microstrip Antenna

A microstrip antenna in its simplest configuration consists of a radiating patch on one side of a dielectric substrate (r 10), which has a ground plane on the other side. The patch conductors, normally of copper and gold, can assume virtually any shape, but conventional shapes are generally used to simplify analysis and performance prediction. A patch antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam antenna. Feeding in microstrip is achieved through use of coaxial line with an inner conductor that terminates on the patch. The placement of the feed is important for proper operation of the antenna.

Figure 2.1 Structure of a Microstrip Patch Antenna

2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Microstrip Antenna

Microstrip antennas have several advantages compared to conventional microwave antennas and therefore many applications over the broad frequency range from 100MHz to 50GHz. Some of the principle advantages are: Light weight, low volume, low profile planar configurations which can be made conformal: Low fabrication cost ; readily amenable to mass production; Can be made thin ; hence, they do not perturb the aerodynamics of host aerospace vehicles; The antennas can be easily mounted on missiles, rockets and satellites without major alterations; These antennas have low scattering cross section; Linear, circular (left hand or right hand) polarizations are possible with simple changes in the feed positions; Dual frequency and dual polarization antennas can be easily made; No cavity backing required; Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits; Microstrip antennas are compatible with modular designs (solid state devices such as oscillators, amplifiers, variable attenuators, switches, modulators, mixers etc. can be added directly to the antenna substrate board); Feed lines and matching networks are fabricated simultaneously with the antenna structure;

However, Microstrip antennas also have some disadvantages compared to conventional microwave antennas are: Narrow bandwidth and associated tolerance problems; Loss, hence somewhat lower gain(~ 6dB); Large ohmic loss in the feed structure of arrays; Complex feed structure required for high performance arrays; Polarization purity is difficult to achieve; Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions; Low power handling capability Excitation of surface waves Reduced gain and efficiency as well as unacceptably high levels of crosspolarization and mutual coupling within an array element at high frequencies There are ways to minimize the effect of some of the limitations. For example, bandwidth can be increased to more than 60%by usage of special techniques; lower gain and lower power handling limitations can be overcome through an array configuration; surface wave associated limitations poor efficiency, increased mutual coupling, reduced gain and radiation pattern degradation can be overcome by the use of photonic band gap structures;

2.4 Radiation Mechanism of Microstrip Antenna

The radiation from a Microstrip line, a structure similar to Microstrip antenna, can be reduced considerably if the substrate employed is thin and has a higher relative dielectric constant. Radiation from Microstrip antenna, on the other hand, is encouraged for better radiation efficiency. Therefore, thick substrates with low permittivity are used

in Microstrip antennas. Radiation from Microstrip antenna can be determined from the field distribution between patch metallization and the ground plane. Alternatively, radiation pattern can be described in terms of surface current distribution on the patch metallization. An accurate calculation of the field or current distribution of the patch is very complicated. However, crude approximations and simple arguments can be used to develop a workable model for a Microstrip antenna. Consider a Microstrip antenna that has been connected to a microwave source. The energization of the patch will establish a charge distribution on upper and lower surfaces of the patch, as well as on the surface of the ground plane as shown in figure below:

Figure 2.2 Electric field distributions in microstrip cavity The ve and +ve nature of the charge distribution arises because the patch is about a halfwave long at the dominant mode. The repulsive forces between like charges on the bottom surface, around its edges, to its top surface. This movement of charge creates corresponding current densities bottom and top surface of the patch as shown in figure below: and at the

Figure 2.3 Charge distribution and current density on a microstrip antenna For most microstrip antennas, the ratio h/W is very small. Therefore, the attractive force between the charges dominates and most of the charge concentration and the current flow remain underneath the patch. A small amount of current flows around the edges the edges of the patch to its top surface and are responsible for weak magnetic field tangential to the edges. Hence, we can make a simple approximation that the magnetic field is zero and one can place magnetic walls all around the periphery of the patch. This assumption has the greater validity for thin substrates with high r. Also, since the substrate used is very thin compared to the wavelength (h<<) in the dielectric, the field variations along the height can be considered to be constant and electric field nearly normal to the surface of the patch. Consequently, the patch can be modeled as a cavity with electric walls (because the electric field is near normal to the patch surface) at the top and below and four magnetic walls along the edges of the patch (because the tangential magnetic field is very weak). Only TM modes are possible in this cavity.

2.5 Various Micro strip Antenna Configurations:

Microstrip antennas are characterized by large number of physical parameters than are conventional microstrip antennas. They can be designed to have many geometrical shapes and dimensions. All Microstrip antennas can be divided into four basic categories: 1. Microstrip patch antennas

2. Microstrip dipoles 3. Printed slot antennas 4. Microstrip travelling-wave antennas. 2.5.1 Microstrip patch antenna A Microstrip patch antenna (MPA) consists of a conducting patch of any planar geometry on one side of dielectric substrate backed by a ground plane on the other side. There are virtually an unlimited number of patch patterns for which radiation characteristics may be calculated. The basic configurations used in practice are:

Figure 2.4 Microstrip patch antenna shapes commonly used in practice

Figure 2.5 Other possible geometries of Microstrip patches 2.5.2 Microstrip or Printed Dipole Antennas Microstrip or printed dipole differs geometrically from rectangular patch antennas in their length-to-width ratio. The width of a dipole is typically less than 0.05o. The radiation patterns of the dipole and patch are similar owing to similar longitudinal current distributions. However, the radiation resistance, bandwidth, and cross-polar radiation differ widely. These are well suited for higher frequencies for which the substrate can be electrically thick and therefore can attain significant bandwidth.

CHAPTER 3 RECTANGULAR PATCH ANTENNA

3.1 Introduction
Microstrip antennas are among the most widely used types of antennas in the microwave frequency range, and they are often used in the millimeter-wave frequency range as well (Below approximately 1 GHz, the size of a microstrip antenna is usually too large to be practical, and other types of antennas such as wire antennas dominate) also called patch antennas. Microstrip patch antennas consist of a metallic patch of metal that is on top of a grounded dielectric substrate of thickness h, with relative permittivity and permeability r and r as shown in Figure 3.1 (usually r = 1). The metallic patch may be of various shapes, with rectangular and circular being the most common, as shown in Figure 3.1& 3.2.

Figure 3.1 Rectangular Patch Antennas

Figure 3.2 Circular Patch Antennas Most of the discussion in this section will be limited to the rectangular patch, although the basic principles are the same for the circular patch. (Many of the CAD formulas presented will apply approximately for the circular patch if the circular patch is modeled as a square patch of the same area). Various methods may be used to feed the patch, as discussed below. One advantage of the microstrip antenna is that it is usually low profile, in the sense that the substrate is fairly thin. If the substrate is thin enough, the antenna actually becomes conformal, meaning that the substrate can be bent to conform to a curved surface (e.g., a cylindrical structure). A typical substrate thickness is about 0.02 0. The metallic patch is usually fabricated by a photolithographic etching process or a mechanical milling process, making the construction relatively easy and inexpensive (the cost is mainly that of the substrate material). Other advantages include the fact that the microstrip antenna is usually lightweight (for thin substrates) and durable. Disadvantages of the microstrip antenna include the fact that it is usually narrowband, with bandwidths of a few percent being typical. Some methods for enhancing bandwidth are discussed later. Also, the radiation efficiency of the patch antenna tends to be lower than some other types of antennas, with efficiencies between 70% and 90% being typical.

3.2 Basic Principles of Operation

The metallic patch essentially creates a resonant cavity, where the patch is the top of the cavity, the ground plane is the bottom of the cavity, and the edges of the patch form the sides of the cavity. The edges of the patch act approximately as an open-circuit boundary condition. Hence, the patch acts approximately as a cavity with perfect electric conductor on the top and bottom surfaces, and a perfect magnetic conductor on the sides. This point of view is very useful in analyzing the patch antenna, as well as in understanding its behavior. Inside the patch cavity the electric field is essentially z directed and independent of the z coordinate. Hence, the patch cavity modes are described by a double index (m, n). For the (m, n) cavity mode of the rectangular patch the electric field has the form ..(3.1) Where L is the patch length and W is the patch width. The patch is usually operated in the(1,0) mode, so that L is the resonant dimension, and the field is essentially constant in the y direction.

3.3 Resonant Frequency

The resonance frequency for the (1, 0) mode is given by

...(3.2) Where c is the speed of light in vacuum. To account for the fringing of the cavity fields at the edges of the patch, the length, the effective length Le is chosen as Le= L + 2L The Hammerstad formula for the fringing extension is [1]

..(3.3) Where,

(3.4

3.4 Radiation Patterns

The radiation field of the microstrip antenna may be determined using either an electric current model or a magnetic current model. In the electric current model, the current is used directly to find the far-field radiation pattern. The electric current for the (1, 0) patch mode. If the substrate is neglected (replaced by air) for the calculation of the radiation pattern, the pattern may be found directly from image theory. If the substrate is accounted for, and is assumed infinite, the reciprocity method may be used to determine the far-field pattern.

(a)Electric Current for (1, 0) patch

(b) Magnetic Current for (1, 0) patch Figure 3.3 Electric & Magnetic Current Distributions

In the magnetic current model, the equivalence principle is used to replace the patch by a magnetic surface current that flows on the perimeter of the patch. The magnetic surface current is given by: ..(3.5) Where E is the electric field of the cavity mode at the edge of the patch and n is the outward pointing unit-normal vector at the patch boundary. The far-field pattern may once again be determined by image theory or reciprocity, depending on whether the substrate is neglected or not [4]. The dominant part of the radiation field comes from the radiating edges at x = 0 and x = L. The two non-radiating edges do not affect the pattern in the principle planes (the E plane at = 0 and the H plane at = /2), and have a small effect for other planes. It can be shown that the electric and magnetic current models yield exactly the same result for the far-field pattern, provided the pattern of each current is calculated in the presence of the substrate at the resonant frequency of the patch cavity mode [5]. If the substrate is neglected, the agreement is only approximate, with the largest difference being near the horizon. The patch is resonant with W/ L = 1.5. Note that the E-plane pattern is broader than the H-plane pattern.

Figure 3.4 Simulated Radiation Pattern (E & H plane) polar plot

3.5 Radiation Efficiency

The radiation efficiency of the patch antenna is affected not only by conductor and dielectric losses, but also by surface-wave excitation - since the dominant TM mode of the grounded substrate will be excited by the patch. As the substrate thickness decreases, the effect of the conductor and dielectric losses becomes more severe, limiting the efficiency. On the other hand, as the substrate thickness increases, the surface-wave power increases, thus limiting the efficiency. Surface-wave excitation is undesirable for other reasons as well, since surface waves contribute to mutual coupling between elements in an array, and also cause undesirable edge diffraction at the edges of the ground plane or substrate, which often contributes to distortions in the pattern and to back radiation. For an air (or foam) substrate there is no surface-wave excitation. In this case, higher efficiency is obtained by making the substrate thicker, to minimize conductor and dielectric losses (making the substrate too thick may lead to difficulty in matching, however, as discussed above). For a substrate with a moderate relative permittivity such as r = 2.2, the efficiency will be maximum when the substrate thickness is approximately 0 = 0.02. The radiation efficiency is defined as

Where Psp is the power radiated into space, and the total input power Ptotal is given as the sum of Pc - the power dissipated by conductor loss, Pd- the power dissipated by dielectric loss, and Psw - the surface-wave power. The efficiency may also be expressed in terms of the corresponding Q factors as

A plot of radiation efficiency for a resonant rectangular patch antenna with W / L = 1.5 on a substrate of relative permittivity r = 2.2 or r = 10.8 is shown in Figure 3.4.

The result is plotted efficiency versus normalized (electrical) thickness of the substrate, which does not involve frequency. The conductivity of the copper patch and ground plane is assumed to be = 3.0107 [S/m] and the dielectric loss tangent is taken as tand = 0.001. The resonance frequency is 5 GHz. However, a specified frequency is necessary to determine conductor loss. For h / 0 < 0.02, the conductor and dielectric losses dominate, while for h /0 > 0.02, the surface-wave losses dominate. (If there were no conductor or dielectric losses, the efficiency would approach 100% as the substrate thickness approaches zero.

Figure 3.5 Radiation Efficiency for a rectangular patch Antenna

3.6 Bandwidth
The bandwidth increases as the substrate thickness increases (the bandwidth is directly proportional to h if conductor, dielectric, and surface-wave losses are ignored). However, increasing the substrate thickness lowers the Q of the cavity, which increases spurious radiation from the feed, as well as from higher-order modes in the patch cavity. Also, the patch typically becomes difficult to match as the substrate thickness increases beyond a certain point (typically about 0.05 0). This is especially true when feeding with a coaxial probe, since a thicker substrate results in a larger probe inductance appearing in series with the patch impedance. However, in recent years considerable effort has been

spent to improve the bandwidth of the microstrip antenna, in part by using alternative feeding schemes. The aperture-coupled feed of is one scheme that overcomes the problem of probe inductance, at the cost of increased complexity. Lowering the substrate permittivity also increases the bandwidth of the patch antenna. However, this has the disadvantage of making the patch larger. Also, because of the patch cavity is lowered, there will usually be increased radiation from higher-order modes, degrading the polarization purity of the radiation. By using a combination of aperture-coupled feeding and a low-permittivity foam substrate, bandwidths exceeding 25% have been obtained. The use of stacked patches (a parasitic patch located above the primary driven patch) can also be used to increase bandwidth even further, by increasing the effective height of the structure and by creating a double-tuned resonance effect.

Figure 3.6 Calculated & Measured Bandwidth

Figure 3.6 shows calculated and measured bandwidth for the same patch. It is seen that bandwidth is improved by using a lower substrate permittivity, and by making the substrate thicker.

3.7 Input Impedance

A variety of approximate models have been proposed for the calculation of input impedance for a probe-fed patch. These include the transmission line method, the cavity model, and the spectral-domain method. These models usually work well for thin substrates, typically giving reliable results for h / 0 < 0.02. The cavity model has the advantage of allowing for a simple physical CAD model of the patch to be developed, as shown in Figure 3.7 In this model the patch cavity is modeled as a parallel RLC circuit, while the probe inductance is modeled as a series inductor. The input impedance of this circuit is approximately described by

Figure 3.7 Equivalent Circuit of Patch Antenna

3.8 Feed Techniques

Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. These methods can be classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting. In the contacting method, the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting element such as a microstrip line. In the non-contacting scheme, electromagnetic field coupling is done to transfer power between the microstrip line and the radiating patch. The four most popular feed techniques used are the microstrip line, coaxial probe (both contacting schemes), aperture coupling and proximity coupling (both non-contacting schemes). 3.8.1 Microstrip Line Feed In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the Microstrip patch as shown in Figure 3.8. The conducting strip is smaller in width as compared to the patch and this kind of feed arrangement has the advantage that the feed can be etched on the same substrate to provide a planar structure.

Figure 3.8 Microstrip Line Feed The purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed line to the patch without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved by properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy feeding scheme, since it provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance matching. However as the thickness of the dielectric substrate being used, increases, surface waves

and spurious feed radiation also increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna. The feed radiation also leads to undesired cross polarized radiation. 3.8.2 Coaxial Feed The Coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for feeding Microstrip patch antennas. As seen from Figure 3.8, the inner conductor of the coaxial connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch, while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane. The main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the feed can be placed at any desired location inside the patch in order to match with its input impedance.

Figure 3.9 Probe fed Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna This feed method is easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation. However, a major disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth and is difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled in the substrate and the connector protrudes outside the ground

plane, thus not making it completely planar for thick substrates (h > 0.02o). Also, for thicker substrates, the increased probe length makes the input impedance more inductive, leading to matching problems. It is seen above that for a thick dielectric substrate, which provides broad bandwidth, the microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed suffer from numerous disadvantages. The non-contacting feed techniques which have been discussed below, solve these issues. 3.8.3 Aperture Coupled Feed In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip feed line are separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure 3.9. Coupling between the patch and the feed line is made through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane. The coupling aperture is usually centered under the patch, leading to lower cross-polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and location of the aperture

Figure 3.10 Aperture-coupled feed . Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed line, spurious radiation is minimized. Generally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom substrate and a thick,

low dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness. This feeding scheme also provides narrow bandwidth. 3.8.4 Proximity Coupled Feed This type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic coupling scheme. As shown in Figure 3.11, two dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is between the two substrates and the radiating patch is on top of the upper substrate. The main advantage of this feed technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides very high bandwidth (as high as 13%) , due to overall increase in the thickness of the microstrip patch antenna. This scheme also provides choices between two different dielectric media, one for the patch and one for the feed line to optimize the individual performances.

Figure 3.11 Proximity-coupled Feed

Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and the widthto-line ratio of the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is that it is difficult

to fabricate because of the two dielectric layers which need proper alignment. Also, there is an increase in the overall thickness of the antenna.

Table 3.1 Characteristics of the different feed techniques.

3.9 Methods of Analysis

The preferred models for the analysis of Microstrip patch antennas are the transmission line model, cavity model, and full wave model (which include primarily integral equations/Moment Method). The transmission line model is the simplest of all and it gives good physical insight but it is less accurate. The cavity model is more accurate and gives good physical insight but is complex in nature. The full wave models are extremely accurate, versatile and can treat single elements, finite and infinite arrays, stacked elements, arbitrary shaped elements and coupling. These give less insight as compared to the two models mentioned above and are far more complex in nature.

3.9.1 Analytical Models There are many methods of analysis and are divided into two types1. Model Based Analysis Technique 2. Full Wave Analysis Technique The various model based and full wave analysis techniques that have been used for the analysis of the Microstrip Antenna are: Wire Grid Model Cavity Model Modal Dispersion Model Transmission Line Model Integral Equation Method Vector Potential Approach Dyadic Greens Function Technique Radiating Aperture Method In Wire Grid Model the antenna is modeled as a fine grid of wire segments. The currents on the wire segments are solved using the Richmonds reaction theorem to get all the antenna characteristics of interest. The Cavity Model offers both simplicity and physical insight. In this model the antenna is treated as a cavity whose fields are computed using the full model expansions. The importance of this model is that it includes the effects of non resonant modes. The Modal Expansion Method is similar to cavity model but differs in impedance boundary conditions that are imposed at the four radiating walls to obtain a solution. Though the method does not lead to an exact solution, it provides a good insight into the physics of antenna. The Transmission Line Model considers the antenna as two radiating slots perpendicular to the feed line of length L. This model is easy to analyze due to its simplicity but suffers from some disadvantages. This model is limited to square and rectangular geometries.

The Integral equation method is general method and can treat patches of arbitrary shapes including those with thick substrate. The method requires considerable analytical and computational efforts and provides little physical insight. In Vector Potential Approach, the field produced by a horizontal electric dipole is determined and the antenna characteristics are then evaluated by numerical techniques. Though the solution obtained is rigorous, it is less attractive due to lack of closed form expressions. In Dyadic Greens Function Method the characteristics of the micro strip antenna are evaluated and the field from an arbitrary source distribution may be found by means of a super position integral. In Radiating aperture method the Vector Kirchoff relation is used. This method is mathematically precise if the aperture fields are known exactly. Transmission model is adapted in this work for the analysis of the rectangular microstrip antennas and is explained in detail below. 3.9.2 Transmission Line Model This model represents the microstrip antenna by two slots of width W and height h, separated by a transmission line of length L. The microstrip is essentially a nonhomogeneous line of two dielectrics, typically the substrate and air. Hence, as seen from Figure 3.12, most of the electric field lines reside in the substrate and parts of some lines in air.

Figure 3.12 Microstrip Line Lines

Figure 3.13 Electric Field

As a result, this transmission line cannot support pure transverse-electromagnetic (TEM) mode of transmission, since the phase velocities would be different in the air and the substrate. Instead, the dominant mode of propagation would be the quasi-TEM mode. Hence, an effective dielectric constant (reff) must be obtained in order to account for the fringing and the wave propagation in the line. The value of reff is slightly less then r because the fringing fields around the periphery of the patch are not confined in the dielectric substrate but are also spread in the air as shown in Figure 3.13 above. The expression for reff is given by Balanis:

Where reff = Effective dielectric constant r = Dielectric constant of substrate h = Height of dielectric substrate W = Width of the patch Consider Figure 3.14below, which shows a rectangular microstrip patch antenna of length L, width W resting on a substrate of height h. The co-ordinate axis is selected

such that the length is along the x direction, width is along the y direction and the height is along the z direction.

Figure 3.14 Microstrip Patch Antenna proximity feed In order to operate in the fundamental TM10 mode, the length of the patch must be slightly less than /2 where is the wavelength in the dielectric medium and is equal to o/reff where o is the free space wavelength. The TM10 mode implies that the field varies one /2 cycle along the length, and there is no variation along the width of the patch. In the Figure 3.14 shown below, the microstrip patch antenna is represented by two slots, separated by a transmission line of length L and open circuited at both the ends. Along the width of the patch, the voltage is maximum and current is minimum due to the open ends. The fields at the edges can be resolved into normal and tangential components with respect to the ground plane.

Figure 3.15 Top View of Antenna Antenna

Figure 3.16 Side View of

It is seen from Figure 3.15 that the normal components of the electric field at the two edges along the width are in opposite directions and thus out of phase since the patch is /2 long and hence they cancel each other in the broadside direction. The tangential components which are in phase, means that the resulting fields combine to give maximum radiated field normal to the surface of the structure. Hence the edges along the width can be represented as two radiating slots, which are /2 apart and excited in phase and radiating in the half space above the ground plane. The fringing fields along the width can be modeled as radiating slots and electrically the patch of the microstrip antenna looks greater than its physical dimensions. The dimensions of the patch along its length have now been extended on each end by a distance L, which is given empirically by Hammerstad:

The effective length of the patch is given by:

For a given resonance frequency fo, the effective length is given by:

For a rectangular Microstrip antenna, the resonant frequency for any TMmn is given by James and Hall:

When m and n are modes along L and W respectively. For efficient radiation, the width is given by:

CHAPTER 4 IMPLEMENTATION & FABRICATION

This chapter deals with the procedure for practically designing a rectangular microstrip antenna. The overall goal of a design is to achieve specific performance characteristics at a stipulated operating frequency. The design of a rectangular microstrip antenna involves the following process: 1. Selection of substrate and 2. Calculating length, width and feed point of the patch 3. Selection of connector

4.1 Selection of Substrate

The selection of a substrate material is a balance between the required electrical, mechanical and environmental performance required by a design versus economic constraints. Generally, if one has the available design volume to use air as a substrate for a Microstrip antenna, this is a good choice. The antenna efficiency is high, the gain is maximized as is the impedance bandwidth of a conventional Microstrip antenna. The surface wave loss when air is used as a substrate is minimal. When a dielectric substrate is selected, one is interested in a material with the lowest tangent (tan ) available. The loss tangent is a metric of the quantity of electrical energy which is converted to heat by a dielectric. The lowest possible loss tangent maximizes the antenna efficiency (decreases the losses). The relative dielectric constant r of the substrate determines the physical size of a patch antenna. The larger the dielectric constant the smaller the element size, but also the smaller the impedance, bandwidth and directivity and the surface wave loss increases. The use of the substrates with higher dielectric constants also tightens fabrication tolerances. The tolerance of the dielectric value is also of significant importance in manufacturing yield.

A Monte-Carlo type analysis using the cavity model is a good method of estimating antenna manufacturing yield for a rectangular Microstrip antenna when an etching tolerance, substrate thickness tolerance, feed point location tolerance and dielectric tolerances are known. Substrate electrical and physical parameters also vary with temperature. Recent work by Kabacik and Bialkowski indicates that Teflon/Fiberglass substrates can have a significant variation of dielectric constant for many airborne and space borne applications. The dielectric constant and loss tangent of Teflon fiberglass often differed from what was quoted by manufacturers in their datasheets compared with measurements and were valid over a much narrower temperature range that encountered in many aerospace applications. The performance variations are due to changes in the material dielectric propertiesthermal expansion had a minor effect on Microstrip antenna performance. Generally the metal cladding to the dielectric substrate material is copper. Two types of copper foil are used as cladding, rolled foil and electrodeposited foil. Rolled foil is passed through a rolling mill a number of times until the desired physical dimensions are obtained and bonded the substrate. Rolled copper has a polished mirror-like appearance. Electrodeposited foil is created by electrodeposition of copper onto an inert form. A thin layer of copper is continuously removed from the form then bonded to the substrate. The computation of characteristic impedance and losses of a Microstrip transmission line depend on the copper foil thickness. The copper cladding is described in terms of weight per square yard. The thickness of the cladding may then be derived and is listed in the table below:

Foil weight oz (14gms) 1 oz (28gms)

Foil thickness 0.0007 in (0.01778mm) 0.0014 in (0.03556mm)

2 oz (57gms) 4 oz (142gms)

0.0028 in (0.07112mm) 0.0056 in (0.14224mm)

Table 4.1 Thickness of cladding for different materials

Material Teflon (PTFE) Rexolite 1422 Noryl FR4 Alumina

r 2.1 2.55 2.6 4.4 9.8

Tan 0.0005 0.0007 0.0011 0.02 0.0003

Table 4.2 Dielectric and Loss tangent for different materials Generally, dielectric constant r and loss tangent tan increase with temperature. In space applications moisture outgassing produces a lower dielectric constant and loss tangent. Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) has very desirable electrical qualities but is not recommended for many space applications. An extensive discussion of PTFE substrates and their fabrication may be found in the literature. Rexolite is a very good material for space applications and has many desirable mechanical properties. Rexolite is easily machined and its dielectric constant remains stable up to 100 GHz. Noryl is suitable for many commercial microwave applications. It has a much lower loss than FR4 and is relatively cost effective, but it is soft and melts at a relatively

low temperature which can create soldering complications, and sometimes has unsuitable mechanical properties for some applications. FR4 is inexpensive and find use in many commercial applications below 1 GHz. The material can be used for some wireless applications, but great care must be taken to budget and minimize the losses when it is used as a substrate of PTFE and Epoxy glass (FR4) which has the desirable properties of FR4 with lower loss. Alumina has desirable microwave properties for applications which require a relatively high dielectric constant r ~ 10.0 and low loss tangent. Its drawbacks are the difficulty involved in machining it and its brittleness. Alumina has good thermal conductivity and in some aerospace applications it more readily dissipates heat and remains cooler than other common microwave substrates. In some missile applications where high temperatures may compromise solder joints alumina is a viable option for the dissipation of heat. Aluminas dielectric constant is very sensitive to the processing used to produce the alumina. All substrates and laminates have different requirements for the processing. Details of fabrication issues and methods may be found in the literature and directly from manufacturers. Other fabrication options such as screen printing conductive inks directly on substrates have also been investigated.

4.2 Design procedure for Rectangular Microstrip Antenna

4.2.1 Considered Values The three essential parameters for the design of a rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna: Frequency of operation (fo): The resonant frequency of the antenna must be selected appropriately. Since we developing antenna for microwave applications we choose design an antenna in s-band which ranges from 2 GHz to 4 GHz. We designed microstrip antenna at 2.25 GHz.. Dielectric constant of the substrate (r): There are many dielectric substrates

available in the market having different dielectric constant and thickness. Of them RT Duroidd provides the best results but is highly costly and hence the dielectric material selected for our design is FR4 (Fiber-reinforced plastic) which has a dielectric constant of 4.4. This substrate is selected since it can obtain better results and is cost effective. Height of dielectric substrate (h): The height of the selected dielectric material is 1.6mm which is optimal for having maximum radiation and has less leaky waves. This provides a balance between conductor and dielectric loss and hence we choose FR4 material dielectric substrate with 1.6mm thickness. 4.2.2 Initial Design Values There are many analysis methods for the design of antenna which are discussed later. From them we use transmission line analysis method for our antenna. Step 1: Calculation of the Width (W) The width of the Microstrip patch antenna is given as: (4.1)

Where, c is velocity of light fo is Resonant Frequency r is Relative Dielectric Constant

Figure 4.1 Variation of Width with Frequency Of course other widths may be chosen but for widths smaller than those selected according to equation (4.1), radiator efficiency is lower while for larger widths, the efficiency are greater but for higher modes may result, causing field distortion. As a result design aid, equation (4.1) is plotted for the common dielectric substrates. If other materials are employed equation (4.1) should be used with appropriate value of r. In this work upon Substituting c=3.010^(11)mm/s, r = 4.4 and fo = 2.25 GHz, we get: W = 38.5 mm Step 2: Calculating the Length (L) Effective dielectric constant (eff) Once W is known, the next step is the calculation of the length which involves several other computations; the first would be the effective dielectric constant. The dielectric constant of the substrate is much greater than the unity, the effective value of eff will be closer to the value of the actual dielectric constant r of the substrate. The effective dielectric constant is also a function of frequency. As the frequency of operation increases the effective dielectric constant approaches the value of the dielectric constant of the substrate is given by:

..(4.2) In our design for the above mentioned values the effective dielectric is found to be eff = 4.100 Effective length ( Leff) The effective length is:

.. (4.3)

Which is found to be Leff = 32.92mm Length Extension (L) Because of fringing effects, electrically the micro strip antenna looks larger than its actual physical dimensions. For the principle E plane (x-y plane), where the dimensions of the path along its length have been extended on each by a distance, L, which is a function of the effective dielectric constant and the width-to-height ratio (W/h).The length extension is:

... Substituting eff = 4.4, W = 40.57 mm and h = 1.6 mm we get:

(4.4)

L = 0.739 mm Calculation of actual length of patch (L) Because of inherent narrow bandwidth of the resonant element, the length is a critical parameter and the above equations are used to obtain an accurate value for the patch length L.

Figure 4.2 Variation of Length with the Frequency Fig 4.2 which is a plot of L versus frequency for the various substrates and for chosen substrate may then be used to verify the design. The actual length is obtained by: .. (4.5) Substituting Leff = 32.92 mm and L = 0.7391 mm we get: L = 31.44mm Step 3: Calculation of the Gain (G) The gain of the micro strip antenna is given by the following formula G= ... (4.6)

where A = L*W = 31.44*40.57 =1275.6556

..... (4.7) = 63.56 mm

By substituting the above values we get G = 4 dB

Figure 4.3 Variation of Gain with the Frequency Step 4: Calculation of the Beam Width ( ) The beam width of a micro strip element can be increased by choosing a smaller element, thus reducing W and L. For a given resonant frequency, these dimensions may be changed by selecting a substrate having a higher relative permittivity. In many applications, a decrease in physical size is desirable. Beam Width in H-Plane
( )

=2

.......

(4.8)

-Beam Width in H- Plane Substituting W = 40.57 mm and we get: = 89.29 degrees Beam Width in E-Plane =2
( )

(4.9)

-Beam Width in E- Plane Substituting W = 40.57 mm, h=1.6mm and = 77.25 degrees As beam width increases, element gain and consequently directivity decrease, however the antenna efficiency remains unaffected. Step 5: Calculation of the Band Width Percentage (BW %) The bandwidth of the microstrip antenna gives the range of frequencies for which the microstrip antenna works that is either transmits or receive and it s given by the following equation: we get:

BW = Substituting

(4.10) , h=1.6mm and S=2:1, r = 4.4 we get:

BW = 0.514%

Figure 4.4 Variation of Bandwidth with Frequency for different dielectric substrate antennas

4.3 Microwave Co-axial Connector

For high frequency operation the average circumference of a coaxial cable must be limited to about one wavelength, in order to reduce multimodal propagation and eliminate erotic reflection coefficients, power losses and signal distortion. The standardization of coaxial connectors during World War II was mandatory for microwave operation to maintain a low reflection coefficient or a low voltage standing wave ratio

(VSWR). Since that time many modifications and new designs for microwave connectors have been proposed and developed. Seven types of microwave coaxial connectors are described below. APC-3.5: The APC-3.5 (Amphenol Precision Connector-3.5mm) was originally developed by Hewlett-Packard, but is now manufactured by Amphenol. The connector provides the repeatable connections and has very low voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR). Either the male or female end of this 50 connector can mate with the opposite type of SMA type connector. The APC-3.5 connector can work at frequencies up to 34 GHz. APC-7: The APC-7 (Amphenol Precision Connector-7mm) was also developed by Hewlett-Packard in the mid 1960s, but it was recently improved and is now manufactured by Amphenol. The connector provides a coupling mechanism without male or female distinction and is the most repeatable connecting device used for very accurate 50 measurement applications. Its VSWR is extremely low, in the range of 1.02 to 18 GHz.

Figure 4.5 APC-7 Connector BNC: The BNC (Bayonet Navy Connector) was originally designed for military system applications during World War II. The connector operates very well at frequencies up to about 4GHz, beyond that it tends to radiate electromagnetic energy. The BNC can accept flexible cables with diameters of up to 6.35mm (0.25inches) and characteristic impedance of 50 to 75. It is now the most commonly used connector for frequencies under 1 GHz.

Figure 4.6 BNC Connector SMA: The SMA (Sub-Miniature A) was originally by Bendix Scintilla Corporation, but it has been manufactured by Omni-Spectra Inc. (as the OSM connector) and many other electronic companies. The main application of SMA connector is on component for microwave systems.

Figure 4.7 SMA Connector SMC: The SMC (Sub Miniature C) is a 50 connector that is smaller than the SMA. The connector is manufactured by Sealectro Corporation and can accept flexible cables with diameters of up to 3.17mm (0.125 inches) for a frequency range of up to 7 GHz.

Figure 4.8 SMC Connector TNC: The TNC (Threaded Navy Connector) is merely a thread BNC. The function of thread is to stop radiation at higher frequencies, so that the connector can work at frequencies up to 12GHz.

Figure 4.9 TNC Connector Type N: The Type N (Navy) connector was originally designed or military systems during World War II and is the most popular measurement connector for the frequency range of 1 to 18GHz. It is 50 or 75 connector and its VSWR is extremely low, less than 1.02.

Figure 4.10 Type N Connector

Size Subminiature

Series SMA SMB SMC

Coupling Screw Snap on Screw

Impedance () 50 50 50

Frequency (GHz) 12.4/18 4 10

VSWR (max) 1.3 1.41 1.6

Voltage (V) 500 500 500

Miniature

BNC TNC SHV BN MC

Bayonet Screw Bayonet Screw Screw

50 50 NC 50 50

4 11 NA 0.2 0.5

1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

500 500 5000 200 200

Medium

C N NC QM

Bayonet Screw Screw Screw

50 50 50 50

11 11 11 4

1.35 1.3 1.3 1.3

1500 1000 1000 5000

Large

QL

Screw

50

1.3

5000

Table 4.3 Basic Features Of the most Common Connector Series

4.4 FABRICATION PROCEDURE

The first step in the fabrication process is to generate the art work from drawings. Accuracy is vital at this stage and depending on the complexity and dimensions of the antenna; either full or enlarged scale artwork should be prepared on Stabiline or Rubilith film. Using the precision cutting blade of a manually operated coordinagraph, the opaque layer of the Stabiline or Rubylith film is cut to the proper geometry and can be removed to produce either a positive or negative representation of the Microstrip antenna. The design dimensions and tolerances are verified on a Cordax measuring instruments using optical scanning.

Enlarged artwork should be photo reduced using high precision camera to produce a high resolution negative, which is later used for exposing the photo resist. The laminate should be cleaned using the substrate manufacturer recommended procedure to insure proper adhesion of the photo resist and the necessary resolution in the photo development process. The photo resist is now applied to both sides of the laminate using laminator. Afterwards, the laminate is allowed to stand to normalize to room temperature prior to exposure and development. The photographic negative must be now held in very close contact with the polyethylene cover sheet of the applied photo resist using a vacuum frame copy board or other technique, to assure the fine line resolution required. With exposure to the proper wavelength light, a polymerization of the exposed photo resist occurs, making it insoluble in the developer solution. The backside of the antenna is exposed completely without a mask, since the copper foil is retained to act as a ground plane. The protective polythene cover sheet of the photo resist is removed and the antenna is now developed in a developer which removes the soluble photo resist material. Visual inspection is used to assure proper development. When these steps have been completed, the antenna is now ready for etching. This is a critical step and requires considerable care so the proper etch rates are achieved. After etching, the excess photo resist is removed using a stripping solution. Visual and optical inspections should be carried out to insure a good product and to insure conformance with dimensional tolerances, with final acceptance or rejection being based on resonant frequency, radiation pattern and impedance measurement. For acceptable units the edges are smoothened and the antenna is rinsed in water and dried. If desired, a thermal cover bonding may be applied by placing a bonding film between the laminates to be bonded and placing these between tooling plates. Dowel pins can be used for alignment and the assembly is then heated under pressure until the bond line temperature is reached. The assembly is allowed to cool under pressure below the melting point of the

4.5 STEP BY STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE

DESIGN DESIGN MASTER DRAWING MASTER DRAWING

ART WORK LAY OUT

PHOTO REDUCTION

NEGATIVE DEVELOPMENT

LAMINATE CLEANING

RESIST APPLICATION

RESIST EXPOSURE

RESIST DEVELOPMENT

INSPECTION

ETCHING

BONDING FINISHING

INSPECTION

Drilling hole of diameter 1.3mm by using precision drilling machine

SOLDERING

Checking with ohm meter for the patch & centre conductor continuity

Visual inspection of solder point which should be blister

Figure 4.11Flow chart showing the fabrication process bonding film and the laminate is then removed for inspection. The above procedure comprises the general steps necessary in producing a Microstrip antenna. The substances used for the various processes example cleaning, etching, etc., are the tools used for machining, etc., depending on the substrate chosen. Most manufacturers provide informative brochures on the appropriate choice of chemicals, cleaners, etchants, etc., for their substrates.

Figure 4.12 Photographic Negative of ground plane Used for Fabrication

Figure 4.13 Photographic Negative of patch Used for Fabrication

CHAPTER 5 MEASUREMENTS, TESTING & RESULT ANALYSIS

5.1 MESUREMENTS
Testing of antenna involves measurement of electrical and electromagnetic parameters. Electrical parameters involve measurement of Return loss or VSWR, Impedance and electromagnetic parameters involves the measurement of radiation pattern in E-plane and H-plane and gain . These measurements have been carried out for the designed microstrip antenna. Network Analyzer has been used to measure the return loss, VSWR and impedance shown in figures 5.3,5.4 & 5.5. Radiation patterns and gain of the antenna at the designed frequency are done in an anechoic chamber at ACD, Hyderabad .

5.2 TESTING
Here is a description of some of the components used to test various antenna parameters Return Loss, VSWR, impedance measurements using Smith Chart has been obtained using the Vector Network Analyzer. Radiation Patterns can be obtained using the experimental set up containing Anechoic Chamber. 5.2.1 Network Analyzer The testing of antenna is done using R&S ZVL which is a Two Port Vector Network Analyzer. R&S ZVL vector network analyzer provides the best combination of speed and accuracy for measuring multi-port and balanced components such as filters, duplexers and RF modules up to 6GHz. A vector analyzer provides simple and complete vector network measurements in a compact, fully integrated RF network. R&S ZVL vector network analyzer offers built-in source, receiver and s-parameter test set covering frequencies from 10 MHz to 6 GHz.

The R&S ZVL automatic port extension feature automatically measures and corrects for fixtures, making measurements of in-fixture devices simple and accurate. The configurable test set provides access to the signal path between the internal source and the analyzer's test ports. This option provides the capability to improve instrument sensitivity for measuring low-level signals, to reverse the directional coupler to achieve even more dynamic range or to add components or other peripheral instruments for a variety of applications such as high-power measurements. The extended power range adds a 60 dB step attenuator internally to the RF source path. This attenuator extends the source output power range to over 80 dB, allowing for maximum flexibility when stimulating the device under test. 5.2.2 Elements of Network Analyzer

Figure 5.1 Major elements of Network Analyzer A Network analyzer measurement system consists of four major parts: a signal source providing the incident signal, signal separation devices to separate the incident, reflected and transmitted signals, a receiver to convert the microwave signals to a lower intermediate frequency (IF) signal, and a signal processor and display section to process

the IF signals and display detected information. The receiver performs the full Sparameters. Signal Source: The signal source (RF or microwave) produces the incident signal used to stimulate device under test (DUT). The DUT responds by reflecting part of the incident energy and transmitting the remaining part. By sweeping the frequency of the source the frequency response of the device can be determined. Frequency range, frequency stability, signal purity and output power level and level control are factors which may affect the accuracy of a measurement. The source used for network analyzer measurements is a synthesizer, which is characterized by stable amplitude frequency and high frequency resolution (less than 100 Hz at microwave range). Signal Separation: The next step in the measurement process is to separate the incident, reflected and transmitted signals. Once separated, their individual magnitude and/or phase differences can be measured. This can be accomplished through the use of wideband directional couplers, bridges, power splitters. A directional coupler is a device that consists of two transmission lines that are configured to couple energy to an auxiliary port if it goes through the main port in one direction and not in the opposite direction. Directional couplers usually have relatively low loss in the mainline path and present little loss to the incident power. In a directional couple structure the coupled arm samples a signal travelling in one direction only. The coupled signal is at a reduced level and the relative amount of reduced level is called the coupling factor. For instance a 20 dB directional coupler means that the coupled port power level is 20 dB below the input, which is equivalent to 1 percent of the incident power. The remaining 99 percent travels through the main arm. The other key characteristic of a directional coupler is directivity. Directivity is defined as the difference between a signal detected in the forward direction and the signal detected in the reverse direction (isolation between the forward and reverse signals). The two resistor power splitter is used to sample either the incident or transmitted signal. The input signal is split equally between the two arms, with the output signal

(power) from each arm being 6 dB below the input. A primary application of the power splitter is for producing a measurement with a very good source match. If one side of the splitter output is taken to a reference detector and the other side goes through the device under test to a transmission detector, a ratio display of transmitted to incident has the effect of making the resistor in the power splitter determine the equivalent source match of the measurement. Power splitters are very broadband, have excellent frequency response and present a good match at the test device input requires a directional device. Separation of the incident and reflected signals can be accomplished using either a dual directional coupler or Splitter.

Figure 5.2 Vector Network Analyzer used for testing of our antenna

Receiver: The receiver provides the means for converting and detecting the RF or Microwave signals to a lower IF or DC signal. There are basically two receiver techniques used in network analysis. The receivers are broadband tuned receivers that use either a fundamental mixing or harmonic mixing input structure to convert RF signal to a lower frequency IF signal. The tuned receivers provide a Narrowband pass IF filter to reject spurious signals and minimized the noise floor of the receiver. The vector measurement systems (tuned receivers) have the highest dynamic ranges are less suspect from harmonic and spurious responses, they can measure phase relationships of input signals and provide the ability to make complex calibrations that lead to more accurate measurements.

Table 5.1 specifications of network analyzer

5.2.3 Reflection Measurement The return loss is the measure of power reflected and is related to the reflection coefficient given by Return Loss in dB = -20 log The relation between reflection coefficient and VSWR is given by VSWR (S) = 1+ 1- Network Analyzer Calibration: An Agilent R&S ZVL vector network analyzer is employed in the present measurements. Before measuring the return loss of the antenna, the network analyzer should be calibrated as explained below: 1. The terminal at the test port at which the test antenna is to be mounted is short circuited. Now the power fed to the test port travels back through the short circuits so that there will be no radiation at all. The reflected power will be equal to the incident power and so the reflection coefficient is equal to 1, which in turn leads to a return loss of zero dB, therefore, when the test port terminals are short circuited, we must get a zero dB line on the display. 2. The terminals at the test port are now open circuited. The power fed to the test port cannot be radiated because there is no load. So all the power reflects back. The reflection coefficient is 1 and therefore leads to a return loss of 0 dB. Hence when the terminals at the test port are open circuited the screen should display a 0 dB line.

During short circuit of test port terminals the power reflects back with phase reversal. During the open circuit the reflected power is in- phase with respect to the incident power. These two settings are stored in memory and the setup is ready for practical measurements. The antenna is then connected at the test port and the observed plot is the return loss of the antenna. The percentage bandwidth at -10dB return loss is% Bandwidth = (f2-f1)/fr 100 Where (f2-f1) is the frequency band for which the return loss is less than 10 dB. Reflection Measurement Under Reflection measurement we measured Return Loss, VSWR and impedance. 1. Press Begin, filter and Reflection, the return loss of the antenna is displayed. 2. Press freq and then start 2.1 GHz to 2.3 GHz, scale, Auto scale reflection coefficient in dB as a function of frequency is displayed. You can save and print the data observed. 3. Press Format, Line Mag, to get the absolute value of reflection coefficient as a function of frequency is displayed. Standing Wave Ratio and Impedance 1. Press Format, and SWR. The SWR as a function of frequency is displayed. one can save and print the data. 2. Press Format, More formats, Impedance Magnitude to get Z0as a function of frequency. Save and print the data. 3. Press Format and Smith Chart for getting display of the real and imaginary values of the impedance of the impedance as a function of frequency. Set the start frequency to 2.1 GHz and stop frequency to 2.3 GHz, the impedance is about 50s in the pass band and then save and print the data.

Figure 5.3 Plot of our antenna Return Loss measurement for resonant frequency

Figure 5.4 Plot of our antenna SWR for resonant frequency

Figure 5.5 Plot of our antenna Impedance on a Smith Chart

5.2.4 RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMENTS The radiation patterns of an antenna are usually represented graphically by plotting the electric field of the antenna as a function of direction. This electric field strength is expressed as volts per meter or normalized field in dB. A complete radiation pattern comprises the radiation for all the angles of and and really requires three dimensional presentations. This is quite complicated. For the practical purposes, the pattern is measured in planes of interest. Cross sections in which the radiation patterns are the most frequently taken are the horizontal (=90 degrees) and vertical (=constant) planes. These are called the horizontal patterns and vertical patterns respectively. The terms commonly used are the E- plane and H-plane and they are the planes passing through the antenna in the direction of beam maximum and parallel to the far-field E and H vectors. These patterns are known as the Principal Planes patterns. The radiation patterns of the antenna are measured with the scientific Atlanta instrumentation in an anechoic chamber. The instrumentation consists of the following four major parts as shown in below figure. 1. Transmitting System 2. Positioning and Controlling System 3. Receiving System 4. Recording System Transmitting System: The transmitting or source instrumentation consists primarily of the RF signal source and associated transmitting antenna.

Signal Source: The model 2150 signal source provides RF power in the 0.1 to 18 GHz frequency range. The control unit is located near the operators console. The RF oscillators are installed in the main frame assembly which is mounted near the source antenna. Source Antenna: Several types of antennas designed especially for the antenna test range can be used. These include standard gain horns, dipoles, parabolic reflector antennas, log periodic arrays and circularly polarized antennas depending upon the requirement. Positioning & Controlling System: The antenna to be tested is mounted on the turntable of the antenna test positioner. The speed and direction of the rotation of the test antenna can be controlled from the operators console by a direct current motor. A synchro transmitter is mechanically coupled to the positioner turntable and electrically to a position indicator. The antenna test positioner is controlled by the series 4100 positioner control unit. Electrical cables are used to supply power from control system to test positioner. Indicator system: A position indicator allows remote angle read out of the test positioner. The synchro transmitter in the test positioner provides the position data to operate the position indicator. Receiving System: The antenna under test usually tested in the receive mode. Therefore a receiving or detecting system must be connected to the test antenna to convert RF signals to a low frequency signals which can drive the pen system of pattern recorder. Thus the antenna must receive an RF signal i.e modulated with an audio signal. The model 2150 signal source has an audio oscillator as a standard feature. The two types of detectors commonly used for making antenna measurements are crystal detector and Bolometer. Scientific Atlanta antenna pattern recorders will operate crystal detectors or Bolometer detectors directly.

Antenna Pattern Recorder: The radiation patterns of the antenna are recorded as relative amplitude and / or phase as a function of the position (or angle). The synchro position data from the test positioner is connected to the recorders chart servo system. The resultant graph is a plot of the relative amplitude of the received signal as a function of the antenna position (or angle).

ANECHOIC CHAMBER

Polarization positioner

Azimuth positioner
RECEIVER

SIGNAL SOURCE

Remote Positioner Control Unit SA 4110-10

INDICATOR

Source control SA 2150

Position Control Unit SA 4100

Position indicator

Pattern recorder

Figure 5.6 Experimental Set Up For Plotting Radiation Pattern

Figure 5.7 Anechoic chambers with free space environment

Figure 5.8 Anechoic Chamber when our antenna is being tested

Figure 5.9 Plot of our antenna Radiation pattern in E and H plane

5.2.5 Gain Measurement The setup used for measurement of gain is the same as that used for radiation pattern measurement given in table (5.2). The gain of the antenna is measured by replacing the test antenna with a standard antenna (horn antenna in this case) and taking

the pattern of the same. The gain is then calculated by comparing the power level differences of the test antenna with that of the standard antenna.

Table 5.2 Gain Measurement

Figure 5.10 Bottom (ground plane) view of our antenna

Figure 5.11 Top view (patch) of our antenna

5.3 ANALYSIS
This section deals with the comparing the calculated values with the measured values. Thus we can analyze the differences between them. The comparison is as follows: ANTENNA FIGURE/ CALCULATED EQUATIONS MEASURED PARAMETERS TABLE Length 31.44 mm 4.5 32.09 mm Fig 5.11

Width Thickness frequency Bandwidth Beam Width Eplane Beam Width HPlane Gain

40.57 mm 1.6 mm 2250MHz

4.1 -

41.15 mm 1.6 mm 2200MHz

Fig 5.11 Fig 5.4

51.556 MHz

4.10

56 MHz

Fig 5.3

76.5(degrees)

4.9

75.6(degrees)

Fig 5.9

89.29 (degrees)

4.8

81.9(degrees)

Fig 5.10

6.13 dB

4.9

3.94 dB

Tab 5.2

Table 5.3 Comparison of calculated and measured values From the above we finally conclude that the measured values and the obtained values are approximately equal. Thus this project has been carried out successfully. The changes in the measured values are due to the variation of dielectric constant of FR4

material, from actual value at our antenna operating frequency. And also due to slight changes in dimensions of the patch in the fabrication process which was done at M/S Sravanthi electronics at UPPAL industries. For Aerospace vehicles smaller bandwidth is required which have been seen in the Microstrip Antenna.

CONCLUSIONS
A rectangular micro strip antenna is designed using the appropriate design formulae and is fabricated using the PCB fabrication procedure and is tested by using the vector network analyzer R&S ZVL. The antenna is designed at frequency 2250MHz frequency with FR4 (r=4.4),h=1.6mm,tan =0.02. Even though the antenna is desired to operate at this frequency, when tested practically it is found that, it is resonating at 2200MHz. The dielectric constant plays a major role in the overall performance of a patch antenna. It affects both the width, in turn the characteristic impedance and the length resulting in an altered resonant frequency. We have used the fiber glass substrate but the permittivity (r) alters from batch to batch some times even between different sheets of substrates. In addition FRP-4 has a high loss tangent and is highly frequency dependent.. And also manufacture recommends this FR4 for use up to 1 GHz only with Eeff 4.36 The bandwidth of the patch antenna depends largely on the permittivity (r) and thickness of the dielectric substrate. Ideally a thick dielectric lower permittivity (r) lo w insertion loss is preferred for broad band applications. From the result 1 observed that the band width of the micro strip element can be increased by choosing a smaller element, thus reducing W and L. For the given resonant frequency these dimensions will be changed by selecting a substrate having a higher relative permittivity. The advantages of the micro strip antenna are that they are low cost, conformable, light weight and low profile, while both linear and circular polarization is easily achieved. This antenna material is also ideal for antenna arrays. Longer ranges, larger areas, faster assembly line speeds will all benefit from the focused energy and directionality available through antenna array beam forming. The print and etch process of printed circuit board is very repeatable and highly cost effective. It eliminates the labor and the technician work required to insure proper phase matching between elements. It also reduces energy requirements of the system. The reduced side lobe emissions reduce false

alarms, reduce interference between other antennas and minimize emission in unwanted directions.

FUTURE SCOPE
The project provides the complete overview of Rectangular Microstrip antenna and also provides the necessary equations to design a rectangular Microstrip antenna and also provides the fabrication process of a rectangular Microstrip antenna. This also gives the necessary information for choosing substrate and their properties for getting better results. Future challenges of a Microstrip antenna are: Bandwidth Extension Techniques Control of Radiation Patterns Reducing Losses / increasing efficiency Improving feed networks Size reduction techniques The band width can be increased as follows By increasing the thickness of the substrate By use of high dielectric constant of the substrate so that physical dimensions of the parallel plate transmission line decreases. By increasing the inductance of the micro strip by cutting holes or slots in it. By adding reactive components to reduce the VSWR

In order to increase the directivity of the micro strip antennas multiple micro strip radiators are used to cascade to form an array.

REFERENCES
Books
[1] R. Garg, P. Bhartia, I. Bahl, and A. Ittipiboon, Microstrip Antenna Design Handbook, ArtechHouse, 2001. [2] K. F. Lee, Ed., Advances in Microstrip and Printed Antennas, John Wiley, 1997. [3] D. M. Pozar and D. H. Schaubert, Microstrip Antennas: The Analysis and Design of Microstrip Antennas and Arrays, IEEE Press, 1995. [4] F. E. Gardiol, Broadband Patch Antennas, Artech House. [5] S K Behera, Novel Tuned Rectangular Patch Antenna As a Load for Phase Power Combining Ph.D Thesis, Jadavpur University, Kolkata. [6] D. R. Jackson and J. T. Williams, A comparison of CAD models for radiation from rectangular microstrip patches, Intl. Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer Aided Design, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 236-248, April 1991. [7] D. R. Jackson, S. A. Long, J. T. Williams, and V. B. Davis, Computer - aided design of rectangular microstrip antennas, ch. 5 of Advances in Microstrip and Printed Antennas, K. F. Lee, Editor, John Wiley, 1997. [8] D. M. Pozar, A reciprocity method of analysis for printed slot and slot - coupled microstrip antennas, IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propagation, vol. AP-34, pp. 14391446, Dec. 1986.

Websites
[9] Over view of microstrip antenna, httpwww.ecs.umass.edu/ece/pozar/aperture.pdf

APPENDICES
Basic Models of Antennas There are many variations of antennas. Below are a few basic models.

The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. This antenna cannot physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with all other antennas. Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic radiator, and are rated in dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).

The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also used as a reference model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as dBd.

The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors) to focus a filament light bulb.

The random wire antenna is simply a very long (at least one quarter wavelength) wire with one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in any way most convenient for the space available. Folding will reduce effectiveness and make theoretical analysis extremely difficult.

The horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short (microwave) and space is not an issue. Horns can be narrowband or wideband, depending on their shape. A horn can be built for any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically impractical. Horns are also frequently used as reference antennas.

The parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for high gain, microwave applications, such as satellite dishes.

The patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a ground plane. Another example of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna (TSA), as the Vivaldi-antenna.

PROGRAM IN MATLAB
Merits of Programming The design of the microstrip antenna involves many lengthy and tedious calculations such as width, length, feed locations, and dimensions of the feed. As these calculations are cumber some and time consuming when done by hand a computer programming approach is adopted to simplify the task. Program to find Width, Length & Feed Point The width and length of the micro strip antenna are to be calculated from the corresponding equations as given in chapter 4. The next parameter to be found is the feed point location. In the project, the coaxial type of feed is chosen to feed the antenna. The impedance of the feed is 50. Hence in the program the importance of the antenna is found at every point along the length of the antenna according to the standard formulae given in the chapter 4 and the point of feed is hence found. Thus the program in MATLAB to find the length, width of the micro strip antenna and also the feed location is given below. It takes the input as frequency of operation(GHz), substrate thickness (in cm) and dielectric constant. MATLAB Program clear all clear k0 f1 f2 c=3e11

er=input('enter the er value'); h=input('enter the value of h'); fr=input('enter the resonant frequency'); % width calculation w=c/(2*fr*sqrt((er+1)/2)); disp('width=') disp(w) % effective length p1=(er+1)/2; p2=(er-1)/2; p3=1/(sqrt(1+((12*h)/w))); eeff=p1+(p2*p3); disp('eeff=') disp(eeff) %delta L calculation p4=h*0.412*(eeff+0.3)*((w/h)+ 0.264); p5=(eeff-0.258)*((w/h)+0.8); dl=p4/p5; disp('del L=') disp(dl) % length calculation p6=c/(2*fr*sqrt(eeff)); L=p6-(2*dl); disp('Length=') disp(L) % Area calculation A=L*w; disp('Area=') disp(A) % Gain calculation lg=133.33/sqrt(er); G=(4*pi*A)/(lg*lg); disp('Gain=') disp(G) % Beam Width % H plane k0=0.047; p7=1+(w*k0/2); p8=sqrt(1/(2*p7)); BWH1=2*(acos(p8)); BWH=BWH1*57.18; disp('BEAM WIDTH IN H-PLANE') disp(BWH) % E plane p9=(3*k0*k0*w*w)+(k0*k0*h*h); p10=sqrt(7.03/p9);

BWE1=2*(acos(p10)); BWE= BWE1*57.18; disp('BEAM WIDTH IN E-PLANE') disp(BWE) % BAND WIDTH CALCULATION s=2; p11=(8*h)/(3*er*133.33); p12=(100*(s-1))/sqrt(s); BWP = p11*p12; disp('BAND WIDTH') disp(BWP) BW=BWP*2250; disp(BW) OUTPUT OF PROGRAM